CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

5.1 Introduction
Previous chapters dealt with stresses acting over cross sections of members. This chapter
discusses methods of finding the normal and shear stresses acting on inclined sections
through the members.

5.2 Plane stress and strain

The stress conditions encountered in axially loaded bars, shafts in torsion and beams are
examples of a state of stress called plane stress. To analyze plane stress, consider an
infinitesimal element shown in Fig. 5.1(a). The element is a rectangular parallelepiped
with its edges parallel to the x, y and z axes. The faces of the element are designated by
the directions of their outward normals.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. 1: Elements in plane stress

In plane stress, only the x and y faces of the element are subjected to stresses, and all of
the stresses act parallel to the x and y axes (Fig. 5.1(b)). The symbols of the stresses have
the following meanings. A normal stress 𝜎 has a subscript that identifies the face on
which the stress acts. A shear stress τ has two subscripts; the first denotes the face on
which the stress acts, and the second gives the direction on that face.

A shear stress is positive when it acts on a positive face of the element in the positive
direction of an axis, and it is negative when it acts on a positive face in the negative
direction of an axis.

1
Recall that shear stresses on perpendicular planes are equal in magnitude and have
directions such that both stresses point toward, or away from, the line of intersection of
the faces. Hence:

τxy = τyx .................................................. (5.1)

For convenience in sketching plane stress elements, only two dimensional view of the
element is shown (Fig. 5.1(b)). However, it should be noted that the element is a solid
body with a constant thickness perpendicular to the plane of the figure.

Stress on inclined section

NB: The stress system is known in terms of coordinate system xy. We want to find the
stresses in terms of the rotated coordinate system x1y1. Why? A material may yield or fail
at the maximum value of σ or τ. This value may occur at some angle other than θ = 0.
(Remember that for uniaxial tension the maximum shear stress occurred when = 45° )

To portray the stresses acting on an inclined section, consider stress element whose faces
are parallel and perpendicular to the inclined section (Fig. 5.1(c)). Associated with this
new element are axes x1, y1 and z1 such that z1 coincide with the z axis and the axes 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
are rotated counter-clockwise through an angle θ with respect to the x,y axes. The normal
and shear stresses acting on this rotated element are denoted by 𝜎𝑥1 , 𝜎𝑦1 , 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑦1𝑥1 .

Consider a wedge-shaped element whose inclined face is the 𝑥1 face of the rotated
element and whose other two side faces are parallel to the x and y axes (Fig. 5.2(a)).
To write equations of equilibrium, the forces acting on the faces are obtained. Let the area
of the left-hand side face be A0. Then the normal and shear forces acting on the faces are
as shown in Fig. 5.2(b).

2
 Areas

θ
A0.secθ
A0

A0.tanθ
(a) Stresses (b) Forces

Fig. 5. 2: Wedge-shaped stress element in plane stress

Summing forces in the x1 direction:

𝜎𝑥1 𝐴0 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − 𝜎𝑥 𝐴0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜎𝑦 𝐴0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 … (5.2)

Summing forces in the y1 direction:

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 𝐴0 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + 𝜎𝑥 𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜎𝑦 𝐴0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐴0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 … (5.3)

Using the relationship 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and simplifying and rearranging,

𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……………………… (5.4)
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ………………… (5.5)

The equations (5.4) and (5.5) can be expressed in a useful alternate form by introducing
the following trigonometric identities:
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2 2 2

Thus equations (5.4) and (5.5) become:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 …… (5.6)
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 …………… (5.7)
2
3
These equations are known as the transformation equations for plane stress because
they transform the stress components from one set of axes to another.
Similarly, the normal stress σy1 acting on the y1 face of the rotated element (Fig. 5.1(c)) can
be obtained from Eqn (5.6) by substituting θ+90o for θ; thus

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦1 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 …………… (5.8)
2 2

Summing Eqns (5.6) and (5.8) gives:

𝜎𝑥1 + 𝜎𝑦1 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ……………………… (5.9)

which shows that the sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of a plane
stress element is constant, and hence, independent of the angle θ.

Special cases:
*Uni-axial stress state: When all stresses acting on the xy element are zero except for the
normal stress 𝜎𝑥 (Fig. 5.3(a)). The corresponding transformation equations are obtained
by setting σy and τxy in Eqns (5.6) and (5.7) equal to zero, thus:

𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ……………………………… (5.10)

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −𝜎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …………………… (5.11)

(a) Uniaxial stress (b) Pure shear (c) Biaxial stress

Fig. 5. 3: Special conditions of stress states

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*Pure shear: the transformation equations are obtained by substituting σx = 0 and σy = 0
into Eqns (5.6) and (5.7) for Fig. 5.3(b):
𝜎𝑥1 = 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ………………………… (5.12)

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ………………… (5.13)

*Biaxial stress: a stress condition in which the xy element is subjected to normal stresses
in both the x and y directions without shear stresses (Fig. 5.3(c)). The equations for biaxial
stress are obtained from Eqns (5.6) and (5.7) by dropping the terms containing τxy.

Example 1:
An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses σx = 110MPa, σy = 40MPa and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 =
28𝑀𝑃𝑎. Determine the stresses acting on an element rotated through an angle θ = 45o.

Solution:
The stresses are given by Eqns (5.6), (5.7) and (5.8), thus;

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
But:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
= 75 𝑀𝑝𝑎,
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
= 35 𝑀𝑝𝑎, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠900 = 0
2

Thus, 𝜎𝑥1 = 75 𝑀𝑝𝑎 + 35 𝑀𝑝𝑎(0) + 28 𝑀𝑝𝑎(1) = 103 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −35 𝑀𝑝𝑎(1) + 28 𝑀𝑝𝑎(0) = −35 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜎𝑦1 = 75 𝑀𝑝𝑎 − 35 𝑀𝑝𝑎(0) − 28 𝑀𝑝𝑎(1) = 47 𝑀𝑝𝑎

Example 2:
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element hereunder.
Determine the stresses acting on an element oriented 30° clockwise with respect to the
original element.

5
Solution:
Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention: σx = - 80 MPa, σy = 50 MPa,
τxy = - 25 MPa
We need to find σx1, σy1, and τx1y1 when θ = -30°.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
But:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
= −15 𝑀𝑝𝑎,
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
= −65 𝑀𝑝𝑎, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−600 = −0.866, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠600
2
= 0.5

Thus, 𝜎𝑥1 = −15 − 65(0.5) − 25(−0.866) = −25.86 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 65(−0.866) − 25(0.5) = −68.79 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑦1 = −15 + 65(0.5) + 25(−0.866) = −4.15𝑀𝑃𝑎

6
5.3 Principal stresses
The transformation equations for plane stress show that the normal stress 𝜎𝑥1 and shear
stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 vary continuously as the element is rotated through the angle θ. For design
purposes, the largest positive and negative stresses are usually needed. The maximum
and the minimum normal stresses are known as the principal stresses.

The principal stresses are obtained by taking the derivative of σx1 w.r.t θ and setting it
equal to zero, thus:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

𝑑𝜎𝑥1 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
= (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = 0
𝑑𝜃 2

𝑑𝜎𝑥1
= −(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = 0
𝑑𝜃
which leads to:
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .4.14
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

The subscript p indicates that the angle θp defines the orientation of the principal planes,
which are the planes on which the principal stresses act. There are two values of 2θp in
the range 0 - 360°, with values differing by 180°. There are two values of θ p in the range
0 - 180°, with values differing by 90°. So, the planes on which the principal stresses act
are mutually perpendicular, Fig. (5.4).

We can now solve for the principal stresses by substituting for θ p in the stress
transformation equation for σx1. This tells us which principal stress is associated with
which principal angle.

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

7
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑅2 = [ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
R 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝 =
2θp 2𝑅
(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )/2
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 =
𝑅
Fig. 5. 4

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎1 = + ( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ( )
2 2 2𝑅 𝑅

Substituting for R and re-arranging gives the larger of the two principal stresses:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 = √
+ [ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ……………………… (5.15)
2 2
To find the smaller principal stress, use σ1 + σ2 = σx + σy.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎1 = − √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ……… (5.16)
2 2

The Eqns (5.15) and (5.16) can be combined to give the principal stresses as:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ………………………… (5.17)
2 2
To find out which principal stress goes with which principal angle, we could use the
equations for 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑝 and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑝 or for 𝜎𝑥1 . The planes on which the principal stresses act
are called the principal planes.

Compare the equations for 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥1 /𝑑𝜃 = 0

(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 0
2

−(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 0

8
 𝑑𝜎𝑥1
= −(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = 0
𝑑𝜃

Solving either equation gives the same expression for tan 2θp. Hence, the shear stresses
are zero on the principal planes.

In summary we have principal stresses as

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

And the Principal Angles defining the Principal Planes

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

Example 3:
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element hereunder.
Determine the principal stresses and draw the corresponding stress element.

Solution:
Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention: σ x = -80 MPa σy = 50 MPa
and τxy = -25 MPa

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 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = √
± [ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
But:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
= −15 𝑀𝑝𝑎,
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
= −65 𝑀𝑝𝑎, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−600 = −0.866, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠600
2
= 0.5

𝜎1,2 = −15 ± √[65]2 + [−25]2

𝜎1,2 = −15 ± 69.64

𝜎1 = 54.64 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −84.64 𝑀𝑝𝑎

2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥 (−25)
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝 = = = 0.385
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 (−80 − 50)

2𝜃𝑝 = 21.040 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (21.04 + 180)0

𝜃𝑝 = 10.50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 100.50

But we must check which angle goes with which principal stress

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥1 = −15 + (−65)𝑐𝑜𝑠2(10.50 ) + (−25) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(10.50 ) = −84.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜎1 = 54.64 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃 𝑝1 = 100.50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −84.64 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃 𝑝2 = 10.50

10
5.4 Maximum shear stresses
To find the maximum shear stress, we must differentiate the transformation equation for
shear.
(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

𝜏𝑥1𝑦1
= −(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = − ( ) ……………… (5.18)
2𝜏𝑥𝑦

There are two values of 2θs in the range 0 - 360°, with values differing by 180°. There are
two values of θs in the range 0 - 180°, with values differing by 90°. So, the planes on which
the maximum shear stresses act are mutually perpendicular. Because shear stresses on
perpendicular planes have equal magnitudes, the maximum positive and negative shear stresses
differ only in sign.

We can now solve for the maximum shear stress by substituting for θ s in the stress
transformation equation for τx1y1.
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = − ( )
2𝜏𝑥𝑦

(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅2 = [ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2
R (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦)
2 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠 =
2θs 𝑅
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 = −
Fig. 5. 5 2𝑅

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 …… (5.19)
2

11
Use equations for 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑠 and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑠 or 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 to find out which face has the positive shear
stress and which the negative. What normal stresses act on the planes with maximum
shear stress?
Substitute for 𝜃𝑠 in the equations for 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜎𝑦1 to get

(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑦1 − = 𝜎𝑠 ……………… (5.20)
2

Example 4:
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element hereunder.
Determine the maximum shear stresses and draw the corresponding stress element.

Solution:
Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention: σx = -80 MPa, σy = 50 MPa
and τxy = -25 MPa

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑠 =
2 2

12
 −80 − 50 2 −80 + 50
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[ ] + (−25)2 = 69.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑠 = = −15 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 −80 − 50
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = − ( ) = −( ) = −2.6
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(−25)

2𝜃𝑠 = −69.00 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = (−69.0 + 180)0

𝜃𝑠 = −34.50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 55.50

But we must check which angle goes with which shear stress.
(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

(−80 − 50)
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(−34.5) + (−25)𝑐𝑜𝑠2(−34.5) = −69.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎
2

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 69.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 55.50

𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −69.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜃𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −34.50

Relationship between principal stresses and maximum shear

We can ask how the principal stresses and maximum shear stresses are related and how
the principal angles and maximum shear angles are related.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

13
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 2√[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2

But as per Eqn. (5.19)

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2
Therefore
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = − ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝 =
2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

−1
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = = −𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝

𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃𝑝 = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝
+ =0
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑝 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑝 = 0

cos(2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 ) = 0
2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = ±900

𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑝 = ±450

𝜃𝑠 = 𝜃𝑝 ± 450

So, the planes of maximum shear stress (𝜃𝑠 ) occurs at 450 to the principal planes (𝜃𝑝) .

14
5.5 Mohr’s Circle for Stress and Strain
5.5.1 Introduction
The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in a graphical format
known as Mohr’s circle. This representation is useful in visualizing the relationships
between normal and shear stresses acting on various inclined planes at a point in a
stressed body.

We have the transformation equations as

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

If we vary θ from 0° to 360°, we will get all possible values of σ x1 and τx1y1 for a given
stress state. It would be useful to represent σx1 and τx1y1 as functions of θ in graphical
form. To do this, we re-write the transformation equations.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2

Eliminate θ by squaring both sides of each equation and adding the two equations
together.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
[𝜎𝑥1 − ] + 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 2 = [ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 …………………… (5.21)
2 2

Let 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 and R be

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

15
Substitute for 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 and R in Eqn (5.21) to obtain
2
(𝜎𝑥1 − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) + 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 2 = 𝑅 2 ………………… (5.22)

This is the equation for a circle with centre (σavg,0) and radius R. This circle is usually
referred to as Mohr’s circle, after the German civil engineer Otto Mohr (1835-1918). He
developed the graphical technique for drawing the circle in 1882. The construction of
Mohr’s circle is one of the few graphical techniques still used in engineering. It provides
a simple and clear picture of an otherwise complicated analysis.

5.5.2 Sign convention for Mohr’s circle

Fig. 5. 6: Sign convention for Mohr’s circle

Notice that shear stress is plotted as positive downward. The reason for doing this is that
2θ is then positive counter-clockwise, which agrees with the direction of 2θ used in the
derivation of the transformation equations and the direction of θ on the stress element.
Notice that although 2θ appears in Mohr’s circle, θ appears on the stress element.

4.5.3 Procedure for Constructing Mohr’s Circle

1. Draw a set of coordinate axes with 𝜎𝑥1 as abscissa (positive to the right) and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1
as ordinate (positive downward).
2. Locate the centre of the circle C at the point having coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 and
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0.

16
 3. Locate point A, representing the stress conditions on the 𝑥 face of the element by
plotting its coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Note that point A on the circle
corresponds to θ = 0°.
4. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the 𝑦 face of the element by
plotting its coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Note that point B on the circle
corresponds to θ = 90°.
5. Draw a line from point A to point B, a diameter of the circle passing through point
C. Points A and B (representing stresses on planes at 90° to each other) are at
opposite ends of the diameter (and therefore 180° apart on the circle).
6. Using point C as the centre, draw Mohr’s circle through points A and B. This circle
has radius R.

Fig. 5. 7: The Mohr’s circle

5.5.4 Stresses on an Inclined Element

1. On Mohr’s circle, measure an angle 2θ counterclockwise from radius CA, because
point A corresponds to θ = 0 and hence is the reference point from which angles
are measured.

17
2. The angle 2θ locates the point D on the circle, which has coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 .
Point D represents the stresses on the 𝑥1 face of the inclined element.
3. Point E, which is diametrically opposite point D on the circle, is located at an angle
2θ + 180° from CA (and 180° from CD). Thus point E gives the stress on the 𝑦1 face
of the inclined element.
4. So, as we rotate the 𝑥1 𝑦1 axes counterclockwise by an angle θ, the point on Mohr’s
circle corresponding to the 𝑥1 face moves counter-clockwise through an angle 2θ.

Fig. 5. 8: Stress on an inclined element

18
 Fig. 5. 9: Principal stresses

Fig. 5. 10: Maximum shear stress

19
Example 5:
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the stress element hereunder. By use
of Mohr’s circle, determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stresses, and
draw the corresponding stress elements.

Solution:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 −80 + 50
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = −15
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅 = √[ ] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = √652 + 252 = 69.6
2
Draw the circle and obtain the required stresses
𝜎1,2 = 𝑐 ± 𝑅 = −15 ± 69.6 𝜎1 = 54.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −84.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 = 69.6 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑠 = 𝑐 = −15 𝑀𝑝𝑎

20
To calculate the principal angles,

21
Summary
Principal Stresses σ1 = 54.6 MPa, σ2 = - 84.6 MPa but we have forgotten about the third
principal stress!
Since the element is in plane stress (σz = 0), the third principal stress is zero.
σ1 = 54.6 MPa, σ2 = 0 MPa and σ3 = - 84.6 MPa. We usually take σ1 > σ2 > σ3.

This means three Mohr’s circles can be drawn, each based on two principal stresses: σ 1
and σ3; σ1 and σ2; and σ2 and σ3

22
 CHAPTER 6
THEORIES OF FAILURE
6.1 Introduction
When a component is subjected to increasing loads it eventually fails. It is comparatively
easy to determine the point of failure of a component subject to a single tensile force. The
strength data on the material identifies this strength. However when the material is
subject to a number of loads in different directions some of which are tensile and some of
which are shear, then the determination of the point of failure is more complicated.

Metals can be broadly separated into DUCTILE metals and BRITTLE metals. Examples
of ductile metals include mild steel, copper etc. Cast iron is a typical brittle metal.

Ductile metals under high stress levels initially deform plastically at a definite yield point
or progressively yield. In the latter case an artificial value of yielding past the elastic
limit is selected in lieu of the yield point e.g. 2% proof stress. At failure a ductile metal
will have experienced a significant degree of elongation. Brittle metals experience little
ultimate elongation prior to failure and failure is generally sudden.

A ductile metal is considered to have failed when it has suffered elastic failure; that is
when a marked plastic deformation has begun. A number of theories of elastic failure
are recognised including the following:

 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine theory). Can be used with caution for
brittle metals
 Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca theory)
 Distortion energy theory (Von Mises). Favored for ductile metals.

6.2 The maximum principal stress theory (Rankine theory).

The theory is associated with Rankine. This theory is approximately correct for cast iron
and brittle materials generally.

According to this theory failure will occur when the maximum principal stress in a
system reaches the value of the maximum strength at elastic limit in simple tension. For
the two dimensional stress case this is obtained from the formula (Eqn (6.1).

23
 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 1 2
𝜎1 = + 2 √(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) + 4𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 …………………….. (6.1)
2

Fig. 6. 1: Rankine theory

The design Factor of Safety for the two dimensional case:

FoS = Elastic Limit from tensile test / highest principal stress.

Example:
A certain material fractured in a simple tensile test at a stress level of 800 MPa. The same
material when used as part of a structure must have a safety factor of 3. Calculate the
greatest principal stress that should be allowed to occur if failure is based on Rankine’s
theory.

Solution:
SF = 3 = σmax/σ1 = 800/ σ1

σ1 = 800/3 = 266.7 MPa

6.3 The Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca theory).

The theory associated with Tresca and Guest. This is very relevant to ductile metals. It is
conservative and relatively easy to apply. It assumes that failure occurs when a
maximum shear stress attains a certain value: given the value of shear strength at failure

24
in the tensile test. In this instance it is appropriate to choose the yield point at practical
failure. If the yield point = Sy and this is obtained from a tensile test and thus is the sole
principal stress then the maximum shear stress Ssy is easily identified as Sy /2 .

Ssy = Sy /2 ……. (6.2)

In the context of a complicated stress system the initial step would be to determine the
principle stress i.e. σ1, σ1 & σ3 in order of magnitude σ1 > σ2 > σ3, then the maximum shear
stress would be determined from:

Fig. 6. 2: Tresca theory

Maximum Shear Stress = τmax

τmax = Greatest of (σ1 - σ2) /2: (σ2 - σ3)/2: (σ1 - σ3) /2 = (σ1 – σ3) /2 …… (6.3)

The factor of safety selected would be:

FoS = Sy / ( 2 . τ max ) = Sy / ( σ1 - σ3 ) ………. (6.4)

The theory is conservative especially if the yield strength is more than 50% of the tensile
strength.
For the simple case of a tensile stress σx combined with a shear stress τ xy . The design
FOS would be

FoS = Sy / ( σx 2 + 4. τ xy 2 )1/2 …………… (6.5)

25
For a case of a component with σ1 > σ2 both positive (tensile) and with σ3 = 0 then the
maximum shear stress = ( σx - 0 ) / 2

6.4 Distortion Energy Theory (Von Mises theory)

Also called Shear Strain Energy Theory. This theory is also known as the Von Mises
theory.
Detailed studies have indicated that yielding is related to the shear energy rather than
the maximum shear stress. Strain energy is energy stored in the material due to elastic
deformation. The energy of strain is similar to the energy stored in a spring. Upon close
examination, the strain energy is seen to be of two kinds: one part results from changes
in mutually perpendicular dimensions, and hence in volume, with no angular changes:
the other arises from angular distortion without volume change. The latter is termed as
the shear strain energy, which is the primary cause of elastic failure.

It can be shown by strain energy analysis that the shear strain energy associated with the
principal stresses σ1, σ1 & σ3 at elastic failure, is the same as that in the tensile test causing
yield at direct stress Sy when:

(σ1 - σ2) 2 + (σ2 - σ3) 2 + (σ1 - σ3) 2 > = 2 Sy2 …… (6.6)

In terms of 3 dimensional stresses using Cartesian co-ordinates

( σx - σy) 2 + ( σy - σz) 2 + ( σz - σx ) 2 + 6. (τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 ) >= 2 Sy2 …. (6.7)

In terms of plane stress this reduces to.

(σx2 - σx . σy + σy2 + 3 .τ xy2 ) >= Sy2 ………. (6.8)

In terms of simple linear stress combined with shear stress.

Factor of Safety FOS = Sy / ( σx2 + 3 .τ xy2 ) ½ …….. (6.9)

26
Fig. 6. 3: Von Mises theory

27