Sociology

of Food
Culture
OPEN ELECTIVE 4 TH SEM

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 Why do we eat the way we do?

Source: Google Images

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU
 Why do we eat the way we do?

Source: Google Images

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU

 What drives our consumption choices?

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 How is the food produced and distributed?

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COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU
 SOCIOLOGY
Etymology of Sociology: Latin words- ‘socius’ meaning
‘companion’ and ‘logy’ meaning ‘study of’

In the 19th century, a French philosopher, Auguste Comte

wrote a book, “Positive Philosophy”, in which he described the
scientific method of studying society. His contribution to the
scientific study of society led to the development of sociology
as a separate discipline. He is therefore considered as the father
of sociology

Harriet Martineau, an English philosopher, translated Auguste

Comte’s work from French to English, and is regarded as the
first female sociologist.

Sociology is defined as the study of social groups and social

interactions.

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 Study of Food
Food is studied by several fields of study such as:

I. Nutritionists & Dieticians: Study the nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the
relationship between diet, health, and disease

II. Food Science: A multi-disciplinary field involving chemistry, biochemistry, nutrition,

microbiology and engineering to give one the scientific knowledge to solve real problems
associated with the many facets of the food system such as the chemistry of food
components (whether a food has protein, carbohydrates, fats, and so on), food processing
and preservation methods, safety and quality enhancement of food, etc.
III. Agriculture Scientists: They deal with food and fibre production and processing. They
include the technologies of soil cultivation, crop cultivation and harvesting, animal
production, and the processing of plant and animal products for human consumption and
use.

IV. Food Entrepreneurs and Businesses: Interested in understanding consumer behaviour

and food preferences of different ages, genders, regions, income groups, etc.

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 Need for Sociology of Food
Food is the basic biological need of all living beings not just humans. It can be in any form,
solid, semi-solid, or liquid.

Sociology of food perceives food not merely a biological need but also a social need. It
emphasises on:

I. Eating as a social act, even more so- a social event, central to family and public life: Meals
are the foundation of socialization, in two ways- the place to learn the rules of living together
and the place for social interaction. Further, shared meals can be symbols of inclusion and also
exclusion. For example, in several families women are excluded from eating with men and can
eat only after feeding all men in the family. Similarly, several upper caste people do not sit and
eat with lower caste people.

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II. Food as a reflection of identity and expression: Food is a marker of personal and social
identity for sociologists. The way any given human group eats helps it assert its diversity,
hierarchy and organisation, but also, at the same time, both its oneness and the otherness of
whoever eats differently. For example, Bohra Muslim families (a community believed to have
migrated from Yemen to Gujarat) eat together out of one platter called thaal. Similarly,
Kashmiri Muslims have Wazwan (a meat based multi-course meal) together from the same
plate on weddings and special occasions. The similar multi-cuisine traditional recipe of
Kashmiri Pandits is called ‘Phira Saal’.

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III. Food as a matter of cultural values: The ‘values’ in sociology refers to the beliefs of a
society. Hindus, for example, consider cows as holy and therefore do not eat beef. Similarly,
although there is no explicit religious prohibition against it, most Westerners do not eat dog
meat. This unspoken restriction indicates an implicit understanding about animals in
general: Some animals are food, while others are pets or even members of the family.

To sum up, sociology of food and nutrition, thus concentrates on the myriad sociocultural,
political, economic and philosophical factors that influence our food habits—what we eat,
when we eat, how we eat and why we eat.

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 Founding Figures of Sociology of Food
German Sociologist, Georg Simmel’s article Sociology of the
Meal (1910) is considered one of the first known works on
sociology of food.
• He defined meal as an urgent need for all people, since "all
of them must eat and drink" to continue life.
• However, nutrition according to Simmel is an element of
culture and an action that is regulated in society,
prescribing to people: what they should consume, how
regularly, and in what social environment.
• For e.g., in several states of India such as Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, Chhattisgarh,
Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur eggs are not given as part
of mid-day meal although the nutritionists from National
Institute of Nutrition have been persistently recommending
all the state governments to include egg in mid-day meals.

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Further, according to Simmel, importance is given to the etiquette and aesthetics of the
meal, turning it into a socializing process and a marker of the social status of the individual.
For example, in the lower classes, where the meal is mainly centered around the materiality
of food, no typical regulations concerning table manners are developed.

Whereas in privileged groups, meals have value-regulatory codes that regulate the rules of
behavior at the table: how to hold a knife and fork, what topics are suitable for table
conversations, and the order of consumption of different foods is regulated as well (for e.g.,
starting the meal with an appetizer and concluding with a dessert).

Simmel concluded that through:

-- Aestheticization- how food looks
-- Ritualization- the order in which food is eaten
a biological need of survival rises to the level of spiritual attractiveness, transforming food
as a socio-cultural action and identification factor.

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Dame Mary Douglas, a noted British Social Anthropologist,
through her book, Food in the Social Order (1984), contributed
to the cross-cultural study of the moral and social meaning
of food.
• She emphasized the social aspects of food and eating as
opposed to the nutritive and physiological aspects
• Based on her study of the practices of various North and
South American societies, Douglas argued that variations in
meal structure (the order in which different foods are
consumed) and their content (what is considered a complete
meal) inform us about not only daily life but also the larger
society

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 Sacred Foods
Meaning of Sacred: The sacred refers to things set part by humans including religious
beliefs, rites, duties or anything socially defined as requiring special religious treatment.

It is also related to sacrifice which may mean that something is sacred because it derived
from something sacrificed. For example, battlefields and military cemeteries are often
considered sacred.

In ancient times, some temples, mountains, or forests were sacred because animals were
sacrificed to a god in those places.

All food is sacred in the sense that the life of a plant or animal has been sacrificed to feed
another being.

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However, all communities have some foods that
are given special place and are served on special
occasions.

For example, kadha prasad in Sikh community,

Pongal served during the festival of Pongal in
Tamil Nadu, etc.

The sacredness of food emerges from invisible yet

widespread beliefs.

Activity: Think and share some sacred foods of

your community

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 Taboo or Forbidden Foods
Mary Douglas described Taboos as "unwritten social rules that regulate human behaviour"
and define the "in-group"

In simple words, taboo refers to things and actions that are strictly forbidden or not allowed
on the grounds of religious and moral beliefs.

Historically, religion has functioned as a definer of what can be eaten, and what cannot.

In Islam, for instance, the concept of halal and haram is rooted in the Holy Koran (Pickthall,
Chapter 5:3):

“Forbidden unto you (for food) are carrion and blood and swine flesh, and that which
hath been dedicated unto any other than Allah, and the strangled, and the dead through
beating, and the dead through falling from a height, and that which hath been killed by
(the goring of) horns …”

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• Halal meat is the flesh of the animal that has been slaughtered in the Halal and Haram
way prescribed by Qur'an and Hadeeth.
are Arabic words.
Halal refers to
• Pork consumption is considered Haram or forbidden as pig is
considered polluted animal. However, with regard to consumption of lawful or
other animal flesh also Islamic regulations of Halal and Haram apply permissible and
Haram refers to
• Slaughter of the animal should have been carried out in Islamic way unlawful and
(i.e., by a Muslim, the animal must not be dead, animal slaughtered permissible in
through its throat, etc. Islam

Jewish Food Taboos: Jews observe Kosher, a Jewish law or Kashrut concerning dietary
requirements
• Only animals that chew their cud, have cloven hooves and are free from disease are
considered kosher examples include Kosher beef, lamb, chicken, turkey, duck, goose
• Seafood with fins and scales are also allowed
• According to Jewish law, meat and dairy products are forbidden to be combined or eaten at
the same meal
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Many people wait between three to six hours after eating a meal containing meat to have
dairy products
Parve (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, eggs, etc.) foods do not contain any meat or dairy,
therefore they can be eaten with either one.

Similarly, a majority of Hindus consider beef eating as a taboo because in Hinduism, cow
is considered a sacred animal

Taboos are also associated with particular phases of the human life cycle such as
menstrual period, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation.
For example, consumption of papaya is forbidden during pregnancy in several Asian
societies as it is believed to cause miscarriage. Similarly, in some communities such as
Bengalis believe that consumption of tender coconut water during pregnancy can cause
opacity of eyeball for the fetus

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In several societies taboos could be associated with special events such as wedding, funeral,
festivals, etc.
For example, in the pre-Easter weeks of lent, meat consumption is a taboo for believers of
Christianity

Thus, both sacred and taboo foods reflect the wider cultural beliefs of specific societies

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 DETERMINANTS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION
Several factors determine what kind of food items people consume

I. Biological Determinants

a) Hunger & Satiety: While any
food can alleviate hunger, the level
of satiety we experience varies
depending on the food consumed.
For example, fat is the
least satiating, followed by
carbohydrates than protein. In
addition, low energy density diets
have greater satiety than high
energy density diets
b) Palatability increases as the pleasure an individual
experiences from eating a food increases. The taste,
smell, texture and appearance of a food all impact on
the palatability of a food.
For example, sweet foods have a high sensory appeal
and have higher palatability. This means that sweets
are often consumed for its palatability rather than as a
source of energy and nutrients.
It is reported that the higher the palatability of a food,
the higher the consumption

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 II. Economic Determinant
Cost & Income
The cost of food and the ability of an individual to afford specific foods (related to income)
are primary determinants of food choice.
Increasing costs of food (food price inflation) makes it challenging for low income families to
have a balanced diet.
A recent study by Derek Headey and Marie Ruel (2023) of the International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) involved 1.27 million pre-school children from 44 developing
countries. It highlighted that on average, a 5 percent increase in the real price of food in the
past 3 months is associated with a 9 percent higher risk of wasting and a 14 percent higher risk
of severe wasting among preschool children. the research highlights that children who were
exposed to food inflation during the prenatal period or sometime during their first two years
of life were at greater risk of being stunted several years later when they were 2 to 5 years of
age
Thus economic status determines not just the food one consumes but also the kind of health
and opportunities one gets or loses due to their health status

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 III. Physical Determinants

a) Availability & b) Education and Awareness c) Time Constraints

Accessibility
Individuals that are Time constraints often
Availability refers to the educated and aware about
physical presence of diverse prevent individuals from
‘healthy eating’ are more adopting healthy choices,
and nutritious food options, likely to opt for healthy
while accessibility pertains especially, the young and
dietary choices. those who live alone.
to the ease with which
individuals can obtain and This, however, depends on The demand has been met
afford these food items. whether the individual is with the introduction of
able to apply their more ready-to-cook meals
A combination of these knowledge.
factors significantly and pre-packed fruits
influences dietary choices, Educating the population and vegetables which
nutritional intake, and requires accurate and contain preservatives and
overall health outcomes consistent messages negatively impact health

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 IV. Social Determinants

Food choice is influenced by a large number of

factors, including social and cultural factors. Beliefs
about the nutritional quality and health effects of a
food may be more important than the actual
nutritional quality

Likewise various marketing, economic, social,

cultural, religious or demographic factors may act
through the attitudes and beliefs held by the
individual.
Social context also effects food consumption. Social
support (e.g., families) can have a beneficial effect on
individual’s food choice by encouraging and
supporting healthy eating practices. The setting for
food consumption (e.g. home, school, work, and
restaurants) also influence food choices by the
availability of food options
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V. Psychological Determinants: The evidence supporting psychological
determinants and food choice is limited and proposed mechanisms for the
relationship are complex.

i) Stress can trigger changes in human behaviour

that can potentially effect health. ii) Mood: Food can change an
The effect of stress on food choice is complex and individual’s temperament and mood
individualistic: some people consume more food and influences food choice. For
and make unhealthy food choices and others instance, occasionally individuals
consume less food. report food cravings (especially
among women during the
It is believed that stress induced changes may be premenstrual phase), or the dieters
due to changes in motivation (e.g., reduced may experience food cravings and
concern for weight control), physiological (reduced may feel guilty after indulging in
appetite), changes in eating opportunities- food food.
availability and meal preparation

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 Dietary Patterns
Vegetarianism is a dietary practice of eating foods that are
made of plants: beans, legumes, fruits, grains and — most
importantly — no animal flesh

People become vegetarians for many reasons, including

religious convictions, health, concerns about animal
welfare or the use of antibiotics and hormones in
livestock, or a desire to eat in a way that avoids excessive
use of environmental resources. Some people follow a
largely vegetarian diet because they can't afford to eat
meat

Strictly speaking, vegetarians are people who don't eat

meat, poultry, or seafood. But people with many different
dietary patterns call themselves vegetarians, including the
following:
Source: Google Images

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1. Lacto vegetarians: Eat no meat, poultry, fish, or eggs, but do consume dairy products.

2. Lacto-ovo vegetarians: Do not eat meat, poultry, or fish, but do eat eggs and dairy
products

3. Ovo vegetarians: Eat no meat, poultry, fish, or dairy products, but do eat eggs

4. Partial vegetarians: Avoid meat but may eat fish (pescatarian) or poultry (pollo-
vegetarian)

5. Vegans (total vegetarians): Do not eat meat, poultry, fish, or any products derived from
animals, including eggs, dairy products, and gelatin.

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 Spread of Vegetarianism
According to a report published by World Atlas in 2023, the countries with the highest
proportion of vegetarians are:
India 38%
Israel 13%
Taiwan 12%
Italy 10%
Austria 9%

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 Variations in Vegetarianism in India
II. Religious Variations: Based on the 68th
In India, the incidence of vegetarianism differs round of NSSO data, B. Natarajan, an
between states, religions, castes, and gender. Anthropologist and Suraj Jacob, a political
economist, in their research article,
I. Regional Variations: An analysis of the ‘Provincialising’ Vegetarianism (2018),
recent NFHS 5 (2019-21) indicates the highest highlight the following differences in
incidence of vegetarianism in north and central vegetarianism along religious lines:
India — comprising Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, UT of Jammu
and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.

Whereas in the northeast, comprising

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and
Sikkim, vegetarians are an anomaly, with just
about 1 percent reported vegetarians.
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Cont.
II. Religious Variations: Apart from Jains (overwhelmingly vegetarian) and Sikhs (majority
vegetarian), no other religious category is majority vegetarian. Hindus—by far the largest group
in the population—have a little over two-fifths vegetarians in the NSSO estimate. While religions
such as Hinduism and Jainism have injunctions and beliefs against meat-eating, the
vegetarianism among Sikhs is puzzling.

III. Caste-based Variations: The prevailing assumption Incidence of Vegetarianism across

often suggests that meat-eating is predominantly practiced Mega-Caste Categories
among lower castes. The data however, indicates the
presence of meat-eating practices among non-lower castes
as well. Ethnographic studies have documented the
existence of meat-eating among Brahmin communities. For
instance, the meat and fish-eating practices of Kashmiri,
Bengali and Konkani Brahmins, meat-eating by a gotra of
Kanya–Kubja Brahmins (considered strict vegetarians) in
Uttar Pradesh, regular consumption of meat among
Brahmins in Garhwal (Natarajan and Jacob 2018). Thus,
even among castes where vegetarianism is the norm, one
sees the meat consumption to be widespread.
Source: Natarajan and Jacob (2018)
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III. Gender Variations: An analysis of the NFHS 5 data (2019-21), indicates the prevalence of
meat-eating to be higher among men than women across all the states. For example, in
Jammu and Kashmir about 36 per cent of women reported they never ate meat, compared to
only 9 per cent of men. Natarajan and Jacob (2018) propose that a portion of the gender gap
may be related to the fact that men eat outside of the household a lot more than women do,
and with greater moral impunity than women. Another proposition is of the link made
between meat-eating and ideas of “masculinity”

Summing Up: While India is recognized to have the highest average rates of vegetarianism
globally, a meticulous analysis of inter-group variations unveils a diverse landscape.
Regional, religious, caste-based, and gender differences challenge several assumptions
about the widespread uniformity of vegetarian practices in the country. Recognizing these
variations is essential for a more accurate understanding of dietary choices in the richly
diverse tapestry of India

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 Veganism
Veganism is an extreme form of vegetarianism in which people abstain from the consumption and
use of animal products in all forms. Veganism thus goes beyond dietary decisions.

Vegans abstain from using products such as leather goods, wool, silk, beeswax, cosmetics
tested on animals, latex products that contain casein (which comes from milk proteins), and
certain soaps and candles derived from animal fats

Coining of the term: The notion of Veganism has been in existence for several centuries. For
instance, the 18th century utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham believed that animal
suffering was just as serious as human suffering, and compared the idea of human superiority
to racism.
In 1944, a British woodworker, Donald Watson announced that because vegetarians ate dairy
and eggs, he was going to create a new term called “vegan,” to describe people who did not.
Tuberculosis had been found in 40% of Britain’s dairy cows the year before, and Watson used
this to his advantage, claiming that it proved the vegan lifestyle protected people from tainted
food

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By the time Watson died at age 95 in 2005, there were about 250,000 self-identifying vegans in
Britain and 2 million in the U.S.
According to a survey conducted by the Indian Council of Medical Research in 2021, there
were an estimated millions of vegans in India. This number has been steadily increasing year
by year.

Evolution of Veganism: From Animal Rights Advocacy to a Lifestyle Choice

• Nina Gheihman, a Sociologist at Harvard University, traces that veganism at first was
bound to the ideology of the animal-rights movement, and revolved around considering
animals like humans, who can feel pain, and they should be worthy of moral
considerations. Wearing fur and testing cosmetics on animals was questioned by scholars
on these moral grounds.
• Activists then shifted focus to farm conditions and food, which led to the veganism
gradually becoming a “lifestyle movement.”
• Lifestyle movements are those that “consciously and actively promote a lifestyle, a way of
life, as a means to foster social change” (Haenfler and Jones 2012)

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Unlike in social movements, where the source of identity is either an ideology or an ascribed
social characteristic based on social position, in lifestyle movements, the source of identity is
the set of lifestyle choices.

Individuals participate in lifestyle movements simply by taking individual actions that they
subjectively believe have implications beyond their personal lives

Three categories of Lifestyle Advocates

I. Vegan Entrepreneurs III. Vegan Knowledge

Producers

• They create opportunities for • They create educational resources—

consumption—for example, by
starting a vegan meal-kit subscription
service, opening a restaurant, or
stocking plant proteins in their
grocery stores
films, books, and blog posts—that
people circulate to share culinary tips
and advice, or to persuade others to
change diets

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 III. Vegan Meaning Creators

• They change the cultural associations of veganism: “the symbolic essence of what
veganism means,” as Gheihman puts it.
• For e.g., American football player Thomas Brady lend lending his name to a line of meal-
kits from vegan start-up Purple Carrot, he links veganism with the macho physicality of
pro football

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 Flexitarianism
Most consumers can be grouped into- Meat Consumers, Meat Avoiders, and Meat Reducers

The trend toward flexitarian diets (FDs) appears to reflect consumers who are “meat-
reducers,” eating meat within meals on some but not every day of the week, as with typical
“meat-eaters”

Flexitarian is a portmanteau of the terms, flexible and vegetarian. It was created by the
American dietician and media personality, Dawn Jackson Blatner, to help people benefit
from a largely vegetarian diet while still enjoying meat in moderation

A flexitarian diet (FD) or semi-vegetarian diet (SVD) is one that is primarily vegetarian with
the occasional inclusion of meat or fish

The FD seems to recognize the fact that meat is an important source of protein, fat, and
micronutrients, yet also considers the ethical sides, such as the need to avoid intensification
and improve animal welfare.

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It also considers evidence that long-term consumption
of increasing amounts of red meat and particularly
processed meat may increase the risk of mortality,
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain
forms of cancer such as colon cancer

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 Local Foods
The term “local food”, “local food system” or “short food supply chain” embraces various
dimensions.

The definitions of local food are still too vague and contested as they have different
interpretations in places with different agro-food contexts.

Additionally, it is important to highlight a difference between local food—one produced and

consumed locally

Locality food- produced locally and consumed globally

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) defines local food as
essentially those grown, harvested and distributed close to where they are consumed.

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Studies on local food systems indicate that consumers buy local food products because:
• They are supposed to have higher quality (undergo less processing and be fresher)
• To be more nutritious and healthier
• To have a better flavor (emphasizing their authenticity)
• To support the rural areas by offering an ever-growing multiplier effect within the local
economy
• To have an environmentally responsible production process (by reducing the emissions
related to transportation)
The influence of local foods on food culture is inevitable. For example, the extensive use of
coconut in the everyday food preparations of coastal regions such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Goa, are linked to the geographical abundance of coconut in these regions.

The extensive use of red chillis in Andhra cuisine is associated with production of different
varieties of chillies in the region.

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 Traditional Food
Traditional food is a wider concept than local food because while the local food refers to
proximity between the producer and consumer, traditional food travels the time between
different generations.

The meaning of the word “tradition” is often associated with generational transmission.
Hence any knowledge, theory and practice, behaviour, and attitudes that are passed on
from one generation to another is tradition.
Food knowledge and practices that are transmitted from one generation to another are thus
called traditional foods.

According to Bertozzi (1998) a traditional food product is a ‘‘representation of a group, it

belongs to a defined space, and it is part of a culture that implies the cooperation of the
individuals operating in that territory”

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 The definition of traditional food has three components:
• Traditional food represent group identity: Traditional foods form very important foundations
for families and social relationships, in which ultimate satisfaction with food goes beyond
sensory perceptions alone, but is also a matter of shared identities. For instance, Dhokla,
Khakra, Thepla, represent Gujarati identity, Vada pav Maharashtrian identity, etc.

• Geographical Origin: Geographical location is a necessary condition to classify certain food

products as traditional food products; and traditional foods are key to differences in dietary
patterns between countries and regions. As such, within countries or even within regions
different food cultures could exist. For instance, Ragi mudde is a traditional food of central
Karnataka and Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. Thus, the traditional cuisine of a
country usually includes and reflects foods from different regions.

• Use of Geographical Indication (GI) tags or Designation of Origin (DOI) Labels in Europe are
new forms of claiming rights or intellectual property rights over traditional food in the
globalised world.
• A GI tag is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess
qualities or a reputation that is due to that origin

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 Tussle between States for GI Tag

The eastern states of Odisha and West Bengal Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh applied
got into a bitter battle for the sweet – with both for GI tag for Kadaknath Chicken. MP
states claiming be the place of its origin. In 2017 received the tag in 2018
West Bengal won the battle by getting a GI tag
for the sweet. However, Odisha too received a
GI tag for its own version of the Rasgulla in
2019

While Bengalis claim the sweet was invented

by Nobin Chandra Das (Birth: 1845) at his
Bagbazar residence in Kolkata, Odias cite the
tradition dating back to the 12th century of the
cottage cheese dumpling being offered at the
Puri Jagannath Temple (Read more on After
West Bengal, Odisha gets GI tag for its version
of Rasagola | Mint (livemint.com)
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3. Territorial cooperation: Traditional foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise
communities through continuing their histories.

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 Exotic Foods
Exotic food refers to culinary delicacies that are not commonly consumed or readily
available in a particular culture or region. These foods often have unique flavors, textures, or
preparation methods that set them apart from more familiar dishes.

Exotic food can vary greatly depending on one’s cultural background and personal
preferences

I. Exotic Meat

Examples-
Turkey, Shark,
etc.

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU
 II. Exotic
Fruits

Chalta or Elephant Apple: Found in Assam, Jungli jalebi or Kodukkapuli (Camachile)-

Kolkata, Bihar, Odisha and the sub-Himalayan Resembling the Indian sweetmeat
tract from Kumaon to Garhwal. The fruit pulp JalebiIt is grown in the states
is sour and used in Indian cuisine in curries, of Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
jam, and jellies. Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Main source of food for elephants, monkeys and Andhra Pradesh and West
deer, and hence, its collection from the core Bengal.
areas of the forest is prohibited
COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU
III. Exotic Vegetables: Vegetables that
are not found in a particular region can
be considered exotic vegetables. E.g.,
Asparagus (North Africa and Europe),
yellow and red bell pepper (Mexico,
Central and South America), red
cabbage (Europe), etc.

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU

IV. Exotic Ingredients: Spices such as
saffron, white cardamom (Indonesia), rose
petals, musk (comes from abdomen of
male musk deer), etc.

V. Exotic Preparations: Foods that are

prepared differently can be considered
exotic to those who are unfamiliar with
the way it is prepared. Sushi is an example
of an exotic food. While fish is a common
food, eating raw fish is uncommon,
making sushi exotic

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU

References
Thou shall not eat: An overview of the relationships between food and religion
(gideonlasco.com)

Becoming a vegetarian - Harvard Health

SA_BalmurliNatrajan_16Feb2018.indd (azimpremjifoundation.org)

Vegetarianism rules in north India, but dal and paneer as proteins punch below their weight
(theprint.in)

A Harvard sociologist studies how veganism went from tasteless to trendy | Harvard Magazine

Nina Gheihman. (2021). Veganism as a lifestyle movement . Sociology Compass

COMPILED BY DR. CHANDNI BHAMBHANI, SJU BENGALURU