CHM 101

Course Component

Acids, bases and salts. Redox reactions.

INTRODUCTION
Acids, Bases, and Salts are the main chemical compounds that exist in our
surroundings. Acids, Bases, and Salts are compounds that occur naturally and can
also be created artificially. They are found in various substances including our
food. Vinegar or acetic acid is used as a food preservative. Citrus fruits have citric
acid and etc.

Arrhenius’s Theory of Acid and Base

What is acid, what is base, and what is the difference between acid and base?
these questions are nightmares to chemists in the early 15 and 16 centuries. To
solve these questions a chemist name Arrhenius came up with a theory called

Arrhenius theory.
According to Arrhenius’s theory, a substance that gives H + ion in its aqueous
solution is called acid whereas the substance that ionizes OH – ion in the aqueous
solution is called a Base.
HCl (aqueous solution) ⇌ H+ + Cl–
NaOH (aqueous solution) ⇌ Na+ + OH–
Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acid and Base
Bronsted-Lowry Theory also provides an explanation of acid and base, according
to this theory, acid is an H + ion or a proton donor and it forms its conjugate base
whereas the base is a substance that accepts an H + ion or a proton to form
conjugate acid.

Bronsted-Lowry Acid
According to Bronsted-Lowry acids are substances that donate a proton or H + ion
to the other compound.

Acid ⇌ Proton + Conjugate Base

Example: H2SO4 ⇌ H+ + HSO4–

Bronsted-Lowry Base
According to Bronsted-Lowry bases are substances that accept a proton or H + ion
from other compounds.
Base + Proton ⇌ Conjugate Acid

Example: OH– + H+ ⇌ H2O

What Are Acids

An acid is a substance that is characterized by their ability to produce hydrogen
ions (H+) when dissolved in water as the only positive ions. Acids can be found
naturally in many foods and beverages, including citrus fruits, vinegar, and
fermented products, and they are also used in various industrial processes.
Classification of Acids
Acids are classified into different categories; the classification of acids is
discussed below.
On the basis of their Occurrence
On the basis of their Occurrence acid are subdivided into two categories
 Natural Acid
 Mineral Acids
Natural Acid
Natural acids, often known as organic acids, are acids derived from natural
sources. For example, Methanolic acid (HCOOH), Acetic acid (CH 3COOH),
Oxalic acid (C2H2O4), etc.
Mineral Acids
Mineral acids are acids that are created from minerals. Inorganic acids, man-made
acids, and synthetic acids are all examples of Mineral Acids. For example,
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Carbonic
acid (H2CO3), Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), etc.
On the basis of Concentration
On the basis of Concentration, acids are categorized into two categories
 Strong Acid
 Weak Acid
Strong Acids
Strong Acid is an acid that is totally ionized in aqueous solution and produces
hydrogen ions (H+). For example, Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid
(H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3) etc.

Weak Acids
A weak acid is partially ionized in aqueous solution, to give tiny amount of
hydrogen ions (H+). For example, Acetic acid (CH 3COOH), Carbonic acid
(H2CO3) etc.

Based on Basicity
Basicity is the number replaceable hydrogen ions in one molecule of an acid.
Based on basic ity, acids are categorized into:
Monoprotic acid: This contains one replaceable hydrogen ion. Examples
includes HCl, HCN, CH3COOH
Diprotic acid: This contains two replaceable hydrogen ions. Examples includes
H2SO4, H2SO3
Triprotic acid: This contains three replaceable hydrogen ions. Example includes
H3PO4
Physical Properties of Acids
 Acids have a sour taste
 Acids change blue litmus paper to red
 Acids are corrosive.
 Acids have a low pH
 Acids react with bases to form salts and water:

Chemical Properties of Acid

Acid has various chemical properties few of the following chemical properties of
acids include,
Reaction of acids with metal: When an acid reacts with a metal, it produces
hydrogen gas and the corresponding salt.
Example:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Reaction of acids with metal carbonate: When acids react with metal
carbonates, they produce carbon dioxide gas and salts as well as water.
Example:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates): When acids react

with metal hydrogen carbonates, they produce carbon dioxide gas, salt, and water.
Example:
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Uses of Acid
Acids have various uses some of the important uses of acid are,
 Orange and lemon juice contain a significant amount of citric acid. It
can also be used for food preservation.
 In batteries, sulfuric acid is commonly utilized. This acid is typically
found in the batteries used to start vehicle motors.
 Sulfuric and nitric acid is used in the industrial production of dyes,
explosives, paints, and fertilizers.
 Many soft drinks contain phosphoric acid as the main ingredient
What are Bases?
Bases are chemical compounds that react chemically with acids to yield salts and
water only. ions (OH–) in water. Oxides and peroxides of metals are bases.

Physical Properties of Base

Bases have specific physical properties and they can easily be distinguished by
their physical properties. Some physical properties of bases are:
 Base has a bitter taste
 Bases are soapy to touch
 Base change red litmus to blue
 Aqueous solution of base conducts electricity

Chemical Properties of Base

Bases have various chemical properties few of the following chemical properties
of bases are,
Reaction of Base with Metals: When alkali (base) reacts with metal, salt and
hydrogen gas is produced.
Example:
2NaOH + 2Al + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 2H2
Reaction of Non-Metallic Oxides with Base: Salt and water are formed when
non-metallic oxides react with a base.
Example:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Action of Alkalis/Base with Ammonium Salts
Example:
Ca(OH)2 + NH4Cl → CaCl2 + H2O + NH3
Types of Bases
Acidity, concentration, and degree of ionization are three variables that can be
used to classify bases.
Types of Bases Based on Acidity
The number of hydroxyl ions presents determines acidity in bases. Based on
acidity, bases are classified into three categories:
  Monoacidic
 Diacidic
 Triadic
Monoacidic
Mono-acidic bases are those that contain only one hydroxyl ion and interact with
only one hydrogen ion. Mono-acidic bases include NaOH, KOH, and others.
Diacidic
Diacidic base is a base with two hydroxyl ions that interact with two hydrogen
ions. Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, and other di-acidic bases are examples.
Triacidic
Triacidic base is a type of base that comprises three hydroxyl ions and three
hydrogen ions. Triacidic bases include Al(OH) 3, Fe(OH)2, and others.

Types of Bases Based on their Concentration

Based on their concentration in an aqueous solution, bases are divided into two
categories:
 Concentrated
 Diluted
Concentrated: The concentration of base in these types of bases is higher in the
solution. Concentrated NaOH solution, for example.
Diluted: These types of bases have a lower concentration of base in their aqueous
solution. For instance, dilute NaOH, dilute KOH, and so on.
Types of Bases Based on their Degree of Ionization
The degree of ionization distinguishes two types of bases.
 Strong Base
 Weak Base
Strong Base: A strong base is one that dissociates entirely or to a large extent in
water. For example, NaOH, KOH, and strong bases.
Weak Base: A weak base is one that does not dissolve entirely or only
dissociates to a very little level. For example, NH4OH, and others are weak
bases.
Uses of Bases
Base has various uses some of the important uses of the base are,
 Sodium hydroxide is used in the making of paper and soap. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is also utilized in the production of rayon.
  Bleaching powder is made from Ca(OH) 2, commonly known as calcium
hydroxide or slaked lime.
 Calcium hydroxide is used to create dry mixtures for painting and
decorating.
 In laboratories, ammonium hydroxide is a critical reagent.
 Slaked lime can be used to neutralize any excess acidity in soils.

Alkali
Bases that are easily dissolved in water are called Alkali, in other words, water-
soluble bases are called Alkali. For example, NaOH is an alkali as it dissolves in
water forming Na+ and OH– ions.
Difference between Alkali and Base
Alkali Vs Base

Alkali Base

Water soluble bases are called alkali Bases do not dissolve in water

All alkalis are bases Not all bases are alkali

Alkali releases OH
– Bases neutralise the acid in an acid-
ions on dissolving in water, they also base neutralization reaction.
are proton acceptors.

Examples: KOH, NaOH Examples: ZnOH, CuO

What are Salts

Salt is a compound derived from an acid by replacing all or some part of the
ionisable hydrogen contained in the acid by a metallic ion. Most salts are as a
result of neutralisation products of acids and bases.
Acid + Base Salt +Water
H2CO3 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
Physical Properties of Salt
Salts hav e various physical properties and some of following physical properties
of salts are,
 In nature, the bulk of the salts is crystalline.
 Salts that are transparent or opaque are available.
 The bulk of salts is soluble in water.
 Salt solutions, in their molten state, also transmit electricity.
 The flavor of salt can be salty, sour, sweet, bitter.

Types of Salts
Salts are categorised into various categories some of the important categories are
given below
 Acidic Salt
 Basic or Alkali Salt
 Neutral Salts
Acidic Salt
These salts are formed by the neutralization of strong acids and weak bases.
NH4OH + HCl → NH4Cl + H2O
2NH4OH + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O

Basic or Alkali Salt

A basic salt is formed when a strong base reacts with a weak acid to partially
neutralise it.
H2CO3 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
Neutral Salts
Salts generated by the reaction of a strong acid with a strong base are neutral in
nature. The pH of these salts is 7, which is considered neutral.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H 2O
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Redox Reactions
A redox is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between
two species

The oxidation state of an element corresponds to the number of electrons, that an

atom loses, gains in a chemical reaction

The reducing agent is the reactant that is being oxidized

The oxidizing agent is reactant that is being reduced

A redox (or oxidation-reduction) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that

involves a transfer of electrons between two species.

Redox reactions happen all the time in our everyday life. For example, your body
uses redox reactions to convert food and oxygen to energy + water and CO 2 which
we then exhale.
The batteries in your smartphone and laptop, as well as any other electronics, also
rely on redox reactions.

Practice Questions
1) What are the missing products of the following equation?
2) According to Arrhenius's theory, which of the following substances is considered an acid?

a) A substance that donates a proton b) A substance that accepts a proton

c) A substance that gives off H in aqueous solution d) A substance that forms OH– ions in
aqueous solution

3) What is the classification of acids based on their occurrence?

a) Natural Acids and Synthetic Acids b) Mineral Acids and Organic Acids

c) Strong Acids and Weak Acids d) Monoprotic Acids and Diprotic Acids

4) Which of the following statements about weak acids is true?

a) They are totally ionized in aqueous solution. b) They produce a large amount of hydrogen
ions (H+.) c) They are partially ionized in aqueous solution. d) They have a high pH value.

5) How are Bronsted-Lowry acids defined?

a) Substances that donate a proton (H+ ion) b) Substances that accept a proton (H+ ion)

c) Substances that produce OH– ions in aqueous solution d) Substances that are completely
ionized in water

6) What is the main characteristic of monoprotic acids?

a) They contain one replaceable hydrogen ion. b) They contain two replaceable hydrogen ions.

c) They contain three replaceable hydrogen ions. d) They are completely ionized in aqueous
solution.

7) Which of the following is NOT a physical property of acids?

8) What distinguishes a strong base from a weak base?

a) Their taste b) Their color c) Their degree of ionization in water d) Their reaction with
metals
9) In a redox reaction, which species undergoes oxidation?
a) The reducing agent b) The oxidizing agent c) Both the reducing agent and the oxidizing
agent d) Neither the reducing agent nor the oxidizing agent
10) Which of the following is a physical property of bases?
a) Bitter taste b) Sour taste c) Reduces litmus to red d) Conducts electricity
11)Which of the following is an example of a strong base?
a) NH4OH b) Ca(OH)2 c) Fe(OH)2 d) NaOH
12) What type of base does not dissolve entirely or dissociates to a very little level?
b) a) Strong Base b) Weak Base c) Concentrated Base d) Neutral Base
13) Which ion characterizes bases when dissolved in water?
c) a) H+ b) OH– c) O2- d) Na+
14) What type of salts are formed by the neutralization of strong acids and weak bases?
d) a) Basic salts b) Neutral salts c) Acidic salts d) Alkali salts

15) Which of the following reactions forms a basic or alkali salt?

a) NH4OH + HCl → NH4Cl + H2O b) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O c) H2SO4 + NaOH →
Na2SO4 + 2H2O d) CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
16) What is the result of neutralization between an acid and a base?
a) Salt only b) Water only c) Salt and water d) Gas only
17) Which of the following is a physical property of salts?
a) Salts are always in gaseous state b) Salts are always opaque c) Salts are soluble in water d)
Salts are non-conductors of electricity
18) Which of the following best defines a redox reaction?
b) a) A reaction where electrons are transferred between two species b) A reaction where only
one species undergoes a change in oxidation state c) A reaction where only one species gains
electrons d) A reaction where only one species loses electrons
19) What does the oxidation state of an element represent?
a) The number of neutrons in the nucleus b) The number of protons in the nucleus c) The
number of electrons lost or gained in a chemical reaction d) The number of electrons shared
in a covalent bond
20) Which of the following statements about the reducing agent is true?
a) It is the substance that gains electrons b) It is the substance that loses electrons c) It is the
substance that remains unchanged in a reaction d) It is the substance that facilitates electron
transfer to another species