ADAPTATION refers to special features/characteristics that an organism

possesses and which enable it to live and survive successfully in an

environment. These features could be structural, functional or behavioural
in nature.
Types of adaptation
I. Structural adaptation refers to special features in the form/shape
of organisms and their body parts which is suitable to its mode of
life. E.g. for obtaining food, conserving water, for escape from or
defence against danger etc.
II. Adaptive colouration refers to certain pigmentations/pigments in
cells of organisms. The colour can be used as camouflage e.g. green
exoskeleton of grasshoppers that match green vegetation to
enable them escape from predators etc.
III. Behavioural adaptation show behavioural patterns in organisms
especially animals which enable them obtain food, escape enemies,
survive unfavourable conditions etc.
Plant adaptations to water availability
- Hydrophytes: these are plants that live in fresh water or where
water is abundant e.g. water hyacinth, water lily, water lettuce etc.
Adaptations
i. Presence of reduced roots for easy floating since they don’t
need firm anchorage in water.
ii. Presence of large air spaces/aerenchyma in roots/leaves to
provide support for buoyancy.
iii. Presence of hairs on leaves to prevent blockage of the
stomata.
iv. Stomatal pores occur only at the upper epidermis of the
leaves to aid transpiration/loss of water
v. Numerous adventitious roots and root hairs to aid the
absorption of water and mineral salts.
vi. Small size of the plant for buoyancy/floating in water.
 vii. Long petiole/leaf stalk to support and expose the broad
lamina for photosynthesis etc.
- Mesophytes: these are plants that survive in places with moderate
or adequate water supply. They are land plants e.g. mango,
pepper, cassava, hibiscus, banana etc.
Adaptations
 Well-developed root system for anchorage and for water absorption.
 Presence of waxy cuticle on leaves of plants to prevent excessive
transpiration.
 Large flattened leaves with large surface area for maximum
photosynthesis.
 Buttress roots for firmness
- Xerophytes: these are plants that can survive in environment
where water is scarce/limited e.g. desert land. E.g. include cactus,
aloe, euphorbia etc.
Adaptations
 Possession of thick succulent leaves and stem for storing
water.
 Reduction of leaves to spines to reduce water
loss/transpiration.
 Thick waxy cuticle on epidermis to reduce water
loss/transpiration.
 Possession of long tap root system to obtain water from great
depth of soil.
 Presence of sunken stomata to reduce water loss.
 Reduced number of stomata to prevent excessive water loss.
 Possession of multiple epidermal layers for water
conservation to reduce water loss.

ADAPTATIONS OF PLANT PARASITES

e.g. Mistletoe, Dodder
 - presence of Haustorium a device for sucking from the host.
- small number of leaves or complete absence of leaves like in Dodder

ADAPTATIONS IN ANIMALS.

1. Adaptations in Tadpole and fishes to aquatic habitat

- Streamlined body enabling them to move freely in water with
minimum friction.
- Presence of gills for gaseous exchange.
- Presence of tail for swimming
- Presence of fins for paddling
2. Adaptations of parasites
 TICK
- sharp claws in tick to firmly cling to dog’s body
- flattened body to remain undetected in tick
 Tapeworm
- Presence of hooks and suckers for attachment to the gut of the
host.
- Flattened body for easy absorption of food in Tapeworm
- Ability to respire anaerobically in the gut of the host.
- Production of numerous eggs for rapid multiplication.
- Tough body cuticle that resist action of host’s digestive enzymes.
Terrestrial animal adaptations:
a. Adaptations of birds to feeding
1. Carnivorous birds e.g. hawk, eagle, owl,
- Presence of curved and strong beaks for killing and tearing the
flesh of their prey
- Strong feet with sharp claws for catching and carrying prey.
2. Seed eating birds
- Strong feet with blunt nails for scratching off earth to obtain food
like earthworm, grains and seeds. E.g. chicken, doves etc.
 - Short and stout beaks for picking preys
- Waterproof feathers that allow them move during rainfall.
3. Sucking birds e.g. hummingbird, sunbird
- Light body with small wings
- Long and slender beaks
4. Filter feeding birds e.g. duck, goose
- Webbed feet for swimming
- Serrated and strong beaks.
5. Fish eater e.g. heron, egret
- Long leg and long neck
- Long and strong beaks

ADAPTATIONS OF BIRDS TO FLIGHT

- Streamlined body for easy movement
- Presence of feathers for flight
- Forelimbs modified into wings for flight
- Possession of strong chest bone for wing flapping
- Possession of bones with hollow for buoyancy.
Protective adaptations used by animals against predation
i. Mechanical protection e.g. shell in tortoise, snail, oyster etc.;
spines in caterpillar, porcupines and sea urchins.
ii. Chemical protection e.g. poisonous secretion of skin glands in toad,
scorpion etc.
iii. Camouflage: a quick change of skin colour to blend with that of the
environment e.g chameleon, Octopus. This is done through special
cells called CHROMATOPHORES in the skin.
iv. Concealing/cryptic colouration: this is a close matching in
appearance of the animal to its background/environment, it is a
periodical change with the environment e.g. grasshopper, praying
mantis; green member snake etc.
v. Counter shading like in fishes where the dorsal is dark and the
ventral is light.
vi. Distruptive colouration like in Leopard, tiger, Cheetah; the spotted
coat of the skin breaks up its shape against the light and dark shade
of its background so that it remains unnoticed by its potential prey.
vii. Mimicry: this occurs when an animal appears like a dangerous
animal or the animal looks like an object so as to escape from its
predator e.g. frilled Lizard.
viii. Rooolling into a ball e.g. millipede, porcupine, pangolin, hedgehog
etc.
ix. Fast movement to escape predators e.g. deer, antelope etc.
x. Erratic movement like in butterfly.
ADAPTATIONS TO SURVIVE UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS
 Aestivation: here the animal remains inactive in the season of
high temperature (summer) with low water supply. E.g. snail,
lungfish etc.
 Hibernation: here the animal goes to a long time resting period
and remain inactive in the extremely cold period. Like in Polar
bear.
 Seasonal breeding migration: this is the movement of animals
from their place of habitation to a new place with more
favourable environmental conditions. Like in birds, some
mammals and fishes.