I N T R O D U C T I O N TO

R O B OT I C S
(OEC-EE 703)

NIRMAL MURMU
D E PA RT M E N T O F A P P L I E D P H Y S IC S
U N I V E R S I TY O F C A LC U T TA
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

SYLLABUS
• Module 1: Basics of Robotics ( 10 Hours)
• Introduction, components and structure of robotics system.

• Module 2: Robotics Kinematics (10 Hours)

• Kinematics of manipulators, rotation translation and transformation, David –
Hastemberg Representation, Inverse Kinematics. Dyamics – modeling using Newton
Euler equation.

• Module 3: Robot Dynamics ( 10 Hours)

• Linearization of Robot Dynamics – State variable continuous and discrete models.

• Module 4: Robotic Motion (10 Hours)

• Different types of trajectories and introduction to their generation. Position Control:
Independent joint control. Introduction to advanced control for robot application.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
• Industrial Manipulator
• Robot arm kinematics and dynamics
• Planning of manipulator trajectory
• Elementary steps for robot arm design
• Control of robot arm
• Force and Impedance Control
• Mobile Robot: Wheeled and legged robots, trajectory planning,
locomotion, SLAM.

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BOOKS & REFERENCES

[1] J. Craig, Introduction to robotics. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2005.
[2] J. Selig, Introductory robotics. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1992.
[3] R. J. Schilling, Fundamentals of robotics analysis and control, 5th
ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
[4] M. Groover, M. Weiss, R. Nagel, N. Odrey and A.
Dutta, Industrial robotics. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill, 2012.ork, NY:
Prentice Hall, 1992.
[5] R. Murray, Z. Li and S. Sastry, A Mathematical Introduction to
Robotic Manipulation. CRC, 1994.

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BOOKS & REFERENCES
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics
• About the problem
• Method of solution
• Example

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ABOUT THE PROBLEM

• We now want to compute the set of joint variables, given the
desired position and orientation of the tool relative to the station.
• The problem is non-linear: given 0
𝑛𝑇 , find the values of 𝜃1, … , 𝜃𝑛 .
• These equations can be non-linear, transcendental.

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ABOUT THE PROBLEM

• Consider the PUMA 560:
• Given the matrices 06𝑇, solve PUMA 560’s kinematics equations
for the joint angles 𝜃1 through 𝜃6.
• We get 3 independent equations from the rotation-matrix part
of 06𝑇 and 3 equations from the position-vector part of 06𝑇.
• Thus: 6 nonlinear, transcendental equations and 6 unknowns,
and this for a “very simple” 6 DOFs manipulator!

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ABOUT THE PROBLEM

• We must ask the following questions:
• Is there a solution?
• Are there several solutions?
• How to solve the problem?

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W O R K S PAC E
• The solution exists at all raises the question of the manipulator's
workspace
• Workspace is that volume of space where end-effector of the
manipulator can reach
• Dextrous workspace: The volume of space that the robot end-
effector can reach with all orientations.
• Reachable workspace: The volume of space, the robot can reach
in at least one orientation.
! Just think about the furthest points you can touch with your fingertips, that's the outer
boundary of your reachable workspace.
! The dextrous workspace is made up of all the points where you could grab a stationary
object and still move all your joints as you usually could.

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W O R K S PAC E
• The reachable workspace is the volume whereby the end effector
is capable of reaching each point within the space in at least one
orientation
• The dexterous workspace has the end effector capable of
reaching all points in all orientations.

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W O R K S PAC E
• If the goal (desired position and orientation) is in the reachable
workspace, then there’s at least 1 solution.
• The reachable workspace is dependent on the manipulator.
• There might be several solutions.
• We won’t cover the following considerations: obstacles, limits on
joint ranges,...

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W O R K S PAC E
• Consider the workspace of the two-link manipulator in the figure,
If 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 , then the reachable workspace consists of a disc of
radius 2𝐿1 .
• The dextrous workspace consists of only a single point, the origin.

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W O R K S PAC E
• If 𝐿1 ≠ 𝐿2 , then the reachable workspace becomes a ring of
outer radius 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 and inner radius |𝐿1 − 𝐿2 |.
• The dextrous workspace consists of only a single point, the origin.
• There is no dextrous workspace.
• Inside the reachable workspace there are two possible
orientations of the end-effector. On the boundaries of the
workspace there is only one possible orientation

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S O LVA B I L I T Y: E X I S T E N C E O F
SOLUTIONS
• These considerations of workspace for the two-link manipulator
have assumed that all the joints can rotate 360 degrees. This is
rarely true for actual mechanisms.
• When joint limits are a subset of the full 360 degrees, then the
workspace is obviously correspondingly reduced, either in extent,
or in the number of possible orientations attainable

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S O LVA B I L I T Y: E X I S T E N C E O F
SOLUTIONS
• When a manipulator has fewer than six degrees of freedom, it cannot
attain general goal positions and orientations in 3-
space.
• Clearly, the planar manipulator in the previous figure cannot reach out of
the plane, so any goal point with a nonzero Z coordinate value can be
quickly rejected as unreachable.
• Workspace also depends on the tool-frame transformation. Generally,
the tool transformation is performed independently of the manipulator
kinematics and inverse kinematics, so we are often led to consider the
workspace of the wrist frame, {W}.
• If the desired position and orientation of the wrist frame is in the
workspace, then at least one solution exists.
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M U LT I P L E S O L U T I O N S
• Another possible problem encountered in solving kinematic
equations is that of multiple solutions.
• A planar arm with three revolute joints has a large dextrous
workspace in the plane, because any position in the interior of its
workspace can be reached with any orientation.

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M U LT I P L E S O L U T I O N S
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

M U LT I P L E S O L U T I O N S
• The number of solutions depends upon the number of joints
in the manipulator but is also a function of the link parameters
(𝛼𝑖 , 𝑎𝑖 , and 𝑑𝑖 for a rotary joint manipulator) and the allowable
ranges of motion of the joints.
• For example, the PUMA 560 can reach certain goals with eight
different solutions. The following figure shows four solutions;
all place the hand with the same position and orientation.

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M U LT I P L E S O L U T I O N S
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

M U LT I P L E S O L U T I O N S
• For each solution pictured, there is another solution in which the
last three joints “flip" to an alternate configuration according to
the following formulas:
𝜃4′ = 𝜃4 + 180
𝜃5′ = −𝜃5
𝜃6′ = 𝜃6 + 180
• So, in total, there can be eight solutions for a single goal. Because
of limits on joint ranges, some of these eight could be
inaccessible.

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D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics
• About the problem
• Method of solution
• Example

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METHOD OF SOLUTION
• There’s no general algorithm
• Consider a manipulator as “solvable” if it is possible to calculate
all the solutions.
• Manipulator solution strategies might be split into 2 classes:
closed-form and numerical solutions (generally slower because of
their iterative nature).

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METHOD OF SOLUTION
• closed-form solutions methods are solutions methods based on
analytic expressions or on the solution of a polynomial of degree
4 or less.
• There’s a general numerical solution for which all “6 DOFs in a
single chain” system with revolute and prismatic joints are
solvable!
• Only on special cases can they be solved analytically.

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METHOD OF SOLUTION
• There are several closed-form solution strategies. We’ll discuss
the following 2:
• Algebraic
• Algebraic solution by reduction to polynomial
• Pieper’s criteria
• Another heuristically solution strategy:
• Cyclic Coordinate Descent (CCD)

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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION BY
R E D U C T I O N T O P O LY N O M I A L
• Substitution:
𝜃
𝑢 = tan
2
1 − 𝑢2 2𝑢
cos 𝜃 = , sin 𝜃 =
1 + 𝑢2 1 + 𝑢2
• Advantage:
• the substitution yields an expression in terms of variable
ui instead of sin 𝜃𝑖 and cos 𝜃𝑖.
• Once the solutions for 𝑢𝑖 are found,
𝜃𝑖 = 2tan−1 (solutions−of−𝑢𝑖).

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PIEPER’S CRITERIA
• There’s a closed-form solution for 6 DOFs manipulators (with
prismatic and/or revolute joints configurations) in which 3
consecutive axes intersect in 1 point.
• Almost every 6 DOFs manipulator built today respect Pieper’s
criteria.

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

D I R E C T & I N V E R S E K I N E M AT I C S
• Spatial description and transformation
• Direct kinematics
• Inverse kinematics
• About the problem
• Method of solution
• Example

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )
• We know the links transformations in 𝜃𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 6).

𝑐𝜃1 −𝑠𝜃1 0 0 𝑐𝜃4 −𝑠𝜃4 0 𝑎3

0 𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝜃1 0 0 3 0 0 1 𝑑4
1𝑇 = 4𝑇 =
0 0 1 0 −𝑠𝜃4 −𝑐𝜃4 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑐𝜃2 −𝑠𝜃2 0 0 𝑐𝜃5 −𝑠𝜃5 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 −1 0
2𝑇 = 5𝑇 =
−𝑠𝜃2 −𝑐𝜃2 0 0 𝑠𝜃5 𝑐𝜃5 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑐𝜃3 −𝑠𝜃3 0 𝑎2 𝑐𝜃6 −𝑠𝜃6 0 0
2 𝑠𝜃3 𝑐𝜃3 0 0 5 0 0 1 0
3𝑇 = 6𝑇 =
0 0 1 𝑑3 −𝑠𝜃6 −𝑐𝜃6 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )
• We know the links transformations in 𝜃𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 6).
• Thus, we know the transformation from {𝑘} 𝑡𝑜 {𝑙} in 𝜃𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑘, 𝑙
≤ 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑙 ).
𝑘
𝑙𝑇 =𝑘𝑘+1 𝑇 …𝑙−1
𝑙 𝑇
and
𝑙
𝑘𝑇 =𝑙−1
𝑙 𝑇 −1 …𝑘𝑘+1 𝑇 −1

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )
• We know the links transformations in 𝜃𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 6).
• Thus, we know the transformation from {𝑘} 𝑡𝑜 {𝑙} in 𝜃𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑘, 𝑙 ≤
6 and 𝑘 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑙 ).
• We wish to solve:

𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑝𝑋

0 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 𝑝𝑌
6 𝑇 =
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝑝𝑍
0 0 0 1
=10 𝑇(𝜃1 ) ⋅12 𝑇(𝜃2 ) ⋅23 𝑇(𝜃3 ) ⋅34 𝑇(𝜃4 ) ⋅45 𝑇(𝜃5 ) ⋅56 𝑇(𝜃6 )

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (LINK

PA R A M E T E R S )

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560
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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560
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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )

where,

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560

( T R A N S F O R M AT I O N M AT R I C E S )

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {1})
• We’ll search for a solvable equation iteratively:
• multiply each side of the transform equation by an inverse to
separate a variable
• Search for a solvable equations
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 𝑇 =1 𝑇(𝜃1 ) ⋅2 𝑇(𝜃2 ) ⋅3 𝑇(𝜃3 ) ⋅4 𝑇(𝜃4 ) ⋅5 𝑇(𝜃5 ) ⋅6 𝑇(𝜃6 )
⇔10 𝑇(𝜃1 )−1 ⋅06 𝑇 =12 𝑇(𝜃2 ) ⋅23 𝑇(𝜃3 ) ⋅34 𝑇(𝜃4 ) ⋅45 𝑇(𝜃5 ) ⋅56 𝑇(𝜃6 )

𝑐1 𝑠1 0 0 𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑝𝑋

−𝑠1 𝑐1 0 0 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 𝑝𝑌
⇔ =16 𝑇
0 0 1 0 𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝑝𝑍
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {1})
• After calculating the right side, it can been seen there’s a solvable
solution:

𝑐1 𝑠1 0 0 𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑝𝑋

−𝑠1 𝑐1 0 0 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 𝑝𝑌
=16 𝑇
0 0 1 0 𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝑝𝑍
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
• And we get: -sin 𝜃1 𝑝𝑋 + cos 𝜃1 𝑝𝑌 = 𝑑3 .

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {1})

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {1})

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {2})
• 2 solutions were found for 𝜃1. For each one of them, we’ll
continue to search for solvable equations…

𝑐1 𝑠1 0 0 𝑟11 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑝𝑋

−𝑠1 𝑐1 0 0 𝑟21 𝑟22 𝑟23 𝑝𝑌
=16 𝑇
0 0 1 0 𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 𝑝𝑍
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {3})
• Squaring and adding the following equation:
− sin 𝜃1 𝑝𝑋 + cos 𝜃1 𝑝𝑌 = 𝑑3

Obtain

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {3})

Where,

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {3})

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {3})

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Department of Applied Physics, University of Calcutta

EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {3})

• This will give us four possible of solutions for 𝜃1 and 𝜃3

• Hence, 𝜃2 = 𝜃23 − 𝜃3

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {4})

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {5})

where,

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560 (JOINT

VARIABLES OF {6})

Equating (3,1) and (1,1) elements from the two sides

where,

These steps give us four set of solutions

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EXAMPLE: PUMA 560(FOUR

A LT E R N AT E S O L . )
• Another four set of solutions will be obtain by considering the
followings,

• Among eight possible solutions, select the one which is not

violating joint-limit and closest one.

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