UNIT-I

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs

operations, displays results, and stores the data or results as needed. It
is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user.

Characteristics

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically

without human interventions
2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast,
usually measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and
picoseconds (10-12)
3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the
degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. Computer errors
caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often
referred to as Garbage-In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)
4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating
any error and without grumbling
5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if
the task can be reduced to a finite series of logical steps
6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount
of information because of its secondary storage capability. It forgets
or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so
7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to do. It
cannot take its own decision in this regard
8) No Feelings: Computers are lack of emotions. Their judgement is
based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that
are written by us (human beings)
Basic organization of a computer system

5 Basic operations of a computer system

1. Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the

computer system
2. Storing: Saving data and instructions to make them readily
available for initial or additional processing whenever required.
3. Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract,
multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal
 to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful
information
4. Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results
for the user such as a printed report or visual display
5. Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of
the above operations are performed

Components of Computer/ Block diagram of Computer

 An input unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:
1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside
world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

 An output unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which
are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily understood
by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world
  The storage unit of a computer system holds (or
stores) the following :
1. Data and instructions required for processing (received
from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

 Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the

place where the actual executions of instructions
takes place during processing operation
 Control Unit of a computer system manages and
coordinates the operations of all other components of
the computer system
 Central Processing Unit
Arithmetic
+ Control Unit = Central
Logic Unit Processing Unit
(ALU) (CU)
(CPU)

 It is the brain of a computer system

 It is responsible for controlling the operations of all
other units of a computer system
 Storage Unit (Memory): The various storage devices of a

computer system are divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage.

This memory is generally used to hold the program being currently

executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit,
the intermediate and final results of the program.

The primary memory is temporary in nature. The data is lost, when the
computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the
data has to be transferred to the secondary memory.

The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary

storage. Therefore most computers have limited primary storage
capacity.

2. Secondary Storage

Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,

documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer
are first transferred to the primary memory before it is actually run.
Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary
memory.
 The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary
memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are
Hard disk, CD, etc.,

What is a server?

A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services, or

programs to other computers, known as clients, over a network. It receives the
request for a web document from the client and sends the requested information to
the client computer on the Internet.

In the client/server architecture, there are two types of computers:

 Clients are the computers that end users interact with;

 Servers are the computers that provide resources and services to clients.
A single server can meet the needs of multiple clients, and a single client can
access multiple servers.

Types of Servers
 Application Server: Provides the business logic for deploying and executing
application programs.
 Backup Server: Performs data backups and provides centralized storage for
backup data.
 Collaboration Server: Enables collaboration and communication among
users by supporting features like document sharing, instant messaging, and
video conferencing.
 Database Server: Stores and manages databases.
 File Server: Stores and manages files and allows clients to access and share
them over a network.
  Mail Server: Handles all email communication services, including sending,
receiving, and storing email messages.
 Print Server: Controls and manages network-connected printers, including
print job queuing and management.

Server Components
 Hardware: This includes central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage,
network interfaces, and power supplies.
 Server OS: This is an operating system (OS) designed for a specific type of
client/server environment.
 Server Software: Examples database server software, email server software,
and web server software.
 Network Connectivity: Server programs connect to the network
infrastructure and communicate with client devices over a local area
network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), or the internet.
 Management and Monitoring Tools: that enable remote management
and performance monitoring.
 Security Measures: Most server software includes security features to protect
against unauthorized access.

What is hardware configuration?

Hardware configuration references the details and system resource settings allotted
for a specific device. Many computer specialists improve hardware performance by
adjusting configurations, which may also include settings for the motherboard.

Networking
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites.

Advantages of Networking

 Facility of Technical Support

A person sitting in any country provides technical support to a person sitting in any
other country.

 Easy Sharing of Data

With the help of networking, it is very simple to share all formats of digital data
from one computer system to another

 Easy Sharing of Hardware Resource

With the help of networking, it has now become very simple to share the expensive
resources including storage space, processor, fax, etc.

 Easy Sharing Software

It is easy to share and install the software from one computer system to another
computer system.
  Easy to Communicate

With the help of networking, the communication system has now become highly
efficient and fast. The different modes of communication are text chatting, video
chatting, emails, etc.

Types of Network

 Personal Area Network ( PAN)

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Personal Area Network ( PAN)

PAN is a PC network that’s mainly created for an individual person.
This is used for communication among devices, like laptops, mobile phones.
PAN generally covers a range of less than 10 meters (about 30 feet ).
They may be wired or wireless.


Local Area Network

Local Area Network or simply LAN is the technique of interconnecting a few

computers located in a given premise. It is normally used for a single business
office or a residential apartment.

The major purpose of such interconnectivity is to establish a communication

system in order to make the work easier.

However, in such connectivity, some other devices can also be attached such as
laser printers, fax machine, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network or simply MAN is a system of network that normally

covers a large metropolitan area (city part). Ex. cable television.

It provides high speed Internet services throughout the area covered within the
network.
Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network or simply WAN is a system of network that covers a large
geographical area across the world.

The services of WAN are provided by public (government) agencies as well as

private agencies. The network also provides the facility to access databases located
remotely. The WAN system is highly beneficial for MNCs and other big corporate
companies

Network Topology
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network
topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of

the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in
which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides
high bandwidth.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such
as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular
Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
 protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure
Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in
the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol
is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility
for performing the operations.
 2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed
token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from
the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb
the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.
In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub
to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the
secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a
non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Advantages of Tree Topology :
 This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
 This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data arrangement of
the nodes.
 As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain, this
topology provides high scalability.
  The other nodes in a network are not affected if one of their nodes gets
damaged or does not work.
 Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification can
be done.
 A callable topology. Leaf nodes can hold more nodes.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Tree Topology is highly secure.
 It is used in WAN.
 Tree Topology is reliable.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology :
 This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other
network Advantages of Tree Topology :
 This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
 This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data arrangement of
the nodes.
 As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain, this
topology provides high scalability.
 The other nodes in a network are not affected if one of their nodes gets
damaged or does not work.
 Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification can
be done.
 A callable topology. Leaf nodes can hold more nodes.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Tree Topology is highly secure.
 It is used in WAN.
 Tree Topology is reliable.
 Disadvantages of Tree Topology :
  This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other
network

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of

topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are
free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star
topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each
individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.
 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up
of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or
sensors will be present on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless
sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards
are all examples of wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a
wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.
Types of Networks
WiFi
it is a type of wireless networking that uses radio frequencies to send and
receive data. WiFi allows users to connect to the Internet at high speeds
without the necessity of cables. WiFi stands for “wireless fidelity” and is a
phrase that is often used to refer to wireless networking technologies.
Types of Wireless Networks
 Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless
distribution techniques.
 Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a
metropolitan area.
 Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and
personal networks.
Examples of wireless networks
 Mobile phone networks
 Wireless sensor networks
 Satellite communication networks
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for
exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and
building personal area networks. it works in a very short range of up to 10
metres.
Advantages :
 1. Freedom from wires
2. Easy to setup: Wireless network is easy to expand and setup
3. Better or global coverage.
4. Flexibility: Wireless network is more flexible and adaptable compared to a
wired network.
5. Cost-effectiveness: Since it is easy to install and doesn’t require cables,
the wireless network is relatively cheaper.
6. Data transmission is fast: In wireless network data transmission is fast.
Disadvantages :
1. As communication is done through open space, it is less secure.
2. Wireless networks can be easily hacked.
Wireless security

 Wireless security is the protection of wireless networks, devices and data

from unwanted access.
 Wireless security refers to the technology and practices used to safeguard
networks from unauthorized access, and theft .Wireless networks broadcast
data using radio waves, which can be intercepted by anybody within the
network range. Using security measures we can prevents unauthorized
access and safeguards these wireless networks.

Types of Wireless Security Protocols

 WEP :The first wireless security protocol was WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy). It was the standard method of providing wireless network
security from the late 1990s until 2004.
 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA): is an improvement of WEP introduced in
2003. It provides stronger security measures.
 Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2) :introduced in 2004
 Wi-Fi Protected Access III (WPA3) is the latest wireless security
protocol and offers enhanced security features such as stronger encryption,
protection against dictionary attacks.
Methods to protect wireless network
Using A Strong Password- Using a strong password is one of the most
important best practices for wireless network security.
Encrypting Data- Data encryption scrambles data so that it can only be
decrypted and read by authorized users. This helps to protect sensitive
information from being accessed by unauthorized individuals. Encryption
can be implemented in a number of ways, including through the use of
encryption software, hardware, or services.
Enabling WPA3 Security
WPA3 is the most recent and most secure wireless security protocol.
Using A Firewall
A Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on an organization’s previously
established security policies. At its most basic, a firewall is essentially the
barrier that sits between a private internal network and the public Internet.
A firewall helps to protect the network by blocking incoming traffic that is
not authorized.

Connect using a Virtual Private Network (VPN). Many companies and

organizations have a VPN. VPNs allow employees to connect securely to
their network when away from the office.
WWW stands for World Wide Web. The world wide web is one set of software
services running on the internet. It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents
accessed via the Internet. Http stand for hypertext transfer protocol. It is the set of
rules for transferring files like text, graphic image, sound, video and other
multimedia files etc. on the world wide web.

Computer and mobile operating system

What is an Operating System?
• Computer System = Hardware + Software
• Software is a set of instructions, programs used to operate computers and
execute specific tasks.
• Software = System Software(OS) + Application Software
1) System software
• System Software maintains the system resources and gives the path for
application software to run. An important thing is that without system
software, the system can not run. It is general-purpose software.
• Types of System Software
• Operating System- is the main part of the Computer System. It has the
responsibility of managing all the resources such as CPU, Printer, Hard
Disk, etc. It also provides services to many other Computers Softwares.
Examples of Operating Systems are Linux, Apple, macOS, Microsoft
Windows, etc.
• Language Processor: System Software converts Human-Readable
Language into a Machine Language and it is done by Language Processor.
It converts programs into instructions that are easily readable by
Machines.
• Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that helps to
perform its functions by controlling the device. You first have to install a
driver for running the program.
2) Application Software
Application Software is the type of software that runs as per user request. It runs on the
platform which is provided by system software. High-level languages are used to write
the application software. It’s a specific purpose software. The main difference between
System Software and Application Software is that without system software, the system
can not run on the other hand without application software, the Low-level maintenance
system always runs.
Types of Application Software
1. General Purpose Software: This Application Software is used to perform tasks that
are used for a variety of tasks, just not limited to a specific task only. For Example,
MS Word, MS Excel, etc.
2. Customized Software: It is used to perform tasks that are designed for specific
organizations. For Example- Railway Reservation System, Airline Reservation
System, etc.
3. Utility Software: It is used to support the architecture of the Computer. It is
designed for optimizing and maintaining the system and also taking care of its
requirements.

An Operating System is a system Software that acts as an interface between a

user of a computer and the computer hardware.

• Operating system goals:

  Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Functions of Operating System

1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. File Management
4. Device Management
5. Security and protection

1. Process Management- A process is a program in execution.

The operating system’s responsibility is to manage the processes running on
your computer. This includes starting and stopping programs, allocating
resources, and managing memory usage.

2. Memory Management-

The operating system perform the following tasks

• allocating/deallocating memory to store programs.

• Deciding the amount of memory that should be allocated to the program.

• Memory distribution while multiprocessing.

• Update the status in case memory is free.

• Keeps record of how much memory is used and how much is unused.

3. File Management

A file is a collection of related information.

Tasks of Operating System

 Keeps track of location and status of files.

Allocating and deallocating resources.

Decides which resource to be assigned to which file.

The operating system perform the following tasks

4. Device Management

Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system.

Decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.

Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way.

Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

5. Security and protection

The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and
similar other techniques.

It also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data by assigning

access right permission to files and directories.

Types of Operating Systems

Batch Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating System

Multiprocessing OS

Time-Sharing OS

Distributed OS

Network OS

Real Time OS
Embedded OS

Batch Operating System

The users of this type of operating system does not interact with the
computer directly.

There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement
and groups them into batches.

It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

Multiple users can share the batch systems

It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

Batch systems are hard to debug

It is sometimes costly

Examples of Batch based Operating System:

IBM's MVS
Multiprogramming Operating System

In this Operating Systems more than one program is present in the main
memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used
for better execution of resources.

Advantage

Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.

Disadvantage of Multi-Programming Operating System

There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the
system.

Multiprocessing operating systems

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which

more than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It betters the
throughput of the System.
Advantage: As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can
proceed with another processor.
Disadvantage of Multi-Processing Operating System
Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to
understand.
Time-sharing or multitasking OS
The time-sharing operating system, also known as a multitasking OS,
works by allocating time to a particular task and switching between tasks
frequently.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
Each task gets an equal opportunity.
CPU idle time can be reduced.
 Disadvantage of Time-Sharing OS
Data communication problem.

Distributed Operating System

• Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each
other using a shared communication network.
• Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.
• These are referred to as loosely coupled systems.
• Examples:- Locus

Network Operating System

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of
operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications, and
other networking functions over a small private network. popularly known as
tightly coupled systems.

Real-Time Operating System

These types of OS serve real-time systems.

The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small.

Ex- missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.

Popular types of OS
Desktop Class
Windows
Unix/Linux
Chrome OS
Server Class
Windows Server
Mac OS X Server
Unix/Linux
Mobile Class
Android
iOS
Windows Phone
What is Payment Gateway?
Payment Gateway is an online payment processing technology which helps
businesses to accept credit cards and electronic checks.
A payment gateway allows us to −
• Make and take payments quickly and easily.
• Keep your customer's data (information) and money secure.
• Gain trust of your customers, so they are willing to hand over their money.
Advantages of Payment Gateway
1. Security: Payment gateways lead to secure transactions, protecting against fraud
2. Customer trust: A payment gateway lends an air of security. If the payment
gateway is the one that the customer recognizes then it encourages them to buy a
product or service without worrying about data theft or fraud.
3. International reach: This allows merchants to expand the borders of their
business and reach the far ends of the world. Payment gateways can offer a range
of features like multi-currency transactions to enable your business to accept
international payments.
4. Multiple payment options: Offering a range of different payment methods like
credit cards, debit cards, net banking, UPI, and digital wallets allows customers a
wide range of choices.
5. Faster transactions: Payment gateways enable fast authorization and settlement
of payments.
6. Ease of Accessibility: Most platforms offer advanced dashboards that allow you
to oversee and control the entire process.
Most Popular types of Payment Gateway
• PAYPAL − PayPal is one of the longest established and probably the best-known
service for transferring money online.
• PayUBiz India – You can make payments in 13 different currencies. Most
international cards, net banking, wallets as well as IVR payments are supported by
it.
• Citrus Pay – A majority of credit cards are supported by it. Some of these include
American Express, Visa, and MasterCard.
• Amazon Payments − The URL of this immensely popular payment getaway
provider is – https://payments.amazon.com/. It was created in 2007.
• Authorize Net − The URL for this popular payment getaway provider is
https://www.authorize.net/. It is among the most powerful and well-known
payment gateways.
• 2Checkout − The URL for this payment getaway provider is –
https://www.2checkout.com/. 2checkout is one of the most simple and affordable
credit card gateways.
What are the steps involved in Payment Gateway?
There are four steps involved in this process:
• The payment gateway procures the commercial transaction of the credit card
• The payment gateway encodes the information of the commercial deal
• The payment gateway channels this towards the processor of the debit or
credit card
• The final step involves a return of acceptance or rejection of the same.
• As a buyer, you do not have to interact with anyone or anything. The
gateway validates your details, and once approved, your online order gets placed.
• It furnishes the seller with all the requisite information of the purchaser in
the transaction process.
Key Considerations for Choosing a Secure Payment Gateway
• Firstly you will have to determine if the payment gateway adheres to all the
rules and norms of the payment card industry data security standard, better known
as PCI DSS. If it is, all your monetary transactions are secured by the third party
involved in the transaction.
• Does it offer a 3D secure transaction? This involves the usage of a distinct
code sent to the mobile of the purchaser, who then confirms the transaction.
• What are the various measures the payment gateway implements to detect as
well as prevent fraudulent transactions?
What are the Limitations of Payment Gateways?
• Security of information is a key issue
• Payment gateways involve step processing costs
• They do not disclose the structure of the fees they charge
• They are not mobile-friendly, not merchant-friendly, and don’t facilitate
recurring payments.
• They impose a fee when a chargeback occurs – a dispute for a certain online
transaction raised by the purchaser who apprises the bank that has issued the card.
What is the Role of a Payment Gateway?
Payments by cash are being speedily replaced by payments with credit and debit
cards. This has reduced the need to carry cash. Let us understand what is a
payment gateway. It is an important element of the electronic system that processes
payments. All necessary information is exchanged between the portal through
which you make the payment. This could be your mobile phone, an e-commerce
website, or even a voice response service that is interactive. The details of the
purchaser’s cards are validated by the portal with the bank which has issued the
debit or credit cards.
Basic Database Management Terminology
Data: Data is a collection of Raw facts that can be recorded and it should be
abstract in nature.
Example: student marks, customer names, department data etc.
Information: Data with some added meaning is called information.
Example: student mark sheet, department information.
Record: Record is a collection of logically related data or it is a line of data in a
table about one item.
Example: In the student database there would be a student table and each student
would have a row (a record) for them.
Database: The database is a collection of records or a collection of logically
related data.
DBMS: DBMS is a of set of programs or a software to access the database.
Application of DBMS:
Banking
Tele communications
Reservations Systems
Sales
Scientific Applications
The goal of DBMS: DBMS is used for effective storage and retrieval of data from
a database.
Rows/Record/Tuple: A single row of tables is called a Record or Tuple.
Column/Attribute: A single column of the table is called an attribute. Attributes
are also called characteristics. The characteristics of the tuple are represented by
attributes or fields.
Degree of a Relation: The number of columns/attributes in a Table/Relation is
called the degree of relation.
Cardinality: The number of Rows/ Records/ Tuples in a Table/Relation is called
Cardinality.

Student database
Student name Roll no. class Subjects
A 1 BCA I ITC
B 2 BCA I ITC
C 3 BCA I ITC
Table/Relation: Table/Relation is a Two-dimensional array of data and it can’t
contain duplicate rows.
Domain: A domain is a collection of all possible values of one or more attributes.
Functions of DBMS:
 It must give facility for defining the database structure also specifies access
rights to authorized users.
 The DBMS must-have functions like insertion of record into database
updation of data, deletion of data, retrieval of data.
 The DBMS must share data items for multiple users by maintaining
consistency of data.
 It must protect the database against unauthorized users.
 If for any reason the system fails DBMS must facilitate database recovery

Advantages of DBMS:
 Minimal Data Redundancy
 Improved Data Consistency
 Improved Data Sharing
 Improved Quality

The Disadvantages of DBMS

 DBMS software and hardware cost is high
 The processing overhead by the DBMS for implementation of security,
integrity, and sharing of the data.
 Setup of the database system requires more knowledge, money, skills, and
time.
 The complexity of the database may result in poor performance

The Architecture of DBMS:

A database management system that provides three levels of data is called a
three-level architecture. It is developed by E.F. Codd at IBM Laboratory.
External level
Conceptual level
Internal level
External level:
It is also known as the user view of the database and this view is closer to
the end-user. This level describes that part of the database which is relevant
to each user. Each user can have their own view for the same database.

Conceptual level:
It is also called a logical view of the database. It hides the internal details of
physical storage. It describes what data is stored and the relationship
between the data. This level contains the logical structure of the database.
This level represents all entities, attributes, and relations.

Internal level:
It is the lowest level of architecture. It deals with the physical representation
of data. It describes how the data is stored. It includes storage structure,
allocation techniques such as indexing, hashing, pointers, etc. It is also
known as the physical level.