Study Pack (FIT)

INTRODUCTION TO IT
Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand how IT facilitate email, networks, and the use of the Internet
• List and explain the common varieties of computers in use today
• Explain the five basic operations of a computer
• Discuss the future direction of IT
• Raise key ethical concerns associated with using IT
1.1 COMMONPLACE USES OF IT

a. Information Technology (IT): refers to the synthesis of computer technology and
telecommunication technology. Information technology is the merging of computers
with high-speed communications links carrying data, sound, and video.
Computer Technology: Refers to programmable, multiuse machine that collects
data and processes (manipulates) it into relevant information. Computers greatly
speed up problems solving and other tasks, thereby increasing users’ productivity
and efficiency.
Telecommunications Technology: Made up of electronic equipment and systems
for use in communicating data and messages over great distances. Communications
systems using electronic connections have helped to expand human communication
beyond face-to-face meetings.
b. Online: Users are connected through computers or other electronic device via a voice
or data network to access information and request services from another computer,
device or information provider. In this way users are able to exchange information with
other users who may be online at the same time. Online communication is widely used
by businesses, services, individuals, the government and educational institutions.
c. E-mail: Refers to data messages that are transmitted over some computer network,
such as the Internet or some other private networks that organisations use. E-mail has
become truly universal and the use of email systems to communicate with others has
been nothing less than phenomenal.
d. Network: Refers to communications systems that connect two or more computers or

devices to exchange data and information. Organisations use networks as a basic
communication platform to communicate with individuals and other organisations
domestically and globally. A vast array of different information formats (e.g. text,
numerals, video, sound, etc.) can be sent and received via networks. Networks also
allow users to share applications and data and to use e-mail. The Internet is the largest
network.
1-1 Fundamentals of Information Technology

INTRODUCTION TO IT
e. Cyberspace: Includes the online world, the Internet and the entire wired and wireless
world of communications. More and more human activities are taking place in
cyberspace. Two most important aspects of cyberspace are:
The Internet: The “mother of all networks”; a worldwide network that connects up
to half a million smaller networks at educational, scientific and commercial
institutions in over 200 countries. Millions of users around the world can use the
Internet to browse the World Wide Web (see next point), engage in online chats
through chat rooms, download files and programs, and send and receive emails.
The World Wide Web: this refers to the globally integrated system of computers
that store information in multimedia form (text, still images, moving images, and
sound). It can be thought of as the multimedia part of the Internet. Before the mid-
1990s, the Internet was difficult to use as it was not user-friendly. After the
invention of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee, users found the Internet to
be much easier to use. In addition, the Web made the online surfing experience
more interesting and fun. It has since become the most widely known part of the
Internet.
1.2 VARIETIES OF COMPUTERS

a. There are five broad types of computers:
(i) Supercomputer: These are very high-capacity computers with hundreds of
processors that collectively perform over 1 trillion calculations per second. They
are used primarily for research purposes, airplane design, oil exploration, weather
forecasting, and other activities that cannot be performed effectively by less

INTRODUCTION TO IT
powerful machines. Large government installations, multinational enterprises

(MNEs), and entertainment industries like Hollywood are the most likely users of
supercomputers. Leading brands of supercomputers include Cray, Fujitsu and
NEC.
Supercomputer
(ii) Mainframe computer: Water- or air-cooled computers that varies in size from
small, to medium, to large, depending on their use. Able to support hundreds and
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframes are used by large
organisations like banks, airlines, insurance firms, colleges and the government
that need to process millions of transactions. A recent application of the
mainframe is in e-commerce, where it is deployed as a e-commerce server used to
process online orders and payments. A leading brand of mainframes is IBM.
Mainframe
(iii) Minicomputer: A mid-size version of the mainframe, minicomputers usually

have multiple terminals attached. They may be used as network servers and
Internet servers in large organisations.
Minicomputer
(iv) Workstation: these are powerful computers that are usually used for complex
scientific, mathematical, and engineering calculations. They may also be used for
specialised tasks like computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing and
multimedia designing. Workstations are used for such tasks as designing

INTRODUCTION TO IT
automobile engines, prescription drugs, and movie special effects. A leading

manufacturer of workstations is Sun Microsystems in the US.
Workstation
(v) Microcomputers (PC):

- Desktop computer: Horizontal case or main housing that sits on the desktop.
It could be used at home or the office.
- Tower: Case sits in a vertical tower on the floor or desk.
- Notebook/Laptop: a lightweight and portable computer that comes with
integrated monitor, keyboard, hard-disk drive, CD-ROM drive, and battery.
Many people need a computer in a variety of setting – at work, at home, at
school. Instead of buying a desktop computer for each place, people own one
notebook computer that they can take with them wherever they go.
- Personal digital assistant (PDA): A personal organisation device that
includes schedule planners, address books, to-do lists, memos, e-mail and
faxes software. Some advance models even allow the user to surf the Internet.
PDAs have a small screen that acts as both an input and output device. On the
screen, you can display your appointments for the day, and you can also use a
special writing stylus to capture information. The screen is touch sensitive,
allowing you to write directly on the screen with the screen capturing what
you are writing.

INTRODUCTION TO IT
b. Client Server Architecture: Refers to a network architecture where each computer or

processor on the network is either a client or a server. A client/server network is a
network in which one or more computers are servers and provide services to the other
computers which are called clients. The server or servers have hardware, software,
and/or information that the client computers can access. Servers are usually powerful
computers with large storage systems. Depending on the network, the server could be a
high-end PC or a minicomputer. Large companies often have several servers, each of
which may provide services to different parts of the company.
Server: Describes how the computer is used, but does not to any special type of
computers. A server (the central computer) holds collections of data and programs
for connecting PCs, workstations, and other devices, which are called clients.
Client: They are PCs or workstations on which users run programs or applications.
Clients rely on servers for resources (e.g. files, programs and processing power).
Clients
Server

INTRODUCTION TO IT
1.3 INSIDE THE COMPUTER

a. The main purpose of the computer is to process data into useful information.
Data: These are distinct items that do not have much meaning to a user in a given
context. It refers to the raw facts and figures that could be processed into
information.
Information: This is data that has been summarized, processed, or manipulated
for use in assisting the user to make effective and efficient decisions in a given
context.
For example, the items CP768, 1350, and 46 do not make sense to you until someone
organises these data in the appropriate context. It then become clear that your flight
(CP768) leaves at 1.50 pm from Gate 46.
b. Definitions of Hardware and Software:

Hardware: Comprises of all the machinery and equipment in a computer system;
the things you can ‘kick’. Examples include the monitor, floppy disk drive, hard
disk, keyboard, mouse, system unit, etc.
Software: Comprises of all the instructions and codes that tell the computer how
perform specific tasks like writing a letter, calculating financial ratios, sending
emails, etc. Examples include the operating system, application programs like word
processing and spreadsheet software, and entertainment programs like games.
c. The table below summarises the five primary computer operations. It also lists the
hardware used for each operation.
BASIC FTWARE
BASIC OPERATIONS HARDWARE
1 Input: whatever that is being captured by a Keyboard
computer system. Mouse
Scanner
2 Process: transforming data into information Motherboard
through the functions of addition, subtraction, Processor Chip
multiplication and division. Central Processing Unit
3 Storage Memory Chips
Temporary (primary) storage is the computer Cache
circuitry that temporarily holds data waiting to Floppy Disk
be processed. Hard Disk
Permanent (secondary) storage is the area in CD-R/CD-RW
the computer where data or information is held DVD-RW discs
permanently. Magnetic tape
4 Output: presenting the results of processing in Monitor
either hard- or softcopy form. Printer
Sound Speakers
Video Card
Sound Card

INTRODUCTION TO IT
5 Communications: data may be input remotely, Modem

processed in a remote area, stored in different Network Interface Card
locations, or output in other places. Network Cable
Infrared port
d. Software: There are two main types of software:

System Software: software that specifies how your computer carries out
technology-specific tasks. It assists the computer to perform essential operating
tasks and allows the application software to run. The most important of system
software is the operating system. Popular operating systems used for
microcomputers include Microsoft Windows XP, Mac OS (for the eMac), and
Linux.
Application Software: Enables the user to perform specific tasks – write a report,
solve financial problems, perform work, or entertain. Common examples include
office productivity software suite like Microsoft Office XP.
1.4 FUTURE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

a. The three directions in which computers have developed include:
Miniaturization: devices are getting smaller and hence more portable. Computers
are getting smaller yet more powerful (e.g. handheld computers).
Speed: because of miniaturization, more hardware can now be compacted into the
machine providing faster processing and higher storage capacities.
Affordability: smaller and faster also means cheaper machines. Most families
today can afford to own at least one computer. But in the early days of computing,
only the largest organisations can afford to have one.
b. The three directions of communications development include:

Connectivity: refers to the ability to connect computers to one another by
communications line, so as to provide online information. This is an important
requirement for harnessing the power of networks.
Interactivity: refers to a two-way exchange or dialogue between the user & the
computer or communication device communication. A user can respond to
information he or she receives and modify the process. This allows the user to be
an active participant in the interactive process.
Multimedia: Technology that presents information in more than one medium-such
as text, pictures, video, sound, and animation. This in turn provides a more
enriching and realistic experience to the user in work and at play.
c. Developments occurring based on the combination of computers and communications

include:
Convergence: refers to the bringing together of different industries through
various devices that exchange data in a computer format. Some of these
industries include computers, telecommunications, consumer electronics,
entertainment and gaming, and mass media.

INTRODUCTION TO IT
Portability: another word for mobility. Workers who have to perform most of their
work in the “field” will require computers that they can take with them. Coupled
with developments in wireless technology, small and powerful personal electronic
devices will transform lives of many people.
Personalization: Creation of information that is customised to an individual’s
personal preference. Instead of having the same information being pushed to
everybody, computers and communication systems allow users to decide on what
they want to receive in specified formats. For example, programs can automatically
gather recent news and information from available sources like the Internet on
topics or issues the user have designated.
Information Overload: Too much information to handle effectively. With the
power and ubiquity of computer and communication systems, users are increasingly
being flooded with information in the form of reports, files, advertising messages,
etc. that threaten to cross their threshold of effective attention. As a result users feel
stressed and frustrated at their seeming inability to deal with the situation.
d. Ethical behaviour is essential to all societies. Computers have added greatly to ethical
dilemmas concerning sharing of all types of information. It is far easier to share
information with computers than it ever has been.
There are three main ethical considerations arising from the use of information
technology:
Speed and scale: involving data security and personal privacy. Huge amounts of
information can be economically stored and retrieved, and much of this information
can be disseminated instantaneously over great distances. This in turn could result
in security gaps allowing unauthorized access and modifications to personal
information without the person in question ever knowing it.
Unpredictability: Although computers are so pervasive that they touch nearly
every aspect of our lives, they are less predictable and less reliable compared to
other established technologies such as electricity, power and vehicles.
Consequently they are much less reliable and dependable.
Complexity: To some, computers are so complex that they can easily become
unmanageable. Computers can often produce massive mess-ups that result in
spectacular out-of-control costs.

INTRODUCTION TO IT
Review Questions
1. A mouse is an example of a(n)
(a) input device
(b) output device
(c) storage device
(d) CPU
2. A disk can help you to

(a) capture information
(b) present information
(c) spread information
(d) store information
(e) compose information
3. Which one of the following software will allow you to surf the World Wide Web?
(a) system software
(b) application software
(c) web browser software
(d) word processing software
(e) e-mail software
3. When different industries combine their technologies in devices that process and exchange
information in the format used by computers, the phenomenon is known as _______.
(a) combination
(b) concatenation
(c) connection
(d) convergence
(e) co-existence
5. Fill in the missing word: ______ is/are the set of moral principles and standards we use in
deciding our conduct in situations that affect other individuals or a group.
(a) Statutes
(b) Legislative acts
(c) Judgement
(d) Prudence
(e) Ethics

INTRODUCTION TO IT
Short Answer Questions

1. Using an example, explain what does “being online” means.
2. What are the characteristics that set application software and system software apart?
3. List and briefly explain some ethical considerations resulting from the use of IT.
Useful websites to explore

Hardware: www.toms.hardware.com
Shareware: www.shareware.com
General resource on computers: www.technology.com; www.zdnet.com/eweek
Ethical and ergonomic issues related to use of computers:
www.eos.ncsu.edu/eos/info/computer_ethics/social/workplace/emr/study.html
1-10 Fundamentals of Information

Technology
HARDWARE DEVICES
Unit 2: HARDWARE DEVICES
• Explain the differences between transistors, integrated circuits, chips and microprocessors
• Understand how data is represented in a computer
• Describe the components in a system unit and explain how the processor and memory work
• List and describe the main types of secondary storage media
• Describe how input and output hardware is used by a computer
• List and describe the different types of input and output hardware
• Discuss the main health and ergonomic issues relating to computer usage
2.1 MICROCHIPS, MINIATURIZATION, & MOBILITY
From Vacuum Tubes to Transistors to Microchips
In the early days, computers used to be powered by vacuum tubes. The ENIAC was the
last computer to use vacuum tubes in 1946. It used nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes.
Later, vacuum tubes were replaced by tiny switches called transistors. A transistor is a
tiny electrically operated switch that can alternate between the “on’ and “off” states many
millions of times in a second. It was about one-hundredth the size of a vacuum tube. It
required no warm-up time, consumed less power, and was faster and more reliable.
Transistors today form part of integrated circuits, which epitomize solid-state technology.
Solid state means that the electrons are travelling through solid material. The material
used is usually silicon, an element that is found abundantly in clay and sand and that
which is a semiconductor (a material whose electrical properties are between that of a
good conductor of electricity and a nonconductor of electricity).
Integrated circuit (IC) chips, or microchips, are etched and cut out of “wafers” of silicon.
PCs’ microprocessors are made from microchips. They are also used in devices such as
phones and TVs.
2.2 THE SYSTEM UNIT
a. The Binary System: ‘On’ and ‘Off’ States
The basis of the processing part of the computer, the system unit, is the binary
system, which has only 1 and 0. These two digits, called bits (binary digit),
correspond to the on and off states of electricity used in computers.
A group of 8 bits (8b), called a byte (1B), represents one character in the computer.
MDIS-DBM 2-1 Fundamentals of Information Technology

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Storage capacities in computers are expressed in multiples of bytes:

About 1000 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB)
About 1 million bytes = 1 megabyte (MB)
About 1 billion bytes = 1 gigabyte (GB)
About 1 trillion bytes = 1 terabyte (TB)
About 1 quadrillion bytes = 1 petabyte (PB)
Letters, numbers, and special characters are represented within a computer by binary
coding schemes:
ASCII (say “as-key”) stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, is the code most widely used in microcomputers. ASCII includes
characters such as special characters (e.g. @, %, /), mathematics symbols (+, -, ÷,
×) and Greek letters (e.g. α, β, λ, µ). In ASCII, alphanumeric characters are
encoded into a bit configuration on input so that the computer can interpret them.
This encoding equates a unique series of 1s and 0s with a specific character. For
example, ‘01000010’ represents the letter ‘B’.
EBCDIC (say “ab-see-dic”) stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code, is used with large computers such as mainframes. Like ASCII,
EDCDIC uses an 8-bit configuration. The main difference between EBCDIC and
ASCII is in the use of different combinations of bits to represent a letter or
number. As such, the letter ‘B’ is represented by ‘11000010’ in the EBCDIC
coding system.
Unicode, a subset of ASCII that uses 16 bits for each character. This scheme can
handle 65,536 character combinations, which effectively allows almost all the
written languages (including scripts, pictograms and non-English text) of the
world to be represented. As such, computers can now handle languages like
Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Hebrew, Greek, Sinhala, and Arabic more easily.
Universal acceptance of the Unicode standard would facilitate international
communication in all areas, from monetary transfers between banks to e-mail.

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b. The Parity Bit
A data error in transmission can be detected by using a parity bit. A parity bit (also
known as a check bit) is an extra bit attached to the end of a byte for purposes of
checking for accuracy. The parity bit is generated by an automatic operation that adds
all the bits in the character’s code. It records a 0 or 1 to make the total number of
bits odd (odd parity) or even (even parity). If one of the bits in the code has been
changed due to a storage error, the computer generates parity error. Some systems
stop processing data if a parity error occurs because the error may indicate a
component failure that could scramble all the data.
c. Machine Language
Computers each have their own type of machine language, a binary-type

programming language that the computer can run directly, which is why one type of
computer cannot run the software from another type of computer.
d. The Computer Case: Bays, Buttons, & Boards
The system unit, or case, encompasses the motherboard, processor chip, memory
chips, and power supply. It also includes storage devices, like disk drives, which are
fixed on shelves called bays. The motherboard contains sockets for expansion –
adding new components, such as video cards – or upgrading – for changing to more
powerful components, such as more memory chips.
To protect the system unit from damage from too much or too little power, a
computer should be plugged into a surge protector or voltage regulator and also
into a UPS (uninterruptable power supply), a battery-operated device that temporarily
provides electricity if there is a power failure.

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e. The Motherboard & Microprocessor Chip
The motherboard, or system board, is the main circuit board in the system unit. The
most basic part of the motherboard, the microprocessor, is the miniaturized circuitry
storing the program instructions that manipulate data into information.
Two architectures for microprocessors:

CISC (complex instruction set computing) chips, which are used mostly in PCs
and in conventional mainframes, can support a large number of instructions, but at
relatively low processing speeds. Because the chip provides so many processing
tools, CISC designs make the programmer’s job easier. However, CISC chips are
complex and expensive to produce, and they run hot because they consume so
much current. Examples of CISC chips include Intel-type chips for PCs (made by
Intel, AMD, Cyrix, and others for Compaq, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, and IBM).
RISC (reduced instruction set computing) chips, used mainly in workstations. A
great many seldom-used instructions are eliminated and as a result, workstations
can work up to many times faster then most PCs. It offers a bare-bones
instruction set. For this reason, RISC chips are less complex, less expensive to
produce, and more efficient in power usage. The major drawback of the RISC
design is that the computer must combine or repeat operations to complete many
processing operations (e.g. using repeated addition to eliminate multiplication
circuitry). Examples of RISC chips are the Motorola-type chips (made by
Motorola for Apple i-Mac computers).
f. Processing Speeds
The speed of a microprocessor is determined by its system clock. For

microcomputers, processing speeds are measured in megahertz (million cycles per
second) or gigahertz (billion cycles). For workstations, such speeds are measured in
MIPS (millions of instructions per second); for supercomputers, in flops (floating-
point operations per second, which is a special kind of mathematical calculation); and
for all computers, in fractions of a second (milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds,
and picoseconds).
Another measure, word size, is the number of bits a computer’s CPU can process at
any one time, with 64 bits being faster than 32 bits. Word size is actually a measure
of data bus width. The data bus is a ‘highway’ of parallel circuits that connects the
internal components of the microprocessor. The bus is a pathway for the electronic
impulses that form bytes. The more lanes this highway has, the faster data can travel.
The width of a CPU’s data bus partly determines the maximum number of bits the
CPU can process at one (its word size). The terms 8-bit CPU, 16-bit CPU, 32-bit
CPU and 64-bit CPU are used to sum up the maximum number of bits a given CPU
can handle at a time. For example, a Pentium III chip is a 32-bit CPU.
A CPU’s word size is important because it determines which operating system the
CPU can use. An Intel 8088 (an early microchip design) is limited to 8-bit operating

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systems which – like CPUs with 8-bit word lengths – can work with only 8 bits at a
time. Today’s personal computer market is dominated by 32-bit CPUs and 32-bit
operating systems (e.g. Microsoft Windows 98 & 2000). However, 64-bit CPUs and
64-bit operating systems are currently in use in high-end, high-capacity servers
systems. Linux and Windows XP are two latest 64-bit operating systems.
2.3 INSIDE THE CPU: CONTROL UNIT, ALU, & REGISTERS
The CPU (central processing unit) follows the instructions of the software (program) to
manipulate data into information.
The CPU consists of the control unit, which deciphers each instruction stored in it and
then carries it out, and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and
logical operations. Both the control unit and the ALU contain registers, high-speed
storage areas that temporarily store data during processing.

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The four stages of the machine cycle (processing cycle)
Data transmission within the CPU and between the CPU and other components of the
motherboard is by means of electrical roadways called buses.
2.4 TYPES OF MEMORY: RAM, ROM, CMOS, & FLASH
On the motherboard are memory chips, of which there are four types: RAM, ROM,
CMOS, and flash.
1. RAM (for random access memory) chips temporarily hold software instructions and
also data before and after processing by the CPU. RAM is volatile; i.e. its contents are
lost when the power goes off. Three types of RAM chips are DRAM (dynamic
RAM), which must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it will lose its contents;
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM), which is faster than DRAM; and SRAM (static
RAM), also faster than DRAM and able to retain its contents without being refreshed
by the CPU. RAM chips often appear on memory modules – SIMM (single inline
memory module) has chips on one side; DIMM (dual inline memory module) has
chips on both sides – which can be plugged into expansion slots on the motherboard.

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2. ROM (for read-only memory) chips contain fixed start-up instructions. (Read means
to transfer data from an input source to the CPU or memory; write means to transfer
data from the CPU or memory to an output device.) A variant is PROM
(programmable ROM), a ROM chip that allows users to load read-only programs and
data, although only once.
3. Battery-powered CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor, pronounced
‘see-moss’) chips will not lose their contents when the power is turned off; this
quality makes them useful for holding time and date information. It is also used to
store start-up instructions. Unlike ROM, instructions held in the CMOS chip can be
changed by the user (for example, changing the boot drive)
4. Flash memory is used to store flexible programs and can be erased and
reprogrammed more than once. They are a type of PROM that can be altered easily
by the user. It is nonvolatile memory that retains its contents after an electrical
interruption, and it does not require a battery. The logic capabilities of these devices
can be upgraded by simply downloading new software from the Internet ot a vendor-
supplied disk to flash memory.
The processor searches for data or program instructions in the following order:
First level 1 cache, then
Level 2 cache, then
RAM, then
Hard disk (or CD-ROM).
Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor is likely to use
frequently, thereby speeding up processing. Level 1 cache (also called primary cache) is
built into the processor chip; level 2 cache (consists of SRAM chips, also known as
secondary cache) resides outside the processor chip. L1 cache normally has a capacity of
128 KB, while L2 cache can go up to 512 KB.
Virtual memory refers to a portion of hard-disk space being freed to extend the capacity
of RAM. The computer uses the hard disk as an extension of RAM when RAM gets full

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(which can easily happen if you run two or more programs at once). When virtual
memory kicks in, the computer slows down to a slow pace as hard disk are much slower
than RAM. The process of moving unused program data or instructions from the RAM
to the virtual memory and back is known as swapping (see diagram below).

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2.5 PORTS & CABLES
A port is a connecting socket on the outside of the system unit into which different kinds
of cables are plugged. A port allows you to plug in a cable or connect a peripheral
device, such as a monitor, printer, or modem, so that it can communicate with the
computer system. Each port has a specific type of cable, easily identified by the end.
Some ports have only one purpose – such as those for connecting the mouse, keyboard,
monitor, modem, network, speakers, and microphone. Many computer manufacturers
label these ports for you to make it easy to connect the right cables. Other ports, like
parallel and serial ports, allow a variety of devices to be connected.
Some common types of ports are as follows:

1. Serial ports transmit bits one after the other, and thus are slow. The standard for PC
serial ports is the 9-pin RS232 connector. Devices that are connected to serial ports
include mouse and external modems.
2.
3. Parallel ports transmit 8 bits at once. They are transmitting fast data over close
distances. Parallel ports are usually used for connecting to devices that require a
higher data transfer rate over shorter distances. The most common use for parallel
ports is to connect a printer.

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4. SCSI (small computer system interface, pronounced scuzzy) ports transmit 32 bits
simultaneously in a daisy chain of up to seven devices. It is used to connect external
hard drives, CD-ROM drives, CD writers, and other devices that require a high data
transfer rate.
5. USB (universal serial bus) ports are ports that transmit data to up to 127 devices in a
daisy chain. USB permits plug and play, which allows peripheral devices and
expansion cards to be automatically configured while they are being installed. The
fastest version today is USB 2.0 with a data transfer rate of 480 megabits per second
between the processor and the peripheral device. Common devices connected via
USB ports include external CD-RW drives, digital cameras, scanners, and high-speed
modems, etc.
6. Firewire ports (IEEE 1394) are similar to USB ports except that they are slightly
faster. They are used to transmit data between devices that handle vast quantities of
data. They are used to connect external devices that require a very high consistent data
speed, such as external CD-RW drive, DVD writers and digital video recorders. Also
referred to by the brand names Firewire, iLink, and Lynx.
7. Dedicated ports (e.g. PS/2 with a 6-pin connector) exist for special purposes, as for
the keyboard, mouse and port replicators.
8. IrDA (infrared data association) ports enable wireless connection with infrared
devices, as between the computer and some printers. The port transmits data via
infrared light waves. As long as the devices are within a few feet, data can be
transmitted without the use of cables. However the transmitting device must be
aligned in a line-of-sight. Common infrared devices include monitors, printers,
keyboards, and mouse.

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2.6 EXPANSION: BUSES & CARDS
Closed architecture means a personal computer has no expansion slots; open architecture
means it does.
Expansion slots are sockets on the motherboard into which may be plugged expansion
cards, circuit boards that provide more memory or that control peripheral devices.
Expansion slots are connected to the CPU by expansion buses, such as the following:
ISA (industry standard architecture) bus – used for ordinary low-speed uses at 8 or 16
bits; the most widely used expansion bus. Newer motherboards have either one or
none of these slots.
PCI (peripheral component interconnect) bus – for higher-speed uses at 32 or 64 bits.
They are used to connect graphics cards, sound cards, modems, and high-speed
network cards
AGP (accelerated graphics port) bus – twice as fast as PCI bus; for even higher
speeds & support video & 3D graphics. It is usable only for carrying information to
the monitor
PC cards: also known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association) cards, these cards expand the capabilities of notebooks. Notebook
computers don’t have expansion slots. Instead, you can add functionality through
PCMCIA cards. These expansion cards look like credit cards and they are inserted
into the side of the computer. PC cards are often used for network and modem
connections or to add connections to external devices like CD-ROM and DVD-ROM
drives.
Common types of expansion cards include the following:

Graphics adapter cards: convert data into video images to display on a monitor.
The VGA (video graphics array) and the newer AGP board allow the interfacing of
high resolution monitors with the processor.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Sound cards: transmit digital sounds (music for video games or digitized sound
samples taken from recordings of actual instruments). A leading brand of sound cards
used in PCs today is Creative Technology’s SoundBlaster.
Data/voice/fax modem cards: are modems installed inside the computer. These
cards enable you to receive and make telephone calls, and it enables the PC to
emulate a fax machine
Network interface cards (NIC): enables and controls the exchanges of data between
the PCs in a local area network or a home network. Every PC in a network must be
equipped with an NIC.
2.7 SECONDARY STORAGE
Floppy Disks
Floppy disk, also called a diskette, is a removable flat piece of plastic packaged in a 3.5-
inch plastic case. It has 1.44 megabytes of capacity. Other removable disks are:
Zip disks – 100 to 750 megabytes
SuperDisks – 120 megabytes
HiFD disks – 200 megabytes
The biggest drawback to these removable disks is their vulnerability to strong magnetic
forces that could cause data stored on the disk to be corrupted. In addition, these disk all
require special disk drives to use them.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Hard Disks
Hard disks are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substance that allows data to
be held in the form of magnetized spots.
A head crash happens when the surface of the read/write head or particles on its surface
come into contact with the surface of the hard-disk platter, causing the loss of some or all
of the data on the disk.
There are two types of hard disks – nonremovable (fixed) and removable. Removable
hard disks enclose the disk platters within a cartridge, which can be inserted into the
system unit’s bay and removed.
Floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tapes are magnetic storage media types. The disk
is coated with tiny magnetically sensitive materials. An electromagnet, called a
read/write head, records information by transforming electrical impulses into a varying
magnetic field. As the magnetic particles pass beneath the read/write head, this varying
field forces the particles to rearrange themselves in a meaningful pattern. This operation
is called writing. In reading, the read/write head senses the recorded patterns, and
transforms this pattern into electrical impulses.
Optical Disks: CDs & DVDs
An optical disk is a removable disk on which data is written and read through the use of
laser beams. Some optical disks are used strictly for digital data storage, but many are
used to distribute multimedia programs that combine text, visuals, and sound.
Among the types of optical disks are the following:

CD-ROM – for reading only: CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory)
CD-R – for recording once: CD-R (compact disk-recordable) disks
CD-RW – for rewriting many times: A CD-RW (compact disk- rewritable) disk

HARDWARE DEVICES
DVD-ROM – digital versatile disk: A DVD-ROM (digital versatile disk or digital

video disk, with read-only memory) disk.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be magnetized. Data is
represented by magnetized spots (representing 1s) and nonmagnetized spots (representing
0s). Magnetic tape is slower than magnetic disk and optical disk in data access, but
because of its relatively low cost, is excellent for use in archiving or backing up large
amounts of data that don’t need to be accessed frequently. Several versions are in use
today. Quarter-inch cartridge (QIC) tape drives work with cartridges that can store up to
10 GB of data. They have the lowest data transfer rates amongst today’s tape backup
technologies but they are inexpensive. Digital audio tape (DAT) drives offer better data
transfer and higher storage capacity (up to 40GB on one cartridge). Digital linear tape
(DLT) drives are more expensive than QIC or DAT drives, but they transfer data much
more rapidly and offer capacities of up to 100GB.
Smart Cards
A smart card looks like a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chip.
When inserted into a reader, it transfers data to and from a central computer. Unlike
conventional credit cards, smart cards can hold a fair amount of data and can store some
basic financial records. Thus, they are used as telephone debit cards, health cards, and
student cards. The most recent type of smart cards is the stored-value card. Holders of
these cards can use them just like cash. They can go to special teller machines to transfer
electronic cash to the card’s embedded memory. Each time the card is used, the purchase
amount is deducted from the card’s stored value.
Flash Memory Cards
Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, comprises of circuitry on credit-card-size cards
that can be inserted into slots connecting to the motherboard. The circuitry in flash
memory cards wear out after repeated use, limiting their lifespan. Unlike conventional
computer memory (RAM or primary storage), flash memory is nonvolatile.
Online Secondary Storage
If the network computer will eventually become as popular as its promoters hope, the
Internet itself will become, in effect, your hard disk. When you sign up with a network
service, you usually download from a website free software that lets you upload whatever
files you need to the company’s server. For security, you are given a password, and the
files are supposedly encrypted to guard against any unauthorised person.

HARDWARE DEVICES
2.8 INPUT & OUTPUT
Input hardware: is made up of devices that translate and present data into a form that
the computer can process – for example, keyboards or scanners.
Output hardware: comprises of devices that translate information processed by the

computer into a form that humans can understand – for example, monitors or printers.
2.9 INPUT HARDWARE
Keyboards
A keyboard is a device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into electrical
signals that can be processed by the computer’s processor.
Traditional computer keyboards: Conventional computer keyboards have all the
keys on typewriter keyboards plus other keys unique to computers. Newer keyboards
have extra buttons for fast Web and email access.
Specialty keyboards and terminals: Specialty keyboards range from touch-tone
telephone keypads to keyboards featuring pictures of food for use in fast-food
restaurants.
Dumb terminal: A display screen and a keyboard can input and output but not
process data; an example is the type used by airline reservations clerks.
Intelligent terminal: Maintains its own memory and processor, as well as a display
screen and keyboard. An example is the automated teller machine and the point-of-
sale (POS) terminal found in retail outlets.
Internet terminal: Provides access to the Internet. Examples are set-top boxes or web
terminals, the network computer, the online game player, the PC/TV, and the wireless
pocket PC or personal digital assistant (PDA).
Pointing Devices
Pointing devices control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen.
The mouse and its variants – trackball, pointing stick, and touchpad: The main
pointing tool used with micro-computers is the mouse. There are three main
variations on the mouse – trackball, pointing stick, and touchpad.
- trackball
- pointing stick
- touchpad
Touch screen: A touch screen is a video display screen that has been sensitized to
receive input from the touch of a finger.
Pen input: Some input devices use variations on an electronic pen. Examples are
pen-based systems, light pens, and digitizers.
- Pen-based computer systems
- light pen
- digitizer

HARDWARE DEVICES
Source Data-Entry Devices
Source data-entry devices create machine-readable data on magnetic media or paper or

feed it directly into the computer’s processor.
Scanners use light-sensing equipment to translate images of text, drawings, photos,
and the like into digital form.
Imaging system – or image scanner, or graphics scanner – which converts text,
drawings, and photographs into digital form that can be stored in a computer system
and then manipulated, output, or sent via modem to another computer.
Barcode readers: Another scanning device reads bar codes, the vertical zebra-
striped marks you see on most retail products found in supermarkets, food
manufacturers, etc. Barcode readers use photoelectric beams to read and translate
the symbols in the bar code into digital code. The most widely used standard is the
Universal Product Code (UPC). Barcodes are used today to update inventory and to
ensure correct pricing. Courier companies use their unique barcodes to identify and
track packages.
Mark-recognition and character-recognition devices: There are three types of

scanning devices that sense marks or characters. They are usually referred to by
their abbreviations MICR, OMR, and OCR.
- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) is used throughout the banking
industry and it reads the specially printed numbers printed at the bottom of
cheques (see below). The bank, branch, account number, and cheques number
are encoded on the check before it is sent to the customer. After the customer
has used the cheques and it comes back to the bank, all that needs to be entered
manually is the amount. MICR has not been adopted by other industries
because the character set has only 14 symbols.

HARDWARE DEVICES
- Optical mark recognition (OMR) uses a device that reads pencil marks and
converts them into computer-usable form. Examples of their use are found in
the lottery ticketing system and multiple-choice examinations. The marked
forms are scanned and corrected, comparing the position of the sense marks
with those on a master to grade the test, for example. The results of surveys and
questionnaires often are tabulated with OMR technology.
- Optical character recognition (OCR) uses a device that reads preprinted
characters in a particular font (typeface design) and converts them to digital
code. Examples are price tags on department-store merchandise (see diagram
below).
Fax machines (or facsimile transmission machine) scans an image and sends it as
electronic signals over conventional phone lines to a receiving fax machine, which
prints out the image on paper.
Audio-input devices: translate analog sounds (those with continuously variable
waves) into digital 0s and 1s, either through audio boards or MIDI boards.
Webcams and video-input cards: A Webcam is a camera that attaches to a
computer to record moving images that can then be posted on a Web site in real
time.
Digital cameras: Use a light-sensitive processor chip to capture photographic
images in digital form on a small flash memory card (such as a Compactflash card)
inserted in the camera or on built-in flash-memory chips.
Voice-recognition systems: Using a microphone (or a telephone) as an input
device, they convert a person’s speech into digital signals by comparing the
electrical patterns produced by the speaker’s voice with a set of prerecorded patterns
stored in the computer.
Sensors: An input device that collects specific data directly from the environment
and transmits it to a computer; e.g. motion sensors.
Radio-frequency identification devices: Also known as RF-ID tagging, radio-
frequency identification technology is based on an identifying tag bearing a
microchip that contains specific code numbers. These code numbers are read by the
radio waves of a scanner linked to a database.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Human-biology input devices: the study of body characteristics, to identify people

through biological characteristics, and line-of-site systems, in which people point
their eyes at a screen. Biometrics is the science of measuring individual body
characteristics. Diagram below shows an example of a fingerprint recognition
system.
2.10 OUTPUT HARDWARE
Softcopy: Data that is shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form. This kind
of output is not tangible; it cannot be touched.
Hardcopy: physical output. The principal examples are printouts, whether text or
graphics, from printers. Computer output in microform (COM), including microfilm and
microfiche, is also considered hardcopy output.
Softcopy Output:
Display screens – also called monitors or visual display units (VDUs), or simply screens
– are output devices that show programming instructions and data as they are being input
and information after it is processed.
Factors affecting screen clarity:

Dot pitch (dp) is the amount of space between the centers of adjacent pixels; the
closer the dots, the crisper the image.
Resolution is the image sharpness of a display screen; the more pixels there are per
square inch, the finer the level of detail attained.
Refresh rate is the number of times per second that the pixels are recharged so that
their glow remains bright. This is a factor associated only with CRT monitors. The
rate is measured in hertz.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Display screens are of two types, CRT and flat-panel.
CRT (cathode-ray tube): a vacuum tube used as a display screen in a computer or

video display terminal. It is larger and heavier than flat panel displays.
Flat-panel displays: Either gas plasma or LCD screens. Gas plasma displays shine
light through gas to create an image. Liquid crystal display (LCD) shine light through
a layer of crystalline liquid in a way that allows power to alter their optical properties,
thereby creating images on the screen by transmitting or blocking out light.
Active-matrix versus passive-matrix flat-panel displays: Flat-panel screens are either

active-matrix or passive-matrix:
Active-matrix display, also known as TFT (thin-film transistor) display, each pixel
on the screen is controlled by its own transistor. Active-matrix displays are much
brighter and sharper than passive-matrix screens, but they are more complicated to
make, consumes more power, and are more expensive.
Passive-matrix display, a transistor controls an entire row or column of pixels.
Passive matrix provides a sharp image for one-colour (monochrome) screens but is
more subdued for colour, though it is less expensive and uses less power.
Both active- and passive-matrix screens are used in notebook computers and more
advanced PDA models.
Colour and resolution standards for monitors: PCs come with graphics cards (also known
as video cards or video adapters) that convert signals from the computer into video
signals that can be displayed as images on a monitor.
Types of monitor resolutions:

HARDWARE DEVICES
Type Horizontal Vertical

VGA 640 480
SVGA 800 600
XGA 1,024 768
SXGA 1,280 1,024
UXGA 1,600 1,200
HDTV 1,920 1,080
QXGA 2,048 1,536
Hardcopy Output: Printers
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and graphics on paper or
other hardcopy medium.
The resolution (which determines the quality of sharpness of the image) is indicated by
dpi (dots per inch). This is a measure of the number of dots that are printed in a linear
inch. For microcomputer printers, the resolution is in the range of 60 to 1500 dpi.
Printers can be separated into the following two categories:
Impact printers: An impact printer forms characters or images by striking a

mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an
image on paper.
- A dot-matrix printer contains a print head of small pins, which strike an inked
ribbon against paper, to form characters or images.
Nonimpact printers: Nonimpact printers form characters and images without direct
physical contact between the printing mechanism and paper.
- Laser printer
- Ink-jet printers
- Thermal printers
- Plotter

HARDWARE DEVICES

HARDWARE DEVICES
The following table offers a basic comparison amongst the different types of printers in
terms of their respective strengths and drawbacks
.
Other Output: Sound, Voice, Animation, & Video
Most PCs are now multimedia computers, capable of producing not only text and
graphics but also sound, voice, and video.
Sound output: digitized sounds, ranging from beeps and chirps to music.
Voice output: Voice-output devices convert digital data into speech-like sounds.
Video output: Video consists of photographic images, which are played at 15 to 29
frames per second to give the appearance of full motion.

HARDWARE DEVICES
2.11 HEALTH & ERGONOMIC ISSUES
Health Matters
Repetitive stress injuries: Repetitive stress (or strain) injuries (RSIs) are several wrist,
hand, arm, and neck injuries resulting when muscle groups are forced through fast,
repetitive motions.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) consists of a debilitating condition caused by pressure on

the median nerve in the wrist, producing damage and pain to nerves and tendons in the
hands.
Eyestrain and headaches: Vision problems are common among computer users.
Computer vision syndrome (CVS) consists of eyestrain, headaches, double vision, and
other problems caused by improper use of computer display screens.
Back and neck pains: Improper chairs or improper positioning of keyboards and display
screens can lead to back and neck pains.
Electromagnetic fields: Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are waves of electrical energy and
magnetic energy. In recent years, there have been worries that monitors might be linked to
miscarriages and birth defects, and that cellular phones and power lines might lead to
some types of cancers, but there is no conclusive evidence to prove this.
Noise: The chatter of impact printers or hum of fans in computer power units can be
psychologically stressful to some people. Sound-muffling covers are recommended for
impact printers.
Ergonomics
The purpose of ergonomics is to make working conditions and equipment safer and more
efficient. It is concerned with designing hardware and software that is less stressful and
more comfortable to use, that blends more smoothly with a person’s body or actions.
Review Questions
1. The central processing unit (CPU)
(a) stores information for a long time.
(b) carries out the instructions it receives from the software.
(c) transports information around the motherboard.
(d) is external to the motherboard.
(e) is a peripheral device.

HARDWARE DEVICES
2. A bit
(a) is a 1 or a 0.
(b) is a contraction of binary digit.
(c) is the form that information is in a computer.
(d) is all of the above.
(e) is none of the above.
3. RAM is
(a) a term that describes how a computer is built.
(b) the computer’s brain.
(c) a type of monitor.
(d) temporary storage that holds instructions and information for the CPU.
(e) is a term that measure storage space.
4. The PCI (peripheral component interconnect) bus

(a) is the most common type of bus.
(b) usually incorporates several slots.
(c) is often where you plug in a sound card.
(d) is often where you plug in a modem card.
(e) all of the above.
5. A DVD-ROM
(a) is an optical storage medium.
(b) stores more than a CD.
(c) stands for double virtual density.
(d) a and b only
(e) b and c only.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Short Answers Questions

1. What are the essential differences between ROM and RAM?
2. How do you describe a motherboard? What are the key components you’ll expect to find
on a motherboard?
3. Discuss the main reasons why it is vital for a computer to be expandable.
Useful websites
Processors: www.ugeek.com/procspec/procmain.thm
RAM: www.kingston.com/tools/umb/defualt.asp
MICR: www.asapchecks.com/micr/micr.htm
OCR: www.scantron.com/
Storage Media: www.searchstorage.com
RAID: www.acnc.com/raid.htm
Unicode: www.unicode.org
Ports: www.beyondlogic.com

APPLICATION & SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Unit 3: APPLICATION AND SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• Explain the various ways to obtain software.

• Describe horizontal and vertical software.
• Describe the common features of software
• Understand the functions of common application software like word processing,
spreadsheets, database software, and specialty software.
• Describe the components that make up system software.
• Explain how an operating system functions.
• List and describe other types of system software like utility programs and device drivers.
• Know the different types of operating systems available
3.1 WAYS TO OBTAIN APPLICATION SOFTWARE
There are five ways of obtaining application software.

1. You can use commercial software, which is copyrighted and is available for a fee
under software license, meaning it may not be duplicated without permission.
2. You can freely duplicate, distribute and modify public-domain software, which is
not copyrighted.
3. You can use copyrighted shareware, which is distributed free for a trial period but
requires a fee for continued usage.
4. You can use freeware, which is copyrighted but distributed free.

5. You can lease rentalware, the concept behind ASPs (application service providers).
An ASP is company that provides software-based services and solutions to customers
either through a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet. Customers pay the third-
party ASP to use its applications software, server computer, and storage capabilities.

To learn software you can use step-by-step tutorials (lessons) or documentation (reference
guides).
Horizontal vs. Vertical Applications
Horizontal applications are used across the functional divisions of a company (and are
also popular in the consumer market). They are general-purpose programs that address
the needs of many people, such as writing (word processing), working with numbers
(spreadsheets), and keeping track of information (database).
Vertical applications are designed for a particular line of business or for a division in a
company. For example, programs are available to handle the billing needs of medical
offices, manage restaurants, and track occupational injuries. Vertical applications
designed for professional and business use may cost much more than horizontal
applications. Some of these programs can cost more than US$10,000.
If the right application is not available, custom software might hold the key. Customer
software requires the services of a professional programmer or programming team and is
more expensive.
3.2 TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

The purpose of application software is to manipulate raw data into files of information.
A file is a named collection of data or a program existing in secondary storage. Three

types are:
Document files (created by word processing)
Worksheet files (created by spreadsheets)
Database files (created by database management programs).
Files can be imported or acquired from other programs and exported or sent to other
programs.
Productivity software, which is designed to make users more productive, may exist in
stand-alone form, such as word processing or spreadsheet programs. Or several programs
may be combined in an office suite. Some productivity software exists as groupware,
which several users may share online.

3.2 COMMON FEATURES OF SOFTWARE
The user interface is the display screen that enables user interaction with the computer
via keyboard or via the mouse, which has an onscreen pointer. You send commands to
the operating system through the user interface. Early operating systems such as MS-DOS
and UNIX used a command line interface to send commands. With a command line
interface, the user types instructions to the operating system. Because command line
operating systems understand only certain commands, they can be difficult to learn and
require some programming skills.
The operating systems that you are most familiar with use a graphical user interface
(GUI, pronounced gooey). A GUI allows the user to interact with the operating system
through graphics such as icons and buttons. Files are represented by graphic icons (or
pictures) usually using folder images to organize files into groups (representing the
directory structure of the hard drive). GUI operating systems, like Windows XP and Mac
OS, are considered more user-friendly than command line interfaces
Graphical user interfaces usually comprise a desktop, or main interface screen, that
allows you to select from icons (little pictorial symbols) or menus (lists of activities).
Most icons have a rollover feature that pops up an explanation when a mouse rolls over
it.
Menus may be pull-down (from the screen top), fly-out (explode out to the right), pull-
up (from screen bottom), and pop-up (anywhere on screen), toolbars (top of screen) and
taskbars (bottom) display frequently used icons and menus.
The data and programs appear in a frame called a window, which can be resized or
repositioned on screen. Most toolbars contain a help command to provide answers to
questions; for some specific tasks, context-sensitive help is available.
3.3 WORD PROCESSING
One of the most useful productivity program is word processing software (e.g.
Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect), which allows you to create, edit, format, print, and
store text material, using mouse and keyboard.

A computer keyboard contains special-purpose keys to enter, delete, and edit data and
execute commands and function keys (F1, F2, etc.) for executing commands specific to
the software.
Three features that help you create documents are the cursor, the movable symbol on the
display screen; scrolling, the ability to move up, down, or sideways through the text; and
word wrap, which continues text on the next line automatically when you reach the end
of a line.
Features for editing documents are insert and delete, undelete, find and replace, cut/copy
and paste, spelling checker, grammar checker, and thesaurus (for presenting alternate
words).
Formatting, or determining the appearance of a document, is made easier by template,

preformatted documents, and wizards, which answer your questions and format a
document. Aspects of formatting are fonts, or typefaces and type sizes; spacing and
columns; margins and justification (spacing of words in a line); page numbers and page
headers/footers (repeated text at top/bottom); and other formatting such as use of clip art
(ready-made pictures). The manufacturer usually specifies automatically standardized
format settings, or default settings. Most programs give several options for printing out
documents. Documents may be saved, or preserved, in secondary storage, such as hard
disk.

3.4 SPREADSHEETS
The spreadsheet (e.g. Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3), allows you to create tables and
financial models by entering data and formulas into rows and columns arranged as a grid.
A spreadsheet file contains worksheets, or single tables, with several related worksheets
collected into a workbook.

Spreadsheet grids are organized with column headings across the top, row headings down
the left side, and various labels or descriptive text. Columns and rows intersect in a cell,
and its position is called a cell address; several adjacent cells constitute a range. A
number entered in the cell is called a value, and its location is indicated by a cell pointer
or spreadsheet cursor. Formulas, or instructions for calculations, are used to manipulate
data; built-in formulas are called functions. Values can be changed and then recomputed;
such recalculation is an important reason for the popularity of the spreadsheet, since it
allows you to do what-if analysis – to see how changing numbers can change outcomes.
For specialized needs, worksheet templates, custom-designed forms, are available. A neat
feature of spreadsheets is the ability to create analytical graphics, graphical forms – such
as bar charts, line graphs, and pie charts – that make numeric data easier to view and
analyze.

3.5 DATABASE SOFTWARE
A database is an arrangement of interrelated files, and database software (Microsoft

Access, Lotus Approach) is a program that controls the structure of a database and access
to the data held. The most widely used form is the relational database, in which data is
organized into related tables. Each table contains records (rows) and fields (columns).
The records within the various tables in a database are linked by a key field, a common
identifier that is unique, such as a customer account number.
You can search for what you want with a query, which helps locate and display relevant
records. Records can also be sorted, as alphabetically, numerically, or geographically.
Search results can then be saved, or they can be put into different formats, printed out,
copied and placed in other documents, or transmitted (as via e-mail) to someone else.
A specialized type of database software is a personal information manager (PIM),

found in most PDAs, which helps you to manage addresses, appointments, and to-do lists.

3.6 SPECIALTY SOFTWARE
Presentation graphics software (Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, Lotus

Freelance Graphics) uses graphics, animation, sound, and data to make visual
presentations, commonly called slide shows. Design templates and content templates are
available to help users get started. Material may be viewed from several perspectives
(Outline, Slide, Notes Page, Slide Sorter, and Slide Show views). Presentations may be
dressed up with clip art, textures, audio clips, and the like.
Presentation applications enable you to create robust, multimedia presentations. A

presentation consists of a series of slides. Each slide contains content, including text,
images, charts, and other objects. You can add multimedia elements to slides, including
animations, audio, and video.
Here are some basic features of a slide:
1. Title – The title of the slide should stand out from the rest of the text.
2. Text placeholder – Click and type your text. Keep points brief. Use bulleted lists to
emphasize text.
3. Graphic – Add clip art, photographs, or charts to slides.

4. Sound – Add audio files to your presentation. When a sound is added to a slide, it is
represented by a sound icon (small picture).
Financial software includes personal-finance managers, entry-level accounting

programs, and business financial-management packages. Personal-finance managers
(Quicken, Microsoft Money) help users track income and expenses, write checks, do
online banking, and plan financial goals. Tax programs help with tax preparation and
filing. Some financial programs automate bookkeeping and payroll tasks. Others help in
business start-ups or in making investments.
Desktop-publishing (DTP) software (PageMaker, MS Publisher) enables users to mix

text and graphics to produce high-quality output for commercial printing. Users can
choose various type and layout styles and can use files (text, graphics) from other
programs.
Drawing programs (MS Draw) allow users to design and illustrate objects and products;
painting programs allow them to simulate painting on screen.
Project management software (MS Project) helps users plan and schedule the people,
costs, and resources required to complete a project on time.
Computer-aided design (CAD) programs (e.g. AutoCAD) are used to design products,
structures, engineering drawings, and maps. CAD/CAM software – for computer-aided

design/computer-aided manufacturing allows products designed with CAD to be input

automatically into an automated manufacturing system that makes the products.
HTML — The Language of the Internet
When you visit a Web site, what you are seeing is computer code which has been
translated by the Web browser into text, graphics, and multimedia. HyperText Markup
Language (HTML) is the basic code used to create Web pages.
HTML is used to define how data looks:

• Structure – how the content is arranged on the page
• Formatting – colours, fonts, and styles used for page elements
• Hyperlinks – link to another place on the page or to another Web page
Most Web pages today use more than straight HTML. Other languages used to create
Web pages include:
• JavaScript – used to create dynamic elements such as pop-up menus, forms, and
scrolling text.
• Java – used to create self-contained applications (called applets) which run within the
Web browser.
• DHTML (Dynamic HTML) – used to defined dynamic elements such as transitions
between pages.
• XML (EXtensible Markup Language) – used to describe data using custom tags
defined in a Document Type Definition (DTD) document. XML tells the browser
what the data is, not how it should look.

HTML Editors
If you want to create a professional looking Web page, you'll probably want to use an
HTML editor. These applications offer features which can help you through the coding
process. The software programs we discuss here use a WYSIWYG (pronounced wizzy-
wig — What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) interface.
Creating a Web page with a WSIWYG editor can be as easy as using a word processor.
HTML functionality is added by clicking toolbar buttons or selecting menu commands.
Some WYSIWYG editors allow you to create HTML without having to know the tagging
structure at all. Some of these programs include templates and graphic themes to help you
get started creating a professional looking Web page.
Popular HTML editors include:

• Microsoft FrontPage (see diagram below)
• Macromedia Dreamweaver
• HomeSite (now included with Dreamweaver)
• NetObjects Fusion
• HoTMetaL Pro
• Netscape Composer

3.7 COMPONENTS OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Three basic components of system software are operating systems, device drivers, and
utility programs.
An operating system is the principal component of system software.

Device drivers allow input/output devices to communicate with the rest of the
computer system.
Utility programs provide functions (such as data recovery) not supplied by other
system software.
3.8 FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system (OS) consists of the master system of programs that manage the
basic operations of the computer.
Features of the OS are booting, CPU management, file management, task management,
and formatting:
1. In booting, the OS is loaded into the computer’s main memory.

2. The supervisor or kernel manages the CPU. The OS also manages memory, by
partitioning, dividing memory into foreground/background areas, and arranging
programs in queues to be processed.
3. In file management, the OS records the storage location of files.
4. Task management includes multitasking, executing more than one program
concurrently; multiprogramming, concurrent execution of different users’ programs;
time-sharing, round robin processing of programs of several users; and
multiprocessing, simultaneous processing of two or more programs by multiple
computers.
5. Formatting, or initializing, consists of preparing a disk to store data or programs.
3.9 OTHER SYSTEM SOFTWARE: DEVICE DRIVERS & UTILITY PROGRAMS
Device drivers are specialized software programs that allow input and output and other
peripheral devices to communicate with the rest of the computer system.
Utility programs perform tasks related to the control and allocation of computer
resources. They enhance existing functions or provide services not supplied by system
software programs. Tasks performed by utilities include the following:
1. A backup utility is used to make a duplicate copy of the information on your hard
disk.
2. A data-recovery utility is used to restore data that has been physically damaged or
corrupted.
3. Antivirus software is a utility program that scans hard disks, floppy disks, and
memory to detect viruses.

4. Data compression utilities remove redundant elements, gaps, and unnecessary data
from a computer’s storage space so that less space (fewer bits) is required to store or
transmit data.
5. Fragmentation is the scattering of portions of files about the disk in nonadjacent
areas, thus greatly slowing access to the files. A defragmenter utility program will
find all the scattered files on your hard disk and reorganize them as contiguous files.
More on Utilities
Utilities are specialized programs that help the operating system function more
efficiently. They are essential for computer maintenance. Some utilities come built-in to
the operating system. Others are developed by software companies as add-on programs. A
wide variety of utility programs are available for purchase or downloading from the
Internet.
The most common functions for utility programs are:

• Disk defragmentation – To re-organize the storage of data on your hard drive. When
you update or add to a file, the new data is saved on the first free space on the hard
drive – not necessarily adjacent to the part of the hard drive that contains data from
the original file. This can result in fragmentation which can slow down how your
computer reads files. A defragmentation program rearranges bits of files so data for
each file is located together physically on the disc, thus increasing the efficiency of
your computer.
• Virus protection – To remove viruses, repair infected files, and protect your
computer from infection by malicious programs. Viruses are covered thoroughly in
the task Security Issues.
• File organization – To allow you to customize the way you organize files and
programs. These programs offer alternatives to the default file organization utility
included with the operating system.

3.10 COMMON OPERATING SYSTEMS
There are three categories of platforms, or particular combinations of processors and O/Ss
– for desktops/laptops, for networks, and for handhelds.
Main desktop/laptop O/Ss are DOS, Macintosh OS, and the Microsoft Windows series.
DOS was Microsoft's original OS. The Macintosh operating system runs only on Apple
Macintoshes. Microsoft Windows 95/98 and ME is the most popular OS for desktops
and portables. The recently-released Microsoft XP targets home users; XP is based on
Windows ME and Windows 2000.
Main network server O/Ss are NetWare from Novell; Windows NT and its successor
Windows 2000 from Microsoft; UNIX, available in several versions, including Sun’s
Solaris and BSD; and Linux, a free version of Unix and a kind of open-source software
modifiable by anyone.
Key O/Ss for handhelds are Palm OS, which runs the Palm and the Visor, and Windows
CE (a stripped-down version of Windows 95), which became Pocket PC, a simpler
version (see diagram below).
Other Operating Systems
There are a wide variety of operating systems available — some can run on Intel-type
processors as a replacement for Windows. Others are written specifically for one type of
computer to run only specific applications programs. The most common operating
systems you may encounter are:

UNIX – Actually, "UNIX" incorporates a variety of operating systems, each with its own
brand name and special features. All of these operating systems share a programming
base first developed by AT&T in the 1970s. UNIX systems are used primarily on servers.
A typical home or office computer is very unlikely to run one of these OS, since the
applications we use the most aren't available for those systems. The three free versions of
UNIX are FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. Solaris is a special version of UNIX
designed to run on Sun Microsystems' computers.
Linux – A free operating system developed to run on computers with an Intel-type

processor. Linux is a direct competitor to Windows. What makes Linux unique is that its
base code resembles UNIX, but it was started from scratch by a Finnish college student,
Linus Torvalds. Linux is being expanded through the efforts of volunteer programmers all
over the world. As Linux becomes easier to install and use, and as more applications are
written for it, it will become a viable alternative to Windows for the average computer
user.
Palm OS – Personal digital assistants (PDAs) are personal computers with limited
capabilities. Thus, like PCs, PDAs require an operating system. Palm has its own
operating system (Palm OS) that comes installed on Palm and some other PDAs.
Microsoft also offers operating systems for PDAs - Windows CE and PocketPC.

3.11 ONLINE SOFTWARE & APPLICATION SOFTWARE PROVIDERS
Application service providers (ASPs) are firms that lease software over the Internet. ASPs
fit the strategy of users of network computers – thin clients, or inexpensive, stripped-
down computers that connect to networks and run applications tied to servers.
ASPs were anticipated by enterprise resource planning software (ERP), which consists
of large client/server software applications that help companies organize and operate their
businesses. With ASPs, however, clients can rent instead of buy software to run off of
servers, hence rentalware.
Review Questions
1. Software that helps you work with numbers, calculations, and graphs is known as
(a) presentation software.
(b) spreadsheet software.
(c) calculation software.
(d) document processing software.
(e) project management software.
2. Which of the following is not a function you’ll normally expect to find in a word
processing software?
(a) Spell check
(b) Grammar check
(c) Speed check
(d) Cut and paste
(e) Thesaurus
3. _______ is an operating system function that allows you to work with more than one piece
of software at a time.
(a) Mobility
(b) Multitasking
(c) System resource management
(d) Formatting
(e) Crash proof
4. Which of the following is an open source O/S modifiable by anyone?

(a) Windows CE
(b) Mac OS
(c) Windows NT
(d) Linux
(e) DOS

5. A/An _____ will find all the scattered files on your hard disk and realign them as adjacent
files.
(a) Defragmenter utility
(b) Anti virus software
(c) Hard disk partition
(d) Compression software
(e) E-mail client

1. What are the essential differences between a graphical user interface and a command-
driven interface?
2. What are the following types of application software used for? Briefly explain each one.
a. Project management software
b. Desktop publishing software
c. Database software
d. Spreadsheet software
3. Briefly describe the process of booting and the role played by the O/S in this process.
Useful websites
Office Suite: www.microsoft.com/officexp
Linux: www.linuxnewbie.org
Spreadsheet: www.j-walk.com/ss

FILES, DATABASES, AND E-COMMERCE
Unit 4: FILES, DATABASES, AND E-COMMERCE
• Describe the data storage hierarchy and the various data access methods.
• Understand and explain the features and benefits of a database management system.
• List and explain the different types of database models.
• Describe the features of a DBMS.
• Explain the stages involved in designing databases.
• Explain how e-commerce, data mining and B2B systems are making use of database
technologies.
• Discuss some ethical concerns related to the use of and reliance on databases.
4.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF FILE MANAGEMENT
Data is organized in a data storage hierarchy of increasingly complex levels: bits, bytes
(characters), fields, records, files, and databases.
A character is a letter, number, or special character; e.g. letter J or the symbol @.

A field consists of one or more characters (bytes); e.g. a name, address or age field. A
field is a separate area designed to store a certain type of data. For example, I a
library card catalogue, you’ll find fields for the book’s author, title, publisher, date of
publication, etc.
A record is a collection of related fields; e.g. a record of one customer with his name,
address, customer account number, credit limit, last order value, etc. A record refers
to a unit of information about something. In a library card catalogue, each card
provides a record of information about a single book.
A file is a collection of related records; e.g. an inventory file.
A database is an organized collection of integrated files; e.g. a database of all current
and past employees in every department.

A database consists of one or more files. A file is made up of records, and within a record, you’ll
find information organised into distinct fields
Important to data organization is the key field, a field used to uniquely identify a record
so that it can be easily retrieved and processed.
Files are filenames. Filenames also have extension names, three-letter additions such as
.doc and .txt.
Among the common types of files are the following:

(a) Program files are files containing software instructions. The two most important are
source program files, which contain instructions in the form written by the
programmer, and executable files, which contain instructions that tell a computer how
to perform a particular task.
(b) Data files are files that contain data.

(c) Other common files are ASCII files, which are text only; image files for digitized
graphics; audio files, which contain digitized sound; animation/video files, used for
conveying moving images; and Web files, which are files carried over the World
Wide Web.
Master File & Transaction File
Master file: The master file is a data file containing relatively permanent records that
are generally updated periodically.
Transaction file: The transaction file is a temporary holding file that holds all
changes to be made to the master file: additions, deletions, revisions.

4.2 FORMS OF FILE ACCESS
Two main ways in which a storage device accesses stored data are sequential access and
direct access.
Sequential storage means that data is stored and retrieved in sequence, as is the case
with magnetic-tape storage and microfilm.
Direct access storage means that a computer can go directly to the information you
want, as in a CD player; hard disks and other types of disks are of this nature.
Offline and Online Storage
Whether on magnetic tape or disk, data may be stored offline or online. Offline storage
means that data is not directly accessible for processing until the tape or disk has been
loaded onto an input device. Online storage means that stored data is randomly (directly)
accessible for processing.
4.3 THE DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)
A database management system (DBMS) consists of programs that control the structure
of a database and access to the data. The benefits of databases are file sharing, reduced
data redundancy, improved data integrity, and increased security.
File sharing: All authorised personnel can work with the same set of files, and if the
database is accessible via the company network, users can access these files remotely.
Reduced data redundancy: Data redundancy means that the same data fields (e.g. a
person’s address) appear in many different files and often in different formats.
Separate files will repeat the same data leading to wasted storage space. In a DBMS,
the information appears just once, freeing up more storage space. In addition, the
same information is available to different users.
Improved data integrity: Data integrity refers to the validity of the data contained in
the database. Data that is accurate, consistent and up to date is said to have high
integrity. High data redundancy decreases data integrity. Reducing redundancy
increases the chances of data being more accurate and consistent since each updating
change is made in only one place.
Increased security: Access to specific data in a database can be limited to selected
users on a need-to-know basis. Through the use of passwords and Ids, an employee’s
financial and medical records in a corporate database is made available only to those
who have a legitimate need to know.
Databases can be classified as four types:

1. An individual database is a collection of integrated files used by one person. It could
be a personal information manager, which helps people keep track of information they
use daily. Personal information manager (PIM) software can assist users to keep track
of and manage their personal information on a daily basis.

2. A shared database, or company database, is shared by users in one organization in

one location. The organisation owns the database which may be housed in a server
like a minicomputer or even a mainframe. Users are connected to the database via a
local area or wide area network; they can access the network through dumb terminals
or microcomputers.
3. A distributed database is stored on different computers in different locations

connected by a client/server network. Local and overseas branches subsidiaries
maintain their own local individual databases but the databases are all connected to
the headquarters. In this way the organisation can effectively manage its vast business
empire spread over a large geographical area while allowing data to be collected,
organised and processed where it is closest to the respective markets.
4. A public databank is a compilation of data available to the public; many such

databanks are Web sites. Some databanks are fee-based (e.g. Dialog, Dow Jones,
etc.), while others are available for free.
It is highly recommended that the last three types of databases ought to have a database
administrator (DBA) to coordinate activities and needs. The DBA perfumes the
following functions:
Determines user access privileges
Sets standards, guidelines, and control procedures
Assists in establishing priorities for data requests
Prioritises conflicting users needs
Develops user documentation and input procedures.
The DBA is also concerned with security through the setting up of systems to monitor
and prevent unauthorized access and ensuring that the system is regularly backed up
and that data can be recovered should a failure or disaster occur.

4.4 DATABASE MODELS
Databases can be organized in four ways.
1. In a hierarchical database, fields or records are arranged in related groups

resembling a family tree, with child (lower-level) records subordinate to parent
(higher-level) records.
Hierarchical Database
Accounting Finance MIS
Jones A Stevens P Bradshaw K Zambardino R

Jones A
Mayer C Mayer C
Accounting 1100 Statistics 1100 Information Systems 1100 Real Time Systems 2200
Draycott C Hassall G
Adams A Corey N
Finan N
Barber C
Adams A Barber C Corey N Draycott C Finan N Hassall G

2. A network database is similar to a hierarchical database but each child record can
have more than one parent record.
Network Database
Accounting Finance MIS
Bradshaw K Jones A Mayer C Stevens P Zambardino R
Accounting 1100 Statistics 1100 Information Systems 1100 Real Time Systems 2200
Adams A Barber C Corey N Draycott C Finan N Hassall G
3. A relational database relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a
key field. Structured query language (SQL) is an easy-to-use computer language for
making queries to a relational database and for retrieving selected records. One
feature of most query languages is query by example (QBE), which allows users to
ask for information in a relational database by using a sample record to define the
qualifications they want for selected records.
Relational Database Applications
Database applications allow you to organize and manipulate large amounts of data.
Databases that allow you to relate tables and databases to one another are referred to
as relational databases.
A relational database is a group of tables related to one another by common fields. A

table (or datasheet) looks similar to a spreadsheet. Each row in the table contains all
the data for a single record. Each column in the table represents a specific data value
called a field. All records have the same fields.
For example, a table of employee data might include fields for Employee ID, Last
Name, First Name, Address, City, State and Zip Code. Another table for tracking
timesheets might have fields for Timesheet Number, Employee ID, Week, Hours

Worked, and Total Pay. The two tables are related by the Employee ID field, so the
database can generate reports combining information from the two tables.
In this Microsoft Access database above, all 8 tables are related by means of common key fields

4. An object-oriented database uses objects, software written in small, reusable

chunks, as elements within database files. An object consists of data in any form and
instructions on the action to be taken on the data.
An Object-Oriented Representation for a Video Rental Store

CUSTOMER VIDEO RENTAL
INFORMATION: These are related INFORMATION:
Customer ID CUSTOMER
because VIDEO
Name VIDEO
RENTAL contains Date Rental
Phone
Address CUSTOMERS Date Returned
PROCEDURES: PROCEDURES:
Add new Customer Create New Video Rental
Get Customer Information Calculate Total Rental Price
Change Address Cancel Video Rental
These are related Get Video Rental Information
Save Customer Info to Database
because VIDEO Change Date Returned
RENTAL contains Save Video Rental Info to Database
VIDEO
VIDEO
INFORMATION: DISTRIBUTOR
Video Number INFORMATION:
Name Distributor Number
Type Name
These are related
DISTRIBUTOR Phone
Days because VIDEO
PROCEDURES:
Rental Price contains
Add New Distributor
PROCEDURES: DISTRIBUTOR Get Distributor Information
Add New Video Change Phone
Order Video from Distributor Save Distributor Info to Database
Change Days/Rental Price
Save Video Info to Database
4.5 FEATURES OF A DBMS
A database management system may have a number of components.
1. A data dictionary is a procedures document or disk file that stores the data
definitions or a description of the structure of data used in the database.
2. DBMS utilities are programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating,
editing, and deleting data, records, and files.
3. A report generator is a program for producing an onscreen or printed document

from all or parts of a database.
4. Different users are given different user access privileges, as determined by the
database administrator.
5. A DBMS should have system recovery features, so the database administrator can
recover the contents of the database in the event of hardware or software failure. Four
approaches are: mirroring, with two copies of the database in different locations;
reprocessing, in which the processing can be redone from a known past point; roll
forward, a variant on reprocessing; and rollback, which is used to undo unwanted
changes to the database.

4.6 DESIGNING DATABASES
Because databases contain so much data, good design is essential. Before creating the
database, you should plan carefully. Good database designers will follow these steps:
1. Needs analysis: What will the database be used for? Will you be managing inventory,
controlling payroll, or using the database to process orders from a Web site?
2. User analysis: Who will use the database? If the database will be used primarily by
programmers or other database developers, you don't need to create too many fancy
forms. However, if your primary user is a computer novice, you'll need to make sure
that data entry is easy with a user-friendly form.
3. Data analysis: What information do you need to store? You don't want the database
cluttered with unnecessary data.
4. Determine fields: Now that you know what data you need, what fields are
appropriate for storing that data? For example, you know you want to store customer's
names, but you should probably store names in two or three fields (first name, middle
initial, and last name).
5. Initial table design: What is the most logical way to group the fields into tables?
Keep related information together in records, and don't duplicate information between
tables. If one set of fields contains information that will be needed by a variety of
tables, keep those fields together in their own table. Ensure that each table has at least
one field that contains data unique for each record (the primary or key field).
6. Relationship design: Now that you have a preliminary idea of how you want your
data organized into fields and tables, look at the relationships between tables. Link
tables together by defining relationships between their common fields.
Finally, when you are satisfied with the database design, it's time to create the tables and
populate them with data. Create the queries you need to retrieve data from different
tables, then create forms for data entry and reports for output.

Steps to good database design
4.7 DATABASES & E-COMMERCE, DATA MINING, & B2B SYSTEMS

Databases reinforce the new economy of computer, telecommunications, and Internet
companies in three ways:
E-commerce
Data warehousing and data mining
Business-to-business (B2B) systems
E-commerce, or electronic commerce, is the buying and selling of products and services
through computer networks and Internet technologies; e.g. Amazon.com.
E-commerce and Shopping Online
By 2002, e-commerce (electronic commerce or shopping online) has become widely

accepted by Internet users. Today, you can purchase everything from airline tickets to
software to designer clothing on the Internet. Businesses which sell items on the Internet
are called e-tailers. Shopping online is not only convenient for many people, but often
times Web sites offer special discounts which are only available off the Internet.
E-commerce can be grouped into three broad types:

Online storefronts: Through online storefronts, you can purchase just about any item
that you can buy in a “bricks and mortar” store. You browse an online catalog, find
the item you want, place your order, enter a credit card for payment, and your
purchases are shipped directly to your home or office. Amazon.com is probably the
best known online storefront.

Auctions: Online auctions allow you to bid on items offered for sale. Instead of
purchasing an item for a set price, you compete with other people who are interested
in the same item. Whoever bids the highest, wins the auction. By far the most popular
and successful online auction site is Ebay. Ebay does not actually sell items. Instead,
it facilitates the interaction of potential buyers and sellers through the auction site.
Electronic payment services: With the growing popularity of auction sites came the
need for people to be able to pay for items securely using a credit card without going
through a storefront. Electronic payment service companies like Paypal and Billpoint
allow you to send money to sellers via a credit card or checking account
electronically. Today, these companies are expanding their services to offer a secure
payment process for all types of online purchasing.
Three types of e-commerce activities
Types of E-Commerce
E-commerce is defined as financial transactions that are conducted by electronic means.
With the growth of commerce on the Internet and the World Wide Web, e-commerce
often refers to purchases from online stores, otherwise knows as e-commerce Web sites.
They may also be referred to as “virtual-stores” or “cyber stores”. An e-business
enterprise uses the Internet, intranets, extranets, and other networks to support every step
of the commercial process. This might include everything from advertising, sales, and
customer support on the Web, to Internet security and payment mechanisms that ensure
completion of delivery and payment processes. E-commerce transactions generally fall
into one of four business models which are:

B2B — Businesses selling to other businesses
B2C — Businesses selling to consumers
C2B — Consumers bonding together to buy in volume from businesses

C2C — Consumers selling to other consumers
Business-to-business systems (B2B systems) allow businesses to sell to other

businesses, using the Internet or private network to cut transaction costs and increase
efficiencies.
Data Warehousing
A data warehouse is a collection and summarization of information from multiple

databases and database tables. The primary purpose of a data warehouse is not data
storage, but the collection of information for decision-making. Typically, a data
warehouse extracts updated information from operational databases on a regular basis
(nightly, hourly, etc.). This forms a snapshot of collected data that can be organized into a
logical structure based on your analytical needs.
Data warehouses allow you to express your information needs logically, without being
constrained to database fields and records. Using the correct data mining tools, it is
possible to display information from a data warehouse in ways that are not possible using
SQL or other basic query languages. Unlike a relational database, a data warehouse can
present information in multidimensional format. This representation is called a
hypercube, and contains layers of rows and columns. Using this model a company could,
for instance, track sales of multiple products in multiple regions over a given period of

time, all in the same view.
A data warehouse can contain extremely large amounts of information, and many users
will only need to access a portion of this. Information in a data warehouse can be
organized into data marts, which are subsets of data with a specific focus. Data marts can
provide an analyst with a more efficient set of working data relevant to, for instance, a
specific business process or unit of the company.
A data warehouse and its relationship to data marts and other transactional databases
Data mining is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing vast
amounts of data in order to extract meaningful patterns and discover new knowledge.
Data mining begins with acquiring data and cleaning it of errors to yield cleaned-up data
and a version of it called metadata (which shows its origins and transformations), which
are then sent to a data warehouse, a special database of cleaned-up data and meta-data.
Data mining is used in applications ranging from marketing to health to science.
More on Data Mining

Data mining is the process of extracting information from large sources of data, such as a
corporate data warehouse, and extrapolating relationships and trends within that data. It is
not possible to use standard query tools, such as SQL, to perform these operations. There
are three main categories of data mining tools: query-and-reporting tools, intelligent
agents, and multidimensional analysis tools.
Query-and-reporting tools offer functionality similar to query and report generators for
standard databases. These tools are easy to use, but their scope is limited to that of a
relational database, and they do not take full advantage of the potential of a data

warehouse.
The term ‘intelligent agents’ encompasses a variety of artificial intelligence tools which
have recently emerged into the field of data manipulation. Two of these tools are neural
networks and fuzzy logic. An intelligent agent can sift through the contents of a database,
finding unsuspected trends and relationships between data.
Multidimensional analysis tools allow a user to interpret multidimensional data (i.e., a

hypercube data set) from different perspectives. For example, if a set of data includes
products sold in various regions over time, multidimensional analysis allows you to view
the data in different ways. For instance, you could display all sales in all regions for a
given time, or all sales over time in a given region.
Components involved in data mining
4.8 ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO DATABASES: ACCURACY & PRIVACY
In morphing, a film image is altered pixel by pixel, so that the image becomes something
else. This manipulation of digitized images and sounds raises some ethical issues.
Sound performances can be misrepresented, photos may be manipulated, and video and
TV images may be altered in undetectable ways and all stored in a database.
Databases are also limited in accuracy and completeness, since not all facts can be found
in a database, or are all data items true. In addition, databases raise several concerns about

privacy. Finally, those who own databases may be in a position to monopolize

information.
Review Questions
1. ___________ organise data in a uniform manner.

(a) Fields
(b) Records
(c) Disks
(d) Data structures
(e) Entities
2. __________ store data in tables.

(a) Relational databases
(b) Hierarchical databases
(c) Network databases
(d) Object-oriented databases
(e) None of the above
3. SQL stands for

(a) Structured Query Language.
(b) Simple Query Language.
(c) Structured Questioning Language.
(d) Simplified Questioning Language.
(e) None of the above
4. An individual piece of data within a record is known as a/an ________.

(a) file
(b) field
(c) object
(d) code
(e) link
5. One of the following is not an advantage of a DBMS. Which one is that?

(a) File sharing
(b) Reduce data redundancy
(c) Increased security
(d) Improved data integrity
(e) Unlimited access to data


1. What are the key differences between master files and transactions files?
2. Why do you need a DBMS? What key functions does it perform? What are the benefits of
having a DBMS?
3. Briefly describe any three responsibilities of a database administrator.
4. It has been said that you do not need database management software to create a database
environment. Discuss.
5. What is data mining and how is it performed?
Useful websites
Data warehousing: www.dmreview.com
Data mining: www.almaden.ibm.com/cs/quest
E-commerce: www.ecommecetimes.com
An example of a public databank: www.dc.state.fl.us/inmateinfo/inmateinfomenu.asp

TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
UNIT 5: TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
• Explain the differences between analog and digital data, and the role of the modem.
• List and describe the key applications of communications technologies.
• Describe the various types of wired and wireless channels.
• Describe the factors affecting data transmission.
• Differentiate among different types of networks
• Explain the advantages of organisational networks.
• Explain the different Internet access methods
• Describe the common topologies of LANs.
• Differentiate between an intranet and an extranet.
• Discuss the ethical issues related to communications
5.1 THE ANALOG AND DIGITAL AGES
Computers use digital signals, which present information in a binary fashion. Most other
systems, such as telephones and TV, use analog signals, which continuously vary in
strength of quality. A modem (modulator/demodulator) converts digital signals into
analog signals, so that computer signals can be sent over normal phone lines.
5.2 MAIN APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATIONS
There are many forms of communications technologies on offer:

1. Videoconferencing, the linking of people through TV video and sound plus
computers, is useful for long-distance meetings.
2. Workgroup computing, in which microcomputer networks enable workers to
cooperate on projects, allows people to work on the same information at the same
time.
3. Telecommuting, working at home with telecommunications, can increase
productivity.

4. Virtual offices, nonpermanent, mobile offices run with telecommunications and

computers, add workplace flexibility.
5. Home networks enable households to link and share all kinds of peripheral devices.
6. Information and Internet appliances deliver all types of data anywhere at any time.
7. Smart television consisting of interactive TV and Internet TV.
5.3 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Factors affecting data transmission
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of fields of electrical energy and magnetic energy,
which travel in waves. In the middle is the radio frequency spectrum, fields of electrical
and magnetic energy that carry communications signals, which vary according to
frequency, or repeating waves. A range of frequencies is called a band or bandwidth. The
wider the band, the faster data can be transmitted. Broadband connections are very high-
speed connections.
Types of communication channels
A communications channel is the path over which information travels in a

telecommunications system. Channels may be wired or wireless.
Three types of wired channels are the following:

1. Twisted-pair wire, or standard telephone wire, consists of two strands of insulated
copper wire twisted around each other; it can be used for both voice and data
transmission (ee below).

2. Coaxial cable consists of insulated copper wire wrapped in an outer material; it is

better than twisted-pair for resisting noise (see below).
3. Fibre-optic cable consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmits beams of
light rather than electricity; it is very fast, noise-resistant and difficult to tap.
Fibre-optic cable
Four types of wireless channels are the following:

1. Infrared transmission sends data via infrared-light waves, as in some wireless
mouse.
2. Broadcast radio sends data over long distances, as between regions.

3. Terrestrial microwave radio transmits voice and data via very high-frequency radio
waves, as between hilltops and buildings.
Communications satellites are extraterrestrial microwave relay stations that orbit the earth,
occupying low, medium, or high (geostationary) earth orbits.
Communication satellites

Short-range wireless communication standards include:

1. Bluetooth, a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at linking cellphones, PDAs,
computers, and peripherals up to distances of 30 feet. Bluetooth technology provides
entirely wireless connections for all kinds of communication devices. For example,
Bluetooth could replace the cable connecting a notebook computer to a cellular
telephone. Virtually all digital devices, such as keyboards, joysticks, printers, and the
like, can be part of a Bluetooth system. Bluetooth is also adaptable to home
appliances like refrigerators, microwaves, and so on.
2. WiFi (wireless fidelity), a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at helping
machines inside offices to communicate at high speeds and share Internet connections
at distances up to 300 feet. WiFi (also known as IEEE 802.11b), is a way of
transmitting information in wave form that is reasonably fast and is often used for
notebooks. Apart from home networks, WiFi is used by companies to allow their
employees to go wireless, and is also available in various public places such as
airports, hotels, and restaurants like Starbucks. Very soon we’ll have WiFi-capable
airplanes.
3. HomeRF, a separate, incompatible standard designed to network up to 10 PCs and
peripherals as far as 150 feet apart.
Compression and Decompression Methods
Compression is a means of removing repetitive elements from a file to reduce its space so
that it requires less time to transmit; at the receiving end, the file is decompressed – the
repeated patterns are restored.
Two methods of compression are lossless and lossy.

Lossless compression uses mathematical techniques to replace repetitive patterns of
bits with a kind of coded summary; on decompression, the bits are restored, so that
the data is the exactly the same as what went in. This is important for database
records, computer data and financial data.
Lossy compression permanently discards some data during compression; it is often

used for graphics files and sound files. Two compression standards are JPEG, for still
images like photographs, and MPEG, for moving images like video.
5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING DATA TRANSMISSION
1. The transmission rate is a function of two variables – frequency and bandwidth.

Frequency is the number of cycles per second; bandwidth is the difference between
the highest and lowest frequencies. The higher the frequency and the greater a
channel’s bandwidth, the faster data can be transmitted.
2. Line configurations are the methods whereby communications lines are connected. A
point-to-point line directly connects the sending and receiving devices and is used

when data is to be kept secured between the devices. A multipoint line is a single line
that interconnects several communications devices to one computer, and usually only
one communication device can send or receive data at any one time.
3. Serial transmission transmits the bits sequentially. Parallel data transmission

transmits many bits through separate lines simultaneously.
4. Data can flow in three ways: simplex (one way only); half-duplex (in both directions
but not simultaneously); and full-duplex (both directions simultaneously).
5. The transmission mode can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In asynchronous

transmission, data is sent one byte at a time, with a “start” bit and a “stop” bit to
demarcate a byte. With synchronous transmission, data is transmitted in blocks, with
a start and a stop bit pattern to define each block of data.
6. In circuit switching, the transmitter has full use of the circuit until all the data has
been transmitted and the circuit is terminated. In packet switching, electronic
messages are divided into packets for transmission over a wide area network to their
destination, through the most convenient route. Circuit switching is best for voice
transmission, whereas packet switching is best for high-volume data transmission.
7. Transmitting multiple signals over a single communications channel (a process

known as multiplexing) can increase the efficiency of data transmission. Multiplexing
devices include multiplexers, concentrators, and front-end processors.
8. A protocol is a set of principles that determines the exchange of data between
hardware and/or software components within a communications network and between
different networks.
5.5 DEFINITION OF A NETWORK
What is a Network?
A network connects two or more computers, allowing them to communicate with each
other and share resources. Computers and other devices (like printers) connected to the
network are called nodes. Nodes on the network can be connected by cables (twisted-
pair, coaxial, or fiber optic) or through wireless technologies (infrared, satellite, or
microwave transmission).
Some networks include a hub which is the piece of hardware where all the nodes connect
to one another. Networks can be connected to other networks through a gateway or
bridge. (These devices serve the same purpose, but gateways connect networks of the
different types; bridges connect networks of the same type.) A router manages data
traffic within the network and to other networks (in connection with a gateway or bridge).

5.6 BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
1. Enable sharing of peripheral devices, programs, and data

2. Promote better communications through emails and discussion groups
3. Enhanced security of information through regular backups.
4. Permits access to numerous databases (internal and public).
5.7 TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks come in all sizes, generally described in these terms:

Wide Area Networks (WAN) have a national or global reach. With satellite technology,
WANs can connect nodes that have no physical connection to one another. The Internet is
the best example of a WAN — a global network of networks.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) have a larger geographical range, connecting

nodes in separate buildings within a few miles of each other. Cellular phone systems are
good examples of MANs. In order to have national coverage, the cellular company
connects all of its MANs into a larger network, known as a WAN.
Local Area Networks (LAN) connect nodes that are in close physical proximity to each
other — in the same office or building for example. Most of the examples we use
throughout this lesson refer to LANs.

Two forms of LANs are as follows:

1. Client/server LAN: consists of microcomputers requesting data and service (clients)
and powerful computers supplying data and service (servers). A file server, for
example, stores programs and data files; other servers are database server, printer
server, Web server, and mail server.
A typical client/server LAN setup
The Client/Server Relationship

Nodes that use the network's resources are called clients (usually computers), and nodes
that manages the sharing of resources are called servers. Servers are specialized
computers with their own operating systems and network administration software.
Servers can be specialized for a variety of functions:
• File servers are data repositories with large hard drives. By storing files on the
server rather than on the individual client computers, multiple clients have access
to the same files. File servers are designed to handle multiple file requests at the
same time.
• Database servers store data in a large database. Rather than requesting data in
the form of files, clients can request data from the database. Database servers
include powerful data search and query functions. Database servers are optimized
to search through large amounts of data and return only the records required to
answer the question.
• Application servers allow clients to run applications from the server, rather than
installing the application on each client individually.

2. Peer-to-peer LAN: there is no server; PCs on a network communicate with each

other directly.
Peer to Peer Systems

Peer-to-peer networks connect individual computers directly with one another without
requiring a server. All nodes share resources with all the other nodes directly. Peer-to-
Peer networks are used for small offices and home networks.
One advantage of peer-to-peer networks is that they don't require specialized

networking software.
• Windows 98, ME, 2000, and XP operating systems all include the Client for
Microsoft Networking which is usually installed automatically with the operating
system.
• Macintosh computers usually come with a built-in Ethernet connection and

AppleTalk networking software.
Standard Components of a LAN

These include the cabling system, microcomputers with network interface cards (NICs),
network operating system (e.g. Novel NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT/2000, Unix, or
Linux), and other shared peripheral devices (printers, scanners, storage devices).
Other components are: a router (a special device that directs communicating messages
when networks are linked together); a bridge (a device used to connect the similar types

of networks); and a gateway (a device allowing communication between different

networks).
5.8 INTERNET ACCESS METHODS
Consumers can access the Internet by several different ways:
Telephone Modem
A telephone modem is essentially a telephone for a computer so that it can talk to other
computers with modems. A telephone modem (modem) is a device that connects your
computer through a phone line to a network of other computers.
DSL
A DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a high-speed Internet connection using a phone line,
which allows you to use your phone for voice communication at the same time.
There are various types of DSL systems. One of the popular ones, ADSL, divides the
phone line into three channels, one for sending information, one for receiving
information, with the one remaining serving as a regular phone line. Speeds vary from
144 Kbps (144,000 bits per second) to 1.54 Mbps (1,540,000 bits per second) and can
even go as high as 6.0 Mbps.
DSL have four advantages over a phone modem.

1. DSL is much faster.
2. It’s an “always-on” connection giving you Internet access without having to first dial
in to your ISP.
3. DSL doesn’t tie up the phone.
4. A DSL connection will allow multiple computers to share one connection.
Cable Modem
A cable modem is a device that uses your TV cable to produce an Internet connection.

Messages readable by a cable modem arrive at your home on the same cable as your cable
television. A splitter divides the line into TV delivery and Internet delivery through a
cable modem. Conceptually it works in much the same way as the DSL connection.
A cable modem shares many of the same advantages as the DSL connection in that it is
faster, does not tie up the phone, is always on, and you can connect a router between the
cable modem and the computers. The router enables all the computers on your home
network access to the Internet simultaneously.
The one drawback of a cable modem as opposed to a DSL modem is that cable modem
access time slows as more users sign on using the same TV cable.

Satellite Modem
A satellite can bring the Internet to a home or business. It’s necessary to have a satellite
modem as well as a satellite dish (or antenna). A satellite modem is a modem that allows
you to get Internet access using a satellite dish. The satellite dish that delivers television
channels is not necessarily geared to Internet access. A different dish is probably
necessary.
Satellite Internet access
5.9 LAN TOPOLOGIES
Networks can be laid out in three main topologies (physical structures):

Star: all devices are connected to a central server
Ring: all devices are connected in a continuous loop
Bus: all devices are connected to a common channel (backbone)
Networks are often described by their topology — the way in which the nodes of the
network are physically connected together.
In a bus topology, all nodes are joined along a shared connection. One problem with a
bus topology is that there is no central management of data transmissions. If multiple
nodes send data transmissions at the same instant, the data can “collide”. Too many data
collisions at once, and the network goes down. This problem can be overcome by using
Ethernet for the physical connections in the network.
In a star topology, a hub is placed in the center of the network, and each node connects
to the hub individually. No single node's connection to the hub is affected by any other
node. However, if the hub goes down, the entire network becomes inoperable.

In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected one-to-another in a circle, so the last node
is connected to the first (completing the circle). There is no danger of data collisions,
because data only moves in one direction. However, if the connection goes down at any
point, the circle is broken and the network become inoperable.


5.10 MODERN DAY NETWORKS
Organizations today use two alternative networks that make use of the Internet’s
infrastructure and standards. An intranet is an organization’s internal private network for
employee use. An extranet is used by selected suppliers and other trading parties as well
as employees. A firewall maintains security for such networks; it comprises of a system
of hardware and software that blocks unauthorized users inside and outside the
organization.
Intranets and Extranets
Intranets and extranets are special types of networks that use the same technology as the
World Wide Web. Data is stored on servers and is communicated via the TCP/IP
protocol. If the Internet is the global village, then intranets and extranets are private, gated
communities within that village. As an authorized user, you can access the intranet or
extranet through your regular browser, but if you aren't an authorized user, you won't be
able to get past the gate.
Intranets are commonly used for internal communications in corporations or educational

institutions. Strictly speaking, an intranet does not allow any access from the outside
Internet. Only computers connected to the internal network can connect to the intranet.
Once you allow authorized external users to connect to an intranet, it becomes an
extranet. An extranet is still restricted, but allows access by certain networks, computers,
or individual users.
5.11 ETHICAL, SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES RELATED TO

COMMUNICATIONS
Ethical Issues
Three main ethical issues are raised:

1. Protect children against access to controversial material (e.g. pornography and
materials of objectionable contents found on the Internet).
2. Pressure by technology on privacy (e.g. cookies).
3. Intellectual property rights are threatened by applications such as file sharing

programs (e.g. the network-based music exchange called Napster, which was later
banned).
Security Issues
If your computer never interacts with other computers, then it is relatively safe from
security violations. Chances are, however, that you come into contact with thousands of

other computers every day through the Internet, e-mail, a corporate network, or file
sharing. There are a number of security issues that every computer user should be aware
of and guard against:
A computer virus is a malicious computer program. Viruses can be relatively benign —

displaying a graphic on your web site or showing an animation when you boot your
system — or they can be destructive — destroying files or entire hard drives. Anti-virus
software can protect you from computer viruses.
Identity theft is a relatively new type of computer crime. Identity theft occurs when a
hacker or other unscrupulous person steals your personal information (often from an
online database). This information is then used to open new credit card accounts and
make purchases, using your good name. One way to protect against identity theft is to
safeguard your passwords.
Crackers are unscrupulous computer experts (usually programmers) who engage in

illegal computer activities ranging from breaking into “secure” networks to creating
computer viruses. Often the term hacker is used interchangeably with cracker, but
generally hackers do not engage in destructive behaviour. A good firewall can protect
your computer against unauthorized access. A firewall is a set of hardware and software
designed to act essentially as a filter set up to block suspicious data from entering the
network.
Privacy Issues
Every purchase you make, every e-mail you send, every Web site you visit – all of your
actions online are subject to tracking and surveillance. Your personal information is
stored in enormous corporate and government databases. What is the information used
for? In the case of private industry, the information is used mainly for marketing purposes
– sending you unsolicited offers for credit cards, magazine subscriptions, etc. This is how
telemarketers get your phone number and where all that junk mail and spam (junk e-mail)
come from!
Opting Out: Certain laws require that credit card companies and other organizations that
collect your personal data inform you of the data collection and give you the option of
“opting out” of having that information shared with third parties. When you sign up for a
user account at an online shopping site, look for the site’s privacy statement and the
option of “opting out” of having your personal information shared.
Cookies are small files written to your computer’s hard drive by Web sites. Cookies
usually contain an anonymous id used to track your actions on Web sites, including
shopping purchases and personalization preferences. Cookies do not store your personal
information or credit card numbers. You can set your browser’s preferences to warn you
before it accepts a cookie, or you can set it to disable cookies altogether. However,
disabling cookies will prevent some Web sites from functioning properly.

Review Questions
1. What is a client/server network?
(a) It is a network where all the computers are equal.
(b) It has one or more computers that provide services to the other computers, called
clients.
(c) It is the control unit and it directs information around the motherboard.
(d) It carries information between the CPU and RAM.
(e) It is none of the above.
2. Communication that travels without cables is called _______

(a) wireless.
(b) twisted pair cable.
(c) fibre optic cable.
(d) network interface card.
(e) network cable.
3. A company’s extranet may be set up for use by all of the following groups of users with the
exception of
(a) Suppliers
(b) Distributors
(c) Customers
(d) Competitors
(e) Employees
4. Which of the following is a device for converting digital signals to analog signals and then
back again?
(a) Transformer
(b) Modem
(c) Packet Switcher
(d) Interpreter
(e) Converter
5. A message sent across a telecommunications network usually contains the message itself,
error control information and details of the sender and the recipient. This set of information
is collectively known as a _______.
(a) Package
(b) Packet
(c) Page
(d) Posting
(e) Pointer


1. Differentiate between an intranet and an extranet.
2. Distinguish between s a LAN and a WAN.
3. Why is bandwidth an important factor in telecommunications? What is this concept of

“broadband access” referring to?
4. Briefly describe any five advantages that e-mail offers users compared with conventional
mail.
Useful websites
LAN protocols: www.ots.utexas.edu/ethernet; www.lantimes.com

WAN technologies: www.pacbell.com/products/business/fas-trak/index.html

THE INTERNET & THE WORLD WIDE WEB
UNIT 6: THE INTERNET & THE WORLD WIDE WEB
• Understand the various means of connecting to the Internet.

• Describe what an ISP is and what functions does it perform.
• Define and explain the various resources and applications associated with the World
Wide Web.
• Understand what is meant by terms like ftp, telnet, newsgroups, real-time chat and e-
commerce.
6.1 THE INTERNET
Think of the Internet as a global network of computers. There is no one central

computer. Instead, the Internet is comprised of a series of special computers which hold
data, called servers, connected together forming what is known as the “backbone.” Just
about any personal computer with a modem can connect to the Internet. Through the
Internet you can upload and download files, send and receive e-mail, communicate with
other people connected to the Internet through “chat rooms”, send instant messages, or
visit sites on the World Wide Web (also called surfing the Web).
Some of the most common uses of the Internet include:
1. E-mail (electronic mail)
2. Chat rooms

3. Instant messages
4. Visiting sites of interest, such as news sites, game sites, and sports sites
5. Researching information through Web search engines
6. Shopping through E-commerce Web sites
6.2 INTERNET ACCESS AND PHYSICAL CONNECTION
Some Internet physical connections, either wired or wireless, have more bandwidth –
are able to transmit more data – than others. Data transmission is expressed in bps (bits
per second (8 bits equal 1 character), Kbps (kilobits – thousands of bits per second),
Mbps (megabits – millions), and Gbps (gigabits – billions). Data is downloaded from a
remote computer to a local computer or uploaded, the reverse.
There are four principal types of Internet physical connections:

(1) Telephone (dial-up) modem connection is low-speed but inexpensive (up to 56 Kbps).
(2) High-speed phone connections are ISDN – integrated service digital network (up to
128 Kbps), which transmits over traditional phone lines; DSL – digital subscriber line
(up to 8.4 Mbps), also using traditional phone lines; and T1 (1.5 Mbps), a special
trunk line.
(3) Cable modems (10 Mbps) connect to cable TV systems.
(4) Wireless systems include microwave systems, such as communications satellites or

space stations (up to 56 Kbps).
6.3 THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)
With a physical connection installed, you then need an Internet Service Provider, a
company to help you connect or log on to the Internet. The ISP will assign you a
username and a password, as well as an e-mailbox. The ISP’s local access number for
your area is called its point of presence (POP)
Sending and Receiving E-Mail. Four alternatives for getting and sending e-mail are to:
Buy e-mail software
Get the software as part of a browser or other software
Get it from your ISP
Get it free (for example, from hotmail.com or Yahoo!).

People will send e-mail to you at your domain, a location on the Internet consisting of
your user name and domain name, such as user@domain.
E-mail allows users to send attachments, or separate long documents, with their e-mail
messages. It also allows instant messaging, in which incoming messages are displayed at
once in a window, a rectangular area on screen. You can exchange e-mail from people
worldwide with similar interests through list-serves, or e-mail mailing lists.
The two basic rules of online behaviour, or netiquette, are these: Don’t waste people’s
time, and don’t say anything online you wouldn’t say to someone’s face. In particular,
you should always first consult FAQs, or Frequently Asked Questions; avoid flaming,
such as insults or obscenities; and smooth communication using emoticons, or friendly
graphic symbols.
To manage your e-mail, filters or instant organizers are recommended. In addition, you
will need to know how to manage spam, or unsolicited e-mail. Finally, assume e-mail
messages are not private: Anyone could read them.
Other types of service providers include:

• Online Service Provider – These providers charge a slightly higher fee than the
typical ISP, but in addition to full access to the Internet, online service providers offer
a variety of custom content and services only for their customers. The most well
known online service provider is America Online (AOL) in the US.
• Education Provider – Because the Internet was first developed as an educational tool
for research, almost all colleges and universities today offer Internet accounts to
students and faculty through campus networks and computer labs. It is becoming
more common for primary and secondary education schools to offer students access
as well.

6.4 THE WORLD WIDE WEB
What makes the Web so graphically inviting is that it is in multimedia form—graphics,

video, and audio as well as text. What makes it easily navigable is that it uses hypertext,
a system based on hypertext markup language (HTML) that uses “tags” or special
instructions to provide links among words and phrases in many documents at many
Internet sites.
A computer with a domain name (.com, .org, and the like) is called a site, and a Website
is the location of a Web domain name in a computer somewhere on the Internet. A Web
page is a document (with text, pictures, sound) on the Web; the first page on the Web site
is the home page. A Web browser, software for viewing and connecting to Web pages,
is used to connect with the Web site’s address, or Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A
URL, such as http://www.nps.gov/yose/camping.htm, consists of:
(1) the protocol, or communication rules—in particular, HyperText Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), the protocol for connecting with Web servers,
(2) the Web server name,
(3) the directory, and
(4) the file (perhaps with an extension, such as htm).
To get around the Web with a browser, you start out from the home page (which you can
personalize or customize), then use directional features (Back, Forward, Home, Search),
history lists (to keep track of where you've been), and bookmarks (to mark favorite
URLs). To interact with a Web page, you use your mouse to click on hyperlinks, click on
radio buttons (circles in front of options), and enter content in fill-in boxes. You can
also click on scroll arrows to do scrolling – move up and down the Web page.
A starting point for obtaining information is a Web portal, a site (such as AOL or
Yahoo!) that provides popular features such as search tools. You can check the portal's
home page; use a directory or category of topics; or use a keyword , or subject word, to
search for a topic. You can also use a search engine to find specific documents through
keyword searches and menu choices. Search engines may be human-organized, computer-
created, hybrid, or metacrawlers. Among the search strategies are use of quotation marks
around search terms and use of operators (AND, OR, NOT, +, 2).
Multimedia on the Web may require a plug-in (or player or viewer), a program on the
browser that allows certain files to be played or viewed. Helper applications run
multimedia elements separate from the browser. Web-site developers use applets (small
multimedia programs) written in Java, a programming language for creating animated,
interctive Web pages. Animation is rapid sequencing of still images. Streaming video
transfers data in a continuous flow. Streaming audio lets you listen to a file as it is being
downloaded. Push technology, such as webcasting, automatically downloads data to

your computer—customized text, video, and audio. Internet telephony allows you to
make phone calls on the Net.
6.5 WEB BROWSERS
A Web browser is a software application which enables you to access and view
information on the World Wide Web. Web pages are written in a language called HTML
(for more information about HTML, refer to the topic HTML -- the Language of the
Internet). The Web browser interprets (or “parses”) the HTML, and displays the Web
page that you see. With a Web browser, you can navigate from Web page to Web page
(“browsing” or “surfing” the Internet). The two most popular Web browsers today are
Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
• Internet Explorer is developed by Microsoft, and comes installed on most computers

with the Windows operating system.
• Netscape Navigator was the prevalent browser in the early days of the Internet.
Today, Netscape is owned by AOL/Time Warner.
Both of these browsers are available for free from their respective Web sites
(www.microsoft.com and www.netscape.com).
Netscape Navigator

Internet Explorer
6.6 MORE ON WEB PAGES
A Web page is an online document which can be read by a Web browser. To go to a Web
page, type its URL (Uniform Resource Locator or "address") in the address bar of your
Web browser.
Web pages can contain text, graphics, animations, video and sound. Web pages can
include dynamic elements which change or update continually (such as stock quotes,
sports scores, and news bulletins). Web pages can contain hyperlinks — underlined text
which you can click to go to other Web pages. Most Web pages also include a navigation
bar (usually graphic buttons) to provide quick links to other pages within that Web site.
A Web site is a collection of related Web pages. For example, www.washingtoncaps.com

is a Web site (the Web site of the Washington Capitals hockey team). The site is made up
of many different individual Web pages. Most people use the terms Web site and Web
page interchangeably.
There are Web sites for every possible interest and use, including:
• News

• Entertainment
• E-commerce (shopping)
• Research
• Government agencies
• Education
• Personal Web pages
• Portals
A web site’s URL can give you a clue as to what type of site it is. The domain name part
of the address ends in a domain code with commonly accepted usages.
• .com – commercial sites (most web sites use this domain code)
• .net – network or host sites (your service provider’s web site probably ends in this)
• .org – non-profit organisation
• .edu – education site (only approved educational institutions can use this)

• .gov – government site (only government sites can use this)
Recently, new domain codes have been added (although these are not widely used yet).
They include:
.biz – business site
.info – information site
.tv – entertainment or television site
6.7 OTHER ONLINE RESOURCES
Four other Internet resources are

(1) FTP, a method for copying files;
(2) Telnet, a means for connecting to remote computers;
(3) Newsgroups, electronic bulletin boards that take place on a special network called
Usenet, which requires a newsreader (part of most browsers) to access; and
(4) Real-time chat (RTC), typed online discussions, which require a chat client (also
part of most browsers) to initiate.
The Internet offers personal resources – the ability to do online matchmaking, acquire an
online education through distance learning, get health information, and amuse yourself.
It also offers e-commerce, or online business activities, such as retail commerce online
(“e-tailing”); online auctions; online finance; online job-hunting; and B2B commerce, for
business-to-business commerce, or the exchange of goods and services directly between
companies.
Using the Internet to Communicate
One of the greatest advantages of the Internet is the ability to communicate with people
all across the planet. E-mail is the most common form of communication, but there many
other options:
Mailing lists: When you subscribe to a mailing list (also called list-serves for the
type of server that manages them), you join a group of people with similar interests.
By sending an e-mail message to the list, you are actually sending a message to
everyone on the list at one time. At the same time, you automatically receive every e-
mail sent by others to the list.
Newsgroups: Newsgroups are special areas where people can read and respond to
messages through a news reader program (often part of an e-mail program or your

browser). These messages are “posted” to the newsgroup (sometimes called a bulletin
board) directly, without going through e-mail.
Chats: Chat rooms are Web sites where you can join a discussion with several people
at once. Like mailing lists and newsgroups, the conversation is conducted by typing.
However, in chat rooms, the conversation is live.
Instant messaging: Instant messaging (IM) allows two people on the same service to
send messages to each other that instantly appear on the other person's computer. A
typed conversation can continue - just like having a telephone conversation.
6.8 MORE ABOUT USING E-MAIL
E-mail (short for electronic mail) is one of the most popular uses of the Internet. Through
e-mail, anyone connected to the Internet can send a message to any other computer with
an Internet connection. E-mail programs vary from the simple, allowing only plain text
messages, to the complex, allowing text formatting and images to be included in the
message. Whatever e-mail program you use, the process of sending a message is the
same:
How to send an e-mail message:
1. First, open your e-mail program. This may be an application installed on your
computer, or a Web site where you have an e-mail account.
2. Type the e-mail address of person you are sending the message to in the To: box. An
e-mail address consists of two parts: the person's user name and the domain name

where the e-mail account is kept. bob@mycompany.com is an example of an e-mail

address: bob is the user name; mycompany.com is the domain name.
3. If you want to copy the message to additional recipients, type their e-mail addresses in
the Cc: (carbon copy) or Bcc: (blind carbon copy) box. When you use the Bcc: box,
other recipients of the e-mail won't know that this person received the e-mail as well.
4. Type a brief description of what the e-mail is about in the Subject box.
5. Now, type the text of the e-mail message. This is the body of the e-mail.
6. If you want to send a file with the message, most programs allow you to include
attachments. Recipients can open the attachment if their computer has software which
can read the file type.
7. Finally, click the Send button to send the e-mail.
6.9 SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET
Today, there are over one million Web sites on the World Wide Web. So how do you find
the site you want? Search engines are special Web sites that allow you to enter keywords
that describe the site you want and then display a list of links to sites which match your
criteria.
Some search engines (like Yahoo) also organize sites into categories and subcategories
through a process known as indexing. Instead of entering keywords to search for Web
sites, you start with a category and drill your way down to find the subcategory that
matches your search criteria.
When entering keywords in a search engine, try to be as specific as possible. Use

combinations of keywords to narrow your search criteria, but be careful not to use
common words that are not specific to the information you want to find.
The easiest way to construct a good search query is to first think of a sentence that
describes what you want to know: “My family wants to visit the White House in
Washington DC.” Next, take out all of the extraneous information in the sentence. Your
keywords are now, “family”, “visit”, “White House”, and “Washington DC.” If you had
just entered in the keywords “White House,” you still would have received information
about the White House, but by using more keywords, the search will be tailored to your
specifications. Including the words ‘my” and “wants” would only increase the number of
results, without adding any value.

Review Questions
1. A specific portion of a Web site that deals with a certain topic is a

(a) Web server.
(b) Web page.
(c) Web site address.
(d) Web page address.
(e) URL.
2. A _____________ is a site that provides a wide range of services, including search engines,
free e-mail, chat rooms, discussion boards, and links to hundreds of different sites.
(a) Web computer
(b) Web portal
(c) Blackberry
(d) communications protocol
(e) Web phone
3. ______________ is the amount of information that can travel from one place to another in
a given amount of time.
(a) Bandwidth
(b) Communications protocol
(c) ISP
(d) NAP
(e) NSP
4. A(n) _______________ is a company that provides individuals, organizations, and

businesses access to the Internet.
(a) NAP
(b) NSP
(c) cookie
(d) ISP
(e) Internet backbone
5. The protocol for communicating between the client and server on the World Wide Web is
called http. What does http stand for?
(a) Home To The Page Protocol
(b) Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(c) Hyperlink Transfer Technology Protocol
(d) Hypermedia Transfer Technology Protocol.

Short Case Scenario
CAPA Training Institute has a website advertising their training and development courses. The
site allows visitors to view the brief contents of courses and make bookings on-line. Further
pages provide general information about the company. CAPA Training is concerned about the
reliability of their Internet Service Provider and they are also worried that their site does not
appear high enough on the lists provided by Search Engines. Their final problem concerns the
time it takes to access and update their site. They currently use a conventional telephone line
but they have been told that an ISDN line would bring greater speed and reliability.
Required:
(a) Briefly explain what is meant by the term ‘home page’.
(b) What does www stand for in a home page address?
(c) Explain the role of an Internet Service Provider.
(d) Explain the meaning and significance of a Search Engine.
(e) Explain the meaning and significance of an ISDN line.
Useful websites
History of the Internet: www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml

Search engines: www.yahoo.com. www.google.com, www.altavista.com
Chat rooms: www.irc.com
Learning HTML: www.webcom.com/~webcom/html/tutor/
Web design: www.pageresource.com/
The Internet public library: http://ipl.sils.umich.edu/

____________________________________________________INFORMATION SYSTEMS
UNIT 7: INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Describe the typical structure of an organization.

Define decentralized computing and shared information and describe the nature and
characteristics of information within an organization.
Explain the three main reasons why organizations develop new computer systems.
Describe the six different types of information systems and their purposes.
Describe the 6 phases of the traditional systems development life cycle (SDLC) and define
your roles within each as a user.
Define how end user development can be used to develop new computer systems.
Explain how organizations can outsource the development of new computer systems.
7.1 ORGANISATIONS, MANAGEMENT, INFORMATION
To understand how information flows in an organization, we need to understand how

organizations work. Information flows horizontally between the five departments of an
organization: research and development, production, marketing, accounting and finance,
and human resources. It also flows vertically between the layers of managements.
There are three levels of management corresponding to three kinds of decisions, as

reflected in the organization chart, a schematic drawing showing the hierarchy of formal
relationships among an organisation’s employees.
(1) Top managers are concerned with long-range, or strategic, planning and decisions.
(2) Middle-level/functional managers make tactical decisions to implement the

strategic goals of the organization.
(3) Supervisory/operational managers make operational decisions, predictable

decisions that can be made by following a well-defined set of routine procedures.
Information has three distinct properties:
1. Level of summarization
2. Degree of accuracy
3. Timeliness
To make the appropriate decisions strategic, tactical, operation the different levels of
managers need the right kind of information: structured, semistructured, and unstructured.
Structured information is detailed, current, concerned with past events, records a
narrow range of facts, and covers an organisation’s internal activities.
Unstructured information is summarized, less current, concerned with future events,
records a broad range of facts, and covers activities outside as well as inside an
organization.

Semistructured information includes some structured information and some

unstructured information.
The Flows of Information

For organizations to work effectively, information must flow in all directions.
Upward flow of information – describes the current state of the organization based
on its daily transactions.
Downward flow of information – consists of the strategies, goals, and directives that
originate at one level and are passed to lower levels.
Horizontal flow of information – refers to information that passes among various
departments.
7.2 DECENTRALIZED COMPUTING AND SHARED INFORMATION
All employees need access to information. To access information, they need technology.
Decentralized computing is the placement of technology into the hands of those people
in an organization who need it in order to do their jobs effectively and efficiently. This is
all about empowering employees through technology.
Shared information is the concept that employees should have access to whatever
information they need when they need it.
7.3 TYPES Of COMPUTER-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Six types of computer-based information systems provide managers with appropriate

information for making decisions:
1. A transaction processing system (TPS) is used by supervisory managers to keep
track of transactions recorded events having to do with routine business activities-
needed to conduct business. A TPS produces detail reports, which contain specific
information about routine activities.
2. A management information system (MIS) is used by middle managers. An MIS

uses data from a TPS to produce routine reports – summary reports to show totals and
trends, exception reports to show out-of-the-ordinary data, periodic reports produced
on a regular schedule, and demand reports to produce information in response to an
unscheduled demand.
3. A decision support system (DSS) is also used by middle managers. A DSS provides
models mathematical representations of real systems – that gives managers a tool for
analysis and helps them focus on the future.

4. An executive support system (ESS) is used by top managers to support strategic

decision making.
5. An office automation system (OAS) is used by all levels of managers as well as

nonmanagers. An OAS combines various technologies, such as word processing,
scheduling software, e-mail, and the like, on a network to reduce the manual labor
required in operating an efficient office.
6. An expert system helps users solve problems that would otherwise require the
assistance of a human expert.
7.4 REASONS WHY ORGANIZATIONS DEVELOP SYSTEMS
Organizations develop new computer systems for three primary reasons:

To remain efficient
To level the competitive playing field
To achieve an advantage through innovation
Developing Systems To Remain Efficient
Most organizations today develop systems just to remain efficient. Automation is a key
benefit of using technology. If an organization is more efficient through the use of
technology, it is saving money and thus adding to its bottom line.
Developing Systems To Level The Competitive Playing Field
Organizations also develop new systems just to stay up with the competition.
Developing Systems To Achieve An Advantage Through Innovation
The best reason for which to develop systems is to achieve an advantage in the
marketplace through innovation.
7.5 THE SIX STAGES OF SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
A powerful tool for helping organizations keep up with new information needs is systems
analysis and design. In general, a system is a collection of related components that
interact to perform a task in order to accomplish a goal. Participants in an information-
system project should be users, managers, and technical staff, including systems analysts,
information specialists who perform systems analysis, design, and implementation.
Systems analysis and design is a six-phase problem-solving procedure for examining an

information system and improving it. The six phases make up the systems development
life cycle (SDLC), the step-by-step process that organizations follow during systems

analysis and design. The six steps are preliminary investigation followed by systems
analysis, design, development, implementation, and maintenance.
1. The objective of preliminary investigation or scoping is to conduct a preliminary
analysis, propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits, and submit a
preliminary plan with recommendations.
2. The objective of systems analysis is to gather data, analyze the data, and write a
report. Several tools are used to analyze the data. Modelling tools enable an analyst
to present graphic representations of a system. Data flow diagrams (DFDs), for
example, graphically show the flow of data through a system.
3. The objective of systems design is to do a preliminary design, which describes the

general functional capabilities of a proposed information system; then do a detail
design, which describes how the system will deliver the capabilities described in the
preliminary design; and then to write a report. Tools used in the preliminary design
are CASE tools and project management software. CASE (computer-aided software
engineering) tools are programs that automate the various activities of the SDLC in
several phases. Prototyping refers to using workstations, CASE tools, and other
software applications to build working models of system components that can be
quickly tested. A prototype is just such a limited working system developed to test out
design concepts. Project management software consists of programs used to plan,
schedule, and control the people, costs, and resources required to complete a project.
4. The objective of systems development is to develop or acquire the software, acquire

the hardware, and then test the system. In considering what software to acquire, the
systems analyst must make a make-or-buy decision decide whether to create a
program or buy existing software.
5. Systems implementation consists of converting the hardware, software, and files to

the new system and training the users. Conversion to the next system may be by direct
implementation (stop the old, start the new), parallel implementation (operate both
old and new concurrently for a while), phased implementation (phase in new system
in stages), or pilot implementation (try out new system by some users).
6. Systems maintenance adjusts and improves the system by having system audits and
periodic evaluations and by making changes based on new conditions.

7.6 FURTHER DISCUSSION ON SELECTED STAGES OF THE SDLC
Investigation
One of the first phases of the systems development life cycle is the planning phase,
sometimes called the investigation phase. During the planning phase the goals and
objectives of the new system are clearly defined.
A feasibility study is conducted focusing on the technical, organizational, and economical

aspects of the new system. The feasibility study should answer the question “Can the
problem be solved?” Once the project is believed feasible, a project plan is developed.
The project plan includes:
Project team: This is a list of all the people who will participate in the project. This
list should include managers, analysts, programmers, and every person who will be
involved in developing the new system.
A preliminary budget: Creating a budget at the beginning of the project can be a

daunting task. It is important to try to gather accurate numbers in order to create
realistic expectations.
Step by step schedule: Each step of the development cycle should be detailed in a
project timeline.
Another early phase of the systems development life cycle is the planning phase. During
this phase, a detailed IT plan is created. This plan addresses the strategic needs of the

organization. In the next phase, the scoping phase, the goals and objectives of the new
system are clearly defined. The scoping phase include the following tasks:
1. Determine how the new system will affect the organization.
2. Assemble the project team – the project team will consist of managers, IT specialists
and every person who will be involved in developing the new system.
3. Conduct a feasibility study – compare the costs and benefits of the new system, and
determine whether it is possible to complete from both a time aspect and a
technological aspect.
4. Develop a project plan – the project plan should include a complete list of the project
team members, a preliminary budget, and a schedule. The project plan is a living
document and will grow and change as the new system is developed.
Systems Analysis
The role of the analysis phase is to identify the business requirements for the information
system. What needs will it fill? What outputs does it need to generate? Who will use it?
How many users will need to use it at the same time? What is an appropriate schedule
and budget? Considering all constraints, what is the best solution?
There are three crucial steps in the analysis phase:
1. Understand the old system
2. Identify how the old system can be improved

3. Develop specifications for the new system
It is important for the members of the development team to understand the organization –
its people, activities, and current information systems. By having a clear understanding of
the organization as a whole, the development team will recognize who will be affected by
the new system, and how the new system will affect the people in the organization.
Systems Analysis
Design
Once a feasible solution has been selected, the design phase determines how the system
will work. During the design phase, each portion of the new system is designed in detail,
including:
• User interface
• Data structure
• Program design
Often, the design phase includes a detailed examination of how the system accomplishes
the goals outlined in the analysis phase. The design phase ends with a prototype – a
working model of the system.

Systems Design
Implementation
The next phase is to actually create the components of the system and to convert from
the old system to the new system. The implementation phase consists of the following
steps:
• Acquire the appropriate hardware and software
• Develop software
• Test the system – Testing should be an integral part of this phase, ensuring that each
component works as it should and that the design plan is being followed.
• Write documentation
• Training
• Conversion – When development is complete, it’s time to put the system in place.
There are four main conversion methods – parallel, pilot, phased, and plunge.


Maintenance
The work doesn't end with implementation. Ideally, the maintenance phase lasts until the
system is no longer in use. During the maintenance phase, the system is monitored to
ensure that it continues to work properly and meets expectations. If any errors (or “bugs”)
are found, they are fixed. Also, as requests from users come in, they are analyzed and the
system is modified to accommodate any new needs which may arise.
If the new needs cannot be met by the original system, the cycle starts over to design a
significant modification to the system or to implement a new system. The first step of the
new Systems Development Life Cycle is the Planning phase, which focuses on the overall
system changes that need to be made. The SDLC continues through each phase until a
new system is in place that meets the needs of its users.
7.7 OUTSOURCING
An alternative to developing systems in-house is through the process of outsourcing.
Outsourcing is the delegation of work to a group outside the organization for (1) a
specified length of time, (2) a specified cost, and (3) a specified level of service.
There are normally three major ways in which organizations perform systems
development outsourcing. These include:

Purchasing horizontal market software, or general business software that has

application in many industries.
Purchasing vertical market software, or software that is unique to a particular

industry.
Hiring an outsourcing vendor to develop software from scratch.
7.7 END USER DEVELOPMENT
The burden of all development tasks falls on the shoulders of the end users. These tasks
may include identifying potential hardware and choosing the best, writing any necessary
software, training other users, converting existing information to the new system, testing
the new system, and completely documenting how the new system works.
Advantages
Encourages active user participation
Improves requirements determination
Strengthens user sense of ownership
Increases speed of systems development
Disadvantages
Inadequate expertise leads to undeveloped systems
Lack of organizational focus creates “privatized” systems
Insufficient analysis and design leads to substandard systems
Lack of documentation and support leads to short-lived systems
Review Questions
1. The concept that states that employees should have access to whatever information they
need is
(a) shared information.
(b) decentralized computing.
(c) drilling down.
(d) transborder data flow.
(e) upward flow of information.

2. The _____________ flow of information describes the state of the organization based on its
transactions.
(a) downward
(b) horizontal
(c) upward
(d) internal
(e) sideways
3. Laying the foundation for the systems development process is the purpose of which phase
of the SDLC?
(a) Systems investigation
(b) Systems analysis
(c) Systems design
(d) Systems construction
(e) Systems implementation
4. In which phase of the SDLC do you write the software?

(a) Systems investigation
(b) Systems analysis
(c) Systems design
(d) Systems development
(e) Systems implementation
5. Organizations develop new computer systems

(a) to remain efficient
(b) to level the competitive playing field.
(c) to achieve an advantage through innovation.
(d) for all of the above reasons.
(e) for none of the above reasons.
Group Activity
Your group’s task is to create a list of advantages of the SDLC approach. Upon completion,
got through your list and for every advantage, think of a corresponding disadvantage. List your
points in a two-column table and prepare to justify your group’s answer.
Useful Websites
SDLC: www.tech.purdue.edu/textbooks/sadm/
General IS topics: www.itpapers.com/

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INTRODUCTION TO IT

Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.1 COMMONPLACE USES OF IT

d. Network: Refers to communications systems that connect two or more computers or

1-1 Fundamentals of Information Technology

1.2 VARIETIES OF COMPUTERS

1-2 Fundamentals of Information Technology

powerful machines. Large government installations, multinational enterprises

(iii) Minicomputer: A mid-size version of the mainframe, minicomputers usually

1-3 Fundamentals of Information Technology

automobile engines, prescription drugs, and movie special effects. A leading

(v) Microcomputers (PC):

1-4 Fundamentals of Information Technology

b. Client Server Architecture: Refers to a network architecture where each computer or

1-5 Fundamentals of Information Technology

1.3 INSIDE THE COMPUTER

b. Definitions of Hardware and Software:

1-6 Fundamentals of Information Technology

5 Communications: data may be input remotely, Modem

d. Software: There are two main types of software:

1.4 FUTURE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

b. The three directions of communications development include:

c. Developments occurring based on the combination of computers and communications

1-7 Fundamentals of Information Technology

1-8 Fundamentals of Information Technology

2. A disk can help you to

1-9 Fundamentals of Information Technology

Short Answer Questions

Useful websites to explore

1-10 Fundamentals of Information

Unit 2: HARDWARE DEVICES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

2.1 MICROCHIPS, MINIATURIZATION, & MOBILITY

From Vacuum Tubes to Transistors to Microchips

2.2 THE SYSTEM UNIT

a. The Binary System: ‘On’ and ‘Off’ States

MDIS-DBM 2-1 Fundamentals of Information Technology

Storage capacities in computers are expressed in multiples of bytes:

MDIS-DBM 2-2 Fundamentals of Information Technology

b. The Parity Bit

Computers each have their own type of machine language, a binary-type

d. The Computer Case: Bays, Buttons, & Boards

MDIS-DBM 2-3 Fundamentals of Information Technology

e. The Motherboard & Microprocessor Chip

Two architectures for microprocessors:

The speed of a microprocessor is determined by its system clock. For

MDIS-DBM 2-4 Fundamentals of Information Technology

2.3 INSIDE THE CPU: CONTROL UNIT, ALU, & REGISTERS

MDIS-DBM 2-5 Fundamentals of Information Technology

The four stages of the machine cycle (processing cycle)

2.4 TYPES OF MEMORY: RAM, ROM, CMOS, & FLASH

MDIS-DBM 2-6 Fundamentals of Information Technology

MDIS-DBM 2-7 Fundamentals of Information Technology

MDIS-DBM 2-8 Fundamentals of Information Technology

2.5 PORTS & CABLES

Some common types of ports are as follows:

MDIS-DBM 2-9 Fundamentals of Information Technology

MDIS-DBM 2-10 Fundamentals of Information Technology