GE 15 Week 1 - 9 FINAL W-WM

College of Arts and Sciences Education
2nd Floor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
COURSE OUTLINE: GE 15 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Course Coordinator : JASON BEN R. PARAGAMAC, EnP

E-mail : jasonben_paragamac@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation : Thru LMS, e-mail or by phone
Mobile : (082) 3050647 loc 153
Phone : 09778777007
Effectivity Date : August 2020
Mode of Delivery : Blended (On-line with Face to face or Virtual Sessions)
Time Frame : 54 Hours
Student Workload : Expected Self Directed Learning
Requisites : None
Credit : 3 units
Attendance Requirements : A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all scheduled
Virtual or Face to Face sessions.
COURSE OUTLINE POLICY
DETAIL
AREAS OF CONCERN
S
Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit lecture course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional delivery
with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54, including the face to face or
virtual meetings. The face to face sessions shall include the
summative assessment tasks.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on the 3 rd, 5th, 7th, and
9th weeks of the term. The assessment paper shall be attached
with a cover page indicating the title of the assessment task (if
the task is a performance), the name of the course coordinator,
date of submission, and the name of the student. The document
should be e-mailed to the course coordinator. It is also
expected that you already paid your tuition and other fees
before the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real-time through the

Blackboard Learning Management System's features, the
schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by the course
coordinator.
Turnitin submission (if To ensure the task is authentic and with honesty, all
necessary) assessment tasks requiring to submit through Turnitin with a
maximum similarity index of 30% are allowed. This means
that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will either
opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing addressed to the
course coordinator the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if
the article has reached a more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for disciplinary action under the
University's OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.
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Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

commissioning other students or people to complete the task
for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the designated
Assignments/Assessments time on the due date, without an approved extension of time,
will be reduced by 5% of the possible maximum score for that
assessment item for each day or part-day that the assessment
item is late.
However, if the late submission of the assessment paper has a

valid reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted and
approved by the course coordinator. If necessary, you will
also be required to present/attach
pieces of evidence.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks after
Assessments the submission. This will be backed by e-mail or via the
Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will require

some or few of the students for online or virtual sessions to ask
clarificatory questions to validate the originality of the
assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment task.
The resubmission is premised on the student’s failure to
comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards or other
reasonable circumstances, e.g., illness, accident financial
constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score given
to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly explain the
reasons/points to contest the grade. The program coordinator
shall communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate your

case to the program head or the dean with the original letter of
request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30% 1st
formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10% 3rd
formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
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Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual University

system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline, if uncertain or inadequate, use the
general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao e-mail account, which
is expected to access the BlackBoard portal. Then, the course
coordinator will enroll the students to have access to the
materials and resources of the course. All communication
formats: chat, submission of assessment tasks, requests, etc.
shall be through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can meet the course coordinator in person through the

scheduled face to face sessions to raise your issues and
concerns.
For students who have not created their student e-mail,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean KHRISTINE MARIE D. CONCEPCION, PhD
E-mail: artsciences@eumindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 118
Contact Details of the Program JASON BEN R. PARAGAMAC, EnP
Head E-mail: jasonben_paragamac@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 153
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the course
coordinator about the nature of his or her unique needs.
Depending on the quality of the need, the course coordinator
with the program coordinator's approval may provide
alternative assessment tasks or extension of the deadline for
submission of assessment tasks. However, alternative
assessment tasks should still help achieve the desired course
learning outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration Your coordinator will endorse you to tutorial or enhancement
program offered by the CASE-Environmental Studies to
reinforce your learning in professional courses. These tutorial
sessions can be done online, post-test and pre-test will be
conducted to determine your progress.
Help Desk Contact BSEnviSci@umindanao.edu.ph
Library Contact BRIGIDA E. BACANI
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
COURSE INFORMATION – Download Course Syllabi in the BB. LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello! Welcome to this course GE 15- Environmental Science. This a three (3) a
unit-lecture course that will cover the inland and marine atmospheric systems
and human dimensions potentially influences the cycle and processes in the
global setting. Moreover, this course will give you an overview of how
environment economy, as well as social interaction, to form communities and
within a defined ecosystem.
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CO: Studying environmental studies requires a deeper understanding of other disciplines,

including chemistry, earth sciences, biology, mathematics, engineering, social
sciences, and humanities. This course deals with the holistic study of atmospheric,
geophysical, oceanic, biological, and social sciences. You are expecting to
demonstrate an understanding of how environmental science works as well as
introduce you to the complex process of different, including, could it be natural or
human-made ecosystems.
You expect to evaluate the environment's current conditions and determine potential
threats and hazards associated with rapid industrial development and rapid population
growth. This course will enable you to learn sustainable and unsustainable
environmental practices as well as the consequence of unplanned development and
enforcement of environmental policies and regulations and the international
commitments of highly developed, developed, and developing towards gearing
towards a safe and sustainable future.
BIG PICTURE
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expecting to:
a. Explain what environmental science is and how it draws on different kinds of knowledge.
and Define species, populations, communities, and ecosystems, and summarize the
ecological significance of trophic levels
b. Trace the history of population growth and summarize different perspectives on

population growth, demographic transition, and population stability.
c. Describe how evolution produces species and discuss how species interaction shape
biological communities.
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -a. Explain what environmental science is and how it draws on
different kinds of knowledge. and Define species, populations, communities, and ecosystems, and
summarize the ecological significance of trophic levels
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental

science ULO-1 will be operationally defined to establish a typical frame in the field of natural
sciences and social influences towards the quality of life and sustainability. You will encounter these
terms as we go through environmental science studies with how people and intimately connected and
the implications of rapid population growth and towards the environment. It involves a more
comprehensive understanding of the ecological problem, making judgments evaluation of different
types of environmental and their functions. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter
difficulty in the understanding of environmental science concepts.
1. Environment - it is a place where different things are such as a wet or hot environment.
1.1. It can be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic) community, which includes three
essential forces: physical, chemical, and natural.
2. Science defines the systematized body of knowledge that builds and organizes a lot of
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information in a different form of testable experiments and predictions about everything

in the universe.
3. Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field in science that integrates

all the physical, biological, and information to the study of the environment, and the
solution to environmental problems.
4. Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms, and their

biophysical environment includes both biotic and abiotic components.
5. Chemistry. The study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or
separate to form other elements, and how elements interact with energy.
6. Urban Planning involves two processes, including technical and political, that focus on
the development of the land. It includes the air, water, and building infrastructure passing
into and out of the urban areas with the use of transportation, communication, and
distribution networks.
7. Sociology, the main focus on this, is about the social relationship, interaction, and even
the culture of every individual living in society.
7.1. It uses different methods of investigation and critical analysis to the body of
knowledge about individual social order and social changes.
8. Political Science is about how the government-run the system-the governance. It also
consolidates different political views and thoughts associated with constitutions and
political behavior.
9. Engineering. Its principles focus not only on building machines, structures, bridges,
tunnels, vehicles, buildings, and roads but also it covers the planning of designs.
10. Biodiversity is a group of different individual life that inhibit the plant EArth. That
varies on their genetic component and adaptation to the environment.
10.1. In the terrestrial biodiversity is composed of animals on land usually greater near
the equator, which is an indicator of the warming of the climate.
11. Habitat is considered an environment is naturally occurring to a specific organism to

survive.
11.1. A species habitat is those places where the species can find food, shelter,
protection, and mates for reproduction.
11.2. Both physical and biological features characterize it.
12. Sustainability. The ability of a system to exist continually at a cost, in a universe that
evolves in the state of entropy toward the thermodynamic equilibrium of the planet.
12.1. In the 21st century, it generally refers to the capacity for the biosphere and human
civilization to coexist.
13. They were carrying capacity when the maximum population size of a biological species
can be sustained in that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other
available resources.
14. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that could somehow be systematized, defend,

recommend, and identify what right and wrong behavior is.
15. For the environmental Ethics is a discipline in philosophy that studies or focus on the
moral relationship among human beings to the value and moral status of the environment,
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which includes plants and animals.
16. A hypothesis is an educated guess that cannot be answerable by yes or no without proof
of evidence through testing. One of the requirements to prove this is to conduct thorough
experiments and observations to formulate scientific theories.
17. The disturbance is a temporary change in environmental conditions that causes a

pronounced change in an ecosystem.
17.1. Disturbances often act quickly and significantly to alter the physical structure or
arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements.
18. The ecosystem is a community comprised of living organisms in conjunction or in

relationship with the nonliving components of their specific environment that interact
with each other.
19. Elements. A species of an atom having the same number of protons in its atomic nuclei.
20. Atom is considered as the smallest particle of each element. Elements can be found in
solid, liquid, gas, plasma, or Bosh Einstein Condensate, each composed of the atom.
Electron, neutron , and protons are the primary particles of an atom.
21. Acids are a solution having a pH (power of hydrogen) below 7. It can donate protons or
capable of forming a covalent bond using an electron pairing. Examples of acids are
sulfuric acids, Hydrochloric acids, and muriatic acids.
22. Compounds are chemically bonded with two or more elements to form binary
compounds or ternary compounds.
23. A Cell is considered as the basic unit of all living organisms, both plants, and animals.
The study of life is biology. Cytology is for the study of cells. Cells can be a unicellular
having one-celled organisms or multi-cellular (two or more cells combined).
24. Enzymes are considered as a catalyst; it would either speed up or lower down the
chemical reaction without changing the composition of the substance. It is essential to
each living organism to served an essential function in the body, particularly indigestion.
25. Metabolism is the whole process of digesting the food intake of organisms. It is
commonly known for the breaking down and transportation of substances throughout
human body cells.
26. Photosynthesis. It is the process of all plants that transform into the release of energy
ATP. During this process, the light energy of the sun is captured. There is a conversion of
water, some mineral and carbon dioxide, and a certain amount of oxygen needed by
animals to survive.
27. Chlorophyll. It is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and

cyanobacteria.
27.1. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly in the blue and, to a lesser extent, red portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, hence its intense green color.
28. A species is a basic unit of classifying and identifying the taxonomic rank of an organism,
as well as a unit of biodiversity.
29. Food Chain. A linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organisms
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and ending at apex predator species, detritivores, or decomposer species.
30. Food Web. The natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation of
what-eats-what in an ecological community.
30.1. Another name for the food web is the consumer-resource system.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3) weeks of
the course, you need fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please be reminded that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively.
Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources in the
university library. e.g.,e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
To ensure a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations, we need to understand
something about how our world works, what we are doing to it, and what we can do to protect and
improve it. The word “science” is simply an anglicized version of the Latin “Scientia," which means
knowledge.
Environment. It is defined as the circumstances surrounding an organism or group of

organisms or the complex social or cultural conditions affecting each organism in the given
biotic and abiotic community. However, human being inhabit the natural world, as well as
the, built the environment or the technological, social, and cultural world, all constitute
essential parts of our environment.
Environmental Science it is the systematic study of our environment and our proper place in
it. A highly interdisciplinary, integrating natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities in a
broad, holistic study of the world around us.
Kinds of Knowledge Contribute to Solutions in Environmental Science
Goal: Clean Energy Future
1. Ecology. How foes energy production affects populations?

2. Chemistry. How can we make better batteries?
3. Urban Planning. What urban designs can reduce energy use?
4. Sociology. How do people adopt new ideas?
5. Political Science. Which policies lead to sustainable solutions?
6. Engineering. Can we design better vehicles?
7. Economics. What are the benefits and costs of energy sources?
HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
The most dramatic increase in the human population's history occurred in the last part of the
20th century and continues today into the early 21st century. With an estimation of more than 6.5
billion humans currently, we're adding about 75 million more to the whole wide world every year.
While demographers report a transition to slower growth rates in most countries, present trends
project a population between 8 and 10 billion by 2050.
The impact of that many people on our natural resources and ecological systems is a serious
concern. Human population growth is, in some crucial ways, the underlying issue of the environment.
Much current environmental damage is directly or indirectly the result of the vast number of people
on Earth and our rate of increase.
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CURRENT CONDITIONS
Clean Water. Water is the most vital resource of all living in the twenty-first century and the
fourth revolution. At present, 1.1 billion people lack an adequate supply of safe and clean
drinking water. Mostly, they don't also have modern sanitation to avoid health issues. Water
pollution and lack of cleanliness can contribute to the increase in people's health issues and
even some form of animals.
Food Supplies. Global food production has more than kept pace with human population
growth, but there are concerns about whether we will maintain this pace. Soil scientists report
that about two-thirds (2/3) of all agricultural lands show signs of degradation. Biotechnology
and intensive farming techniques that are responsible for much of our recent production gains
are often too expensive for poor farmers.
Energy. Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) presently provide around 80 percent (80%) of
the energy used in industrialized countries. Supplies of these fuels are diminishing, however,
and problems associated with their acquisition and use—air and water pollution, mining
damage, shipping accidents, and geopolitics—may limit what we do with remaining reserves.
Cleaner renewable energy resources—solar power, wind, geothermal, and biomass—together
with conservation, could give us more sanitary, less destructive options if we invest in
inappropriate technology.
Climate Change. Burning fossil fuels, making cement, cultivating rice paddies, clearing
forests, and other human activities release carbon dioxide and other so-called "greenhouse
gases" that trap heat in the atmosphere. Over the past 200 years, atmospheric CO2
concentrations have increased by about 35 percent. By 2100, if current trends continue,
climatologists warn that mean global temperature will probably warm 1.5° to 6°C (2.7°–
11°F). Although it's controversial whether specific recent storms were influenced by global
warming, climate changes caused by greenhouse gases are very likely to cause increasingly
severe weather events, including droughts in some areas and floods in others. Melting alpine
glaciers and snowfields could threaten water supplies on which millions of people depend.
We already see dramatic climate changes in the Antarctic and Arctic, where seasons change,
disappearance, and permafrost sea ice, (fig. 1.6). Rising of the sea levels are flooding low-
lying islands and coastal regions, while habitat losses and climatic changes are affecting many
biological species.
Air Pollution. The air quality has worsened dramatically in many parts of the world. Over
southern Asia, for example, satellite images recently revealed a 3-km (2-mile)-thick toxic
haze of ash, acids, aerosols, dust, and photochemical products that regularly cover the entire
Indian subcontinent for much of the year. Air pollution is no longer merely a local problem.
Mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and
other long-lasting pollutants or Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) accumulate in arctic
ecosystems (boreal forest) and native people after being transported by air currents from
industrial regions thousands of kilometers to the south.
Biodiversity Loss. Biologists report that habitat great destruction of some other areas,
overexploitation of some species, biochemical pollution, and launching of exotic organisms
are eliminating species at a rate comparable to the great extinction that marked the end of the
age of dinosaurs.
Health. Many cities in Europe and North America are cleaner and much more livable now
than they were a century ago. The population has stabilized in most industrialized countries,
and even in some impoverished countries where social security and democracy have been
established. The incidence of life-threatening infectious diseases caused by some pathogenic
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microorganisms has been reduced sharply in most countries during the past century, while
anticipation of the population of life has nearly doubled the number on average.
Habitat Conservation. Deforestation has slowed in Asia, from more than 8 percent during
the 1980s to less than 1 percent in the 1990s. Nature preserves and protected areas have
increased nearly fivefold over the past 20 years, from about 2.6 million km2 to approximately
12.2 million km2. This represents only 8.2 percent of all land area—less than the 12 percent
thought necessary to protect a viable sample of the world's biodiversity—but is a dramatic
expansion, nonetheless.
Renewable Energy. Dramatic progress is being made in a transition to renewable energy

sources. The European Union has pledged to get 20 percent of its energy from renewable
sources (30 percent if other countries participate) by 2020. Former British Prime Minister
Tony Blair laid out even more ambitious plans to fight global warming by cutting carbon
dioxide emissions in his state by 60 percent through energy conservation and a switch to
renewables.
Freedom of Information. Over the past two (2) decades, the world has made dramatic
progress in opening up political systems and expanding political freedoms. During this time,
some 81 countries took significant steps toward democracy. Currently, nearly three-quarters
of the world’s 200 countries now hold multiparty elections. At least 60 developing countries
claim to be transferring decision-making authority to local units of government. Of course,
decentralization doesn’t always guarantee better environmental stewardship, but it puts people
with direct knowledge of local conditions in a position of power rather than distant elites or
bureaucrats.
International Cooperation. Currently, more than 500 international environmental protection

agreements are now in force. Some, such as the Montreal Protocol on Stratospheric Ozone
layer, have been highly successful. Others, such as the Law of the Sea, lack enforcement
powers. Perhaps the most important of all these treaties is the Kyoto Protocol on global
climate change, which has been ratified by every industrialized nation except Australia and
the United States.
HISTORY OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM
Writers and thinkers articulated many of our modern ideas about our environment and its
resources in the past 150 years. Although many earlier societies had negative impacts on their
ecosystems, recent technological innovations have significantly increased our results. As a
consequence of these changes, different approaches have developed for understanding and protecting
our environment. We can divide conservation history and environmental activism into at least four
distinct stages:
1. pragmatic resource conservation
2. moral and aesthetic nature preservation,
3. growing concern about health and ecological damage caused by pollution, and
4. global environmental citizenship.
Pragmatic Utilitarian Conservation. Many historians of old-time consider the publication of

Man and Nature way back in 1864 by a geographer George Perkins Marsh as the wellspring of
environmental protection in North America. Marsh, who also was a lawyer, politician, and
diplomat, traveled widely around the Mediterranean as part of his diplomatic duties in Turkey and
Italy. He read widely in the classics (including Plato) and personally observed the damage caused
by the excessive grazing by goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) and sheep (Ovis aries) and by the
deforesting of steep hillsides and mountains. Alarmed by the wanton destruction and profligate
waste of resources still occurring on the American frontier in his lifetime, he warned of its
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ecological consequences. Mainly as a result of his article, national forest reserves were
established in 1873 to protect dwindling timber supplies and endangered watersheds.
Among those influenced by Marsh's warnings were President Theodore Roosevelt and his
chief conservation advisor, Gifford Pinchot. The basis of the two policies by Roosevelt and
Pinchot is about pragmatic and practical conservation. They argued that the forests should be
saved "not because they are beautiful or because they shelter wild creatures of the wilderness, but
only to provide homes and jobs for people." Resources should be used "for the highest good, for
the most considerable number for the longest time. The first principle of conservation is the
development and use of the natural resources in each continent that benefit the lives of people and
some organisms.
Ethical and Aesthetic Concern of Preservation Movement. John Muir (fig. 1.8c), geologist,
author, and first president of the Sierra Club, strenuously opposed Pinchot's practical approach.
Muir argued that nature deserves to exist for its own sake, regardless of its usefulness to
humanity. For the Aesthetic and spiritual values formed the core of his philosophy of nature
protection. This outlook has been called biocentric preservation because it emphasizes the
fundamental right of other organisms to exist and to pursue their interests. Muir wrote: "The
world, we are told, was made for man. In which the presumption of that is unsupported by the
facts. Nature's object in making animals (domestics and wild) and plants might be first of all the
happiness of each one of them. Why ought a man to value himself as more than an infinitely small
unit of the one great unit of creation?"
Rising Pollution Level Led to the Modern Environmental Movement. The undesirable and
unpleasant results of biochemical pollution have probably recognized as long as those of forest
destruction. In England of 1273, King Edward I, he frightens his people to hang if caught burning
coal in London because of the acrid smoke produced from the fuel that may cause damage to the
environment.
The tremendous industrial expansion during and after the Second World War added a new set
of concerns to the environmental agenda. Silent Spring, written by Rachel Carson (fig. 1.10a) and
published in 1962, awakened the public to the threats of pollution and toxic chemicals to humans
as well as other species. The movement she engendered might be called environmentalism
because its concerns are extended to include both environmental resources and pollution.
Environmental quality is tied to Social Progress. Many people today believe that the
environmental movement's roots are elitist—promoting the interests of a wealthy minority, who
can afford to vacation in the wilderness. Most environmental leaders have seen social justice and
environmental equity as closely linked. Gifford Pinchot, Teddy Roosevelt, and John Muir all
strove to keep nature and resources accessible to everyone, at a time when public lands, forests,
and waterways were increasingly controlled by a few wealthy individuals and private
corporations. The idea of national parks, one of our principal strategies for nature conservation, is
to provide public access to natural beauty and outdoor recreation. Increasingly, environmental
activists are linking environmental quality and social progress on a global scale. One of the core
concepts of modern environmental thought is sustainable development, the idea that economic
improvement for the world’s poorest populations is possible without devastating the environment.
SUSTAINABILITY AND CARRYING CAPACITY
The story of recent famines and food crises raises one of the central environmental questions:
What is the maximum number of people the Earth can sustain? That is, what is the sustainable human
carrying capacity of the Earth? Environmentalists agree that sustainability must be achieved, but we
are unclear about how to make it, in part because the word is used to mean different things, often
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leading to confusion that causes people to work at cross-purposes. Sustainability has two formal
scientific meanings concerning the environment:
1. sustainability of resources: a species of fish in marine and freshwater ecosystem, a kind
of tree from different vegetations, coal from mines, and
2. sustainability of an ecosystem.
Some of the economists, political scientists, and others also use the term sustainability about
types of development and improvement that are economically viable, do not harm the environment,
and are socially just (fair to all people).
They point out that the term sustainable growth is an oxymoron (i.e., a contradictory term)
because any steady growth (fixed-percentage growth per year) produces large numbers in modest
periods. Economists have begun to consider what is known as the sustainable global economy: the
careful management and wise use of the planet and its resources, analogous to the control of money
and goods. Those focusing on a sustainable global economy generally agree and support that the
global economy is not sustainable under present conditions.
Carrying capacity is a concept related to sustainability. It is usually defined as the maximum number
of individuals of a species that can be sustained by an environment without decreasing the capacity of
the environment to sustain that same number in the future. There are limits to the Earth’s potential to
support humans. As we pointed out, what we consider a “desirable human carrying capacity” depends
in part on our values.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
The ways we interpret environmental issues, or our decisions about what we should or should
not do with natural resources, depend partly on our underlying worldviews. Perhaps you have a
primary ethical assumption that you should be kind to your neighbors or try to contribute in positive
ways to your community. Moral views in society also change over time. In ancient Greece, many
philosophers who were concerned with ethics and morality owned slaves; today, few societies
condone slavery. Most societies now believe it is wrong, or unethical, to treat other humans as
property.
The Greeks granted moral value, or worth, only to adult male citizens within their
community. Women, slaves, and children had few rights and were essentially treated as property.
Over time we have gradually extended our sense of moral value to a broader circle, an idea known as
ethical extensions.
These philosophical questions are not merely academic or historical. In 2004, the journal
science caused a public uproar by publishing a study demonstrating that fish feel pain. Many
recreational anglers had long managed to suppress worries that they were causing pain to fish. The
story was so unsettling that it made national headlines and provoked fresh public debates on the ethics
of fishing. How we treat other people, animals, or things, can also depend on whether we believe they
have inherent value—an intrinsic right to exist, or instrumental value (they have value because they
are useful to someone who matters). If I hurt you, I owe you an apology. If I borrow your car and
smash it into a tree, I don't owe the car an excuse. I owe you an apology—or reimbursement.
SCIENCE, VALUES, AND THE PRINCIPLES BEHIND
Science is a process for producing knowledge, methodically, and logically. Deciding what to
do about an environmental problem involves both values and science, as we have already seen. We
must choose what we want the environment to be. Critical scientific thinking is disciplined, using
intellectual standards, effective communication, clarity, and commitment to developing scientific
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knowledge and skills. It leads to conclusions, generalizations, and, sometimes, scientific theories and
even scientific laws. Some of the intellectual standards are as follows:
Clarity: If a statement is unclear, you can’t tell whether it is relevant or accurate.

Accuracy: Is a statement, right? Can it be checked? To what extent does a measurement
agree with the accepted value?
Precision: The degree of exactness to which something is measured. Can a statement be more
specific, detailed, and exact?
Relevance: How well is a statement connected to the problem at hand?
Depth: Did you deal with the complexities of a question?
Breadth: Did you consider other points of view or look at it from a different perspective?
Logic: Does a conclusion make sense and follow from the evidence?
Significance: Is the problem an important one? Why?
Fairness: Are there any vested interests, and have other points of view received attention?
Ideally, scientists are skeptical. They are cautious about accepting proposed explanations until
there is substantial evidence to support them. Scientists demand reproducibility because they are
careful about making conclusions. You must be able to describe your study's conditions so that
someone else can reproduce your findings. Repeating studies or tests is known as replication.
Science also relies on accuracy and precision. Accuracy is the correctness of measurements.
Inaccurate data can produce sloppy and misleading conclusions.
HYPOTHESIS AND THEORIES
You may already be using the scientific method without being aware of it. Suppose you have
a flashlight that doesn't work. The flashlight has several components (switch, bulb, batteries) that
could be faulty. If you change all the components at once, your flashlight might work, but a more
systematic series of tests will tell you more about what was wrong with the system—knowledge that
may be useful next time you have a faulty flashlight. So you decide to follow the standard scientific
steps:
1. Observe that your flashlight does not light; there are three main components of the
lighting system (batteries, bulb, and switch).
2. Propose a hypothesis, a testable explanation: “The flashlight doesn’t work because the
batteries are dead.”
3. Develop a test of the hypothesis and predict the result that would indicate your
assumption was correct: "I will replace the batteries; the light should then turn on."
4. Gather data from your test: After you replaced the batteries, did the light turn on?
5. Interpret your results: If the light works now, then your hypothesis was right; if not, then
you should formulate a new hypothesis, perhaps that the bulb is faulty, and develop a new
test for that hypothesis.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE
Science has limitations and principles that rest on the assumption that the world is knowable
and that we can learn about the world through careful observation. The benefit of scientific thinking
and scientific studies is that it searches for testable evidence. By testing our ideas with observable
evidence, we can evaluate whether our explanations are reasonable or not.
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Empiricism. We can learn about the world through careful observation of empirical (real,
observable) phenomena; we can expect to understand fundamental processes and natural laws
by observation.
Uniformitarianism. Basic patterns and processes are uniforms across time and space; today's
forces are the same as those that shaped the world in the past, and they will continue to do so
in the future.
Parsimony. When two plausible explanations are reasonable, the more straightforward (more
parsimonious) one is preferable. This rule is also known as Ockham's razor, after the English
philosopher who proposed it.
Uncertainty. Knowledge changes as new evidence appear, and explanations (theories)

change with new evidence. Approaches based on current evidence should be tested on
additional evidence, with the understanding that new data may disprove the best theories.
Repeatability. For the tests and experiments should be repeatable as trial and error, if the
same results of the study cannot be reproduced, then the conclusions are probably incorrect.
The proof is elusive. We rarely expect science to provide absolute proof that a theory is
correct because new evidence may always undermine our current understanding.
Testable questions this is to find out whether a theory is correct or not; it must be tested with
different experiments; we formulate testable statements (hypotheses) to test theories based on
the observable facts.
SCIENCE AND DECISION MAKING
Like the scientific method, the process of making decisions is sometimes presented as a series of
steps:
1. First, it to formulate a clear statement of the issue to be decided.

2. Gather scientific information related to the issue.
3. List all alternative courses of action.
4. Prediction for each course of action's positive and negative consequences and the probability
that each result will occur is essential.
5. Then, weigh the possible alternatives and choose the best solution to the problems or
situations.
In the face of incomplete information, scientific controversies, conflicting interests, and

emotionalism, how can we make sound environmental decisions? We need to begin with the scientific
evidence from all relevant sources and with estimates of the uncertainties in each. Avoiding
emotionalism and resisting slogans and propaganda are essential to developing sound approaches to
environmental issues. Ultimately, however, environmental decisions are policy decisions negotiated
through the political process. Policymakers are rarely professional scientists; generally, they are
political leaders and ordinary citizens. Therefore, the scientific education of those in government and
business, as well as of all citizens, is crucial.
SYSTEMS CONCEPTS AND INTERACTIONS
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Systems, including ecosystems, they are considered as a center in the environmental studies. A
system is a network of interdependent components and processes, with materials and energy flowing
from one component of the system to another. A system is a set of components, or parts, that function
together as a whole. A single organism, such as your body, is a system, as are a sewage-treatment
plant, a city, and a river. Key systems concepts that we will explain are;
1. how a system is connected to the rest of the environment
2. how matter and energy flow between parts of a system
3. whether a system is static or dynamic—whether it changes over time
4. average residence time—how long something stays within an order or part of a systems
5. feedback—how the output from a system can affect its inputs
6. linear and nonlinear flows.
SYSTEMS RESPONSES
An important distinction among environmental and ecological systems is whether linear or

nonlinear processes characterize them.
Linear Process. If you add the same amount of anything to a compartment in a system, the
change will always be the same, no matter how much you have added before and no matter
what else has changed about the system and its environment.
Nonlinear Process. This means that the effect of adding a specific amount of something
changes depending on how much has been added before.
Concerning the rest of the environment, a system can be open or closed. In an open system,
some energy or material (solid, liquid, or gas) moves into or out of the system. The ocean is an open
system about water because water moves into the ocean from the atmosphere and out of the ocean into
the atmosphere. Open systems are those that receive inputs from their surroundings and produce
outputs that leave the system. Almost all-natural systems are open systems.
In a closed system, no such transfers take place. For our purposes, a materially closed
system is one in which no matter moves in and out of the system, although energy and information
can move across the system’s boundaries. Earth is a materially closed system (for all practical
purposes). In principle, a closed system exchanges no energy or matter with its surroundings, but
these are rare. Often, we think of pseudo-closed systems, those that exchange only a little energy, no
matter their surroundings. Throughput is a term we can use to describe the energy and matter that
flow into, though, and out of a system. Larger throughput might expand the size of state variables.
For example, you can consider your household economy in terms of throughput. If you get
more income, you can enlarge your state variables (bank account, car, television). Usually, an
increase in income is associated with an increase in outflow
(the money spent on that new car and TV). In a grassland, inputs of energy (sunlight) and matter
(carbon dioxide and water) are stored in biomass. The biomass storage might increase if there is lots
of water (in the form of trees). If there's little input, biomass might decrease (grass could become
short or sparse). Eventually, stored matter and energy may be exported (by fire, grazing, land
clearing). The exported matter and energy can be
thought of as throughput.
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Systems respond to inputs and have outputs. Think of your body as a complex system and
imagine hiking in Yellowstone National Park and seeing a grizzly bear. The sight of the bear is an
input. Your body reacts to that input: The adrenaline level in your blood goes up, your heart rate
increases and the hair on your head and arms may rise. Your response—perhaps to move slowly away
from the bear—is an output.
THE STATIC AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
A static system has a fixed condition and tends to remain in that exact condition—a dynamic
system changes continually over time. A birthday balloon attached to a pole is a static system in terms
of space—it stays in one place. A hot-air balloon is a simple dynamic system in terms of space—it
moves in response to the winds, air density, and controls exerted by a pilot. An essential kind of static
system is one with classical stability. Such a system has a constant condition, and if it is disturbed
from that condition, it returns to it once the disturbing factor is removed. The pendulum of an old-
fashioned grandfather clock is an example of classical stability. If you push it, the pendulum moves
back and forth for a while, but then friction gradually dissipates the energy you just gave it, and the
pendulum comes to rest exactly where it began. This resting point is known as the equilibrium.
Disturbances, events that can destabilize or change the system, might also be normal for the
system. There can be many kinds of disturbance in a grassland. Severe drought can set back the
community so that it takes some time to recover. Thus disturbances are often a normal part of natural
systems. Sometimes we consider this "dynamic equilibrium," or a tendency for a system to change
and then return to normal.
We will see that the classic interpretation of populations, species, ecosystems, and Earth's
entire biosphere has been to assume that each is a stable, static system. The more these ecological
systems are studied scientifically, the clearer it becomes that these are dynamic systems that always
require change. An important practical question that keeps arising in many environmental
controversies is whether we want to, and should, force ecological systems to be static if and when
they are naturally dynamic.
An idea frequently used and defended in the study of our natural environment is that natural
systems left undisturbed by people tend toward some sort of steady-state. The technical term for this
is a dynamic equilibrium, but it is more familiarly referred to as the balance of nature. If we
examine natural ecological systems or ecosystems (simply defined here as communities of organisms
and their nonliving environment in which nutrients and other chemicals cycle and energy flows) in
detail and over a variety of time frames, it is evident that a steady state is seldom attained or
maintained for very long.
FEEDBACKS
Feedback occurs when the output of a system (or a compartment in a system) affects its
input. Changes in the output “feedback" on the input. A good example of feedback is human
temperature regulation. If you go out in the sun and get hot, the temperature increase affects your
sensory perceptions (input). If you stay in the sun, your body responds physiologically: Your pores
open, and you are cooled by evaporating water (you
sweat). The cooling is output, and it is also input to your sensory perceptions. You may respond
behaviorally as well: Because you feel hot (input), you walk into the shade (output), and your
temperature returns to normal.
There are two kinds of feedback:
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1. negative
2. positive.
Negative feedback. Tend to maintain stability in a system. Negative feedback is self-

regulating or stabilizing. It is the way that steady-state systems can remain in a constant
condition.
Positive feedback. It occurs when an increase in output leads to a further rise in production.
A fire starting in a forest provides an example of positive feedback. Positive feedback
sometimes called a
"vicious cycle" is destabilizing.
MATTER ENERGY AND LIFE
Elements of Life
As an introduction to ecology principles, this chapter first reviews the nature of matter and
energy and then explores how organisms acquire and use energy and chemical elements. Then we'll
investigate feeding relationships among organisms—the ways that energy and nutrients are passed
from one living thing to another—forming ecosystems. Finally, we'll review some of the key
substances that cycle through organisms, ecosystems, and our environment. Every organism is a
chemical factory that captures matter and energy from its environment and transforms them into
structures and processes that make life possible. To fully understand the concepts of how these
processes work, we will begin with some of the fundamental properties of matter and energy.
Matter. By definition, it is anything that can occupy space and has a mass. Solid, liquid, gas,
plasma, and Bosh Einstein Condensate are the phases of matter that constitute the
arrangement of the structures and properties of atoms. For example, water can exist as ice
(solid), as liquid water, or as water vapor. Under ordinary circumstances, the matter is neither
created nor destroyed but instead is recycled over and over again.
Transformation and combination of matter may vary in different ways according to

the arrangement of atoms. Still, it doesn't disappear the fundamental elements - the law of
conservation of mass and energy.
Matter consists of elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down into
simpler forms by ordinary chemical reactions. Each of the 122 known elements (92 natural,
plus 30 created under special conditions) has distinct chemical characteristics. Just four
elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—are responsible for more than 96 percent
of the mass of most living organisms.
All elements are composed of atoms, which are the smallest particles that exhibit the
element's characteristics. Atoms are composed of positively charged protons, negatively
charged electrons, and electrically neutral neutrons. Protons and neutrons, which have
approximately the same mass, are clustered in the nucleus in the center of the
atom. Electrons, which are tiny compared to the other particles, orbit the nucleus at the speed
of light. Each element has a characteristic number of protons per atom, called its atomic
number. The number of neutrons in different atoms of the same element can vary slightly.
Bonds
Chemical bonds hold molecules together. Atoms often join to form compounds or
substances composed of different kinds of atoms, pair, or group of atoms that can exist as a
single unit is known as a molecule. Some elements commonly occur as molecules, such as
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molecular oxygen (O2) or molecular nitrogen (N2), and some compounds can exist as
molecules, such as glucose (C6H12O6).
When ions with opposite charges form a compound, the electrical attraction holding
them together is an ionic bond. Sometimes atoms form bonds by sharing electrons. For
example, two hydrogen atoms can bond by sharing a pair of electrons—they orbit the two
hydrogen nuclei equally and hold the atoms together. Such electron-sharing bonds are known
as covalent bonds.
Charges
The electrical charge is an important chemical characteristic. Atoms frequently gain

or lose electrons, acquiring a negative or positive electrical charge. Charged atoms (or
combinations of atoms) are called ions. Negatively charged ions (with one or more extra
electrons) are anions. Positively charged ions are cations. A hydrogen (H) atom, for example,
can give up its sole electron to become a hydrogen ion (H_). Chlorine (Cl) readily gains
electrons, forming chlorine ions (Cl_). Substances that willingly give up hydrogen ions in
water are known as acids.
Substances that readily bond with H_ ions are called bases or alkaline substances.
Acids and bases can also be essential to living things: The acids in your stomach dissolve
food, for example, and acids in soil help make nutrients available to growing plants. We
describe the strength of an acid and base by its pH, the negative logarithm of its concentration
of H_ ions (fig. 3.4). Acids have a pH below 7; bases have a pH greater than 7. A solution of
exactly pH 7 is “neutral.” Because the pH scale is logarithmic, pH 6 represents ten times more
hydrogen ions in solution than pH 7.
Compounds
Organic compounds have a carbon backbone. Organisms use some elements in

abundance, others in trace amounts, and others not at all. Certain vital substances are
concentrated within cells, while others are actively excluded. Carbon is a particularly
important element because chains and rings of carbon atoms from the skeletons of organic
compounds, the material of which biomolecules, and therefore living organisms, are made.
The four major categories of organic compounds in living things (“bio-organic compounds”)
are:
1. lipids
2. carbohydrates
3. proteins, and
4. nucleic acids.
Lipids. (including fats and oils) store energy for cells and they provide the core of cell
membranes and other structures. Lipids do not readily dissolve in water, and their basic
structure is a chain of carbon atoms with attached hydrogen atoms. This structure makes
them part of the family of hydrocarbons.
Carbohydrates. (including sugars, starches, and cellulose) also, store energy and provide
structure to cells. Like lipids, carbohydrates have a basic structure of carbon atoms, but
hydroxyl (OH) groups replace half of the hydrogen atoms in their basic structure, usually
consisting of long-chain sugars. Glucose is an example of very simple sugar.
Proteins. Are composed of chains of subunits called amino acids. It is folded into
complex three-dimensional shapes; proteins provide structure to cells and are used for
countless cell functions. Most enzymes, such as those that release energy from lipids and
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carbohydrates, are proteins. Proteins also help identify disease-causing microbes, make
muscles move, transport oxygen to cells, and regulate cell activity.
Nucleotides are complex molecules that are made of a five-carbon sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose), one or more phosphate groups, and an organic nitrogen-containing base.
They can be a purine or a pyrimidine. Nucleotides are essential as signaling
molecules(they carry information between cells, tissues, and organs) and as sources of
intracellular energy. They also have long chains called ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is
single-stranded and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) double helix that carries genetic
information. Only four kinds of nucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thyamine)
occur in DNA, but billions of these molecules are lined up in a specific sequence. Groups
of three nucleotides (called codons) act as the letters in messages that code for the
aminoacid sequences in proteins. Long chains of DNA bind together to form a stable
double helix. These chains separate for replication in preparation for cell division or to
express their genetic information during protein synthesis. Molecular biologists have
developed techniques for extracting DNA from cells and reading its nucleotide sequence.
Cells
Cells are the fundamentals units of life. All living organisms are composed of cells,
minute compartments within which the processes of life are carried out. Microscopic
organisms such as bacteria, some algae, and protozoa are composed of single cells. Most
higher organisms are multi-cellular, usually with many different cell varieties. Every cell is
surrounded by a thin but dynamic membrane of lipid and protein that receives information
about the exterior world and regulates the flow of materials between the cell and its
environment. All of the chemical reactions required to create these various structures, provide
them with energy and materials to carry out their functions, dispose of wastes, and perform
other functions of life at the cellular level are carried out by a special class of proteins called
enzymes. Enzymes are molecular catalysts that regulate chemical reactions without being
used up or inactivated in the process. Altogether, the multitude of enzymatic reactions
performed by an organism is called its metabolism.
ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work, such as moving an object or can perform a
specific task. Energy occurs in different types and qualities.
The unit of energy for food-related is Calorie or Kilocalorie (Cal/ kCal), and for work-done is Joules
(J). A Calorie of food-intake is equivalent to 4.184 Joules. For this, a kilo-Calorie(kCal) is equal to
1000calories.
Energy can be in the form of:

1. Potential.
2. Kinetic
Kinetic Energy. It is energy in motion. For example, a rock rolling down an inclined object,
the wind blowing through the trees, water flowing from the faucet, or electrons speeding
around the nucleus of an atom are all examples of kinetic energy.
Potential Energy. It is energy at rest or stable energy. For example, a rock poised at the top
of a hill and water stored behind a dam are examples of potential energy.
Heat describes the energy that can be transferred between objects of different temperatures.
When a substance absorbs heat, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases, or it may
change state: A solid may become a liquid, or a liquid may become a gas. We sense a change
in heat content as a change in temperature (unless the substance changes state). An object can
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have a high heat content but low temperature, such as a lake that freezes slowly in the fall.
Other objects, like a burning match, have a high temperature but little heat content. Heat
storage in lakes and oceans is essential to moderating climates and
maintaining biological communities. Heat absorbed in changing states is also critical.
THERMODYNAMICS
Atoms and molecules cycle endlessly through organisms and their environment, but energy
flows in a one-way path. A constant supply of energy—nearly all of it from the sun—is needed to
keep biological processes running. Energy can be used repeatedly as it flows through the system, and
it can be stored temporarily in the chemical bonds of organic molecules, but eventually, it is released
and dissipated. The study of thermodynamics deals with how energy is transferred to natural
processes. More specifically, it deals with the flow rates and the transformation of energy from one
form or quality to another. Thermodynamics is a complex, quantitative discipline, but you don't need
a great deal of math to understand some of the broad principles that shape our world and our lives.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved; that is, it is neither created
nor destroyed under normal conditions. Energy may be transformed, for example, from the
energy in a chemical bond to heat energy, but the total amount does not change.
The second law of thermodynamics states that, with each successive energy transfer or
transformation in a system, less energy is available. That is, energy is degraded to lower-
quality forms, or it dissipates and is lost, as it is used. When you drive a car, for example, the
gas's chemical energy is degraded to kinetic energy and heat, dissipating, eventually, to space.
The second law recognizes that disorder, or entropy, tends to increase in all-natural systems.
ENERGY FOR LIFE
Where does the energy needed by living organisms come from? How is it captured and used
to do work? For nearly all plants and animals living on the Earth's surface, the sun is the ultimate
energy source. Still, for organisms living deep in the Earth's crust or at the bottom of the oceans,
where sunlight is unavailable, chemicals derived from rocks provide alternate energy sources. We'll
consider this alternative energy pathway first because it seems to be more ancient. Before green plants
existed, we believe that ancient bacteria-like cells probably lived by processing chemicals in hot
springs.
Photosynthetic Processes
Our sun is a star, a fiery ball of exploding hydrogen gas. Its thermonuclear reactions emit
powerful forms of radiation, including potentially deadly ultraviolet and nuclear radiation, yet life
here is nurtured by, and dependent upon, this searing, energy source. Solar energy is essential to life
for two main reasons.
1. First, the sun provides warmth. Most organisms survive within a relatively narrow
temperature range. Each species has its range of temperatures within which it can
function normally. At high temperatures (above 40°C), biomolecules begin to break down
or become distorted and nonfunctional. At low temperatures (near 0°C), some chemical
reactions of metabolism occur too slowly to enable organisms to grow and reproduce.
Other planets in our solar system are either too hot or too cold to support life as we know
it. The Earth's water and atmosphere help to moderate, maintain and distribute the sun's
heat.
2. Second, nearly all organisms on the Earth's surface organisms depend on solar radiation
for life-sustaining energy, which is captured by green plants, algae, and some bacteria in a
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process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis converts radiant energy into useful, high-
quality chemical energy in the bonds that hold together organic molecules.
Photosynthesis occurs in tiny membranous organelles called chloroplasts that reside within plant
cells. Photosynthesis captures energy while respiration releases that energy. The most important key
to this process is chlorophyll, a unique green molecule that can absorb light energy and use it to
create high- energy chemical bonds in compounds that serve as the fuel for all subsequent cellular
metabolism.
Chlorophyll does not do this important job all alone, however. It is assisted by a large group
of other lipids, sugar, protein, and nucleotide molecules. Together these components carry out two
interconnected cyclic sets of reactions. Photosynthesis begins with a series of steps called light-
dependent reactions: These occur only while the chloroplast is receiving light. Enzymes split water
molecules and release molecular oxygen (O2). This is the source of all the oxygen in the atmosphere
on which all animals, including you, depend for life. The light-dependent reactions also create mobile,
high-energy molecules (adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate, or NADPH), which provide energy for the next set of processes, the light-independent
reactions. As their name implies, these reactions do not use light directly. Here, enzymes extract
energy from ATP and NADPH to add carbon atoms (from carbon dioxide) to simple sugar molecules,
such as glucose. These molecules provide the building blocks for larger, more complex organic
molecules.
SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEM
While cellular and molecular biologists study life processes at the microscopic level,
ecologists study interactions at the species, population, biotic community, or ecosystem level. In
Latin, species mean kind. In biology, species refers to all organisms of the same kind that are
genetically similar enough to breed in nature and produce live, fertile offspring.
Organisms occur in populations, communities, and ecosystems. A population consists of all

the members of a species living in a given area at the same time. All of the populations of organisms
living and interacting in a particular area make up a biological community. An ecological system, or
ecosystem, is composed of a biological community and its physical environment. The environment
includes abiotic factors (nonliving components), such as climate, water, minerals, and sunlight, as
well as biotic factors, such as organisms, their products (secretions, wastes, and remains), and effects
in a given area.
Chains, Webs, and Trophic Levels
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Photosynthesis (and rarely chemosynthesis) is the base of all ecosystems. Organisms that
photosynthesize, mainly green plants and algae, are therefore known as producers. One of the major
properties of an ecosystem is its productivity, the amount of biomass (biological material) produced
in a given area during a given period. Photosynthesis is described as primary productivity because it
is the basis for almost all other growth in an ecosystem. Manufacture of biomass by organisms that eat
plants is termed secondary productivity. A given ecosystem may have very high total productivity,
but if decomposers decompose organic material as rapidly as it is formed, the net's primary
productivity will decrease.
An organism’s feeding status in an ecosystem can be expressed as its trophic level (from the
Greek trophe, food). In our first example, the corn plant is at the producer level; it transforms solar
energy into chemical energy, producing food molecules. Other organisms in the ecosystem are
consumers of the chemical energy harnessed by the producers. An organism that eats producers is a
primary consumer. An organism that eats primary consumers is a secondary consumer, which may, in
turn, be eaten by a tertiary consumer, and so on. Most terrestrial food chains are relatively short (seeds
mouse owl), but aquatic food chains may be quite long (microscopic algae).
The length of a food chain also may reflect the physical characteristics of a particular
ecosystem. A harsh arctic landscape has a much shorter food chain than a temperate or tropical one.
Organisms can be identified by the trophic level they feed and the kinds of food they eat. Herbivores
are plant eaters, carnivores are flesh-eaters, and omnivores can eat both plants and animals. How can
we classify human beings? Studies show that humans can also be considered omnivores. The
scavengers are an essential trophic level occupied on the planet because they remove and recycle dead
bodies and waste of others. Examples of scavengers are crows, jackals, and vultures, while
detritivores organisms such as ants and beetles eat litter, debris, and dung. The decomposers, as
fungi and bacteria, complete the final breakdown of organic materials.
Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels. It is the arrangement of the food chain according to the
trophic levels. The bottom or base
are the primary consumers, followed by the secondary consumers and the decomposers as the final
product of the ecosystem.
Self-Help:
You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.
Marten. GG 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.

Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern.
11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 1. Now that you have know the most essential terms in the study of environmental
science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms. In the space provided, write the terms,
being asked in the following statements:
_____________________1. It refers to the systematic study of our environment and our place
in it.
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_____________________2. An interdisciplinary science integrating natural sciences, social

sciences, and humanities in broad study of the world around us.
_____________________3. The circumstances or conditions that surrounds an organisms or
group of organisms or the complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or
community.
_____________________4. The process of producing knowledge methodically and logically.
_____________________5. The set of components, or parts that function together as a
whole.
_____________________6. Refers to systems that receive inputs from surroundings and
produce outputs that leave the system.
_____________________7. It is refers to the ability of a system to exists constantly at a cost
in a universe that evolves towards thermodynamic equilibrium.
_____________________8. It is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral
relationship of human beings and moral status of the environment and its non-human
contents.
_____________________9. The temporary change in environmental conditions resulted to a
pronounced change in an ecosystem.
_____________________10. Refers to the smallest constituent unit of ordinary
matter that constitutes a chemical element.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying environmental sciences will
not be sufficient. What matters is that you should be able to discuss the inter-relationship
environment, development, social progress, and environmental ethics. Now, I will require you to
explain your answers thoroughly.
1. Define environmental science and identify some important environmental concerns we face
today. Should environmental science include dimensions? Explain.
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is science? Identify and discuss some of its basic principles.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Draw a diagram showing steps of scientific methods and explain why each is important.
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Why is ethics being studied in environmental science. Cite examples.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 1. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary science that ensures a holistic study and
understanding of the natural scope of environmental science and its whole systems. The study of the
environment and human dimensions is an integral part requires deeper understanding on the role of
human towards sustainability as well as the sustainable use of resources and the growing issue and
conflicts between the social, economic, and environment. Based on the definitions and the essential
elements in the study of environmental and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free
to indicate your arguments or lessons learned below.
1. The environment is a complex system where people and nature are intertwined, and the
unprecedented growth rate of the human population is the underlying global environmental
problem.
2. Ethics and faith base perspectives often inspire people to engage in natural resource
conservation and management, which eventually influences decision making about
environmental issues, which involves society, politics, culture, economics, values, and
scientific information.
YOUR TURN
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8. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A List
Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/ Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Environmental Science Conservation Sustainable Development

Population Growth Ethics Carrying Capacity
Ecological Systems Renewable Energy Scientific Method
Climate Change Air Pollution Hypothesis
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BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-2. Trace the history of population growth and summarize
different perspectives on population growth, demographic transition, and population stability.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, essential terms relevant to human population growth, its patterns, history, and
implication to the natural resource will be operationally defined for you to comprehend ULO-b. You
will also be required to refer to the previous definitions found in ULO-a to connect with the topic
discuss under the lesson unit. These are some key terms that will enable you to grasp the core areas of
environmental science.
1. Population. It is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn from a different
group of individuals.
1.1. A population is referring to an entire group of people of different races, sexuality, and
status; objects like material things; events like social gatherings; hospital or school
visitations, and measurements of a distinct boundary.
2. Demographic Transition. It refers to the shift in the history of birth and death rates in
society because of the absence of science and technology advancements. There is also an
issue on the economic and educational development, particularly in women that may cause
the demographic transition.
3. For the population size it is the actual number of individuals in a given population.
1.1. While population density it is a measurement of population size per unit area, i.e.,
population size divided by total land area.
4. Population Density. It is the measurement of the given population over volume respondents.
1.1. It is frequently applied to living organisms, most of the time, to humans.
1.2. It is a key geographical term.
5. Age Structure. It is referring to the distribution of people with different levels of

development as to ages. It is an essential tool mostly for some social scientists, public health
workers, health care experts, political analysts, and policymakers to get its statistical status on
birth and death rates.
6. Mortality Rate. It is referring to the number of death in a given population over some time.
7. Sex Ratio. It is a ratio of males to females in a population. In most sexually reproducing

species, the rate tends to be 1:1.
8. Fecundity it is referring in two ways; human demography has the potential for the
reproduction of a listed population as opposed to a single organism. For the study in the
biological community, it is similar to fertility, wherein it is a natural way to produce
offspring.
9. Demography is referring to the statistical features of the human population. The demographic
analysis can cover whole societies or groups comprising education, nationality, religion, and
ethnicity.
10. Life Expectancy. It is referring to the average population that may expect to survive due to
the presence of advancement in science and technology. A statistical results measure of the
average (see below) time a particular organism that is expected to survive based on the
demographic profile such as birthdate, age, gender, and status.
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10.1. Exponential and logistic growth are the two most commonly used to measure life
expectancy at birth (LEB).
11. Exponential Growth. A specific way that absolute inhumanity may increase over some time.
It occurs when there is an immediate rate of change of an amount concerning the time that is
proportional to the quantity itself.
12. Logistic growth. When a population's per capita growth rate decreases as population size
approach a maximum imposed by limited resources, the carrying capacity (K) takes place.
13. For the carrying capacity, it is the maximum population size of the species that the
environment can sustain unlimitedly, given the presence of food, habitat where they live,
water to survive, and other necessities in the background.
14. Fertility. The natural capacity to produce its kind. As a measure, the fertility rate of the
individual is the number of offspring born per mating pair, individual or population.
14.1. Fertility differs from fecundity, has the potential for reproduction.
15. Migration. It is referring to the movement of people of different sectors from one country to
another with the intention of the new location, new work or employer, or for greener pasture.
15.1. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another, but
internal migration within the city is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form
globally.
16. Crude birth rate it is referring to the number of births per 1,000 individuals every year is
termed as "crude" because the population age structure is not taken into this account.
17. The crude rate of death is the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year.
18. The crude growth rate is the net number added per 1,000 individuals per year in a
population. It is also the difference between the crude rate of death and birth.
19. Fertility is referring to pregnancy or the capacity to become pregnant or to have children.
20. The general fertility rate of women is the number of live births expected in a year per 1,000
women aged 15–49 is considered the childbearing age.
21. Total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children expected to be born to a woman
throughout her childbearing years.
22. An age-specific birth rate is several births expected among women

22.1. who are fertile to have children ages between fifteen (15) and forty-nine (49) years of
age.
23. The cause-specific death rate refers to the number of deaths from one cause per one hundred
thousand (100,000) deaths.
24. Morbidity is a general term meaning the occurrence of disease and illness in a population.
25. Incidence. Concerning disease, the number of people contracting an infection during a
specific period is usually measured per 100 people.
26. Prevalence is concerning a specific disease, the number of people afflicted at a particular
time.
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27. The case fatality rate is referring to the percentage of people who die once they contract a
disease.
28. The rate of natural increase (RNI) is the difference between the birth rate and death rate in
an annual rate of population growth, excluding migration.
29. It is doubling time for several years it takes for a population to double, assuming a constant
rate of natural increase.
30. The infant mortality rate is referring to the annual number of deaths of infants under age 1
per 1,000 live births.
31. Also, life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to
live.
32. The Gross National Product (GNP) per capita includes the value of all domestic and foreign
output.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
succeeding pages. Please be reminded that you are not limited to one resource. Thus, you are
expecting to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources in the university
library. e.g.,e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
One of the essential properties of living things is that their abundance changes a period and
area. It is as absolutely correct for human species as it is for all other organisms that directly or
indirectly affects our life. An example of this is the availability of food to survive, materials for
our shelter, health issues and concerns, and those surrounding us.
Population Dynamics is the general study of population changes.

The population is referring to the group of individuals of the same species living in the same
locality or interbreeding and sharing genetic information.
Demography refers to the statistical study of human populations and those who study human
populations, including demographers.
Five Key Properties of Population
1. abundance
2. birth rates
3. death rates
4. growth rates
5. age structure
HUMAN POPULATION
The world population now stands at around 7.8 billion inhabitants, having reached 7 billion
milestones in 2011. Demographers expect the 8 billion breakthroughs in 2023, nine (9) billion by
2037, and projected as high as te (10) billion in the year 2056. It is common to say that human
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populations, like that of the United States, grow at an exponential rate, which means that the annual
growth rate is a constant percentage of the population
Usually, in discussions of population dynamics, birth, death, and growth rates are expressed
as percentages (the number per 100 individuals). The human population is so huge that percentages
are too crude a measure, so it is common to state these rates in terms of the number per 1,000,
referring to the crude rate. Thus, we have the crude birth rate, crude death rate, and crude growth
rate. More specifically, here is a list of terms that are used frequently in discussions of human
population change and will be useful to us in this book from time to time.
POPULATION PROJECTION
The standard way to estimate doubling time is to assume that the population is growing
exponentially and then divide 70 by the annual growth rate stated as a percentage. (Dividing into 70 is
a consequence of the mathematics of exponential growth. The doubling time based on exponential
growth is very sensitive to the growth rate—it changes quickly as the growth rate changes.
Logistic Growth Curve
If the human population had augmented at this rate since the beginning of recorded
history, it would now exceed all the known matter in the universe. If a population cannot
increase forever, what changes in the population can we expect over time? One of the first
suggestions made about population growth is that it would follow a smooth S-shaped curve
known as the logistic curve. A logistic population would increase exponentially only
temporarily. After that, the rate of growth would gradually decline (i.e., the population would
increase more slowly) until an upper limit, called the logistic carrying capacity, was
reached.
Although the logistic growth curve is an improvement over the exponential, it too
involves assumptions that are unrealistic for humans and other mammals. Both the
exponential and logistic assume a constant environment and a homogeneous population—one
in which all individuals are identical in their effects on each other. In addition to these two
assumptions, the logistic assumes a constant carrying capacity, which is also unrealistic in
most cases, as we will discuss later. There is, in short, little evidence that human populations
—or any animal populations, for that matter—follow this growth curve, for reasons that are
pretty obvious if you think about all the things that can affect a population.
Nevertheless, the logistic curve has been used for most long-term forecasts of the size
of human populations in specific nations. As we said, this S-shaped curve first rises steeply
upward and then changes slope, curving toward the horizontal carrying capacity. The point at
which the curve changes is the inflection point, and until a population has reached this point,
we cannot project its final logistic size. The human population had not yet made the bend
around the inflection point. Still, forecasters typically dealt with this problem by assuming
that the population was just reaching the inflection point when somehow the forecast
is absolute. This standard practice inevitably led to a great underestimate of the maximum
population.
Age Structure
As we noted earlier, the two standard methods for forecasting human population
growth—the exponential and the logistic—ignore all characteristics of the environment and,
in that way, are seriously incomplete. A more comprehensive approach would take into
account the effects of the supply of food, water, and shelter; the prevalence of diseases;
and other factors that can affect birth and death rates. But with long-lived organisms like
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ourselves, these environmental factors have different effects on different age groups. So the
next step is to find a way to express how a population is divided among ages. It is known as
the population age structure, which is the proportion of the population of each age group.
The population's age structure affects current and future birth rates, death
rates, and growth rates impacting the environment and impacting current and future social
and economic conditions.
The pyramid age structure occurs in a population with many young people and a
high death rate at each age—and therefore, it is a high birth rate, a rapidly growing
population, and a relatively short average lifetime population. A column shape occurs where
the birth rate and death rate are low, and a high percentage of the population is elderly. A
bulge occurs if some event in the past caused a high birth or death rate for some age group but
not others. An inverted pyramid occurs when a population has older than younger people. The
age structure varies considerably by nation and provides insight into a population's history,
current status, and likely future.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
The demographic transition is a three-stage pattern of change in birth rates and death rates
during the industrial and economic development of Western nations. It leads to a decline in population
growth. A decrease in the death rate is the first stage of the demographic transition. In a nonindustrial
country, birth and death rates are high, and the growth rate is low. With industrialization, health and
sanitation improvements and the death rate drop rapidly. The birth rate remains high, however, and
the population enters Stage II, a period with a high growth rate.
Most European nations passed through this period in the 18 th and 19th centuries. As education
and the standard of living increase and as family-planning methods become more widely used, the
population reaches Stage III. The birth rate drops toward the death
rate, and the growth rate, therefore, declines, eventually to a low or zero growth rate. However, the
birth rate declines if families believe there is a direct connection between
future economic well-being and funds spent on the education and care of their young. Such families
have few children and put all their resources toward the education and welfare of those few.
Although the demographic transition is traditionally defined as consisting of three stages,

advances in treating chronic health problems such as heart disease can lead
to a stage III country to a second decline in the death rate. It could bring about a second
transitional phase of population growth (Stage IV), in which the birth rate would remain the
same while the death rate fell. A second stable phase of low or zero growth (Stage V) would
be achieved only when the birth rate declined even further to match the decline in the death
rate. The spurting of growth is dangerous in an industrialized nation, even in the standard
demographic transition.
LONGEVITY
The maximum lifetime is the genetically determined maximum possible age to which an
individual of a species can live. Life expectancy is the average number of years an individual can
expect to live given the individual’s present age. Technically, life expectancy is an age-specific
number: Each age class within a population has its life expectancy. For general comparison, however,
we use life expectancy at birth. Life expectancy is much higher in developed, more prosperous
nations. Nationally, the highest life expectancy is 84 years in the tiny nation of Macau. Of the major
nations, Japan has the highest life expectancy, 82.1 years. Other nations have a life expectancy of 80
years or more: Singapore, Hong Kong, Australia, Canada, France, Guernsey, Sweden, Switzerland,
Israel, Anguilla, Iceland, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, New Zealand, Gibraltar, and Italy.
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A surprising aspect of the second and third periods in the human population's history is that
population growth occurred with little or no change in the maximum lifetime. What changed were
birth rates, death rates, population growth rates, age structure, and average life expectancy. Ages at
death, from information carved on tombstones, tell us that the chances of a 75-year-old living to age
90 were higher in ancient Rome than they are today in England.
HUMAN CARRYING CAPACITY OF EARTH
What is the human carrying capacity of Earth—that is, how many people can live on Earth
at the same time? The results may depends on what quality of life people desire and are willing to
accept. Limiting factors such as short-term, intermediate-term, and long-term can affect the
population growth every year.
Short-term refers to the disruption of food distribution in a country, commonly caused by

drought or a shortage of energy for transporting food.
Intermediate-Term. This term includes the dispersal of certain biochemical pollutants and
disruption in the nonrenewable resources (metals and minerals), transportation of machinery,
and the decrease in the supply of firewood for heating ang cooking.
Long Term. Factors include soil erosion, a decline in groundwater supplies, and climate
change. A reduction in resources available per person suggests that we may already have
exceeded Earth’s long-term human carrying
capacity.
Self-Help:
You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.
Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity 2:
Instruction: Please check the answer under each item that best reflects your thinking.
1. Which of the following is/ are jet properties of the population?

I. Abundance
II. Birth rates
III. Death rates
IV. Growth rates
V. Age structure
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a. I b. I, II c. I, II, III d. I, II, III, IV
2. It is referred to as the number of births per 1000 individuals per year.

a. Crude death rate c. Crude birth rate
b. Life expectancy d. Fertility rate
3. This refers to the capacity to become pregnant or to have children.

a. Age-specific birth rate c. Fertility
b. Total fertility d. Sex ratio
4. It describes the occurrence of diseases and illnesses in a population.

a. Prevalence c. Morbidity
b. Incidence d. Fatality
5. It refers to the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live births.
a. Birth rate expectancy c. Doubling time
b. Rate of natural increase d. Cause-specific death rate
6. It is the number of years it takes for a population to double, assuming a constant rate of
natural increase.
a. Doubling time c. Case fatality rate
b. Prevalence d. Life expectancy
7. It refers to the three-stage pattern of change in birth rates and death rates that has occurred
during the process of industrial and economic development.
a. Demographic transition c. Growth rate
b. Sex ratio pattern d. Logistic curve rate
8. The average number of years n individuals can expect to live given the individual's present
age.
a. Life longevity c. Life expectation of living
b. Life expectancy d. Life transition
9. A type of symbiosis in which one member clearly benefits and the other is neither benefited r
harmed.
a. Competition c. Predation
b. Parasitism d. Commensalism
10. It is a type of antagonistic relationship within the biological community.

a. Competition c. Predation
b. Parasitism d. Commensalism
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LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 2. The study of population is a complex process where we investigate how population
grows over time and how it affects the nature and quality of life among different communities and its
implication to the limited resources and sustainability. We use different factors and parameters to
examine how the population will grow shortly and how the resources can sustain this growth.
At this juncture., you will be required to elaborate your answer supported with literature and data to
the following questions.
1. Discuss comprehensively how population growth affects the environment, economy, and
development.
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2. How population growth rate affects the sustainability of natural resource?

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3. Discuss the five fundamental properties of the population comprehensively, and each of them
affects each other.
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4. Discuss comprehensively why it is important to consider age structure of human population.

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5. Why is carrying capacity considered one of the critical factors in maintaining ecological
balance and sustainability?
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6. Why population changes? How these changes shape the population structure in the future?
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7. Is there a need to limit population growth? Why

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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 2. Demographic studies play an important role in studying human ecology and
settlement patterns. It enables urban and environmental planners to design sustainable communities
with the utmost comfort and responsiveness to the growing population growth and demand for
resources. Identifying the key factors affecting demography will shape the idea of projecting future
demand for residential units, commercial establishments, industrial, and institutional facilities. In this
portion of the group, you will be required to state your arguments or synthesis relevant to the topics
presented. I will answer the first two items, and you will continue the rest.
1. Population projection is a significant undertaking in demographic studies. It supplies data on

how we are going to plan communities mindful of the pressing issues on population growth
and quality of life.
2. The holistic evaluation of the triggering factors of uncontrolled population growth, a decline
of environmental quality, and scarcity of resources is deemed necessary to attain sustainable
development.
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________________
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6. ___________________________________________________________________________
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7. ___________________________________________________________________________
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8. ___________________________________________________________________________
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9. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A List
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Feedbacks Molecules Food Chain
Bonds DNA Trophic Level
Atoms RNA Thermodynamics
Matter Enzymes Metabolism
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO-3. Describe how evolution produces species and discuss how
species interaction shape biological communities.
METALANGUAGE
Below are the essential terms that you are going to encounter in the pursuit of ULO-3. Describe
how evolution produces species and discuss how species interaction shape biological communities.
Again, you advise to frequently refer to these definitions to help you understand the following topics.
I would like to highly recommend familiarizing and review the previous definition terms for ULO-1.
And ULO-2 to connect and comprehend the basic as well the technicalities that surround the study
environmental science in studying evolution and ecosystems processes and functions.
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1. Evolution it is referring to the change in the characteristics of a species over several

generations that relies on natural selection.
1.1. In the theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species ? Are related and
gradually change over time.
2. Natural selection is referring to the process by which organisms with different phenotypes
adapt to the environment, which leads to the survival and reproduction of more offspring.
2.1. The change in the inherited traits and characteristics of a population over time is a
crucial mechanism of evolution.
3. Adaptation is referring to the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able
to live in its habitat or habitats.
4. Acclimation it is referring to the process of a slow change of an organism’s body to help

adapt to a wide range of conditions and changes in the environment.
4.1. Acclimatization occurs in a short period and within the organism's lifetime.
5. Genetics. A branch of biology which studies genetic traits, its variation, and how these traits
are being passed to an organism from one generation to another.
5.1. Gregor Mendel is known as the father of heredity, who study genetics in the 19 th
century.
6. Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct

species.
6.1. Orator F. Cook, an entomologist, a botanist, and an agronomist, creates the word
speciation, which means a new species arises from other species.
7. Genetic drift is referring to an evolution in the frequency of an existing gene variant in a

population due to selection sampling of organisms.
7.1. The alleles found in the offspring determines whether that individual survives or
reproduces. These alleles come from those of their parents.
8. Taxonomy. The science of naming, defining, and classifying groups of biological organisms
based on shared characteristics.
9. Predation it is referring to a biological interaction where one organism captures and kills
other organisms, its prey.
9.1. It is one of the known modes of feeding behaviors that includes parasitism and
micropredation and parasitoids.
10. A symbiotic relationship is referring to any close and long-term biological interaction
between two different organisms.
10.1. The organisms, each termed a symbiont, may be of the same or different species.
11. Mutualism it is referring to a biological and ecological interaction where both organisms
benefit from each other.
11.1. It is one of the known ecological interactions.
12. Parasitism. A symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives
on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this
way of life.
13. Keystone species. It is a concept that was introduced by Robert T. Paine in 1969. It pertains to
species relative to its abundance is a disproportionate effect on its natural environment.
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14. Resilience is referring to the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties, toughness.
15. Ecotones. These refer to the area of transition area where ecological or biological communities
meet and integrate.
15.1. It sometimes manifests a sharp boundary line that appears on the ground. It may be
narrow (small) or wide (big) , and it may be local or regional. Consequently, it blends
biological communities across a broad area.
16. Ecological succession is referring to the process of change in the species structure of an
ecological community over time.
16.1. It refers to a more or less orderly and predictable phenomenon or process experienced
in an ecological community. Subsequently, this is also the initial colonization of a
new habitat.
17. Biomes. These refer to a community where plants and animals exist, thrive, and survive due to
similar or shared characteristics in the given environment.
17.1. These can be found over an area of different continents.
17.2. These are formed in response to a distinct physical climate, which results in the
formation of different biological communities, we call it biomes.
18. Marsh is referring to a wetland abundant in the herbaceous type of plant species instead of
woody plant species.
18.1. This wetland forms a transition between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as the
location is at the edges of lakes and streams.
18.2. Grasses, rushes, or reeds often dominate them.
19. Swamps. A forested wetland. Swamps are considered transition zones due to the shared roles
of both lands in water in creating this environment.
19.1. This type of environment can be seen in different sizes and is located all around the
world.
19.2. The water present in this type of environment varies. It can be freshwater, brackish
water, or seawater.
20. Wetlands. These refer to a distinct ecosystem where oxygen-free processes prevail. This type
of environment is regularly or seasonally flood by water.
20.1. These environments differ from other landforms and bodies of water due to the
characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil.
21. Estuaries. These refer to a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water that is freely
connected to the open sea and comes from one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
21.1. These form a zone where both river environments and maritime environments meet,
which can also be identified as an ecotone.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
succeeding pages. Take note that you are not limited to refer to this resource exclusively. Thus, you
are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources in the university
library. e.g.,e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
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EVOLUTION, BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES

AND INTERACTION
NATURAL SELECTION
Over generations, organisms compete for survival because of limited resources. They
compete with each other to survive and to have a higher reproductive potential or fitness and for their
offspring to acquire the beneficial traits. As time goes by, these traits become concentrated and
common to all populations. The organism that perfectly fits the conditions of the environment will
survive. The process of a better selection of organisms to transmit traits to the next generation is
called natural selection.
Adaptation and the acquisition of traits that allow a species to survive in its environment are among
the most important biological concepts. Natural selection leads to evolution. The term can be used in
two ways:
1. Genetic traits being transmitted from one generation to another and allow an organism or
individual to survive in the environment. This type of adaptation results in the costing of
many individuals in a population. Subsequently, individual organisms adapt immediately to
the changes in a specific environment known as acclimation.
2. Another type of adaptation affects populations due to the breakage of a large unit of
individuals creating a smaller group in establishing a colony. For an organism to survive in a
specific environment, genetic traits suitable for survival from one generation to another.
LIMITING FACTORS
Anything that constrains or compel a population's size and slows or stops it from growing. All
living things need food, water, shelter, and space to survive. As long as organisms have all of these
things available to them, their population will continue. However, populations cannot grow forever.
Here are the types of limiting factors that affect population dynamism:
1. Density Independent Factors. Limit the population size, regardless of

population density. Examples:
a. Natural Disasters. Such as droughts, hurricanes, and fires can be

devastating to aquatic life. While we often see the destruction of these
storms on the news, we rarely consider the impacts or results of such a
blast on wildlife and vegetation. The fact is, hurricanes or other natural
calamities increase the death rate or fatality for many species, while some
species see a highly increased birthrate after the destruction.
b. Temperature. It influences the activity and growth of organisms.
c. Sunlight. It can only penetrate to a depth of 30 meters in water. Most
photosynthesis in the aquatic environment occurs near the surface. It
means that most plants grow if they are at the bottom of deep bodies of
water.
d. Pollution. While humans concerning in cities around the globe, the
emissions and chemicals we create are dispersing into the different levels
in the atmosphere. From here, they are carried globally and affect all
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organisms. Even organisms (plants and animals) in the oceans are

concerned, as pollutants dissolve from the atmosphere into various water
sources.
2. Density Dependent Factors.

3. It is correlated to the population size, either a positive or negative impact.
4. With a positive relationship, these limiting factors increase with the size of the
population and limit growth as population size increases. With a negative
correlation, population growth is limited at low densities and becomes less
limited as it grows. Examples:
a. Competition. Animal (vertebrates and invertebrates) communities compete

for food and water sources, whereas plant communities compete for soil
nutrients and sunlight. Animals also vie for space to nest, roost, hibernate, or
raise young, as well as for mating rights.
Two different types of competition:
 Intraspecific competition. It occurs between members of

the same group of species. For example, two male birds
(parrot) of the same species might compete for mates in the
same area. This type of competition is an essential factor in
natural selection. It leads to the evolution of better
adaptations within a species. With this, members of such
species are less likely to survive and may gradually to
extinction.
 Interspecific competition. It occurs between members of
different species. For example, predators of different species
might compete for the same prey.
b. Predation. The ecological process by which energy is transferring from

living animals to other animals basing on the predator's behavior that can
capture and kills the prey before eating it.
c. Parasitism. When organisms (mosquitoes or protozoans) are densely
populated, they can easily transmit internal and external parasites to one
another through contact with the animal skin and their body fluids. Parasites
can thrive in densely packed host populations, but if the given parasite is too
virulent, it will begin to decimate the host population. A decline or decrease
in the host population will reduce the parasite population because the greater
distance between host organisms will make transmission more difficult.
d. Disease. Spread quickly through densely packed populations due to the
closeness of each organism to one another. Populations that rarely come into
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contact or expose with one another are less likely to share bacteria (E. coli),
viruses (hepatitis), and fungi (mushroom). Much like the host-parasite
relationship of the two organisms, it is beneficial to the disease not to kill off
its host population because it makes it more difficult for the condition to
survive.
HABITAT
It describes the place or set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives
and provides the animal or plant with food, water, space, and shelter.
The ecological niche is a species role and environment. A more practical term, ecological
niches, represents either the role played by a species in a biological community or the entire set of
environmental factors that determine a species distribution. Over time, niches change as species
develop new strategies to exploit resources. Species of higher intelligence or complex social
structures, such as elephants, chimpanzees, and dolphins, learn from their social group how to behave
and can invent new ways of doing things when presented with novel opportunities or challenges.
The idea that “complete competitors cannot coexist” was proposed by the Russian
Microbiologist G. F. Gause (1910–1986) to explain why mathematical models of species competition
always ended with one species disappearing. Two animal species can inhabit the same ecological
niche for a long time, as stated in the competitive exclusion principle.
A niche evolution resource is partitioning a process in which one is efficient than the other
organisms. Partitioning it will allow several species to utilize different parts of the same support and
coexist within a single habitat Species can specialize in time, too.
SPECIATION
It is a process by which barriers to gene flow evolve between populations due to ecologically-
based divergent selection (Rundle and Nosil 2005). It occurs when a group within a species separates
from other members of its species and develops its unique characteristics. As an interbreeding species
population becomes better adapted to its ecological niche, its genetic heritage gives it the potential to
change further as circumstances dictate. Also, speciation maintains species diversity. Darwin believed
that new species arise only very gradually, over immensely long times. In some organisms, however,
adaptive changes have occurred fast enough to be observed.
Mechanism of Speciation
1. Allopatric (allo=other, patric=place) Speciation (geographic isolation). It occurs in

geographically isolated populations, and the separation is due to different geographical
events. The species arise in non-overlapping geographic locations.
2. Reproductive isolation. It happens when two groups of individuals evolved from the
same parental population do not interbreed.
3. Peripatric (peri=near, patric=place) Speciation.
4. If the small subset of a large population becomes isolated at the periphery of the original
population's range and over generations, the small group becomes reproductively isolated
from the original community—this type of speciation also known as the founder effect.
5. Parapatric (para means "beside," Patric means "place") speciation. Individuals

organisms are more likely to mate with their geographic neighbors. It also results in a
reduced gene flow within the population, no specific barrier to gene flow, and the mating
behavior is NOT random.
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6. Sympatric (sym means same, Patric = place) speciation. The species split into two
groups that diversify and become genetically isolated while remaining in the same place.
7. Behavioral isolation. It is sometimes called ethological separation, and this happens

when two populations of the same species develop some differences in behavior. A
typical example is mating rituals. Also, the original Galapagos finches separating from
the rest of the mainland could no longer share genetic material and became reproductively
isolated. The barriers that divide subpopulations are not always physical. For example,
two virtually identical tree frogs (Hyla Versicolor, H. chrysoscelis) live in similar eastern
North America habitats but have different mating calls.
Once isolation imposed, the two populations begin to diverge in genetics and physical
characteristics. Genetic drift ensures that the DNA of two formerly joined populations
eventually separates; in several generations, traits lost from a population during the natural
course of reproduction. Under more extreme circumstances, a die-off of most isolated
populations strips much of the survivors' variation in traits. In isolation, selection pressures
shape individuals' physical, behavioral, and genetic characteristics, causing population traits
to shift over time. From an original range of components, the following natural selections are:
1. Directional selection. It occurs when a single phenotype is favored, causing the allele
frequency to shift in one direction continuously.
2. Stabilizing selection. It results in a decrease of a population 's genetic variance when natural
selection favors a typical phenotype and selects against extreme variations. And it can narrow
the range of a trait.
3. Diversifying or Disruptive selection. The average or intermediate phenotypes are often less
fit than either extreme phenotype. They are unlikely to feature prominently in a population,
and it can cause traits to diverge to the extremes.
EVOLUTION
It is a process of genetic change from generation to generation, occurring in populations or
higher-order groupings of organisms. Ample evidence from both laboratory experiments and nature
shows evolution at work. Geneticists have modified many fruit fly properties, including body size,
eye color, growth rate, life span, and feeding behavior using artificial selection. The evolutionary
change is also occurring in nature—a classic example in some of the finches on the Galapagos Islands
of Daphne.
https://www.sciencealert.com/that-classic-image-everyone-uses-to-illustrate-evolution-is-just-plain-wrong
On the other hand, evolution sometimes works in our favor. We've spread several persistent
organic pollutants (called POPs), such as pesticides and industrial solvents, throughout our
environment. The best thing to get rid of them is with microbes that can destroy or convert them to a
nontoxic form. It turns out that the best place to look for these species is in the most contaminated
sites. The presence of a new food source has stimulated the evolution of organisms that can
metabolize it. A little artificial selection and genetic modification in the laboratory can turn these
species into handy bioremediation tools.
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TAXONOMY
It is the study of naming, describing, and classifying organisms, including the rules, theories,
principles, and procedures. A Swedish Botanist named Carolus Linnaeus developed Binomial
Nomenclature, a two-word naming system for naming all species on Earth. The first part or portion of
the scientific name is the genus that is always written first and capitalized, and appears in italics or
underlined. The second word of the scientific name is the species, and appears in italics or using
underline. An example is Homo sapien or Homo sapien. Scientists communicate about species using
these scientific names instead of common names (e.g., lion, dandelion, or ant lion), to avoid
confusion. The common name can refer to any number of species in different places, and a single
species might have many familiar names.
https://byjus.com/biology/taxonomy-biological-classification/
SYMBIOSIS
In contrast to predation and competition, some interactions between organisms can be non-
antagonistic, even beneficial. In such relationships, called symbiosis, two or more species live
intimately together, with their fates linked. Symbiotic relationships often enhance the survival of one
or both partners. In lichens, a fungus and a photosynthetic partner (either an alga or a cyanobacterium)
combine tissues to mutual benefit. This association is called mutualism. Some ecologists believe that
cooperative, mutualistic relationships may be more important in evolution than commonly thought.
Survival of the fittest may also mean the survival of organisms that can live together. Symbiotic
relationships often entail some degree of coevolution of the partners, shaping—at least in part—their
structural and behavioral characteristics. Symbiosis involves intimate relationships among species.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/6052987/
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Commensalism is a type of symbiosis in which one member benefits and the other neither
harm nor benefit.
Parasitism is one of the symbiotic relationships wherein a particular species or organism

dependent on the host.
COMPETITION
It occurs when organisms of the same or different species trying to use an ecological resource
in the same area and the same period. It is a type of antagonistic relationship within a biological
community. Organisms compete for resources in limited supply, such as energy and matter in usable
forms, living space, and specific sites to carry out life’s activities. For example, plants compete for the
growing area to develop root and shoot systems to absorb and process sunlight, water, and nutrients.
Competition shapes a species population and biological community by causing individuals and
species to shift their focus from one segment of a resource type to another. There are two types of
competitions: intraspecific and interspecific. Intraspecific competition is a group of the same
species that compete for access to essential resources (food, water, shelter). Interspecific
competition competes between different species.
PREDATION
It is the interaction between two species in which one species, the predator, feeds on the other
species, the prey. It describes interactions that have a positive influence on one species and a negative
impact on the other species. Predation affects species relationships. Predation is a powerful but
complex influence on species populations in communities. It affects:
1. all stages in the life cycles of predator and prey species

2. many specialized food-obtaining mechanisms
3. the evolutionary adjustments in behavior and body characteristics help prey escape by eating,
and predators catch their prey more efficiently.
Predation also interacts with the competition, such as predator-mediated competition. A

superior competitor in a habitat builds up a larger population than its competing species. Predators
take note and increase their hunting pressure on the superior species, reducing its abundance and
allowing the weaker competitor to increase its numbers. To test this idea, scientists remove predators
from communities of competing species. Often the superior competitors eliminated other species from
the habitat. Predator-prey relationships exert selection pressures that favor evolutionary adaptation,
which the process that species go through to become accustomed to an environment.
KEYSTONE SPECIES
Keystone species have disproportionate influence. Keystone species play a critical role in a
biological community that is unequal to its abundance. Initially, the keystone species are considered
top predators, such as wolves, lions, and tigers. These predators somehow controlled the herbivore
population and reduced herbivore consumption of plants. The keystone species role is grain into
interactions of other species, which can be challenging to unravel. Competitive relationships change
due to the use of the keystone species influence. In some communities, it is possible to call it a
"keystone set" of organisms.
COMMUNITY PROPERTIES
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The tolerance limits, species interactions, resource partitioning, evolution, and adaptation—
play essential roles in determining the characteristics of populations and species.
PRODUCTIVITY
The rate of biomass production, which is a sign of the conversion rate from solar to chemical energy
of a community, is called primary productivity. Net primary production is the remaining energy
after respiration. Atmospheric temperature, light (wavelengths) levels, nutrient availability, and
moisture are the component that would affect the rate of photosynthesis. A small percentage of
sunlight is needed to produce energy-rich compounds for the ecosystem. The surface of the leaf
reflects around ¼ and ¾ of the light that reaches it. The light that is successfully absorbed by leaves
converting into heat, which either radiates away or lost through evaporation. Chloroplasts only use
around 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the energy consumed to synthesize carbohydrates.
ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY
In a biological community, abundance expresses the total number of organisms. On the other
hand, the number of different species, genetic variation present, or ecological niches refer to
diversity. The overall diversity of a specific community often inversely relates to the abundance of a
particular species, which means that communities with many different species will only have few
members per species. A general rule, around the equator, is very diverse, but less abundant within
species, while going to the pole, it is less diverse but very abundant within species. Abundance and
diversity relate to productivity; both depend on the total availability and reliability resources, the
interaction between species, and adaptations of the member species in an ecosystem.
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
Ecological structure refers to patterns of the spatial distribution of individuals and the
populace within a given community and the interaction of a specific community to its surroundings.
At the local level, individuals of a particular population can be clumped together, distributed
randomly, or in highly regular patterns, even if it is a relatively homogenous environment. Some
species create clusters that serve as mutual assistance, reproduction, protection, or access to a
particular environmental resource. For example, a dense school of fish could cluster very close
together to increase their chance of survival when escaping predators. Plants can also group to protect
themselves.
The wind's groves can't destroy the evergreen trees at the topmost part of a mountain and
along the shoreline. They are offering mutual protection from strong winds not only to each other but
also to other organisms finding shelter within them.
Most environments are patchy at some scale. Organisms cluster or disperse according to
patchy availability of water, nutrients, or other resources. Distribution in a community can be vertical
as well as horizontal. For instance, the tropical forest has many layers, each with different
environmental conditions and combinations of species. Distinct communities of smaller plants,
animals, and microbes live at different levels. Similarly, aquatic communities are group into layers
based on light penetration in the water, temperature, salinity, pressure, or other factors.
Community structure describes the spatial distribution of organisms.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
There are several fundamental characteristics that ecosystems exhibit. Their structure or processes can
group these characteristics.
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Ecosystem Structure. Ecosystems have two major parts: living and nonliving components.
The nonliving part is the physical-chemical environment, including the local atmosphere,
water, and mineral soil (on land) or other substrates (in water). In contrast, the living part,
referred to as the ecological community, is the interaction of different species.
Ecosystem Processes. Two basic processes must occur in an ecosystem: cycling of chemical
elements, and flow of energy. These two processes are requisite for all life, but not one
species can do all essential chemical cycling and energy flow.
COMPLEXITY AND CONNECTEDNESS
The complexity and connectedness of a community are usually related to diversity. Both are
important to help us visualize and understand functions within the community. In ecological terms,
complexity represents the number of species within each trophic level and how many trophic levels
are in a community. Diversity of a community does not necessarily mean it is complex since species
can be clustered in only a few trophic levels, and results in a simple food chain. On the other hand, an
involved, highly interconnected community does not necessarily need to have multiple trophic levels
since it can be divide into different subdivisions. A highly interlinked community such as this can
form a very elaborate food web.
RESILIENCE AND STABILITY
A lot of biological communities tend to be constant and relatively stable over time. Stability
and resilience produce communities that are resistant to disturbance. On the flip side, when removing
keystone members in a highly specialized, diverse ecosystem can eliminate other associated species.
Diversity is appraised to be essential and received the right amount of attention. Mainly, the impact of
humans on diversity is the primary concern of ecologists. There are three kinds of stability or
resiliency in ecosystems:
1. Constancy – Composition and function do not fluctuate or change.

2. Inertia – Resistance to disruptions
3. Renewal – Ability to return to normal after disturbance
EDGES AND BOUNDARIES
One of the essential aspects of community structure is its partition between one habitat to
another. These relationships are called edge effects. The edge of the land of habitat is sometimes
relatively distinct and sharp. There is a dramatic change when crossing borders of the woodland patch
into grassland or even cultivated fields, from the dark, quiet forest into a sunny, open space.
Ecologists call the boundaries between adjacent communities ecotones.
When a community is sharply separate from its neighboring community, it is called a closed
community. While communities that have a gradual change of boundaries, wherein many species
crosses, are call open communities. White-tailed deer and pheasants, considered to be popular game
animals, have adapted to disturbances caused by humans, and are found abundant in boundary zones
between different habitats. The best way to protect these rare and endangered species is by preserving
large habitat blocks and linking smaller ones with migration corridors.
DYNAMICS OF COMMUNITIES
Nature of Communities
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F. E. Clements (1874-1945), a biogeographer, stated about the idea of the climax community
of an organism. He considered the process to be a relay wherein species take over each other in a
predictable manner – fixed, regular order. He theorized that every habitat has a characteristic climax
community, which is determined mostly by the climate. In dunes, the community that developed last
and lasted the longest was called the climax community. If the community is left undisturbed, it will
mature into a specific set of organisms; each one can perform its optimal functions. For Clements, a
climax community represents the maximum stability and complexity possible. The development of
climax communities resembled an organism's maturation.
They argued that both communities and organisms started out being simple and primitive,
slowly maturing until it develops into a highly integrated and complex community - it is the
organismal theory of community. Still, it was opposed by Clements’ contemporary, H. A. Gleason
(1882-1975). Gleason saw community history as an unpredictable process. He argued that species are
individual, each establishing in an environment according to its ability to colonize, tolerate the
environmental conditions, and reproduce. It includes the association of animals and plants of the
environment and the species in the given area.
. Imagine this; it's a time-lapse movie of a busy airport terminal. Passengers arrive and depart;
groups form and dissolve; patterns and assortments which thought to be significant did not mean
much after some time. Gleason proposed in our mindset that ecosystems are uniformed and stable
because our lifetimes are too short. Our geographic scope is also limited to understand their actual
dynamic nature.
Ecological Succession
One of the most important ecological processes is succession, and its patterns have many
management implications. In any habitat, the history of biological communities is distinguishable.
The method of ecological series reveals that history. Organisms settle down into an area and cause a
change in the environmental conditions.
In primary succession, land free of soil – a sandbar, rock face, mudslide, and volcanic flow –
is found occupied by new living organisms where there used to be none. The first colonists
are pioneer species, mosses, microbes, and lichens since they can stand up against
unfavorable conditions. Primary succession aims to establish and develop a new ecosystem
when one was not present before.
Disrupting an existing community will cause a new community to rise from the biological
legacy of the previous one. This process is called secondary succession. Both kinds of
sequences lead to changes in the environment by altering food supplies, light levels, soil, and
microclimate. Secondary succession is the reestablishment of a new ecosystem after
perturbations. Remnants of the previous biological community, such as organic matter and
seeds, may still be found during secondary succession.
Patterns in Succession
Succession follows specific general patterns. Ecologists focused on three cases involving
forests when the series was first studied. First, on dry dunes along the shores of Great Lakes in North
America, next was in a northern freshwater bog, and lastly, in an abandoned farm field.
Introduced Species
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Succession requires both the recurrent introduction of new community members and the
disappearance of formerly existing species. New species move in as the environment provides
appropriate living conditions. Others move out or even die as the community is altering to the
introduced species that can cause changes. Moreover, new species can launch in a stable and
established community. These species introduce to address the problems previously generated and
worsened due to earlier introductions.
BIOMES
Biomes are diverse biological communities where various plants and animal species share
common characteristics for the environment they are thriving in. They are formed in response to a
shared physical climate and on the world's different continents. While these local communities have
distinctive characteristics, they can understand concerning a few general groups with the same climate
conditions, patterns of growth, and vegetation types.
https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-biomes-change-with-latitude-1
Tropical Moist Forest
The tropical moist forest supports the world's one of the most complex and biologically rich
biome. These forests do share standard features such as rainfall and unchanging temperatures. One
type of moist forest is the cool cloud forests found in high mountains where fog and mist provide
sufficient moisture for the vegetation. On the other hand, the tropical rainforest has an abundant
rainfall per year (more than 200 cm.) and warm to hot temperatures all year round.
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TROPICAL MOIST FOREST in Cayo District, Belize

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hoplopyga-liturata-habitat-in-in-tropical-moist-forest-in-Cayo-District-
Belize_fig14_288699564
Both of these tropical moist forests have an old, thin, acidic, and nutrient-poor soil. However,
the presence of species on these forests is overwhelming in the canopy of the tropical rainforest,
where millions of insect species are present. In mountainous regions, temperatures are more relaxed,
and precipitation is usually more significant at high elevations. Communities can transition quickly
from warm and dry to cold and wet as you go up a mountain. Vertical zonation refers to the
vegetation zones defined by altitude.
Tropical Seasonal
Although the temperatures are hot throughout the year, wet and dry seasons are the distinct
characteristics of many tropical regions. These are the areas that support drought-tolerant forests that
are dormant and appear to be brown during the dry season; however, they will turn into the vibrant
green during rainy months. Tropical seasonal forests have annual dry seasons but with periodic rain to
support tree growth. The trees and shrubs that grow in these forests are drought-deciduous in which
during drought or water is unavailable, will lose their leaves and cease to grow. Moreover, seasonal
forests are often open woodlands that grade into savannahs.
http://w3.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/tropdry.htm
Tropical Savannas and Grasslands
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Both grasslands and savannahs are areas with too little rainfall to support forests. However,
unlike grasslands, the savannahs have thin tree cover. Like tropical seasonal forests, most tropical
savannahs and grasslands have a rainy season, but typically, rains are less abundant than in a forest.
The plants in these areas have adaptations to survive drought, heat, and even fires. Many of these
plants have long-lived roots that seek deep groundwater and can persist even the leaves and stems die.
https://grasslandsbiomeproject6.weebly.com/tropical-savanna.html
Deserts
Deserts occur when rainfall is rare and unpredictable (less than 30 cm) and hot or cold yet
always dry. The vegetation in deserts is remarkably diverse, although sparse. Well-adapted plants
have water-storing leaves and stems, thick epidermal layers to prevent excessive water loss and salt
tolerance. Most desert plants and animals are adapting to prolonged droughts, and both extreme heat
and cold. Whenever spring rainfalls, most of these plants blossom and rapidly dispose of seeds.
The Dessert of the North”La Paz Sand Dunes”, Ilocos Norte, Philippines.
https://www.vigattintourism.com/tourism/articles/The-Dessert-of-the-North-La-Paz-Sand-Dunes
Temperate Grasslands
As in tropical latitudes, temperate (mid-latitude) grasslands occur where there is enough rain
to support abundant grass but not enough for forests. Generally, grasslands are involved with diverse
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grasses and flowering herbaceous plants or forbs that create a colorful grassland during summer.
Vegetation can be less than a meter in dry grasslands while in more humid areas, the vegetation can
exceed two meters. The accumulation of dead leaves during the annual winter produces thick and
organic-rich soil where roots can dig deep to survive drought, fire, and extreme heat and cold.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/temperate-grassland-biome-climate-plants-animals-locations.html
Temperate Shrublands
Dry environments can be biologically rich, where they can support drought-adapted trees,
shrubs, and grasses. In Mediterranean areas, hot season coincides with dry season creating warm, dry
summers and cold, moist winters. Dense thickets are forming from evergreen shrubs with small,
leathery, hard, and waxy (sclerophyllous) leaves—a cluster of shrub oaks, dry-resistant pines, or other
small trees in sheltering valleys. Due to fuel-rich plant assemblage, periodic fires burn ferociously,
allowing plant succession and spring flowers to bloom abundantly. Temperate shrublands or chaparral
(Sp. Thicket) have summer droughts.
Temperate Forests
Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous. Temperate, or midlatitude, forests

occupy a wide range of precipitation conditions, mainly between 30 and 55-degrees. In
general, we can group these forests by tree type, which can be broadleaf deciduous (losing
leaves seasonally) or evergreen coniferous (cone-bearing).
Deciduous Forests. Broadleaf forests occur throughout the world, where rainfall is
plentiful, in mid-latitudes, deciduous forests located in the forest lose their leaves
during winter. The loss of green pigments in plants produces brilliant colors in the
forest during the autumn season. Broadleaf forests are evergreen or drought-
deciduous, such as Southern live oaks usually found at a lower latitude. Deciduous
forests can regrow very fast since they inhabit warm, moderate climates.
Coniferous Forests. These forests grow in a wide range of temperatures and

moisture conditions. They occur in a limited moisture area that may experience cold
climates such as winter wherein moisture is unavailable (frozen), and hot climates
might have a seasonal drought. It also includes sandy soils that hold little moisture
that is often occupied by conifers. Water loss of these trees reduced by thin, waxy
leaves common to pine needles. The coniferous forest of the Pacific coast grows in
extremely wet conditions. Rainy forests often enclosed in fog, cool in temperature,
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and the most humid coastal forests are known as temperate rainforest. Condensation
in the canopy (leaf drip) is a significant source of precipitation in the understory.
Boreal Forests
Since conifers can survive winter cold, they tend to limit the existence of boreal forest
or northern forest between about 50° and 60° north. Numerous qualities and types of boreal
forest in the mountainous areas are at a lower latitude where dominant trees are pines,
hemlocks, spruce, cedar, and fir. Boreal forest, such as taiga (snow forest), known by its
Russian name, describe as extreme, and ragged edge where forest progressively gives way to
open tundra. In this area, extreme cold and short summer limit the growth rate of trees. About
10 cm diameter of trees may be over 200 years old in the far north. Boreal forests occur at
high latitudes.
https://depositphotos.com/stock-photos/boreal-forest.html
Tundra
Tundra. It is a treeless landscape located in the mountaintops or high latitudes, and

the growing season of this biome is only two to three months. It may have frost any month of
the year, and most of the year, temperatures are below the freezing point where only small,
hardy vegetation can survive. Tundra can freeze in any month.
Arctic Tundra. It is an extended biome that has a short growing season. Hence, it
has low productivity. During midsummer, however, 24-hour sunshine supports the
booming of plant growth and plenty of insects life. Arctic tundra is essential for birds
as well as to global biodiversity.
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https://alaskaconservation.org/protecting-alaska/priorities/protecting-lands-waters/arctic/
Alpine Tundra. It has a similar environmental condition and vegetation to the arctic
tundra. It occurs on near mountaintops, and these zones have a short and
extraordinary growing season. Often one sees a mind-blowing abundance of flowers
in alpine tundra. Hence, everything must bloom immediately to create seeds in half a
month before the arrival of snow. Numerous alpine tundra plants have deep
pigmentation and weathered leaves to secure against the sunlight in the thin mountain
atmosphere. Compared to other biomes, the tundra has relatively low diversity.
https://sites.google.com/site/biomesapes/home/tundra/alpine-tundra
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
The diversity of organism in oceans and seas are no seen effectively. However, they are also
as diverse and complex as terrestrial biomes. The oceans cover three-fourths of the Earth's surface,
and it has an essential role but often unrecognized compared to terrestrial ecosystems. Most of the
marine species depend on photosynthetic organisms the same as terrestrial animals.
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https://sciencing.com/marine-ecosystem-classification-38170.html
Open Oceans
The open ocean is usually associated with a biological desert since it generally has
low productivity. But like terrestrial deserts, the open ocean has areas of productive richness
and diversity. Fish and plankton abound in regions such as the equatorial Pacific and
Antarctic oceans, where currents distribute nutrients. Phytoplankton, free-floating
photosynthetic plants, microscopic algae are essential to support the marine food web.
Oceanographers have discovered thousands of variety of organisms, and most of them are
microscopic organisms. Open ocean (middle of the Pacific ocean) communities vary from
surface to hadal zones.
Coastal Zones
Shoreline communities vary in terms of depth, light, nutrient concentrations, and

temperature. Estuaries have high biological productivity and diversity due to the abundant
nutrients that came from the land. However, excessive loads of nutrients may stimulate
bacterial growth that consumes oxygen in the water, which is more than 200 "dead zones”
occur in coastal zones. Coastal zones support vibrant, diverse biological communities.
Corals reefs are known in marine ecosystems because of their exceptional biological
productivity and their diverse, beautiful organisms—reefs form clusters as colonial
animals (coral polyps) that live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae. Calcium-rich
coral skeletons build-up to make reefs, atolls, and islands. Reefs protect shorelines
and shelter of countless species of fish, worms, crustaceans, and other life-forms.
Reef-building corals exist where water is shallow and clear enough for sunlight to
reach the photosynthetic algae. However, the biggest threat to reefs is global
warming. Elevated water temperatures cause coral bleaching, in which corals expel
their algal partner and then die.
Mangroves are trees that grow in saltwater. They take place along calm, shallow,
tropical coastlines around the world. Swamps help stabilize shorelines, and they are
also significant nurseries for fish, shrimp, and other commercial species.
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Estuaries are bays where river water meets the sea; hence, there is a mixing of
saltwater and freshwater. Salt marshes are shallow wetlands flooded regularly or
occasionally and drained by seawater, usually on shallow coastlines, including
estuaries.
In contrast to the shallow, calm conditions of estuaries, coral reefs, and mangroves,
tide pools may experience violent, wave-blasted shorelines that support enchanting
life-forms. Tide pools are depressions in a rocky shoreline that are flooded at high
tide but retain some water at low tide. These areas remain rocky, where wave action
prevents most plant growth or sediment (mud) accumulation.
Barrier islands are low, narrow, sandy islands that form parallel to a coastline. They
occur where the continental shelf is shallow, and rivers or coastal currents provide a
steady source of sediments. They protect brackish (moderately salty), inshore lagoons
and salt marshes from storms, waves, and tides.
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
Freshwater environments are not that wide as the marine ecosystem, but they are abundant
and center of biodiversity. Most of the terrestrial communities rely relatively on freshwater habitats.
In the desert, isolated pools, streams, and even underground water systems support astounding
biodiversity and land animals with water.
https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=28066
Lakes
Like marine environments, freshwater lakes have distinct vertical zones. Close to the
surface, a subcommunity of plankton, primarily microscopic plants, animals, and protists
(single-celled organisms such as amoebae), float freely in the water column. Some insects
may live at the air-water interface such as water strider and mosquitoes. The fish move
through the water column, sometimes close to the surface and sometimes at depth. Finally, a
variety of snails, burrowing worms, fish, and other organisms occupy the bottom or benthos.
They make up the benthic community. They are reducing the levels of oxygen in the benthic
environment, primarily because there is little mixing to introduce oxygen to this zone.
Anaerobic bacteria (not using oxygen) may exist in low-oxygen sediments. In the littoral
zone, arising of plants such as cattails and rushes grow in the bottom sediment.
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Lakes, unless shallow, have a warmer upper layer mixed with wind and warmed by
the sun. This layer is the epilimnion. The epilimnion is the hypolimnion (hypo = below), a
colder, deeper layer that is not combined. You may have found the sharp temperature limit
known as the thermocline between these layers on the off chance that you have swum in a
moderately deep lake. Underneath this limit, the water is a lot colder. This limit is likewise
called the mesolimbic.
Local conditions that influence the characteristics of an aquatic community include:
1. Excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates

2. suspended matter, such as silt that affects light penetration
3. depth
4. temperature
5. currents
6. bottom characteristics, such as muddy, sandy, or rocky floor
7. internal currents
8. connections to, or isolation from, other aquatic and terrestrial systems
Wetlands
Wetlands are shallow biological systems where the land surface is saturated or lowered in the
late part of the year. Wetlands have vegetation that is adjusted to develop under saturated
conditions. These are shallow and beneficial. These relatively small systems rich in
biodiversity and are essential for both breeding and migratory birds. Wetlands catch, and
often purify industrial and farm wastewater, while bacteria and plants consume the nutrients
and pollutants in the water. Its biodiversity as wetlands. Wetlands may gradually convert to
terrestrial communities as they with sediment, and as the vegetation slowly fills in towards the
center. This process often accelerated by increased sediment loads from urban development,
farms, and roads.
Swamps are wetlands with trees.

Marshes are wetlands without trees.
Bogs are areas of concentrated land, and usually, the ground is comprised of deep
layers of accumulated, undecayed vegetation known as peat.
Fens are similar to bogs except that they are mainly fed by groundwater, so they have
mineral-rich water and exceptionally adapted plant species. Bogs
are primarily fed by precipitation.
Swamps and marches provide a significant degree of ecological sustainability. Bogs and fens,
mostly nutrient-poor and have limited environmental efficiency.
HUMAN DISTURBANCE
Humans have become dominant organisms over most of the Earth, damaging or disturbing more than
half of the world's terrestrial ecosystems to some extent. The conversion of natural habitat to human
uses is the most significant single cause of biodiversity losses.
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below

to help you further understand the lesson.
Earthscan, USA
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LET’S CHECK
Activity 3.
1. How species and communities evolve? Does evolution significantly influence the structure of
the future community and population structure?
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2. What is adaptation? How organisms adapt in a pressing environmental situation?
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3. Are natural resource have effect on the species composition, structure, and function.
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4. Why speciation happens? How speciation affects biological diversity.
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5. What is ecological succession? Does succession happen in an urban environment? If yes,
how? If no, why?
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6. Why organisms compete? Can competition favors or eliminate biological species.
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7. Differentiate primary succession and secondary succession. What are their similarities and
differences?
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8. What are biomes? Identify and discuss at 3 types of biomes and their significant features. and
How these biomes support biological communities.
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9. Differentiate marine ecosystems from terrestrial ecosystems?
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10. What is coral bleaching? How these phenomena affect biological diversity in marine
ecosystems.
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LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 3. In this activity, you require to elaborate your answer once again to each of
the questions provided below.
1. How human disturbance affects ecosystems?

___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
2. Identify physical and biological factors that are most important in shaping the biotic
community.
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3. Did population growth, development, and economic activity threaten ecological communities.
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4. What are the factors that limit ecosystem functionality?

___________________________________________________________________________
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5. Develop a conceptual framework that depicts the relationship between physical, chemical,
and biological factors in shaping communities and maintaining biological diversity. Discuss
your framework comprehensively.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Discussion of the Framework:
IN A NUTSHELL
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Activity No. 3. The approaches of environmental studies viewed as a very complicated process. With
the human population on many ecosystems that are widely dispersed around the globe also have
detrimental impacts on biological communities as well about sustainability. Ecosystems and
communities have evolved to keep abreast of the changing activities within a specific geographical
unit. The physical, chemical and biological attributes of different communities will determine how our
ecosystems will be in the many years to come. In this part, you require to draw conclusions,
perspectives, and arguments about ecological system functions and communities' patterns from the
unit lesson. I will supply the first two items, and you will continue the rest.
1. Human introduction and removal of biological species in a community have a profound effect
on the community structure and its ecosystem functions. It is significant to consider long-term
studies and investigation before embarking on this undertaking. It might hamper ecological
services performed by organisms, neither limits ecosystems functionality, adding a new set of
organisms in a community.
2. Species interactions are important in the process of natural selection. Through these
processes, the unique set of organisms and environmental conditions will determine key
organisms that can continue to flourish and pass off their genes to their offsprings, which will
be the second line of resilient organisms that will shape a new set of biological communities.
YOUR TURN
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________________
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6. ___________________________________________________________________________
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7. ___________________________________________________________________________
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8. ___________________________________________________________________________
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9. ___________________________________________________________________________
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10. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A LIST
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Evolution Natural selection Symbiosis

Limiting Factor Ecological niche Keystone species
Adaptation Speciation Ecological structure
Acclimation Genetic drift Ecotones
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: U.L.O. -1. Discuss the distribution, movement, , and fate of toxins in
the environment, explain some principles of toxicology, and summarize their implications for the
agriculture sector.
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental science ULO-1 will be
operationally defined to establish a standard frame in the field of natural sciences about the global
issues of environmental toxicology. Pollution as well occurrence of global diseases affecting human
health and also the implications of toxic substances to the food and agriculture sector. You will
encounter these terms as we go through environmental science studies with how people, and
development and intimately connected, and the implications to ecological health and safety. It
involves a broader understanding of toxic and hazardous substances and their corresponding disposal
and treatment processes. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the
knowledge of environmental science concepts.
1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and
medicine involves studying the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms
and diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxins.
2. The disease is an abnormal condition that harms the structure or function of an organism's
system or part of its operation. A disease produces distinct signs and symptoms and does not
merely a consequence of physical injury.
3. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune response where the
immune system targets and fights a threat or an invader that could potentially harm the body.
Allergens are recognized by the immune system to cause an allergic reaction.
4. Antigens, it is a substance that is present on the surface of a pathogen that binds to an

antigen-specific antibody (B cell antigen receptor). The presence of antigens causes antibody
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formation (immunogens) and triggers the body's immune response.
5. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue. Neurotoxins are an
extensive class of exogenous chemical, neurological insults that can adversely affect function
in both developing and mature nervous tissue.
6. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in D.N.A. modifications
by altering the organism's D.N.A.
7. Teratogens. Any agent that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development causes a child's
congenital disability or may completely cease the pregnancy. These agents include radiation,
maternal infections, chemicals, or drugs.
8. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer development (carcinogenesis),
causing genome damage or disruption of cells' metabolic processes.
9. Solubility. An ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent and measured in terms of the

maximum solute amount dissolved to produce a saturated solution.
10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to biochemical,
photolytic, and other environmental degradation processes. Because of this, P.O.P.s are
sometimes called "forever chemicals," which can bioaccumulate with potentially detrimental
effects on ecological and human health.
12. Acute effects. A physiological reaction in a human or animal body which cause severe
symptoms that could rapidly develop through acute exposure to toxic substances. However, it
may lead to chronic health effects if the cause is not removed.
13. Chronic effects. An adverse effect on animals or the human body with symptoms that
develop slowly, due to prolonged and continuous exposure to low concentrations of a
hazardous substance.
14. Risk assessment. The combined effort of identifying and analyzing potential events can
negatively affect individuals, assets, and even the environment. It also makes mindful
judgments on the tolerability of the risk analysis and examines factors influencing it.
15. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks followed by
coordinated and economical application of resources to control, monitor, and minimize the
probability or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
16. Soil horizon. A layer parallel to the surfaces of the soil whose biological, chemical, and
physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in
many cases by noticeable physical features, mainly color and texture.
17. Macronutrients. Nutrients that provide calories or energy and are required in large amounts
to maintain body functions and carry out daily activities.
18. Micronutrients. Nutrients in small quantities include vitamins, microminerals, and trace
elements such as iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, and zinc
molybdenum.
19. Pesticides. Chemical compounds used to eliminate pests, such as insects, rodents, fungi, and
weeds. These chemicals are also used in public health to kill disease vectors (e.g.,
mosquitoes) and pests that damage crops.
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20. Herbicides. Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds). There are selective herbicides
that explicitly target a weed/s by interfering with its growth without harming the desired crop.
21. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate insects, including
ovicides, which are used against insects and larvicides to kill insect larvae.
22. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants or animals) used
to kill parasitic fungi, or their spores can cause severe damage in agriculture, resulting in
decreased yield, crop quality, and profit.
23. Aquaculture. A process of cultivating aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, and
mollusks for human consumption. In contrast to commercial fishing, which involves wild fish
harvesting, aquaculture is a controlled cultivation process of freshwater and saltwater
populations.
24. Mariculture. It is a specialized branch of aquaculture (water) involving the cultivation of
marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the
sea, or in tanks, ponds, or raceways filled with seawater.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the forth to sixth weeks of
the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in
the succeeding pages. Please note that you can refer to other resources; thus you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources in the university library (e.g., e-
library, search.proquest.com, etc.)
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY
Health
World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental,
and social well-being. A person can be ill to some extent; however, health can be improved to live a
happier, longer, and more productive and satisfying lives. The disease can also be influenced by
environmental factors such as the Earth's climate system by impairing physical and psychological
functions.
The disease— impairment of an individual's well-being and capacity to function—is mostly

attributed to inadequate behavioral and environmental change. The factors that result in morbidity
(illness) and mortality (death) are diet and nutrition, infectious agent, hereditary qualities, a
poisonous substance, injury, and stress. Environmental health focuses on disease-causing external
factors, including elements of the natural, social, cultural, and technological worlds in which we live.
Pollution
Pollution is a term used to describe the undesirable change in the environment brought by the
introduction of harmful materials or the production of unhealthy conditions (heat, cold, sound).
Contamination has a meaning similar to that of pollution and implies making something unsuitable
for specific use through the introduction of unwanted materials. The term toxin refers to substances
(pollutants) that are poisonous to living things. Toxicology refers to the science that studies viruses or
potential toxins. Toxicologists are scientists who study in this field. A carcinogen is a toxin that
increases cancer risk and one of the most feared and controlled types of toxins in our society.
Pollutants are commonly introduced into the environment by way of point sources, such as
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smokestacks. Area sources, also known as nonpoint sources, are more dispersed around the land, and
it involves industrial pollution and mobile sources, such as vehicle exhaust.
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of toxins

(poisons) and their effects, particularly on living
systems-because many substances are known to be
poisonous to life (whether plant, animal, or
microbial), toxicology is a broad field, drawing
from biochemistry, histology, pharmacology,
pathology, and many other disciplines. Toxins
damage or kill living organisms because they react
with cellular components to disrupt metabolic
functions. Because of this reactivity, toxins are often dangerous even in highly dilute concentrations.
In certain instances, billionths or even trillionths of a gram may lead to irreversible damage.
EFFECTS OF TOXINS
Allergens are immune-activating agents. Some allergens act as antigens directly; that is, white blood
cells recognize them as foreign and stimulate the production of specific antibodies. Certain allergens
function indirectly by linking and modifying the composition of foreign materials and become
antigenic and induce an immune system to the response. Formaldehyde is an excellent example of a
widely used chemical that is a potent sensitizer of the immune system. It is directly allergenic and can
also trigger reactions to other substances. Commonly used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue,
and fabrics, formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than in
healthy outdoor air. Some people who suffer from sick building syndrome have headaches, allergies,
and chronic fatigue. And other symptoms caused by improperly ventilated indoor air contaminate
with carbon monoxide, mold spores, nitrogen oxide, formaldehyde, and other pollutants emitted from
carpets, furniture, fabrics, and construction materials and other sources.
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of hormones. Hormones are
chemicals released by cells into the bloodstreams in one part of the body to regulate the function and
development of tissues and organs in the body. We realize now that some of the most gradual, yet
harmful effects of persistent chemicals such as dioxins and P.C.B.s are that they interfere with healthy
growth, development, and physiology of a variety of animals—including humans—at shallow doses.
Neurotoxins are a particular class of metabolic poisons that individually attack nerve cells (neurons).
The nervous system has an essential function in controlling the body activities, especially to a fast-
acting and devastating events. Neurotoxins have different types, and it acts in different ways. Heavy
metals like lead and mercury destroy nerve cells and cause permanent brain damage.
Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion) and carbamates (carbaryl, zineb, maneb) inhibit
acetylcholinesterase, the enzymes that control the transfer of signals between nerve cells and the
tissues or organs they innervate (e.g., muscle). Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc.) and
chlorinated hydrocarbons (D.D.T., Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt nerve cell membranes needed for nerve
action. Most neurotoxins are both fast-acting and highly toxic.
Mutagens are agents that damage or modify the genetic material (D.N.A.) in cells, such as chemicals
and radiation. If the cost happens during embryonic or fetal development, this may contribute to
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congenital disability. Later in life, genetic damage can contribute to neoplastic (tumor) formation. If
reproductive cells undergo injury, the effects may be passed on to future generations. Cells have
repair mechanisms to diagnose and repair defective genetic material, but specific changes may be
hidden, and the repair cycle itself can be flawed. It is widely agreed that there is no “safe” threshold
for mutagens exposure. Any contact has the potential to cause harm.
Teratogens are chemicals substance or other factors which cause different abnormalities during
embryonic growth and development. Some chemicals that are usually not dangerous may cause a
severe problem at these vulnerable stages of life. Alcohol is probably the most popular teratogen in
the world. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome—a cluster of complications
that persist throughout a child’s life, including craniofacial abnormalities, developmental disorder,
behavioral problems, and mental defects. Even one alcoholic drink a day has been associated with
reduced birth weight during pregnancy.
Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer, invasive, and out-of-control cell growth resulting in
malignant tumors. Cancer rates rose over the twentieth century in most developed nations, and cancer
is now the second leading cause of death in the U.S., killing more than half a million people in 2002.
MOBILITY, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE
There are several origins of poisonous and dangerous chemicals in the environment and
various factors related to each compound itself. The sources are toxics and hazardous chemicals in the
environment that is related to the release of chemicals itself. The target of these chemicals is both
biotic and abiotic community. The dose (amount), route of entry, the timing of exposure, and
sensitivity of the organism all play an essential function in determining toxicity. In this section, we
will look at each of these characteristics and how it affects environmental health.
Factors in Environmental Toxicity
Factors Related to Toxic agent.
1. Chemical composition and reactivity

2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility, state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent) to carry agent
6. Movement of the agent through the environment and into cells
Factors Related to Exposure
1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)

2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)
Related Factors to Organism
1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion

2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, or eliminate the agent
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic substances, so they become toxic.
4. Concurrent infections or physical or chemical stress
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an organism
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and immunological status
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Solubility
Solubility is one of the essential characteristics in determining how, where, and when a toxic
material will move through the environment. It also includes the body at its place of action. The
classification of chemical substances divides into two main groups:
1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.

2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.
Since water is everywhere, water-soluble compounds move rapidly and widely in the
environment. They seem to have easy access to most cells in the body since aqueous solutions bathe
all our cells. Molecules that are oil-or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules) generally need a carrier
to move through the environment, into, and within, the body. Once inside the body, however, oil-
soluble toxins quickly pass into tissues and cells, since the membranes that enclose the cells are
composed of similar oil-soluble chemicals. Once they get inside cells, oil-soluble materials are likely
to be accumulated and stored in lipid deposits. They are protected from metabolic breakdown and will
continue for several years.
Exposure
Just as there are many sources of toxins in our environment, there are many routes for entry of
dangerous substances into our bodies. Airborne toxins generally cause more ill-health compared to
other sources. Our lungs are programmed to efficiently exchange gases and, at the same time, absorb
toxins. The complication in measuring toxicity is that significant differences in sensitivity exist
between species.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
The cell performs a selective absorption and storage of variation of molecules called
bioaccumulation. It allows them to accumulate nutrients and essential minerals, but at the same time,
they also may absorb and store harmful substances through these same mechanisms. Toxins that are
instead dilute in the environment can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues through this
process of bioaccumulation. The effects of toxins also are magnified in the environment through food
webs. When organisms ingest other organisms making toxins accumulated from the base and
concentrated in the highest trophic level, it is called biomagnification.
Persistence
Some chemical compounds are volatile and degrade rapidly under most environmental conditions
so that their concentrations decline quickly after release. Most modern herbicides and pesticides, for
instance, promptly lose their toxicity. Other substances are more persistent and last for years or even
centuries in the environment. Metals—such as lead—P.V.C. plastics, chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides, and asbestos are valuable because they are resistant to degradation. However, this stability
causes problems because these materials persist in the environment and have unexpected effects far
from their original use sites. Some persistent organic pollutants (P.O.P.s) have become extremely
widespread, being found from the tropics to the Arctic. Long-living top predators such as bears,
humans, raptors, and sharks are where it frequently accumulate. The following are some of the most
significant concerns:
 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame retardants usually used
in textiles and plastics found in computers and appliances; these chemicals are now found in
humans and other species everywhere globally.
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 Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also known as C8)
are widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-resistant product such as Teflon, Gortex,
Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. The industry makes use of their slippery, heat-stable properties
to manufacture everything from airplanes and computers to cosmetics and household
cleaners.
 Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as deodorants, plastics,
and cosmetics. Also present in products used for children's toys, medical equipment, and
packaging for food. Some chemicals pose a toxic threat to animals found in laboratories as
they damage the kidney and liver and might cause cancer.
 Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets and from

propellants. It includes the cause of pollution in our waters, especially in waters used for
irrigation. Thus allows it to enter the human food chain.
 Bisphenol A (B.P.A.), widely used in various products such as bottled water and tooth-
protecting sealants. It is a vital component in the creation of polycarbonate plastics.
Furthermore, it is an environmental estrogen and may alter sexual development in both males
and females. It has been found in humans with or without known chemical exposure. It has
been found out that the presence of such a chemical causes abnormal chromosome numbers
called aneuploidy. Having this kind of abnormality will result in several forms of mental
retardation and miscarriages during pregnancy.
 Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains, sugarcanes, and
Christmas trees as herbicide in the United States of America. It is also the cause of damage
and disruption to the hormonal functions in mammals of their endocrine system, resulting in
low birth weights, disorders in the neurological services, and abortions.
Interactions
Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions in which materials
will interfere with the effects or will somehow stimulate the breakdown of other chemicals. The
reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A, which enables to diminish the response of some carcinogens.
Subsequently, there are also materials which occur together in exposures; this is an additive. In
essence, rats exposed to both lead and arsenic show that the toxicity level rats are exposed to double
compared to being presented with one of them. The most significant concern about this is the
synergistic effect. An interaction in which one substance intensifies the impact of another material is
called synergism. In essence, exposing to occupational asbestos, it will increase the rate of lung
cancer 20-fold times. At the same time, smoking will also intensify rates of lung cancer by the same
amount. In other cases, workers exposed to asbestos at the same time smoke have a 400-fold increase
in cancer rates. The question now is how many substances, when combined, will give intensified
results? Synergism is an important concept that considers pollution at the same time. It is the
interaction of different materials, which results in a total effect more significant than the added impact
of separate substances.
THE MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS
A primary concept in toxicology is that every substance is capable of being poisonous under
certain conditions. Fortunately, most of the chemicals have some safety level or the threshold that is
below their effects, which will enable them to be undetected or insignificant. Throughout our lifetime,
we consume some of these chemicals in lethal dosage. Still, if consumed in small amounts or dosage,
it will eventually be excreted or broken down before inflicting harm to the body, and the damage
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caused can be repaired. However, mechanisms that enable us to protect us from any toxins present in
our body become deleterious with other substances or in another stage of development.
Metabolic Mechanisms. Naturally, organisms contain enzymes that process waste products
and environmental poisons, which reduce toxicity levels. In mammals, most of these enzymes
are in the liver, the primary site of detoxification of both natural wastes and introduced
poisons. Excretion is also one method of reducing and eliminating these toxins in the body.
Breathing helps in excreting volatile molecules such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide,
and ketones. Sweat also helps in the excretion of excess salts and other substances. Kidneys
do urine formation also helps in the elimination of significant amounts of soluble materials.
Accumulation of toxins in the urine can damage this vital system. However, the kidneys and
bladder are subjects to harmful toxic levels of toxic compounds.
Repair Mechanisms. Our body performs a damage repair function caused by the exposure to
regular wear-and-tear or toxic or hazardous materials. It allows individual cells to have
enzymes to help repair the damage in the Deoxyribonucleic acid (D.N.A.) and protein at the
molecular level, organs, and tissues. The skin and the epithelial lining of our gastrointestinal
tract, blood vessels, lungs, and urogenital systems have capabilities of having high cellular
reproduction rates to replace damaged cells. There is a chance that some cells will lose
healthy growth controls with each reproduction cycle, worst, if these cells run amok, creating
a tumor. Thus, carcinogenic are agents that irritate tissue such as smoking or drinking. High
risk of developing cancer is more significant in those tissues with high cell-replacement rates.
MEASURING TOXICITY
In controlled conditions, it is the most commonly used and widely accepted toxicity test to
expose a population of laboratory animals to measured doses of specific substances. This procedure
takes so much time, painful, expensive, and debilitating to the animals used as specimens in tests.
Dose/response curves are not always symmetrical, making it challenging to compare the toxicity of
unlike chemicals or different species of organisms. A convenient way to describe the toxicity of a
chemical is to determine the dose to which fifty percent (50%) of the test population is sensitive. In
the case of a lethal dose (L.D.), this is called the LD50.
Acute and Chronic Doses
Acute effects have been the effects of most toxics we have discussed. They are caused by a single
exposure to the toxin and result in an immediate health crisis of some sort. An individual survives an
urgent crisis due to an acute reaction, most likely because the effects are reversible.
If the effects have resulted in becoming permanent, it is considered to be a Chronic effect. A constant
effect can result from a single dose of a very toxic substance, resulting from a continuous or repeated
sublethal exposure. We also describe long-lasting vulnerabilities as chronic, although their effects
may or may not persist after the toxin is removed. It usually is challenging to assess the specific
health risks of chronic exposures because other factors, such as aging or joint diseases, act
simultaneously with the consideration under study.
RISK ASSESSMENT
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Risk is the possibility or results of suffering harm or loss by hazard and an indication of the
severe damage. Risk assessment (R.A.) is the scientific process of estimating the threat that particular
hazards pose to human health. It is the overall process of hazard identification, risk analysis, and risk
evaluation. Risk assessment for identified toxicity hazards (for example, lead) includes collection and
analysis of site data, development of exposure and risk calculations, and preparation of human health
and ecological impact reports.
Exposure assessment is the process of estimating, measuring, characterizing, and modeling the
following:
1. magnitude
2. frequency
3. duration, and
4. route of exposure to a possible toxin.
Toxicity assessment weighs all available evidence and estimates the potential for adverse health
effects to occur. Risk assessment can also define as the process of determining potential adverse
health effects of exposure to pollutants and potentially toxic materials. Exposure to toxic air pollutants
can intensify your health risks. For example, if you live near a factory that discharges cancer-causing
chemicals and inhale contaminated air, your chance of getting cancer can increase.
https://images.app.goo.gl/zskX5jcF9wZmJKFo7
1. Identification of the hazard. It is using to evaluate if any particular situation

may have the potential to cause harm and consists of testing materials to
determine whether exposure is likely to cause health problems. One method
used is to investigate populations of people who are exposed previously. For
example, to understand the toxicity of radiation produced from Radon (Rn)
gas, researchers studied workers in uranium (U) mines. Another method is to
conduct experiments to test effects on animals, such as monkeys, rats, or mice.
This method has drawn augmenting criticism from groups who believe such
experiments are unethical. Another approach is to try to understand how a
particular chemical works at the molecular level of cells.
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2. Dose-response assessment. This next step involves identifying relationships

between the dose of a chemical (therapeutic drug, pollutant, or toxin) and the
health effects on people. Some studies include administering reasonably high
doses of a compound to animals. The results of exposures will be different
illnesses, or symptoms, such as tumor or rashes development, are recorded for
varying doses.
3. Exposure appraisal. This step evaluates the duration, frequency, and intensity
of human exposure to a particular chemical pollutant or toxin in the
environment. It includes some discussion of the size, nature, and types of
human populations exposed to the agent. The total population exposed to the
agent is directly proportional to the hazard in the society.
4. The risk to an individual is generally more significant closer to the source

of exposure. Like dose-response assessment, exposure assessment is difficult.
The results are often controversial because of difficulties in measuring the
concentration (conc.) of a toxin in doses since it is as small as parts per
million, billion, or even trillion.
5. Risk characterization. This final step aims to delineate health risk in terms of
the magnitude of the health issues and concerns that might result from
exposure to a particular pollutant or toxin. It is necessary to identify the hazard
or danger, complete the dose-response assessment, and evaluate the exposure
assessment, as outlined. This method involves all the uncertainties of the
previous actions, and results are again likely to be controversial.
TOLERANCE
It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from exposure to a pollutant or harmful condition.
It can develop for some contaminants in some populations, but not for all pollutants in all
communities. Tolerance may result from behavioral, physiological, or genetic adaptation.
Behavioral tolerance results from changes in the behavior; for example, mice learn to avoid
traps.
The physiological tolerance as a result when the body of an individual adjusts to tolerate a
higher level of pollutant.
AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENT, HUNGER
Agro-ecosystem is a farming that creates ecological conditions. It encompasses environmental

and decision networks that are connected and that perform different functions leading to the provision
of a wide range of ecosystem services. Ecological succession is halted to keep the agroecosystem in
an early-successional state. In natural conditions, crop species would eventually be replaced by later-
successional plants, and slowing or stopping natural ecological succession requires time and effort.
Biological diversity and food chains are simplified, where the focus is on monoculture, one plant
species rather than many. Large areas are planted with a single species (plants or animals) or even a
single strain or subspecies, such as a unique hybrid of corn. The downside of the monoculture is that it
makes the entire crop vulnerable to attack by a single disease or an only change in environmental
conditions.
Farmers used to plant crops in neat fields and rows. These simple geometric layouts make life
easy for pests because the crop plants have no place to hide. In natural ecosystems, many different
species of plants grow mixed in intricate patterns, so it is harder for pests to find their favorite victims.
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Agroecosystems require plowing, which is unlike any natural soil disturbance that nothing in nature
repeatedly and regularly turns over the soil to a specific depth. Plowing exposes the soil to erosion
and damages its physical structure, leading to a decline in organic matter and chemical elements.
They may include genetically modified crops.
Soils
Soils are complex ecosystems. It can be thought of as the ecosystem foundation, as soil
productivity determines what an ecosystem appears in terms of the plant and animal life it can
support. Geologically, soils are earth materials altered over time by physical, chemical, and biological
processes into a series of layers. Each kind of soil has its chemical composition. Below is a soil whose
color is close to that of the bedrock (which geologists call "the parent material," for obvious reasons).
We call the layers’ soil horizons.
Soil Horizon
Horizon O is often brown or black, and most are organic materials, including decomposed or
decomposing leaves and twigs.
A Horizon is often light black to brown and composed of both mineral and organic materials.
Leaching—the process of draining, washing, or draining earth materials by the percolation of
other liquids or groundwater – occurs in the horizon A and moves clay and other materials,
such as Calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe), to the horizon B.
Horizon E is composed of light-colored materials resulting from leaching of clay,

magnesium, iron, and calcium to horizon in the lower levels. Horizon A and E together
constitute the zone of leaching.
Horizon B is also known as the zone of accumulation and enriched in clay, iron oxides,
carbonate, silica, or other material leached from overlying horizons.
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Horizon C is composed of partially altered (weathered) parent material; the rock is shown
here, but the equipment could also be alluvial, such as river gravels, in other environments.
This Horizons may be stained red with iron oxides.
Components of Soils
1. Sand and gravel are mineral particles that come from bedrock. Either coming from the
same environment or came from somewhere else, like blown by the wind.
2. Silt and clay are tiny mineral particles. Clay holds water due to its flat surfaces and ionic
charges, which causes it to be sticky.
3. Dead organic materials are plant matter decaying; gives nutrients and the black/brown
color of the soil.
4. Soil fauna and flora are the living organisms present, such as soil fungi, worms, bacteria,
insects (help recycle organic compounds and nutrients), and plant roots.
5. Water that comes from either rainfall or groundwater, which is essential for the fauna
and flora
6. Air that is present between the soil. The soil has tiny pockets of air that help the
organisms survive underneath.
Limiting Factors
Crops need around 20 chemical elements at just the right amounts, at the correct times, and in
the right proportions to each other. There life-important chemical elements can be divided into two
groups:
Macronutrients. Macronutrients are essential chemical elements that are necessary for all
living organisms in relatively large quantities. The macronutrients are phosphorus, sulfur,
calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, potassium, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
Micronutrients. Micronutrients are essential chemical elements that are only needed in small
quantities – ranging from tiny amounts to moderate amounts, depending on the organism.
Micronutrients are the rarer metals, like copper, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, and iron.
PESTS AND PESTICIDES
The pesticide is a general term for a chemical that kills pests, usually a toxic chemical, but
sometimes we also consider chemicals that drive pests away from pesticides. Some pest control
compounds kill a wide range of living things and are called biocides. Herbicides are chemicals that
kill plants; insecticides kill insects, and fungicides kill fungi.
The scientific, industrial revolution brought significant changes in agriculture pest control, which we
can divide into four stages:
Stage 1: Broad-Spectrum Inorganic Toxins. During the start of modern science-based

agriculture, the abundance of pests drove people to search for chemicals that would reduce
their amounts. The goal was a "magic bullet," a chemical (referred to as narrow-spectrum
pesticide) that would eliminate a single kind of pest, and leave the rest unharmed, but this
proved to be very difficult. It was common in earlier pesticides to be made of pure organic
compounds, but they were widely toxic. Arsenic was used in one of the previous pesticides.
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Arsenic was toxic to all life, even to humans. It was useful in eliminating pests, but beneficial
organisms went along with them. It was considered very dangerous to use.
Stage 2: Petroleum-Based Sprays and Natural Plant Chemicals. (from the 1930s onward)
Plants produce natural pesticides as a defense mechanism against herbivores and disease. The
tobacco plant produced nicotine, an insecticide, and even used it today as the primary agent.
Natural plant pesticides are safer than most, but it wasn’t the same as the desired
effectiveness.
Stage 3: Artificial Organic Compounds. Artificial organic compounds have created a

revolution in agriculture, but they have some significant drawbacks. One problem is
secondary pest outbreaks, which occur after extended use (and possibly because of a
pesticide's prolonged use). Secondary pest outbreaks can come about in two ways:
1. The reduction of the target species caused the competing second species to flourish
because of the lack of competition between the two species. This caused the second
species to become pests.
2. The pest develops resistance to pesticides through evolution and natural selection, which
favor those who have more excellent immunity to the chemical. Resistance has grown to
many insecticides.
Stage 4: Integrated Pest Management and Biological Control Integrated pest

management. (I.P.M.) uses a combination of biological control, certain chemical pesticides,
and some methods of planting crops. The key idea underlying I.P.M. is that the goal can be
control rather than the complete elimination of a pest. This course of action can be justified
for several reasons: in economics, eliminating or even just a high percentage of the pests
becomes very expensive. In contrast, the value of ever-greater elimination becomes less and
less in terms of crops to sell.
Biological control uses the natural enemy of the target pests to limit their growth.
Caterpillars and other larvae pests can be combatted with using the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as B.T., which is very useful.
Types of Pesticides
One way to classify pesticides is by their chemical structure and main components. Some are
organic (carbon-based) compounds. Others are toxic metals (such as arsenic) or halogens (such as
bromine).
Organophosphates are among the most abundantly used synthetic pesticides. Glyphosate,
the single most heavily used herbicide in the United States, is also known by the trade name
Roundup. Glyphosate is applied to 90 percent (90%) of U.S. soybeans and other crops.
"Roundup-ready" soybeans and corn— varieties genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate
while other plants in the field are destroyed—are the most commonly planted genetically
modified crops.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, also known as organochlorines, are highly toxic and persistent
to sensitive organisms. In the U.S., atrazine was a heavily used herbicide until overtaken by
the usage of glyphosate. Corn crops in the U.S., around 96 percent, are applied with atrazine
to control weeds in the cornfields.
Fumigants are generally small molecular compounds, like ethylene dibromide, methylene
bromide, and carbon tetrachloride. These compounds can be delivered in the form of gas for
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easy penetration into the soil and other materials. Fumigants are used to control fungus in
strawberry fields and other low-growing crops and prevent decay, rodent, and insect
infestations in stored grain.
Inorganic pesticides are compounds made from toxic elements, like sulfur, copper, arsenic,
and mercury. These elements are considered a broad-spectrum poison, because they are
highly poisonous and indestructible, which means they stay in the environment forever. They
usually act nerve toxins. Historically, the primary pesticide applied to apples, and other
orchard crops were arsenic powder, but traces of the dust remain in groundwater or soil in
many agricultural areas.
Natural organic pesticides, also known as botanicals, are extracts from plants. An example
before was nicotine and nicotinoid alkaloids extracted from tobacco, and pyrethrum, extracted
from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. These compounds also include turpentine, phenols,
and other aromatic oils from conifers. These extracts are toxic to insects, and may even
prevent wood decay.
Microbial agents and biological controls use living organisms or toxins extracted from them
that are used instead of pesticides. A natural soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, is one of
the chief pest control agents allowed in organic farming. When eaten, this bacterium targets
caterpillars and beetles and eliminates them by producing a toxin that destroys their digestive
tract lining.
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Despite dire predictions that runaway population growth would soon lead to terrible famines,
world food supplies have more than kept up with increasing human numbers over the past two
centuries. The past 40 years have seen especially encouraging strides in reducing world hunger. More
than 850 million people today are considered chronically hungry: their diets don’t provide the 2,200
kcal per day, which is deemed necessary for a healthy and productive life. Poverty is the greatest
threat to food security or the ability to obtain sufficient food on a day-to-day basis. Food security
occurs at multiple scales. In the poorest countries, hunger may affect nearly everyone.
GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
Around 50 years ago, agricultural research stations started breeding tropical wheat and rice
varieties to provide food for developing countries with a growing population. From Mexico, Norman
Borlaug developed one of the first "miracle" variations, a dwarf, high-yielding grain. Around the same
period, the International Rice Institute in the Philippines also developed a dwarf rice strain produced
three or four times more than other varieties during that time. This production of new types that
caused dramatic increases of yield was called the green revolution. It is one of the main reasons why
food production was able to keep up with the rapid rise in the world population over the past decades.
The green revolution varieties are considered "high responders" because they yield more
product if given optimum water, fertilizers, and pesticides. On the other hand, under suboptimum
conditions, high responders may not produce as well as traditional varieties. Impoverished farmers
cannot afford expensive fertilizers, seeds, and water to be part of the green revolution movement, and
they become left behind.
Organic farming believes to have three essential qualities: minimization of adverse environmental
impacts, more like natural ecosystems than monocultures, and not containing artificial compounds in
the food produced.
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Genetic engineering is the process where genetic material from one organism is removed and
introduced into the chromosomes of another organism. This new technology has the potential to
increase both the quantity and quality of our food supply significantly. Building entire new genes, and
even organisms is now a strong possibility. Taking bits of desired D.N.A. and synthesizing D.N.A.
sequences are done to produced genetically modified organisms (G.M.O.s), which exhibit the
desired characteristics. Proponents predict dramatic benefits from genetic engineering. Current
research is done to improve the yield and development of crops that resist drought, frost, or diseases.
Genetic engineering done for agriculture involves several different practices that are grouped as
follows:
1. faster and more efficient ways to develop new hybrids

2. introduction of the “terminator gene”; and
3. transfer of genetic properties from widely different kinds of life.
Terminator genes are present in crop seeds to make it sterile (unable to form offspring). This gene
added for economic and environmental reasons. In theory, it prevents a genetically modified crop
from growing elsewhere.
AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture can be extremely productive on a per-area basis, partly because flowing water brings
food from outside into the pond or enclosure. Farming of marine and freshwater protein sources is
growing and can become a significant way to provide food of high nutritional quality. Mariculture is
the farming of saltwater fishes. It includes only produces a fraction of the total marine fish catch, but
has increased in the last decades and will likely to increase further in the future.
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson.
Earthscan, USA
Earthscan, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 4. Now that you have known the most essential terms in the study of environmental
science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms. In the space provided, write the terms,
being asked in the following statements:
_______________________1. The state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being,

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
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_______________________2. Refers to the impairment of an individual’s well-being and

ability to function often due to poor adjustments between the
individual and the environment.
_______________________3. Refers to the unwanted change in the environment caused by

the introduction of harmful materials or the production of
harmful conditions.
_______________________4. A toxin that increases the risks of cancer.
_______________________5. Refers to substances that activate the immune systems.
_______________________6. It refers to chemicals that disrupt normal hormone functions.
_______________________7. An agent which damage or alter genetic materials in cells.
_______________________8. It occurs when toxic burden of a large number of organisms at

a lower trophic level is accumulated and concentrated by a
predator in a higher trophic level.
_______________________9. A waterborne contaminant left over from propellants and

rocket fuels.
_______________________10. An interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects

of another.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 4. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying environmental toxicology and
health, evolution, ecosystems, and interactions will not be sufficient. What matters is that you should
be able to identify and discuss different toxic elements present in the environment, whether naturally
occurring or human-induced. It is also important to determine the route and persistence of these
pollutants to develop measures and mechanisms to reduce the risk of potential food contamination and
other agricultural resources. Now, I will require you to explain your answers thoroughly.
1. What is biomagnification? Why is it essential in toxicology?

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2. Differentiate acute effects from chronic effects.

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3. Identify and discuss comprehensively the components of risk management.

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4. How are toxic elements being deposited in the environment? Can these toxic elements/
chemicals contaminate the food chain?
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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 4. Studying the environment and its components requires a deeper understanding of the
core areas of environmental science. This involves understanding the influence of human dimensions
as well as the natural phenomena that resulted in different alterations of the natural ecosystems, which
eventually creates threats and danger both the biological, physical, and chemical components of an
ecosystem. Also, this includes the analysis and understanding of how humanmade and natural
components react with one another. Based on the definitions and the essential elements in the study
of environmental and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to indicate your
arguments or lessons learned below.
1. Different types of elements, whether naturally present or human-induced, have implications
for biological safety as these elements tend to persist in the environment due to its non-
biodegradable nature. Since it continues, it poses threats to human health as well as security
and food safety.
2. The disease is considered an environmental response or an imbalance within an ecosystem.

This signifies that the carrying capacity of the environment has been reached which makes a
particular ecosystem unable to function very well that resulted in the or reduce the ability to
assimilate pollutants and recover.
YOUR TURN
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3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A LIST
1.
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5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
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Carcinogens Mortality Exposure

Antigens Morbidity Persistence
Risk assessment Mutagens Lethal Dose
Toxicology Solubility Tolerance
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -2. Discuss biodiversity and the species concept and explain some
environmental problems associated with biological diversity.
METALANGUANGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of biodiversity and environmental associated
problems. You will encounter these terms as we go through the reviews of ecological science,
particularly on biological diversity, threats and challenges, and how people and intimately connected
and the implications of rapid population growth and towards the environment. It involves a broader
understanding of environmental problems, making judgments evaluating different environmental and
their functions. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding
of environmental science concepts.
1. Population. A group of interbreeding individuals of the same species, which is isolated from
other groups.
1.1. In population ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same species
inhabiting the same area.
2. The aesthetic is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well
as the philosophy of art.
2.1. It examines subjective and sensory-emotional values, or sometimes called judgments
of sentiment and taste.
3. Mutation. An alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or
extrachromosomal DNA.
3.1. Viral genomes can be of either DNA or RNA.
4. DNA. A molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to
form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth,
and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.
4.1. DNA and ribonucleic acid are nucleic acids.
5. Adenine. A nucleobase. It is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are
represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The three others are guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
6. Guanine. One of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the
others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine.
6.1. In DNA, guanine is pair with cytosine.
6.2. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine.
7. Cytosine. One of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine,
and thymine.
7.1. It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents
attached.
7.2. The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine.
7.3. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.
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8. Thymine. One of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the
letters G–C–A–T.
8.1. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-methyl
uracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase.
8.2. In RNA, thymine is replacing by the nucleobase uracil.
9. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of settling,
permanently or temporarily, at a new location.
9.1. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another, but
internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally.
10. Founder effect. The loss of genetic variation occurs when a new population establishes a
minimal number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully outlined by Ernst
Mayr in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such as Sewall Wright.
11. Ecological extinction. The reduction of a species to such low abundance that, although it is
still present in the community, no longer interacts significantly with other species".
11.1. Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a species that
is important for conservation work.
12. Invasive species. A species that is not native to a specific location tends to spread to a degree
believed to damage the environment, human economy, or human health.
13. Forest. A large area dominated by trees.

13.1. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world,
incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and
ecological function.
14. Savannas. A mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being

sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.
14.1. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken
herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.
15. Open canopy. Describes a kind of forest or woodland in which the tops or crowns of the trees
do not touch each other or overlap, as with a closed canopy.
16. Primary forests are forests of native tree species, where there are no clearly visible
indications of human activities, and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed.
16.1. Secondary forests regenerate on native forests, which have been cleared by natural or
human-made causes, such as agriculture or ranching.
17. Pollution. The introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse
change.
17.1. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or
light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
18. Geographic isolation. A term refers to a population of animals, plants, or other organisms
separated from exchanging genetic material with other organisms of the same species.
18.1. Typically, geographic isolation is the result of an accident or coincidence.
19. Genes. A sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA encodes the synthesis of a gene product,
either RNA or protein. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA.
19.1. The RNA can be directly functional or be the standard template for a protein that
performs a function.
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20. Genotype. The part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of any individual, which
determines one of its characteristics.
20.1. The term was coined by the Danish botanist, plant physiologist, and geneticist
Wilhelm Johannsen in 1903.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the eighth to nineth weeks of the
course, you need fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these resources exclusively. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources in the
university library. e.g.,e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
BIODIVERSITY AND INVASIONS
Biological diversity has become one of the “hot-button” environmental topics—there is a lot
of news about endangered species, loss of biodiversity, and its causes. Biological diversity refers to
the variety of life-forms, commonly expressed as the number of species or the number of genetic
types in an area.
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area or
interbreeding and sharing genetic information. A species is all individuals that are capable of
interbreeding. A species is made up of populations. There are nine primary reasons: utilitarian, public
service, ecological, moral, theological, aesthetic, recreational, spiritual, and creative.
Utilitarian means that a species or group of species provides a product that is of direct value
to people.
Public service means that nature and diversity provide some service, such as taking up
carbon dioxide or pollinating flowers that are essential or valuable to human life and would be
expensive or impossible to do ourselves.
Ecological refers to the fact that species have roles in their ecosystems. Some of these are
necessary for the persistence of their ecosystems, perhaps even for the persistence of all life.
Scientific research tells us which species have such ecosystem roles.
The moral reason for valuing biodiversity is that species have a right to exist, independent of
their value to people.
The theological reason is that some religions value nature and diversity, and a person who
subscribes to that religion supports this belief.
Aesthetic refers to the beauty of nature, including a variety of life.
Recreational is self-explanatory— people enjoy getting out into nature, not just because it is
beautiful to look at but because it provides us with healthful activities that we enjoy.
Spiritual describes the way contact with nature, and its diversity often moves people, and
uplifting often perceived as a religious experience.
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Creative refers to the fact that artists, writers, and musicians find stimulation for their
creativity in nature and its diversity.
Basics of Biodiversity
Biological diversity involves the following concepts:
Genetic Diversity. The total number of genetic characteristics of a specific species,

subspecies, or group of species. In terms of genetic engineering and our new understanding of
DNA, this could mean the entire base-pair sequences in DNA, the total number of genes,
active or not, or the total number of active genes.
Habitat Diversity. The different kinds of habitats in a given unit area.
Species Diversity. Which, in turn, has three qualities:
1. species richness—the total number of species

2. species evenness—the relative abundance of species and
3. species dominance—the most abundant species.
Biological Evolution
Biological evolution refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from generation
to generation. It can result in new species—populations that can no longer reproduce with members of
the original species but can (and at least occasionally do) reproduce with each other. Along with self-
reproduction, biological evolution is one of the features that distinguish life from everything else in
the universe. The word evolution in the term biological evolution has a special meaning. Outside
biology, evolution is used broadly to mean the history and development of something.
Four Key Processes in Biological Evolution
Mutation. Mutations are changes in genes. It is contained in the chromosomes within cells,
each gene carries a single piece of inherited information from one generation to the next,
producing a genotype. This genetic makeup is characteristic of an individual or a group.
Genes are made up of a complex chemical compound called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
In turn, DNA is made up of chemical building blocks that form a code, a kind of alphabet of
information. The DNA alphabet consists of four letters that stand for specific nitrogen-
containing compounds, called bases, which are combined in pairs: (A) adenine, (C) cytosine,
(G) guanine, and (T) thymine. Each gene has a set of the four base pairs, and how these
letters are combined in long strands determines the genetic “message” interpreted by a cell to
produce specific compounds. The number of base pairs that make up a strand of DNA varies.
To make matters more complex, some base pairs found in DNA are nonfunctional—they are
not active and do not determine any chemicals produced by the cell. Furthermore, some genes
affect the activity of others, turning those other genes on or off. And creatures such as
ourselves have genes that limit the number of times a cell can divide and determine the
individual's maximum longevity.
Natural Selection. When there is variation within a species, some individuals may be better
suited to the environment than others. (Change is not always for the better. Mutation can
result in a new species whether or not that species is better adapted than its parent species to
the environment.) Organisms whose biological characteristics make them better able to
survive and reproduce in their environment leave more offspring than others. Their
descendants form a larger proportion of the next generation and are more “fit” for the
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environment. This process of increasing the proportion of offspring is called natural

selection. Which inherited characteristics lead to more offspring depends on the specific
characteristics of an environment, and as the environment changes over time, the
characteristics’ “fit” will also change. In summary, natural selection involves four primary
factors:
1. The inheritance of traits from one generation to the next and some variation in these
traits—that is, genetic variability.
2. Environmental variability.
3. Differential reproduction (differences in numbers of offspring per individual) which
varies with the environment.
4. Influence of the environment on survival and reproduction.
Migration and Geographic Isolation. Sometimes two populations of the same species
become geographically isolated from each other for a long time. During that time, the two
populations may change so much that they can no longer reproduce together even when they
are brought back into contact. In this case, two new species have evolved from the original
species. This can happen even if the genetic changes are not more fit but simply different
enough to prevent reproduction. Migration has been an important evolutionary process over
geologic time (a period long enough for geologic changes). Darwin’s visit to the Galápagos
Islands gave him his most powerful insight into biological evolution. 10 He found many
species of finches that were related to a single species found elsewhere. On the Galápagos,
each species was adapted to a different niche. Darwin suggested that finches isolated from
other species on the continents eventually separated into a number of groups, each suited to a
more specialized role. The process is called adaptive radiation. This evolution continues
today, as illustrated by a recently discovered new species of finch on the Galápagos Islands.
Genetic Drift refers to changes in the frequency of a gene in a population due not to
mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance. One way this happens is through the
founder effect. The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals are isolated
from a larger population; they may have much less genetic variation than the original species
(and usually do), and the characteristics that the isolated population has will be affected by
chance. In the founder effect and genetic Drift, individuals may not be better adapted to the
environment; they may be more poorly adapted or neutrally adapted. Genetic Drift can occur
in any small population and may present conservation problems when it is by chance isolated
from the main population.
Factors That Tend to Increase Diversity
1. A physically diverse habitat

2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (such as fire or storm in a forest or a sudden flow of water
from a storm into a pond).
3. A small variation in environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, nutrient supply,
etc.).
4. High diversity at one trophic level increases the diversity at another trophic level. (Many
kinds of trees provide habitats for many kinds of birds and insects.)
5. An environment highly modified by life (e.g., a rich organic soil).
6. Middle stages of succession.
7. Evolution.
Factors That Tend to Decrease Diversity
1. Environmental stress.
2. Extreme environments (conditions near the limit of what living things can withstand).
3. A severe limitation in the supply of an essential resource.
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4. Extreme amounts of disturbance.

5. Recent introduction of exotic species (species from other areas).
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real or ecological island).
Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction. The elimination of a species is a normal process of the natural world. Species die
out and are replaced by others, often their own descendants, as part of evolutionary change.
Extinction is a natural process. The rate at which species are disappearing appears to have
increased dramatically over the last 150 years.
Habitats Destruction. The most important extinction threat for most species—especially
terrestrial ones—is habitat loss. Perhaps the most obvious example of habitat destruction is
clear-cutting of forests and conversion of grasslands to crop fields.
Invasive Species. A major threat to native biodiversity in many places is from accidentally or
deliberately introduced species. Called a variety of names—alien, exotic, non-native, non-
indigenous, unwanted, disruptive, or invaders—invasive species are organisms that move into
new territory. These migrants often flourish where they are free of predators, diseases, or
resource limitations that may have controlled their population in their native habitat. Although
humans have probably transported organisms into new habitats for thousands of years, the
rate of movement has increased sharply in recent years with the vast increase in speed and
volume of travel by air, water, and land.
Pollution. We have known that toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local
populations of organisms for a long time. Pesticide-linked declines of top predators, such as
eagles, osprey, falcons, and pelicans, were well documented in the 1970s. Declining
populations of marine mammals, alligators, fish, and other wildlife alert us to the connection
between pollution and health. Lead poisoning is another major cause of mortality for many
species of wildlife.
Population. Human population growth represents a threat to biodiversity in several ways. If

our consumption patterns remain constant, with more people, we will need to harvest more
timber, catch more fish, plow more land for agriculture, dig up more fossil fuels and minerals,
build more houses, and use more water. All of these demands impact wild species.
Overharvesting. It is responsible for the depletion or extinction of many species. Fish stocks
have been seriously depleted by overharvesting in many parts of the world. A massive
increase in fishing fleet size and efficiency in recent years has led to a crash of many marine
populations.
Commercial Products and Live Specimens. In addition to harvesting wild species for food,
we also obtain a variety of valuable commercial products from nature. Much of this represents
a sustainable harvest, but some forms of commercial exploitation are highly destructive and
represent a serious threat to certain rare species. Despite international bans on trade in
products from endangered species, smuggling of furs, hides, horns, live specimens, and folk
medicines amounts to millions of dollars each year.
ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT
Over the years, we have gradually become aware of the harm we have done—and continue to do—to
wildlife and biological resources. Slowly, we are adopting national legislation and international
treaties to protect these irreplaceable assets. Parks, wildlife refuges, nature preserves, zoos, and
restoration programs have been established to protect nature and rebuild depleted populations. Where
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earlier regulations had been focused almost exclusively on “game” animals, these programs seek to
identify all endangered species and populations and to save as much biodiversity as possible,
regardless of its usefulness to humans.
Endangered species are those considered in imminent danger of extinction,

Threatened species are those that are likely to become endangered—at least locally—within
the foreseeable future.
Vulnerable species are naturally rare or have been locally depleted by human activities to a
level that puts them at risk.
A variety of terms are used for rare or endangered species thought to merit special attention:
Keystone species have significant effects on ecological functions and whose elimination
would affect many other members of the biological community; examples are prairie dogs
(Cynomys ludovicianus) or bison (Bison bison).
Indicator species are those tied to specific biotic communities or successional stages or set of
environmental conditions. They can be reliably found under certain circumstances but not
others; an example is brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).
Umbrella species require large blocks of relatively undisturbed habitat to maintain viable
populations. Saving this habitat also benefits other species. Examples of umbrella species are
the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) and elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Flagship species are especially interesting or attractive organisms to which people react
emotionally. These species can motivate the public to preserve biodiversity and contribute to
conservation; an example is a giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).
BIODIVERSITY AND LANDSCAPES
Forests
Forests have always been important to people; indeed, forests and civilization have always been
closely linked. Since the earliest civilizations—in fact, since some of the earliest human cultures—
wood has been one of the major building materials and the most readily available and widely used
fuel. Forests are widely distributed, but the most significant remaining areas are in the humid
equatorial regions and the cold boreal forests of high latitudes.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines forest as any area where trees cover more
than 10 percent of the land. This definition includes a variety of forest types ranging from open
savannas, where trees cover less than 20 percent of the ground, to closed-canopy forests, in which
tree crowns overlap to cover most of the ground. Globally, about one-third of all forests are
categorized as primary forests. Unfortunately, an estimated 6 million ha (15 million acres) of these
irreplaceable forests are cleared or heavily damaged every year.
Four ways that a forest (or a vegetated area) can affect the atmosphere:
1. Some solar radiation is absorbed by vegetation, and some is reflected, changing the local
energy budget, compared to a non-forest environment.
2. evaporation and transpiration from plants, together called evapotranspiration, transfers water
to the atmosphere
3. photosynthesis by trees releases oxygen into the atmosphere and removes carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas, cooling the temperature of the atmosphere
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4. near-surface wind is reduced because the vegetation —especially trees—produces roughness

near the ground that slows the wind.
Parks and Preserves
While most forests and grasslands serve utilitarian purposes, many nations have set aside
some natural areas for ecological, cultural, or recreational purposes. Some of these preserves have
existed for thousands of years. Different levels of protection are found in nature preserves. A park is
an area set aside for use by people. Although people may use it, a nature preserve has as its primary
purpose the conservation of some resource, typically a biological one. Every park or preserve is an
ecological island of one kind of landscape surrounded by a different kind of landscape, or several
different kinds.
Ecological and physical islands have special ecological qualities, and island biogeography
concepts are used in the design and management of parks. One of the important differences between a
park and a truly natural wilderness area is that a park has definite boundaries. These boundaries are
usually arbitrary from an ecological viewpoint and have been established for political, economic, or
historical reasons unrelated to the natural ecosystem. Many natural parks and preserves are
increasingly isolated, remnant fragments of ecosystems that once extended over large areas.
As park ecosystems are shrinking, they are also becoming more important for maintaining
biological diversity. Principles of landscape design and landscape structure become important in
managing and restoring these shrinking islands of habitat. One of the reasons large preserves are
considered better than small preserves is that they have more core habitat, areas deep in the interior
of a habitat area, and that core habitat has better conditions for specialized species than do edges.
Edge effects is a term generally used to describe habitat edges. For example, a forest edge is usually
more open, bright, and windy than a forest interior, and temperatures and humidity are more varied.
Landscape ecology is a science that examines the relationship between these spatial patterns and
ecological processes, such as species movement or survival.
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.
Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development. Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern. 11 th

Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition. John
Wiley and Sons, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 5. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of biological
diversity and invasions. Let us try to check your understanding on these terms and concepts. In the
space provided, identify biodiversity and invasions concepts described in each of the following
statements.
______________________1. It refers to the variety of life forms, commonly expressed as the number
of species or the number of genetic types in an area.
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______________________2. It refers to the beauty of nature, including the variety of life.

______________________3. The total number of genetic characteristics of a species.
______________________4. The change in inherited characteristics of a populations from generation
to generation.
______________________5. Refers to the changes in the frequency of a gene in a population due not
to mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance.
______________________6. Refers to species considered in imminent danger of extinction.
______________________7. A species with major ecological functions and whose elimination would
affect the other members of the biological community.
______________________8. The science that examines the relationship between these spatial
patterns and ecological processes.
______________________9. A species that can motivate the public to preserve biodiversity and
contribute to conservation.
______________________10. Refers to species tied to specific biotic communities or successional
stages or set of environmental conditions.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 5. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying biodiversity and invasions,
green revolution, genetic engineering as well biological interactions will not be sufficient, what also
matters is you should be able to identify and discuss how biological diversity is affected by population
movement, patterns, and community structure. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your
answers.
1. Discuss comprehensively what is species richness, species evenness, and species dominance.
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2. What is migration? Can migration influence biological diversity?

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3. Identify and discuss the key processes of biological evolution.

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4. Enumerate at least three (3) threats to biodiversity and discuss comprehensively.

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IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 5. Based on the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of biological
diversity and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write your arguments or
lessons below.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A LIST
1.
2.
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3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Genetic Diversity Endangered species Adaptive radiation
Biological Evolution Threaten Founder effect
Keystone species DNA Migration
Vulnerable Indicator Geographic isolation
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -3. Explain how rocks and minerals are formed, weather and
climate patterns, and discuss air pollution sources, water pollution, use, and management.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of geology and Earth's resources, air pollution,
water pollution, and the introduction of environmental are presented. Please refer to the definition in
case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of environmental science concepts.
1. Geology. An earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed,
and the processes by which they change over time.
2.1. Geology can also include studying the solid features of any terrestrial planet or
natural satellite, such as Mars or the Moon.
2. Tectonics. The process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its
evolution through time.
3. Ridges. A geographical feature consists of a chain of mountains or hills that form a

continuous elevated crest for some distance.
3.1. The sides of the ridge slope away from the narrow top on either side.
4. Minerals. A solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form.

4.1. Minerals are most commonly associated with rocks due to the presence of minerals
within.
5. Rocks. Any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter.
5.1. The minerals categorize it included its chemical composition and how it is formed.
5.2. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks,
and sedimentary rocks.
6. Weathering. The breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial
materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and biological organisms.
7. Hazards refer to any agent that can harm humans, property, or the environment.
7.1. Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative
consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to
that hazard.
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8. Earthquake. The shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in
the Earth's lithosphere creates seismic waves.
9. Volcanoes. A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, allows hot lava,
volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
9.1. Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates
that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.
10. Fossil fuels. A fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried
dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient photosynthesis that
release energy in combustion.
11. Atmosphere. A layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body
that is held in place by the gravity of that body.
11.1. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high, and
the temperature of the atmosphere is low.
12. Temperature. A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses hot and cold.
12.1. It is the manifestation of thermal energy present in all matter, which is the source of
heat, a flow of energy when a body is in contact with another that is colder.
12.2. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
13. Pressure. The force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which
that force is distributed.
13.1. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
13.2. Various units are used to express pressure.
14. Greenhouse effect. The process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere.
14.1. Radiatively active gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all directions.
15. Greenhouse gases. A gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared
range.
15.1. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on planets.
15.2. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
16. Weather. The state of the atmosphere describes the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or
dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
16.1. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the
troposphere, just below the stratosphere.
17. Climate. The long-term average of weather typically averaged over 30 years.
17.1 Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.
18. Wastewater. Any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is "used
water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities,
surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration.
19. Scarcity. The limited availability of a commodity may be in demand in the market or by the
commons. Poverty also includes an individual's lack of resources to buy products.
20. Eutrophication. When a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and
nutrients, which induce excessive growth of algae.
21.1. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.
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21. Urban runoff. The surface runoff of precipitation created by urbanization.

21.1. This runoff is a significant source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide.
21.2. Impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, rooftops, and sidewalks, are
constructed during land development.
22. Sewage. A type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people.

22.1. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic
constituents, and bacteriologic status.
23. Environmental Law. A collective term encompassing aspects of the law that protect the
environment.
24.1. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by
environmental legal principles, focuses on the management of specific natural
resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
GEOLOGY AND EARTH RESOURCES
Earth is a dynamic planet. Although we think of the ground under our feet as solid and stable, the
Earth is a dynamic and constantly changing structure. Titanic forces inside the earth cause continents
to split, move apart, and crash into each other in slow but inexorable collisions. The Earth is a layered
sphere. The core, or interior, is composed of a dense, intensely hot mass of metal—mostly iron—
thousands of kilometers in diameter. Solid in the center but more fluid in the outer core, this immense
mass generates the magnetic field that envelops the Earth. Surrounding the molten outer core is a hot,
pliable layer of rock called the mantle. The mantle is much less dense than the center because it
contains a high concentration of lighter elements, such as oxygen, silicon, and magnesium. The
outermost layer of the Earth is the cold, lightweight, brittle rock crust. The crust below oceans is
relatively thin (8–15 km), dense, and young (less than 200 million years old) because of constant
recycling. The crust under continents is relatively thick (25–75 km), light, and as early as 3.8 billion
years, with new material being added continually.
Tectonics
The huge convection currents in the mantle are thought to break the overlying crust into a
mosaic of huge blocks called tectonic plates. Tectonic processes reshape continents ad cause
earthquakes. These plates slide slowly across the Earth's surface like wind-driven ice sheets on water,
breaking up into smaller pieces, in other places crashing ponderously into each other to create new,
more significant landmasses. Ocean basins form where
continents crack and pull apart. Magma (molten rock) forced up through the cracks forms a new
oceanic crust that piles up underwater in mid-ocean ridges.
Creating the largest mountain range in the world, these ridges wind around the Earth for
74,000 km (46,000 mi). Slowly spreading from these fracture zones, ocean plates push against
continental plates. Earthquakes are caused by grinding and jerking as plates slide past each other.
When an oceanic plate collides with a continental landmass, the continental plate usually rides over
the seafloor, while the marine plate is subducted,
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or pushed down into the mantle, where it melts and rises back to the surface as magma.
Rocks and Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, substantial element or compounds with definite

chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure. Naturally occurring means not created
by humans (or synthetic). Organic materials, such as coal, produced by living organisms or biological
processes, are generally not minerals. The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral that
distinguish it from all other minerals are its chemical composition and its crystal structure.
A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals. Within the rock, individual
mineral crystals (or grains) are mixed and held firmly in a solid mass. The grains may be large or
small, depending on how the rock was formed, but each grain retains its unique mineral qualities.
Each rock type has a characteristic mixture of minerals (and therefore of different chemical elements),
grain sizes, and ways in which the grains are mixed and held together. There are three major rock
classifications: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. In this section, we will look at how they
are made and some of their properties. Geomorphology is the study of the processes that shape the
Earth's surface and the structures they create.
Igneous. The most common rock-type in the Earth's crust is solidified from magma, welling
up from the Earth's interior. These rocks are classed as igneous rocks (from igni, the Latin
word for fire). Magma extruded to the surface from volcanic vents cools quickly to make
basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and other fine-grained rocks. Magma that cools slowly in subsurface
chambers or is intruded between overlying layers makes granite, gabbro, or other coarse-
grained crystalline rocks, depending on its specific chemical composition.
Sedimentary. Types of rock formed by the accumulation or deposition of small particles and
subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of oceans or other bodies
of water at the Earth's surface. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause
these particles to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock is called sediment
and may be composed of geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic
matter). Before being deposited, the geological debris was formed by weathering and erosion
from the source area and then transported to deposition by water, wind, ice, mass
movements, or glaciers called agents of denudation.
Metamorphic. Preexisting rocks can be modified by heat, pressure, and chemical agents to
create new forms called metamorphic rock. Deeply buried strata of igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure by deposition of overlying
sediments or while they are being squeezed and folded by tectonic processes. Chemical
reactions can alter both the composition and structure of the rocks as they are
metamorphosed. Some common metamorphic rocks are marble (from limestone), quartzite
(from sandstone), and slate (from mudstone and shale). Metamorphic rocks are often the host
rock for economically essential minerals such as talc, graphite, and gemstones.
Weathering
Most of these crystalline rocks are extremely hard and durable, but exposure to air, water,
changing temperatures, and reactive chemical agents slowly breaks them down in a process called
weathering.
Mechanical weathering. It is the physical breakup of rocks into smaller particles without a
change in the chemical composition of the constituent minerals. You have probably seen
mountain valleys scraped by glaciers or river and shoreline pebbles that are rounded from
being rubbed against one another as waves and currents tumble them.
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Chemical weathering. Is the selective removal or alteration of specific components that leads
to weakening and disintegration of rock. Among the more important chemical weathering
processes are oxidation (a combination of oxygen with an element to form an oxide or
hydroxide mineral) and hydrolysis (hydrogen atoms from water molecules combine with
other chemicals to form acids).
Geological Hazards
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides are among the geological forces that
have shaped the world. Among direct natural disasters, floods take the largest number of human lives,
while windstorms (hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes) cause the greatest property damage. Geologic
events such as meteor or asteroid impacts (a), massive volcanic eruptions (b), or climate change (c)
are thought to trigger mass extinctions that mark major eras in the Earth's history.
Earthquakes. are sudden movements in the Earth's crust that occur along the fault (planes of
weakness) where one rock mass slides past another one. When movement along faults occurs
gradually and relatively smoothly, it is called creep or seismic slip and may be undetectable to
the casual observer. When friction prevents rocks from slipping quickly, stress builds up until
it is finally released with a sudden jerk, as was the case in the 2004 Sumatran earthquake. The
point on a fault at which the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the
epicenter. Earthquakes have always seemed mysterious, sudden, and violent, coming without
warning and leaving in their wake ruined cities and dislocated landscapes. Earthquakes are
almost always followed by a series of aftershocks that can continue long after the initial
shock. The ring of seismic activity and active volcanoes (often called the “ring of fire”)
around the edge of the Pacific Ocean makes it the most likely place in the world for tsunami
formation.
Volcanoes. Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the Earth's crust. Over
hundreds of millions of years, gaseous emissions from these sources formed the Earth's
earliest oceans and atmosphere. One of the most famous historic volcanic eruptions was that
of Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy, which buried the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii in
a.d. 79. The mountain had been giving signs of activity before it erupted, but many citizens
chose to stay and take a chance on survival. On August 24, the mountain buried the two towns
in ash. Thousands were killed by the dense, hot, toxic gases that accompanied the ash flowing
down from the volcano.
Landslides. Gravity continually pulls downward on every material everywhere on Earth,

causing a variety of phenomena collectively termed mass wasting or mass movement, in
which geologic materials are moved downslope from one place to another. The resulting
motion is often slow and subtle, but some slope processes such as rockslides, avalanches, and
land slumping can be swift, dangerous, and obvious. Landslide is a general term for the rapid
downslope movement of soil or rock.
FOSSILS FUELS
Fossil fuels are forms of stored solar energy. Plants are solar energy collectors because they
can convert solar energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis. The primary fossil fuels used
today were created from incomplete biological decomposition of dead organic matter (mostly land
and marine plants). Buried organic matter that was not completely oxidized was converted by
chemical reactions over hundreds of millions of years to oil, natural gas, and coal. Biological and
geologic processes in various parts of the geologic cycle produce the sedimentary rocks where we find
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these fossil fuels. The primary fossil fuels—crude oil, natural gas, and coal—are our primary
energy sources; they provide approximately 90% of the energy consumed worldwide.
AIR, WEATHER, AND CLIMATE
Atmosphere
We live at the bottom of a layered ocean of air that extends upward about 500 km. All the
weather we see is in the lowest 10–12 km, a continually moving layer known as the troposphere.
Ceaseless flowing and swirling in the troposphere redistribute heat and moisture from one part of the
globe to another. Short-lived and local patterns of temperature and moisture we call weather. In
contrast, the climate is long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation. The Earth's earliest
atmosphere probably consisted mainly of lightweight hydrogen and helium. Over billions of years,
most of that hydrogen and helium diffused into space. Volcanic emissions added carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, and other elements to the atmosphere.
Clean, dry air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor concentrations vary from near zero
to 4 percent, depending on air temperature and available moisture. Minute particles and liquid
droplets—collectively called aerosols—also are suspended in the air. Atmospheric aerosols play
important roles in the Earth's energy budget and in producing rain. The atmosphere has four distinct
zones of contrasting temperatures due to differences in the absorption of solar energy.
Troposphere. The layer of air immediately adjacent to the Earth's surface is called the
troposphere (tropein means to turn or change, in Greek). Within the troposphere, air
circulates in great vertical and horizontal convection currents, constantly redistributing heat
and moisture around the globe. The troposphere's depth ranges from about 18 km (11 mi)
over the equator to about 8 km (5 mi) over the poles, where the air is cold and dense. Because
gravity holds most air molecules close to the Earth's surface, the troposphere is much denser
than the other layers: It contains about 75 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere. Air
temperature drops rapidly with increasing altitude in this layer, reaching about _60°C (_76°F)
at the top of the troposphere.
Stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km (31 mi). It is
vastly more dilute than the troposphere, but it has a similar composition—except that it has
almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 times more ozone (O3). Near the Earth's surface,
ozone is a pollutant, but it serves an essential function in the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone
absorbs specific wavelengths of ultraviolet solar radiation, known as UV-B (290–330 nm, see
fig. 3.10). This absorbed energy makes the atmosphere warmer toward the top of the
stratosphere.
Mesosphere. The third layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and directly
below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere temperature decreases as altitude increases. These
characteristics are used to define its limits; it begins at the top of the stratosphere ( sometimes
called stratopause) and ends at the mesopause, which is the coldest part of the Earth's
atmosphere with temperatures below -143 degrees Celsius.
Thermosphere. The thermosphere (heated layer) begins at about 80 km. It is a region of

highly ionized (electrically charged) gases, heated by a steady flow of high-energy solar and
cosmic radiation. In the lower part of the thermosphere, intense pulses of high-energy
radiation cause electrically charged particles (ions) to glow. We know this phenomenon as the
aurora borealis and aurora australis, or northern and southern lights.
Atmospheric Processes
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Two essential qualities of the atmosphere are pressure and temperature. The pressure is
force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of overlying atmospheric gases on
those below and therefore decreases with altitude. We are familiar with this as barometric pressure,
which the weatherman gives to us in units that are the height to which that pressure raises a column of
mercury. When air pressure is high, it moves downward, which warms the air, changing the
condensed water drops in clouds to vapor; therefore, high-pressure systems are clear and sunny.
Temperature, familiar to us as the relative warmth or coldness of materials, is a measure of

thermal energy, which is the kinetic energy—the motion of atoms and molecules in a
substance.
Water vapor content is another important characteristic of the lower atmosphere. It varies
from less than 1% to about 4% by volume, depending on air temperature, air pressure, and
availability of water vapor from the surface.
Generalized Circulation of the Atmosphere

Greenhouse Effect
The change in energy quality is significant because the atmosphere selectively absorbs longer
wavelengths. Most solar energy comes in the form of intense, high-energy light or near-infrared
wavelengths. This short-wavelength energy passes relatively quickly through the atmosphere to reach
the Earth's surface. Energy re-released from the Earth's warmed surface ("terrestrial energy") is lower-
intensity, longer-wavelength energy in the far-infrared part of the spectrum. Atmospheric gases,
especially carbon dioxide and water vapor, absorb much of this long-wavelength energy, re-releasing
it in the lower atmosphere and leak out to space only slowly. This terrestrial energy provides most of
the heat in the lower atmosphere.
This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect because the atmosphere, loosely
comparable to the glass of a greenhouse, transmits sunlight while trapping heat inside. The
greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric process that is necessary for life as we know it.
However, too strong a greenhouse effect caused by the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation may
create adverse environmental change. Greenhouse gases are a general term for gases that are
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especially effective at capturing the long-wavelength energy from the Earth's surface. Water vapor
(H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse gas, and it is always present in the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is the most abundant human-caused greenhouse gas, followed by methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O), and dozens of other gases.
Weather and Climate Patterns
Weather is a description of the physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity, temperature,

air pressure, wind, and precipitation) over short time scales. Weather is what's happening now or
over some short time—this hour, today, this week—in the atmosphere near the ground: its
temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, and winds. Climate is the average weather and
usually refers to average weather conditions over long periods, at least seasons, but more often years
or decades. Since climates are characteristic of certain latitudes (and other factors that we will discuss
later), they are classified mainly by latitude—tropical, subtropical, mid-latitudinal (continental),
sub-Arctic (continental), and Arctic—but also by wetness/dryness, such as humid continental,
Mediterranean, monsoon, desert, and tropical wet-dry.
Climate changes have continued in more recent —“recent” geologically speaking, that is.
The mean annual temperature of Earth has swung up and down by several degrees Celsius over the
past million years. Over the last 18,000 years, climate change has greatly affected people during the
previous major time of continental glaciations—changes in Earth's temperature over varying periods
during the past million years. Significant changes correspond to glacial (cool) and interglacial (warm)
periods over the past 800,000 years.
Data to document and understand climate change come from three main periods: the
Instrumental Record, the Historical Record, and the Paleo-Proxy Record. The use of instruments to
make climate measurements began around 1860. Since then, temperatures have been measured at
various places on land and in the oceans. The average of these observations produces the graph.
Several groups have tried to reconstruct the average surface temperature of the Earth using available
comments. Temperature measurement has improved dramatically in recent years thanks to such
devices as ocean platforms with automatic weather-monitoring equipment, coordinated by the World
Meteorological Organization. Thus, we have more accurate records since about 1960.
Historical Records
Paleo-proxy. Proxy data refers to scientific data that are not strictly climatic but can be
correlated with climate data, such as the temperature of the land or sea. Proxy data provides
important insights into climate change. Information gathered as proxy data includes natural
records of climate variability, as indicated by tree rings, sediments, ice cores, fossil pollen,
corals, and carbon-14.
Proxy Climate Records. Ice Cores- Polar ice caps and mountain glaciers have an
accumulation record of snow that has been transformed into glacial ice over hundreds to
thousands of years. Ice cores often contain small bubbles of air deposited at the time of the
storm, and we can measure the atmospheric gases in these. Two important gases being
measured in ice cores are carbon-dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Of the two, it appears
methane most closely follows climate change determined from the geologic record over the
past 1,000,000 years. As a result, CO2 and CH4 are the most relevant proxy for climate
change. The ice cores also contain a variety of chemicals and materials, such as volcanic ash
and dust, which may provide additional insights into possible causes of climate change. Ice
cores are obtained by drilling into the ice.
Tree Rings. The growth of trees is influenced by climate, both temperature, and precipitation.
Many trees put on one growth ring per year, and patterns in the tree rings—their width,
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density, and isotopic composition—tell us something about the climate variability. When
conditions are good for growth, a ring is wide; when conditions are poor, the ring is narrow.
Tree-ring chronology, known as dendrochronology, has produced a proxy record of climate
that extends back over 10,000 years
Sediments. Biological material, including pollen from plants, is deposited on the land and
stored for very long periods in the lake, bog, and pond sediments and, once transported
downstream to the coast, in the oceans. Samples may be taken of tiny fossils and chemicals in
the deposits, and these may be interpreted to study past climates and extend our knowledge
back hundreds of thousand years. Pollen is useful because:
1. the quantity of pollen is an indicator of the relative abundance of each plant species
2. the pollen can be dated, and since the grains are preserved in sedimentary layers that
might be dated, we can develop a chronology
3. based on the types of plants found at different times, we can construct a climatic history.
Corals. Corals have hard skeletons composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a mineral
extracted by seawater corals. The carbonate contains isotopes of oxygen, as well as a variety
of trace metals, which have been used to determine the temperature of the water in which the
coral grew. The growth of corals has been dated directly with a variety of dating techniques
over short periods of coral growth, thereby revealing the chronology of climate change over
variable periods.
Carbon-14. Radioactive carbon-14 (14C) is produced in the upper atmosphere by the

collision of cosmic rays and nitrogen-14 (14N). Cosmic rays come from outer space; those the
Earth receives are predominantly from the sun. The abundance of cosmic rays varies with the
number of sunspots, so-called because they appear as dark areas on the sun. The frequency of
sunspots has been accurately measured for decades and observed by people for nearly 1,000
years. As sunspot activity increases, more energy from the sun reaches Earth. There is an
associated solar wind, which produces ionized particles consisting mostly of protons and
electrons, emanating from the sun.
Adjustments
People can adjust to the threat of global warming in two ways:
Adapt: Learn to live with future global climate change over the next 20 years because there is
warming in the pipeline from greenhouse gases already emitted.
Mitigate: Work to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and take action to reduce the
undesirable effects of global warming.
Key Elements to Combat Climate Change
1. emissions trading to promote cost-effective emissions reductions

2. technology sharing that would double research investment in clean energy technology and
accelerate the spread of that technology to developing countries
3. reduce deforestation, which is a quick and highly cost-effective way to reduce emissions
4. help poorer countries by honoring pledges for development assistance to adapt to climate
change.
AIR POLLUTION
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The atmosphere has always been a sink—a deposition and storage place—for gaseous and
particulate wastes. When the amount of waste entering an area of the atmosphere exceeds the
atmosphere's ability to disperse or break down the pollutants, problems result. Air pollution is
generally the most widespread and obvious kind of environmental damage. While developed countries
have been making progress, air quality in the developing world has been getting much worse.
Sources
There are, however, many natural sources of air quality degradation. Volcanoes spew out ash,
acid mists, hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases. In many cases, the chemical compositions of
pollutants from natural and human-related sources are identical, and their effects are inseparable can
occur. While the natural sources of suspended particulate material in the air outweigh human sources
at least tenfold worldwide, in many cities, more than 90 percent of the airborne particulate matter is
anthropogenic (human-caused). Two major categories of pollution sources are stationary and mobile
sources. Stationary sources have relatively fixed locations and include point sources, fugitive
sources, and area sources. Mobile sources include trucks and buses.
Point Sources. Emit pollutants from one or more controllable sites such as power plant
smokestacks.
Fugitive Sources. Generate air pollutants from an open area exposed to wind. It includes
burning for agricultural purposes and dirt roads, construction sites, farmlands, storage piles,
surface mines, and other exposed areas.
Area Source. A well-defined area within which several sources of air pollutants. It includes
small urban communities, areas of intense industrialization within urban complexes, and
agricultural areas sprayed with herbicides and pesticides.
Categories of Pollutants
Primary. Are those released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form? These
pollutants are emitted directly into the air. They include particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.
Secondary. They are modified to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are formed by
chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact. Solar radiation often provides
the energy for these reactions. Photochemical oxidants and atmospheric acids created by these
mechanisms are probably the most important secondary pollutants in human health and
ecosystem damage. Secondary pollutants are produced reactions between primary pollutants
and standard atmospheric compounds.
Criteria Pollutants
The six most common pollutants are called criteria pollutants because the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has set specific limits on the levels of these six, and they are responsible for
most of our air pollution problems. The six criteria pollutants are; sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, and lead.
Sulfur Dioxide. A colorless and odorless gas usually present at Earth's surface in low
concentrations. A significant feature of sulfur dioxide is that once it is emitted into the
atmosphere, it can be converted into fine particulate sulfate and removed from the atmosphere
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by wet or dry deposition. The primary anthropogenic source of sulfur dioxide is the burning
of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Oxides. Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or combustion air is
heated to temperatures above 650°C (1,200°F) in the presence of oxygen, or when bacteria in
soil or water oxidize nitrogen-containing compounds. The initial product, nitric oxide (NO),
oxidizes further in the atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a reddish-brown gas that gives
photochemical smog its distinctive color. Because of their interconvertibility, the general term
NOx is used to describe these gases. Nitrogen oxides combine with water to make nitric acid
(HNO3).
Carbon Monoxide. Is a colorless, odorless gas that even at very low concentrations is
extremely toxic to humans and other animals. The high toxicity results from a physiological
effect. CO inhibits respiration in animals by binding irreversibly to hemoglobin. Carbon
monoxide and hemoglobin have a strong natural attraction for one another; if there is carbon
monoxide in any vicinity, the hemoglobin in our blood will take up nearly 250 times faster
than oxygen and carry mostly carbon monoxide rather than oxygen, from the atmosphere to
the internal organs. Effects range from dizziness and headaches to death.
Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. A form of oxygen in which three atoms of
oxygen occur together rather than the usual two. Photochemical oxidants are secondary
pollution arising from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen dioxide and sunlight. This atomic
oxygen then reacts with other molecules of O2 to make ozone (O3). Ozone formed in the
stratosphere provides a valuable shield for the biosphere by absorbing incoming ultraviolet
radiation.
Particulate Matter. It is made of tiny particles. The term particulate matter is used for
varying mixtures of suspended in the air we breathe, but in regulations, these are divided into
three categories.
1. PM 10- particles up to 10 micrometers in diameter.
2. PM 2.5- particles between 2.5 and 0.18 microns
3. Ultra-fine particles- smaller than 0.18 micrometers in diameter
Lead. Is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many industrial products.

Leaded gasoline helps protect engines and promotes more effective fuel consumption.
However, the lead emitted into the air with exhaust and has thereby been spread widely
around the world, reaching high levels in soils and waters along the roadways. Once released,
lead can be transported through the air as particulates to be taken up by plants through the soil
or deposited directly on their leaves.
Air Toxics
Toxic air pollutants or air toxics are among those pollutants known or suspected to cause
cancer and other serious health problems, either long-term or short-term exposure. Although most air
contaminants are regulated because of their potential adverse effects on human health or
environmental quality, a particular category of toxins is monitored by the U.S. EPA because they are
particularly dangerous. Called hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), these chemicals include
carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens, endocrine system disrupters, and other highly toxic
compounds. Air toxics includes gases, metals, and organic chemicals that are emitted in relatively
small volumes.
WATER USE, POLLUTION, AND TREATMENT
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Water Resource
Water is a marvelous substance—flowing, rippling, swirling around obstacles in its path,

seeping, dripping, trickling, continually moving from sea to land and back again—the water we use
cycles endlessly through the environment. The total amount of water on our planet is immense—more
than 1,404 million km3 (370 billion gals). The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water. Solar
energy drives the hydrologic cycle by evaporating surface water, which becomes rain and snow.
Because water and sunlight are unevenly distributed around the globe, water resources are very
uneven.
Water Supply
Rain falls unevenly over the planet. Some places get almost no precipitation, while others receive
heavy rain almost daily. Three principal factors control these global water deficits and surpluses.
1. First, global atmospheric circulation creates regions of persistent high air pressure and low
rainfall about 20° to 40° north and south of the equator. These same circulation patterns
produce frequent rainfall near the equator and between about 40° and 60° north and south
latitude.
2. Second, proximity to water sources influences precipitation. Where prevailing winds come
over oceans, they bring moisture to land. Areas far from oceans—in a windward direction—
are usually relatively dry.
3. The third factor in water distribution is topography. Mountains act as both cloud formers and
rain catchers. As air sweeps up the windward side of a mountain, air pressure decreases, and
the air cools. As the air cools, it reaches the saturation point, and moisture condenses as either
rain or snow.
Water Compartments
The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in which

water resides, sometimes briefly and sometimes for eons. The length of time water typically stays in a
compartment is its residence time. A water molecule stays in the ocean for about 3,000 years, for
example, before it evaporates and starts through the hydrologic cycle again.
Oceans. Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on Earth. Together, the oceans contain more
than 97 percent of all the liquid water in the world. (The water of crystallization in rocks is far
larger than the amount of liquid water.) Oceans are too salty for most human uses, but they
contain 90 percent of the world’s living biomass. While the ocean basins really form a
continuous reservoir, shallows and narrows between them reduce water exchange, so they
have different compositions, climatic effects, and even different surface elevations. Oceans
play a crucial role in moderating the Earth's temperature. In tropical seas, surface waters are
warmed by the sun, diluted by rainwater and runoff from the land, and aerated by wave
action. In higher latitudes, surface waters are cold and much denser.
Glaciers, Ice, and Snow. Of the 2.4 percent of all freshwater, nearly 90 percent is tied up in
glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. Glaciers are rivers of ice flowing downhill very slowly.
Now occur only at high altitudes or high latitudes, but as recently as 18,000 years ago, about
one-third of the continental landmass was covered by glacial ice sheets.
Groundwater. After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of freshwater is held in the ground as
groundwater. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the air or runoff over the
surface percolates through the soil and into fractures and spaces of permeable rocks in a
process called infiltration. Upper soil layers that hold both air and water make up the zone of
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aeration. Moisture for plant growth comes from these layers. Depending on the rainfall
amount, soil type, and surface topography, the zone of aeration may be very shallow or quite
deep. Lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water make up the zone of
saturation. The top of this zone is the water table. Water tables also rise and fall seasonally,
depending on precipitation and infiltration rates. Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying
below the water table are called aquifers. Aquifers are always underlain by relatively
impermeable layers of stone or clay that keep water from seeping out at the bottom. Areas in
which infiltration of water into an aquifer occurs are called recharge zones. The rate at which
most aquifers are refilled is very slow, however, and groundwater presently is being removed
faster than it can be replenished in many areas. Urbanization, road building, and other
development often block recharge zones and prevent replenishment of essential aquifers.
Groundwater stores large resources.
Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands. Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate into the
ground runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back toward the sea. Rivulets
accumulate to form streams, and streams join to form rivers. Although the total amount of
water contained at any one time in rivers and streams is small compared to the other water
reservoirs of the world, these surface waters are vitally important to humans and most other
organisms. Most rivers, if not constantly replenished by precipitation, meltwater from snow
and ice, or seepage from groundwater, would begin to diminish in a few weeks. We measure
the size of a river in terms of its discharge, the amount of water that passes a fixed point in a
given amount of time.
Atmosphere. The atmosphere is among the smallest of the major water reservoirs of the
Earth in terms of water volume, containing less than 0.001 percent of the total water supply. It
also has the most rapid turnover rate. An individual water molecule resides in the atmosphere
for about ten days, on average. While water vapor makes up only a small amount (4 percent
maximum at normal temperatures) of the air's total volume, movement of water through the
atmosphere provides the mechanism for distributing freshwater over the landmasses and
replenishing terrestrial reservoirs.
Availability and Use
Clean, freshwater is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Perhaps more than any other
environmental factor, water availability determines the location and activities of humans on Earth.
Renewable water supplies are made up, in general, of surface runoff plus the infiltration into
accessible freshwater aquifers. About two-thirds of the water carried in rivers and streams every year
occurs in seasonal floods that are too large or violent to be stored or trapped effectively for human
uses. Stable runoff is the dependable, renewable, year-round supply of surface water.
Scarcity
Water scarcity occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount, or poor
quality restricts its use. Water stress occurs when renewable water supplies are inadequate to satisfy
essential human or ecosystem needs, bringing about increased competition among potential demands.
Water stress is most likely to occur in developing countries where the per capita renewable water
supply is low. Periodic droughts create severe regional water shortages. Droughts are most common
and often most severe in semiarid zones, where moisture availability is the critical factor in
determining plant and animal distribution. Undisturbed ecosystems often survive extended droughts
with little damage, but the introduction of domestic animals and agriculture disrupt native vegetation
and undermines natural adaptations to low moisture levels.
Withdrawal
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Most water we use eventually returns to rivers and streams. Therefore, it is important to
distinguish between withdrawal and consumption. Withdrawal is the total amount of water taken
from a lake, river, or aquifer. Much of this water is in India for Agricultural. in Kuwait, where water
is especially precious, only 4 percent is used for crops. In the United States, which has a large
industrial sector and a highly urbanized population, about half of all water withdrawal, and about 80
percent of consumption,
is agricultural.
A tragic case of water overconsumption is the Aral Sea, which lies in Kazakhstan and
Uzbekistan. Once the fourth-largest inland water body in the world, this giant saline lake lost 75
percent of its surface area and 80 percent of its volume between 1975 and 2004 when, under the
former Soviet Union, 90 percent of the natural flow of the Amu Dar'ya and Syr Dar'ya Rivers was
diverted to irrigate rice and cotton. Towns that once were prosperous fish processing and shipping
ports now lie 100 km from the lakeshore. Vozrojdenie Island, used for biological weapons
productions in the Soviet era, has become connected to the mainland, causing concern about the
security of materials stored there. The salt concentration in the remaining water doubled, and fishing,
which once produced 20,000 tons per year, ceased altogether. Today, more than 200,000 tons of salt,
sand, and toxic chemicals are blown from the dried lake bottom every day. This polluted cloud
destroys pastures, poisoning farm fields, and damages the health of residents who remain in the area.
As water levels dropped, the lake split into two lobes. The "Small Aral" in Kazakhstan is now being
reclaimed.
Water Pollution
Water pollution refers to the degradation of water quality. From public health or ecological
view, a pollutant is any biological, physical, or chemical substance that, in an identifiable excess, is
harmful to desirable living organisms. Water pollutants include heavy metals, sediment, certain
radioactive isotopes, heat, fecal coliform bacteria, phosphorus, nitrogen, sodium, and other useful
(even necessary) elements, as well as certain pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. The increasing population often results in the introduction of more pollutants
into the environment as well as greater demands on finite water resources.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dead organic matter in streams decays. Bacteria are carrying out this decay use oxygen. A
stream with low oxygen content is a poor environment for fish and most other organisms. A stream
with an inadequate oxygen level is considered polluted for organisms that require dissolved oxygen
above the existing level. The amount of oxygen required for biochemical decomposition processes is
called the biological or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is commonly used in water-
quality management. It measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they break
down organic matter within small water samples, which are analyzed in a laboratory. BOD is
routinely measured at discharge points into surface water, such as at wastewater treatment plants.
At treatment plants, the BOD of the incoming sewage water from sewer lines is measured, as is
water from locations both upstream and downstream of the plant. It allows comparison of upstream,
background, BOD, and the BOD of the water being discharged by the plant. When BOD is high, as
suggested earlier, the water's dissolved oxygen content may become too low to support life in the
water. Three zones are identified:
1. A pollution zone, where a high BOD exists. As waste decomposes, microorganisms use the
oxygen, decreasing the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
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2. An active decomposition zone, where the dissolved oxygen reaches a minimum owing to
rapid biochemical decomposition by microorganisms as the organic waste is transported
downstream.
3. A recovery zone, where dissolved oxygen increases, and BOD is reduced because most of
the oxygen demanding organic waste from the input of sewage has decomposed, and natural
stream processes are replenishing the water’s dissolved oxygen. For example, in quickly
moving water, the water at the surface mixes with air, and oxygen enters the water.
Waterborne Diseases
The primary water-pollution problem in the world today is the lack of clean drinking water.
Each year, particularly in less-developed countries, several billion people are exposed to waterborne
diseases whose effects vary in severity from an upset stomach to death.
Fecal Coliform. Because it is challenging to monitor disease-carrying organisms directly, we

use the count of fecal coliform bacteria as a standard measure and indicator of disease
potential. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in water indicates that fecal material from
mammals or birds is present, so organisms that cause waterborne diseases may be present.
Fecal coliform bacteria are usually (but not always) harmless bacteria that normally inhabit
the intestines of all animals, including humans, and are present in all their wastes. Water with
any fecal coliform bacteria is unsuitable for drinking. One type of fecal coliform bacteria,
Escherichia coli, or E. coli 0157, has caused human illness and death.
Nutrients
Two important nutrients that cause water-pollution problems are phosphorus and nitrogen,
and both are released from sources related to land use. Stream waters on forested land have the lowest
concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen because forest vegetation efficiently removes phosphorus
and nitrogen. In urban streams, concentrations of these nutrients are greater because of fertilizers,
detergents, and products of sewage treatment plants. The highest concentrations of phosphorus and
nitrogen are often found in agricultural areas, where the sources are fertilized farm fields and feedlots.
Over 90% of all nitrogen added to the environment by human activity comes from agriculture.
Eutrophication. is the process by which a body of water develops a high concentration of

nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus (in the forms of nitrates and phosphates). The
nutrients increase the growth of aquatic plants in general, as well as the production of
photosynthetic blue-green bacteria and algae. Algae may form surface mats that shade the
water and block light to algae below the surface, greatly reducing photosynthesis. The
bacteria and algae die, and as they decompose, BOD increases, reducing the water’s oxygen
content, sometimes to the point where other organisms, such as fish, will die.
Surface Water Pollution
Pollution of surface water occurs when too much of an undesirable or harmful substance
flows into a body of water, exceeding that body of water's natural ability to remove it, dilute it to a
harmless concentration, or convert it to a harmless form. Water pollutants, like other pollutants, are
categorized as being emitted from the point or nonpoint sources.
Point sources are distinct and confined, such as pipes from industrial and municipal sites that
empty into streams or rivers. In general, point source pollutants from industries are controlled
through on-site treatment or disposal and are regulated by permit.
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Nonpoint sources, such as runoff, are diffused and intermittent and are influenced by factors
such as land use, climate, hydrology, topography, native vegetation, and geology. Common
urban nonpoint sources include runoff from streets or fields; such runoff contains all sorts of
pollutants, from heavy metals to chemicals and sediment. Rural sources of nonpoint pollution
are generally associated with agriculture, mining, or forestry. Nonpoint sources are difficult to
monitor and control.
Surface Water Pollution Reduction
From an environmental view, two approaches to dealing with surface-water pollution are:
1. to reduce the sources

2. to treat the water to remove pollutants or convert them to forms that can be disposed of safely.
Two of the newer techniques are:
1. nanotechnology
2. urban-runoff naturalization.
Nanotechnology uses extremely small material particles (10−9m size, about

100,000 times thinner than a human hair) designed for a number of purposes.
Some nanoparticles can capture heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and
arsenic from water. The nanoparticles have a tremendous surface area to
volume. One cubic centimeter of particles has a surface area exceeding a
football field and can take up over 50% of its weight in heavy metals.
Urban-runoff naturalization is an emerging bioengineering technology to treat urban runoff

before it reaches streams, lakes, or the ocean. One method is to create a "closed-loop" local
landscape that does not allow runoff to leave a property. Plants may be located as "rain
gardens" below downspouts, and parking-lot drainage is directed to plants instead of the
street.
Wastewater Treatment
Water used for industrial and municipal purposes is often degraded during use by the addition
of suspended solids, salts, nutrients, bacteria, and oxygen-demanding material. Wastewater
treatment—sewage treatment—costs about $20 billion per year in the United States, and the cost
keeps rising, but it will continue to be big business. Conventional wastewater treatment includes
septic-tank disposal systems in rural areas and centralized wastewater treatment plants in cities.
Septic Tank Disposal Systems. In many rural areas, no central sewage systems or
wastewater treatment facilities are available. As a result, individual septic-tank disposal
systems, not connected to sewer systems, continue to be an important method of sewage
disposal in rural areas as well as outlying areas of cities. The tank is designed to separate
solids from liquid, digest (biochemically change), store organic matter through a period of
detention, and allow the clarified liquid to discharge into the drain field (absorption field)
from a piping system the treated sewage seeps into the surrounding soil. As the wastewater
moves through the soil, it is further treated by the natural processes of oxidation and filtering.
By the time the water reaches any freshwater supply, it should be safe for other uses.
Wastewater Treatment Plants. In urban areas, wastewater is treated at specially designed

plants that accept municipal sewage from homes, businesses, and industrial sites. The raw
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sewage is delivered to the plant through a network of sewer pipes. Following treatment, the
wastewater is discharged into the surface-water environment (river, lake, or ocean) or, in
some limited cases, used for another purpose, such as crop irrigation. The main purpose of
standard treatment plants is to break down and reduce the BOD and kill bacteria with
chlorine. Wastewater treatment methods are usually divided into three categories: primary
treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment. Primary and
secondary treatments are required.
Primary Treatment. Incoming raw sewage enters the plant from the municipal
sewer line and passes through a series of screens to remove large floating organic
material. The sewage next enters the "grit chamber," where sand, small stones, and
grit are removed and disposed of. It goes to the primary sedimentation tank, where
particulate matter settles out to form sludge. Sometimes, chemicals are used to help
the settling process. The sludge is removed and transported to the "digester" for
further processing. Primary treatment removes approximately 30 to 40% of BOD by
volume from the wastewater, mainly in the form of suspended solids and organic
matter.
Secondary Treatment. There are several methods of secondary treatment. The most
common treatment is known as activated sludge because it uses living organisms—
mostly bacteria. In this procedure, the wastewater from the primary sedimentation
tank enters the aeration tank where it is mixed with air (pumped in) and with some of
the sludge from the final sedimentation tank. The sludge contains aerobic bacteria
that consume organic material (BOD) in the waste. The wastewater then enters the
final sedimentation tank, where sludge settles out. Some of this “activated sludge,”
rich in bacteria, is recycled and mixed again in the aeration tank with air and new,
incoming wastewater acting as a starter. The bacteria are used again and again. Most
of the sludge from the final sedimentation tank, however, is transported to the sludge
digester.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment is used when it is

particularly important to maintain good water quality. For example, if a treatment plant
discharges treated wastewater into a river and there is concern that nutrients remaining after
secondary treatment may damage the river ecosystem (eutrophication), advanced treatment
may be used to reduce the nutrients.
Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine is very effective in killing the pathogens responsible for
outbreaks of serious waterborne diseases that have killed many thousands of people.
However, a recently discovered potential is that chlorine treatment also produces minute
quantities of chemical by-products, some of which are potentially hazardous to people and
other animals.
Land Application of Wastewater
Applying wastewater to the land arose from the fundamental belief that waste is simply a resource out
of place. Land application of untreated human waste was practiced for hundreds if not thousands of
years before the development of wastewater treatment plants, which have sanitized the process by
reducing BOD and using chlorination.
Wastewater and Wetland. Wastewater is being applied successfully to natural and

constructed wetlands at a variety of locations.33–35 Natural or human-made wetlands can be
effective in treating the following water-quality problems:
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1. municipal wastewater from primary or secondary treatment plants (BOD, pathogens,

phosphorus, nitrate, suspended solids, metals)
2. stormwater runoff (metals, nitrate, BOD, pesticides, oils)
3. industrial wastewater (metals, acids, oils, solvents)
4. agricultural wastewater and runoff (BOD, nitrate, pesticides, suspended solids)
5. mining waters (metals, acidic water, sulfates)
6. groundwater seeping from landfills (BOD, metals, oils, pesticides)
Water Reuse
Water reuse can be inadvertent, indirect, or direct. Inadvertent water reuse results when water is
withdrawn, treated, used, treated, and returned to the environment, followed by further withdrawals
and use. Inadvertent water reuse is common and a fact of life for millions of people living along large
rivers. Many sewage treatment plants are located along rivers and discharge treated water into the
rivers. Downstream, other communities
withdraw, treat, and consume the water. Several risks are associated with inadvertent reuse:
1. Inadequate treatment facilities may deliver contaminated or poor-quality water to downstream

users.
2. Because the fate of all disease-causing viruses during and after treatment is not completely
known, the health hazards of treated water remain uncertain.
3. Every year, new and potentially hazardous chemicals are introduced into the environment.
Harmful chemicals are often difficult to detect in the water, and if they are ingested in low
concentrations over many years, their effects on people may be difficult to evaluate.
Indirect water reuse is a planned endeavor. For example, in the United States, several
thousand cubic meters of treated wastewater per day have been applied to numerous sites to
recharge groundwater and reuse them for agricultural and municipal purposes.
Direct water reuse refers to the use of treated wastewater piped directly from a treatment
plant to the next user. In most cases, the water is used in industry, in agri-cultural activity, or
for watering golf courses, institutional grounds (such as university campuses), and parks.
Direct water reuse is growing rapidly and is the norm for industrial processes in factories.
Environmental Laws and Policy
Environmental law, the branch of law dealing with conservation and use of natural resources
and control of pollution, is very important as we debate environmental issues and
make decisions about how best to protect our environment. At its core, then, a policy is a plan or
statement of intentions— either written or stated—about a course of action or inaction intended to
accomplish some end.
Power in Politics. According to some observers, politics is really the struggle for power
among competing interest groups that strive to shape public policy to suit their own agendas.
The political system, in this view, manages group conflict by:
1. establishing rules to ensure civil competition

2. encouraging compromises and balancing interests to the extent possible,
3. codifying compromises as public policy
4. enforcing laws and rules based on that policy.
Creation of Policies
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Laws are rules set by authority, society, or custom. Church laws, social morés, administrative
regulations, and various other codes of behavior can be considered laws if some enforcement power
backs them. Government laws are established by federal, state, or local legislative bodies or
administrative agencies. Environmental law constitutes a unique body of official rules, decisions,
and actions concerning environmental quality, natural resources, and ecological sustainability. Each
branch of government plays a role in establishing the rules of law. Statute law consists of formal
documents or decrees enacted by the government's legislative branch declaring, commanding, or
prohibiting something. It represents the formal will of the legislature. Case law is derived from court
decisions in both civil and criminal cases. Administrative law rises from executive orders,
administrative rules and regulations, and enforcement decisions in which statutes passed by the
legislature are interpreted in specific applications and individual cases because every country has
different legislative and legal processes.
International Treaties
 CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (1993)

 CITES: Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
1973 (1987)
 CMS: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 (1983)
 Basel: Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal 1989 (1992)
 Ozone: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1985 (1988)
 UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 (1994)
 CCD: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing
Serious Drought and Desertification, Particularly
 in Africa 1994 (1996)
 Ramsar: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat 1971 (1975)
 Heritage: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1972 (1975)
 UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (1994)
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.
Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development. Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern. 11 th

Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition. John
Wiley and Sons, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 6. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of geology and
earth resource, water pollution and treatment, and environmental policy. Let us try to check your
understanding of these terms and concepts. In space provided, write your answers to each of the
following questions.
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
______________________1. The collective term encompassing aspects of the law that provide
protection to the environment.
______________________2. Refers to the process that controls the structure and properties of the
Earth’s crust and its evolution through time.
______________________3. An agent that cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the
environment.
______________________4. It refers to the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a
negative consequence.
______________________5. The process of breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well wood
and artificial materials through contact with the Earth’s atmosphere, water, and biological organisms.
______________________6. A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound with a
definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure.
______________________7. Refers to a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals.
______________________8. The long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation.
______________________9. Refers to a minute particles and liquid droplets.
______________________10. The general term for gases that are especially effective at capturing the
long-wavelength energy from the earths surface.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 6. Getting acquainted with the essential terms essential terms and concepts of geology
and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy. Now, I will require you to explain
thoroughly your answers.
1. Identify and differentiate the different layers of the atmosphere and its unique features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. How climate and weather differs?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is an air pollution? Discuss comprehensively the sources of pollution and its
corresponding categories.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What is water compartment? Identify and discuss different types of water compartments and
its unique features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is water pollution? How does water resource become polluted? Cite examples of water
pollution sources and discuss how it affects our water resources
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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6. What is wastewater treatment? It is important to ensure clean and safe water resource? If yes,
how, if no, why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 6. Based from the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of geology and
earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy and the learning exercises that you have
done, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons learned below.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q and A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Geology Point Sources Estuary
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
Environmental Law Non-Point Sources Weather

Wastewater Treatment Residence Time Climate
Sewage Criteria Pollutant Atmosphere
ONLINE CODE OF CONDUCT

1. All teachers/Course Facilitators and students are expected to abide by an honor code
of conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise self management and
self-regulation.
2. Faculty members are guided by utmost professional conduct as learning facilitators in
holding OBD and DED conduct. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with
properly under existing guidelines, specifically on social media conduct (OPM 21.15)
and personnel discipline (OPM 21.11).
3. All students are likewise guided by professional conduct as learners in attending
OBD or DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly under
existing guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student Discipline) in the Student
Handbook.
4. Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the University’s Core
Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty and integrity; academic
excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class participation in all lectures and
activities, as well as fidelity in doing and submitting performance tasks and
assignments; personal discipline in complying with all deadlines; and observance of
data privacy.
5. Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with accordingly. The
University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to detect and penalize
plagiarism.
6. All borrowed materials uploaded by the teachers/Course Facilitators shall be properly
acknowledged and cited; the teachers/Course Facilitators shall be professionally and
personally responsible for all the materials uploaded in the online classes or published
in SIM/SDL manuals.
7. Teachers/Course Facilitators shall devote time to handle OBD or DED courses and
shall honestly exercise due assessment of student performance.
8. Teachers/Course Facilitators shall never engage in quarrels with students online.
While contentions intellectual discussions are allowed, the teachers/Course
Facilitators shall take the higher ground in facilitating and moderating these
discussions. Foul, lewd, vulgar and discriminatory languages are absolutely
prohibited.
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
9. Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do assignments,

unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students shall not resort to
dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g. examinations,
assignments).
10. Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account. Students
shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to others to further
academic fraudulence online.
11. By handling OBD or DED courses, teachers/Course Facilitators agree and abide by
all the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
12. By enrolling in OBD or DED courses, students agree and abide by all the
provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
MONITORING OF OBD AND DED

1. The Deans, Asst. Deans, Discipline Chairs and Program Heads shall be
responsible in monitoring the conduct of their respective OBD classes through the Blackboard
LMS. The LMS monitoring protocols shall be followed, i.e. monitoring of the conduct of
Teacher Activities (Views and Posts) with generated utilization graphs and data. Individual
faculty PDF utilization reports shall be generated and consolidated by program and by
college.
2. The Academic Affairs and Academic Planning & Services shall monitor the conduct of LMS
sessions. The Academic Vice Presidents and the Deans shall collaborate to conduct virtual
CETA by randomly joining LMS classes to check and review online the status and interaction
of the faculty and the students.
3. For DED, the Deans and Program Heads shall come up with monitoring
instruments, taking into consideration how the programs go about the conduct of DED
classes. Consolidated reports shall be submitted to Academic Affairs for endorsement to the
Chief Operating Officer.
Course prepared by:
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
JASON BEN R. PARAGAMAC, EnP

Program Coordinator, BS Envi.Sci.
Course reviewed by:
EDGAR B. RETORTA
Program Head, BS Biology
Approved by:
KHRISTINE MARIE D. CONCEPCION, PhD

Dean, CASE
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College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building

COURSE OUTLINE: GE 15 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Course Coordinator : JASON BEN R. PARAGAMAC, EnP

COURSE OUTLINE POLICY

If the assessment task is done in real-time through the

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and

However, if the late submission of the assessment paper has a

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will require

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate your

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual University

You can meet the course coordinator in person through the

For students who have not created their student e-mail,

COURSE INFORMATION – Download Course Syllabi in the BB. LMS

CO: Studying environmental studies requires a deeper understanding of other disciplines,

b. Trace the history of population growth and summarize different perspectives on

In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental

information in a different form of testable experiments and predictions about everything

3. Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field in science that integrates

4. Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms, and their

11. Habitat is considered an environment is naturally occurring to a specific organism to

14. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that could somehow be systematized, defend,

which includes plants and animals.

17. The disturbance is a temporary change in environmental conditions that causes a

18. The ecosystem is a community comprised of living organisms in conjunction or in

27. Chlorophyll. It is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and

and ending at apex predator species, detritivores, or decomposer species.

Environment. It is defined as the circumstances surrounding an organism or group of

Kinds of Knowledge Contribute to Solutions in Environmental Science

Goal: Clean Energy Future

1. Ecology. How foes energy production affects populations?

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Renewable Energy. Dramatic progress is being made in a transition to renewable energy

International Cooperation. Currently, more than 500 international environmental protection

HISTORY OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM

Pragmatic Utilitarian Conservation. Many historians of old-time consider the publication of

SUSTAINABILITY AND CARRYING CAPACITY

SCIENCE, VALUES, AND THE PRINCIPLES BEHIND

Clarity: If a statement is unclear, you can’t tell whether it is relevant or accurate.

HYPOTHESIS AND THEORIES

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE

Uncertainty. Knowledge changes as new evidence appear, and explanations (theories)

SCIENCE AND DECISION MAKING

1. First, it to formulate a clear statement of the issue to be decided.

In the face of incomplete information, scientific controversies, conflicting interests, and

SYSTEMS CONCEPTS AND INTERACTIONS

An important distinction among environmental and ecological systems is whether linear or

THE STATIC AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

There are two kinds of feedback:

Negative feedback. Tend to maintain stability in a system. Negative feedback is self-

MATTER ENERGY AND LIFE

Transformation and combination of matter may vary in different ways according to

The electrical charge is an important chemical characteristic. Atoms frequently gain

Organic compounds have a carbon backbone. Organisms use some elements in

Energy can be in the form of:

ENERGY FOR LIFE

Organisms occur in populations, communities, and ecosystems. A population consists of all