Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477

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Applied Soft Computing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/asoc

Modeling of steady state hot flow behavior of API-X70 microalloyed

steel using genetic algorithm and design of experiments
H. Abarghooei a,∗ , H. Arabi b , S.H. Seyedein c , B. Mirzakhani d
a
School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), P.O box: 16846-13114, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
b
Center of Excellence for High Strength Alloys Technology (CESAT), School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, IUST, P.O box: 16846-13114, Narmak,
Tehran, Iran
c
School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, IUST, P.O box: 16846-13114, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
d
Department of Materials Engineering, Arak University, P.O box: 38156-12879, Sardasht, Arak, Markazi Province, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: API-X70 microalloyed steel is one of the most conventional materials that has been used to produce the
Received 29 May 2014 pipelines used in oil and gas industry. This steel is produced by thermo mechanical processing (TMP).
Received in revised form Prediction of steady state hot flow behavior of metals during TMP, for design of its forming process is
19 September 2016
of great importance. In this research, flow curves of API-X70 were obtained using hot torsion test at
Accepted 17 October 2016
temperature range of 950–1150 ◦ C and strain rates of 0.001–3 s−1 . Genetic algorithm (GA) was used to
Available online 21 October 2016
find parameters of steady state stress semi-empirical model in the way that minimizing the difference
between experimental data and model output. The optimal combination of GA parameters were chosen by
Keywords:
Dynamic recrystallization Taguchi design of experiments(DOE) method in order to increase efficiency of GA. Accuracy of developed
Microalloyed steel model to predict flow stress in steady state region was evaluated through statistical methods. Results
Sellars and Mc Tegart equation showed a good agreement between developed model and experimental data with R2 = 0.99 and this model
Steady state flow stress can predict steady state flow stress well.
Genetic algorithm © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Design of experiments
Taguchi method

1. Introduction
Hot deformation often refers to a type of metal working, in
which deformation occurs under certain conditions of tempera-
.
tures T and strain rates ε (usually at T ≥ 0.6Tmelt and strain rates
−1
between 0.5 and 500 s ). The reason to apply this kind of metal
forming is due to softening of metals phenomenon which results in
achieving large strains with essentially no strain hardening. There
are two mechanisms responsible for softening in hot deformation
depending on the nature of metal. In materials with high stacking
fault energy (SFE) such as Aluminum and alpha iron, in which the
dislocation dissipation is difficult, dynamic recovery (DRV) is only
the softening mechanism. In this case, flow stress tends to rise with
increase in strain to a point where the rate of work hardening stays
in balance with the rate of softening. In this condition, steady state
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hossein.abarghooei@gmail.com (H. Abarghooei),
arabi@iust.ac.ir (H. Arabi), seyedein@iust.ac.ir (S.H. Seyedein),
b-mirzakhani@araku.ac.ir (B. Mirzakhani).
is established where the flow stress reaches plateau and dislocation
density remains constant [1,2].
However in metals with a lower stacking fault-energy like
austenite phase in steels in response to increasing strain at high
temperatures and low strain rates, stress rises to a maximum value,
followed by a decrease to a steady-state flow stress by the mech-
anism of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) [3–5]. The difference in
the stress/strain curves for the two types of metals are shown in
Fig. 1.
These dynamic restoration processes (DRV & DRX) are important
during thermo-mechanical processing (TMP) of metals because
they reduce flow stress during deformation. Furthermore, control
of these processes leads to manufacture of fine grained microal-
loyed steels such as API-X70 which has great application in oil and
gas transmission pipeline manufacturing [6–8].
The most common tests for simulating TMP in laboratory scale
and modelling the effect of dynamic restoration processes on the
flow stress are either hot-torsion or compression tests [1]. There
are various semi-empirical models to express the effect of these
dynamic restoration processes on flow stress. These models which
are known as constitutive equations rely on mathematical rep-
resentations of the flow stress versus effect of strain rate and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2016.10.021
1568-4946/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
472 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477

ing industry, opponent of human player (i.e. artificial intelligence)

Fig. 1. Stress-strain curve for a metal exhibiting (a) dynamic recovery only; (b)
dynamic recrystallization after an initial period of dynamic recovery.
temperature. The hyperbolic-sine equation proposed by Sellars
and McTegart [9] is suitable for analyzing steady state flow stress
data obtained over wide ranges of strain rates and temperatures;
because this equation combines both the power law and exponen-
tial dependences on low and high stress limits, respectively. The
formulation of this equation is as follows [9,10]:
1
1. Q n
 = ˛ sinh−1 [ ε exp( )] (1)
A RT
Where T is absolute temperature (K), R is universal gas constants
J J
( mol.K ), Q is activation energy ( mol ) and A, ␣ and n are material
constants [6,11–13].
There has been much research conducted on the modelling
of hot flow behavior of metals [14,15]. Artificial neural networks
(ANN) has also been used for modelling of hot flow behavior of
metals [16,17]. Many other
methods: such as Monte Carlo simulation have been used for
this purpose as well. Mirzakhani et al. (2011) used finite element
method (FEM) to simulate the hot flow behavior of API X70 steel.
Then least square method has been used to evaluate the models
outputs with experimental data [6].
Genetic algorithm (GA) is a novel and flexible method for sys-
tem identification, which has been widely used in different fields
of science, e.g. in robotics, GA helps the robots to navigate the
path without hitting the objects or losing the way. In engineering
designing, GA is a powerful tool in finding an optimal model with
maximum output and minimum resources consumption. In gam-
uses GA to learn from past experience in order to avoid repeating
previous mistakes and enhance playability of game [18].
The advantage of GA over analytical techniques employed for
modelling of hot flow behavior of metals is that it does not require
any gradient information on model and it provides robust sampling
of the model space [19]. Additionally GA surpasses random Monte-
Carlo simulation because it exploits sampling information through
recombination and crossover to generate better data-fitting solu-
tion. Another method commonly used for modelling of hot flow
behavior of metals is artificial neural networks (ANNs) which may
result in movement toward local minimum. In addition to these
superiorities, GA problem solving strategy involves using “the
strings” fitness to direct the search; therefore they do not require
any problem-specific knowledge of the search space, and they can
operate well on search spaces that have gaps, jumps, or noise. As
each individual string within a population directs the search, the GA
searches, in parallel, numerous points on the problem state space
with numerous search directions; so noise dependence reduces
[18–21].
The goal of this research is to tune the GA parameters using
Taguchi
Design: of Experiments (DOE) method in order to find best com-
bination of GA operation parameters that predict steady state hot
flow behavior of API-X70 steel in the way that minimizing the dif-
ference between experimental data and model output. The results
obtained in this work help to identify hot flow behavior of this grade
of steel, optimizing environment, enhancing quality and reducing
manufacture costs by trial and error.
2. Materials and experimental procedures
Fig. 2 shows the flow chart of experimental procedure in this
research. In order to study the flow behavior, hot torsion tests
were performed in a BHP hot torsion machine. Torsion specimens
were machined from the as-received plates with mean chemical
composition presented in Table 1, with the axis of the torsion
specimen parallel to the rolling direction of the plate. The gauge
length and gauge diameter of the torsion specimens were 20 mm
and 6.7 mm, respectively. The tests were carried out at strain rates
0.001–0.5 s−1 and temperature range of 950–1150 ◦ C. Fig. 3 shows
a specimen ruptured at temperature of 950 ◦ C and strain rate of
0.5 s−1 . The thermo-mechanical cycle used to perform hot torsion
tests is shown in Fig. 4. Austenitizing process was performed at
soaking time of 15 min.

GA Block
Geng GA parameters
Evaluang populaon of
values for Npop, Xkeep, Xmut Stop criteria Yes
current generaon by objecve
for each Taguchi funcon Sasfied?
experiment.

No
Performing hot Employing
torsion test Taguchi for
Mutaon Crossover Selecng the parents
designing GA
parameters
combinaon

Introducing GA Signal to
END parameters combinaon Noise(S/N)
with minimum error calculaon

Fig. 2. Flow Chart of activities involved in this study.

 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477
Table 1
The mean Chemical composition of API-X70 steel (%wt).
Element C Mn Si Cu
Weight percent 0.09 1.63 0.32 0.01
Fig. 3. Test specimen a) as received b) after test at 950 ◦ C and strain rate 0.5 s−1.
Fig. 4. Thermo-mechanical cycle of hot torsion tests.
To model the steady state flow behavior of API-X70 steel,
Taguchi method was used as described in Section 5 to find opti-
mal values for GA effective parameters (i.e. population size (Npop),
crossover rate (Xkeep) and mutation rate (Xmut)). For each of
Taguchi experiments GA program coded in Matlab programming
language in Matlab R2013b V 8.2.0.701 environment ran until sat-
isfying the stop criteria. Afterwards, GA outputs were sent back to
Taguchi method for Signal to Noise (S/N) calculation as described in
Section 5. Comparing S/N for all Taguchi experiments, gave the opti-
mal level for GA parameters combination with least error between
model output and experimental data.
3. Theoretical work-genetic algorithm
GA is a member of evolutionary algorithms family based on
Darwin’s theory of evolution which is used to obtain global and
robust solution to optimization problems. GA is a computational
optimization scheme with an unconventional approach which was
developed by John Holland and his colleagues at the University of
Michigan [22]. The algorithm solves optimization problems imitat-
473
P S Nb V Ti N Fe
0.009 0.003 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.002 Remainder
Fig. 5. Indication of a typical chromosome with its genes.
ing nature in the way it has been working for millions of years on the
evolution of life [22,23]. GA works on the chromosomes of the pop-
ulation not on the decision variables. Each chromosome consists of
all decision variables in the objective function. In the current opti-
mization problem, decision variables are unknown parameters of
hyperbolic-sine equation and a chromosome is as shown in Fig. 5.
GA starts by generating an initial population of chromosomes.
The fitness values of each chromosome is evaluated by objective
function of the optimization problem. From now on, GA evolu-
tion starts from generation to generation. In order to produce new
generation, the parent chromosomes needed for breeding a new
child are first selected based on their fitness value and are put
into the mating pool. The selection method used in this research
was Roulette Wheel selection [24] with 2 degrees of elitism. The
crossover operator creates an opportunity for selected chromo-
somes to yield new chromosomes. For this purpose, parents are
selected two by two to produce new offspring. The crossover
method used in this research was simulated binary crossover (SBX)
(see Appendix A) [24–26]. The offsprings go through mutation
with some of their genes being changed. Applying mutation while
moving from current population to the next population causes
versatility in the new generation and this is keystone towards
achieving optimal solution [27]. The mutation method used in
this research was random mutation (see Appendix A) [24,27]. GA
sequence stops when the predefined value of maximum genera-
tion (i.e. 1000 generations in this research) is reached or error is
less than a certain value [27].
4. Implementation of GA for modelling
According to Sellars and McTegart equation the range of the
unknown parameters for API-X70 steel are listed below:
3 × 1011 ≤ A ≤ 3 × 1013 (2)
474 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477

Table 2 Table 3
GA parameters with three level for each of them. Taguchi L9 array.

Level Experiment P1 P2 P3

Parameter L M H 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
Npop 40 80 120 3 1 3 3
Xkeep 0.45 0.65 0.85 4 2 1 1
Xmut 0.05 0.1 0.15 5 2 2 3
6 2 3 1
7 3 1 3
8 3 2 1
250000 ≤ Q ≤ 500000 (3) 9 3 3 2

60 ≤ ˛ ≤ 150
2 ≤ n ≤ 6.5
The above value are considered based on reported values for
microalloyed steels [6,12,28,29].
The goal of application of GA in this research is to determine
the unknown parameters of hyperbolic sine equation in the way
that error between outcome of GA and real measurements becomes
least. For this purpose, root mean squared error (RMSE) between
cost of each chromosome and experimental value is used as objec-
tive function as below [18,30]:

 minimize error between experimental data and model output; so
 1  N
(4)
times in order to get more accurate results. 3 representatives1 were
(5) chosen out of 1000 repetitions in the way that completely cover the
range.
Taguchi method, deals with two kinds of factors: Controllable
factors and noise factors. Noise factors are a kind of factors that
cannot be controlled directly. When elimination of these factors
is impossible, Taguchi method tries to minimize their effect and
specify optimal level of controllable factors. In Taguchi method,
repeated data are transformed into “S/N” ratio, in which “S” rep-
resents desirable values of signals and “N” is representative of
undesirable values of noise [26]. The objective is to maximize S/N in
order to minimize undesirable values. In this research, the aim is to

RMSE =  ( (predicti − exp erimenti )2 ) (6) the following relation called “smaller is better” is used to calculate
Npop values of S/N [33,34]:
i=1

1
n
S
Where predict is the output stress from GA, exp eriment is the stress = −10. log( RMSEi2 ) (7)
N n
obtained from torsion test and Npop is the number of population. i=1

Where n is number of repetition of experiments and RMSE is the

5. Tuning of GA parameters output of GA.

Tuning of GA parameters has great influence over model output
[27]. Using high values for Npop , increases the run time, restricting
how many chances each individual has to explore its neighbor-
hood. On the other hand, using low values for Npop may not give
good coverage of search space resulting in an inaccurate answer
after going through certain generations. There is also an optimal
value for Xkeep . Higher values than optimal, increases the popula-
tion recombination causing the removal of useful chromosomes in
current generation and replacing them with harmful ones. Lower
values than optimal may make the population stationary through
generations decreasing the chance to converge. Higher than opti-
mal values for Xmut , can cause the GA to jump over a solution that
it was close to. Using lower than optimal values can make GA get
stuck in local minima [27,31]. Besides adapting improper values for
GA parameters causes loss of genetic diversity of the GA population,
being the main reason for premature convergence which prohibits
GA to converge in global optimum in reasonable time [32].
From what discussed above, it is reasonable to tune GA param-
eters by means of mathematical and statistical
methods: known as DOE
methods: Taguchi is a DOE method, in which orthogonal arrays
are used to find optimal values for great number of system param-
eters by a few number of experiments.
In this research, the aim is to find optimal values for GA parame-
ters in order to get minimum error as GA output. Parameters which
can affect the output of GA are Npop , Xkeep and Xmut . For each of
these parameters (factors), three levels have been considered as in
Table 2. In this table, L, M and H represent Low, Medium and high
respectively. By looking up in Taguchi arrays standard table [33], L9
array with 9 proposed experiments as shown in Table 3 was used
to tune GA parameters. Each of these 9 experiments, repeated 1000
6. Results and discussion
Table 4 shows the L9 array experiments with value of RMSE
and S/N for each experiment. As discussed before, greater S/N ratio
means better results have been attained from GA. To find optimal
level for each factor, mean of S/N should be calculated for each level.
Fig. 6 shows calculated means of S/N for each level of the factors
used.
It can be concluded from Fig. 6 that the optimal level for popu-
lation size, crossover rate and mutation rate are 120, 0.45 and 0.1
respectively. Because this combination was not one of proposed
experiments in Table 4, so it must be verified to find out whether it
has the highest S/N among all experiments in Table 4. Table 5 shows
the RMSE and S/N values for three representatives of verification
experiment. It can be seen that the S/N value in this experiment is
highest among experiments presented in Table 4 and the RMSE is
the least; so it can be concluded that values introduced from Table 5
are optimal ones.
Fig. 7 shows the error- generation diagram for the model based
on Sellars and McTegart equation. As it is shown in this figure, the
error for the model with initial population is 700 MPa which is very
far from final error (i.e. 4.206 MPa) after 400 generation.
The comparison of final values for the model constants with
values from other researches [6,29] are listed in Table 6. The cal-
culated values for these constants are in a reasonable agreement
1
For each set of GA parameters, the coded program automatically repeated the
experiment 1000 times and among 1000 results, the one with highest error, the
one with lowest error and the one with median error have been introduced as
representative 1, 2 & 3 of the experiments respectively.
 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477 475

Table 4
L9 array experiments with RMSE error and S/N values.

No. Experiments Npop Xkeep Xmut Representative 1 Representative 2 Representative 3 S/N

1 40 0.45 0.05 4.803 4.393 4.575 −13.243

2 40 0.65 0.1 4.637 4.403 4.422 −13.042
3 40 0.85 0.15 6.743 5.077 5.772 −15.422
4 80 0.45 0.1 4.398 4.235 4.390 −12.753
5 80 0.65 0.15 4.990 4.370 4.405 −13.250
6 80 0.85 0.05 7.089 4.900 4.940 −15.170
7 120 0.45 0.15 4.364 4.246 4.294 −12.673
8 120 0.65 0.05 4.909 4.570 4.820 −13.570
9 120 0.85 0.1 5.011 4.810 4.833 −13.778

Fig. 6. Variation Mean S/N versus a)Npop levels b)Xkeep levels c)Xmut levels.

Table 5
RMSE, S/N and Attained values for constitutive equation parameters by using GA with optimal factors.

Attained values for parameters

Representative No. A Q ␣ n RMSE(Mpa) S/N

1 1.248× 1012 296911.952 122.610 6.500 4.257 −12.531

2 1.129× 1012 300058.512 122.465 6.008 4.206
3 1.554× 1012 304861.278 120.344 6.010 4.232
476 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477

Fig. 7. RMSE-Generation error diagram towards reaching minimum value.

Fig. 8. Comparison between measured and predicted stress in various temperatures, grain sizes and strain rates.

Table 6 square method to find unknown parameters of hyperbolic sine

Calculated results from GA run for constitutive equation modelling.
equation [6].
A(s−1 ) Q(kJ/mol) ␣(MPa) n Kao et al. (2010) compared the robustness and prediction accu-
Current paper 1.13 × 10 12
300.59 122.47 6.01
racy of the LSM and the GA. According to their results, GA is a much
Mirzakhani et al. [6] 3.50 × 1012 352.00 73.51 6.02 more robust optimization method than LSM [36]. In another study,
Y. Xu et al. [29] 1.24 × 1012 393.00 83.33 4.70 Karr et al. (1991 & 1995) compared the results of application of GA
and LSM. Based on their study GA results were comparable to, or
better than, solutions determined by LSM [37,38].
with reported values for microalloyed steels in other researches
Fig. 8 shows that the model can capture the effect of work hard-
[6,29,35].
ening and dynamic recrystallization on the steady state flow stress
of API-X70 during hot deformation with great accuracy.
6.1. Validating results

By substituting attained values for constants in equation 1, 7. Conclusion

a comparison between experimental and predicted stress strain
data was accomplished in different temperatures and strain rates.
The results are presented in Fig. 8. This comparison shows that
good agreement was obtained with determination coefficient of
R2 =0.99 and RMSE = 4.206 MPa. For the same experimental con-
ditions, R2 =0.98 and RMSE = 5.936 MPa has been acquired by
Mirzakhani et al. (2011) applying FEM for modelling and least
In this paper, hot torsion test for API-X70 steel was performed at
temperature ranges of 950–1150 ◦ C and strain rates of 0.001–3 s−1 .
GA was used to find unknown parameters of hyperbolic sine model
in the way that minimizing the difference between experimen-
tal data from hot torsion testing and model output. The optimal
combination of GA parameters were chosen by Taguchi design of
 H. Abarghooei et al. / Applied Soft Computing 52 (2017) 471–477
experiments (DoE) method in order to decrease run time, avoid
sticking in local minima and premature convergence. Accuracy of
developed model to predict flow stress in steady state region was
evaluated through statistical methods.
The optimal parameters for steady state flow stress were
A = 1.129×1012 , Q = 300058.512, ␣= 122.465 and n = 6.008. Results
showed that the model can predict the effect of work hardening and
dynamic recrystallization on the steady state flow stress of API-X70
during hot deformation with good accuracy.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to acknowledge national Iranian gas com-
pany (NIGC) and Mr. F. Parham for providing support for this
research.
Appendix A.
Methods used in this article for crossover and mutation
The population in GA consists of some chromosomes which they
themselves are made from some genes. Answers are stored in these
genes. The initial population is usually created randomly based on
the defined constraint for each gene as follows:
geneij = (pup − plow ).rij + plow (A.1)
When pup and plow are upper and lower bound for each parameter
and r is a random number in (0,1) range and geneij is a gene in row
i and column j in the matrix of population.
Crossover
The SBX formulation is as follows:
pnew1 = 0.5[(1 + ˇq )pm + (1 − ˇq )pd ] (A.2)
pnew2 = 0.5[(1 − ˇq )pm + (1 + ˇq )pd ] (A.3)
When pm and pd are corresponding genes in parents’ chromosomes
and pnew1 and pnew2 are the same genes as in parents, in offspring
chromosomes. ␤q is a function defined as below:
⎧ [26] S. Sumathi, P. Surekha, Computational Intelligence Paradigms: Theory and
⎪ 1
⎪
⎨ c + 1
if u ≤ 0.5
ˇq = (A.4)
⎪
⎪
1
⎩ c + 1
otherwise
In which ␩c is a parameter considered to be 3 in this research.
Mutation
The mutation method used in this research was random muta-
tion as follows:
pnew = r(pup − plow ) (A.5)
In which pup and plow are upper and lower limit of constraints for
each gene respectively and r is a random number in (0,1) range.
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