Introduction to Instrumentation Systems

Block diagram of instrumentation systems

Definitions

Sensors - Electronic sensors are designed to respond to specific stimuli such as light,
heat, pressure, motion, sound, or chemical changes. An electronic sensor is a device
that detects and measures physical or environmental conditions and converts this
information into electrical signals. They capture these stimuli and transform them into
electrical signals that can be interpreted and utilized by electronic systems. The
information gathered by sensors is often used for monitoring, control, feedback, and
automation purposes.
Some Examples include -Photodetectors/Photocells, Thermocouples and Thermistors,
Accelerometers, Pressure Sensors, Proximity Sensors, Gas Sensors, Microphones,
Motion Sensors, etc.

Transducers- A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. In
the context of electronics and instrumentation, transducers specifically refer to devices
that transform physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature, sound, or light, into
electrical signals or vice versa.
There are two main types of transducers:
1. Input Transducers (Sensors): These transducers convert physical quantities
into electrical signals. For example, a temperature sensor that converts changes
in temperature into an electrical voltage or resistance.
2. Output Transducers (Actuators): These transducers convert electrical signals
into a physical response. For instance, a speaker that transforms electrical
signals into sound waves or a motor that translates electrical signals into
mechanical motion.

Actuators- An actuator is a device or component that is responsible for converting an

input signal (typically an electrical signal) into a physical action or movement.
Actuators are essential in systems where control or manipulation of physical objects or
processes is required.
Actuators can produce various types of motion or actions, such as linear motion
(moving in a straight line), rotary motion (rotating), or other complex movements.

Difference between Sensors and transducers

While sensors and transducers are related and often used interchangeably, there are
subtle differences between the two concepts:

Sensor
Definition: A sensor is a device that
detects and measures a
physical or environmental
stimulus (like
temperature, pressure,
light) and transforms it into
an electrical signal or
other readable output.
Transducer
A transducer is a broader
term that encompasses
devices converting one
form of energy into
another. In the context of
electronics, it refers to
devices that convert
physical quantities into
electrical signals or vice
versa.

Function: Sensor: Primarily focused Transducer: Can both

on sensing and detecting
specific physical
phenomena in the
environment and
converting them into
electrical signals.
sense (as an input
transducer) and actuate
(as an output transducer).
It includes devices that not
only sense physical
quantities but also convert
electrical signals into
physical actions.

Role: Sensor: Emphasizes the Transducer: Encompasses

detection and
measurement aspect,
providing information
about the environment or a
system.
devices that both sense
and actuate, playing a dual
role in converting energy
between different forms.
Classification of Sensors
Active and passive sensors are two broad categories of sensors based on their
operational characteristics and energy requirements. The distinction lies in how they
interact with the environment and whether they actively emit signals or rely on external
stimuli for detection.

Active Sensors
Active sensors emit energy or signals into the environment and then measure the
response or changes in that energy to gather information. These sensors actively
generate a stimulus, such as light, sound, or radio waves, and analyse the reflected or
transmitted signals.
Examples-
1.Radar Systems: Transmit radio waves and analyse the reflected signals to detect
objects and determine their distance and speed.
2.Laser Range Finders: Emit laser beams and measure the time it takes for the light to
return, providing distance measurements.
3.Active Infrared Sensors: Emit infrared light and detect the reflection or interruption of
the emitted beams
Passive Sensors-
Passive sensors do not emit signals but instead detect and respond to external stimuli,
such as ambient radiation or energy, without actively generating their own.
These sensors rely on the natural emissions or reflections in the environment for data
collection.
Examples-
1.Thermal Infrared Sensors: Detect infrared radiation emitted by objects due to their
temperature.
2.Photodiodes and Phototransistors: Respond to incident light levels without emitting
light themselves.
3.Passive Infrared (PIR) Motion Sensors: Detect changes in infrared radiation caused by
the movement of warm objects.

Comparison of Active and passive Sensors

Active Passive
Energy Consumption: Active sensors typically Passive sensors, on the
consume more energy other hand, don't emit
since they need to signals and may have
generate and transmit lower energy
signals actively. requirements.

Detection Range: Active sensors often have Passive sensors rely on

a longer detection range existing energy sources
as they control the emitted and may have limited
signals. range.
 Applications: Active sensors are
commonly used in
applications requiring
long-range detection or
precise measurements.
passive sensors are
suitable for applications
where detection is based
on naturally occurring
signals.

Specifications of Sensors
Certainly! Let's delve into the details of each of the mentioned sensor specifications:

1. Accuracy: Accuracy refers to how close the sensor's measured values are to the
true or expected values of the measured quantity.

2. Range: Range defines the minimum and maximum values of the input quantity
that the sensor can measure accurately.

3. Linearity: Linearity describes the degree to which the sensor's output follows a
straight line when plotted against the input over its specified range.
4. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the smallest detectable change in the input that results
in a noticeable change in the sensor's output.

5. Resolution: Resolution refers to the smallest change in the input that the sensor
can detect or represent in its output.

6. Reproducibility: Reproducibility indicates the ability of the sensor to provide

consistent and repeatable measurements under the same conditions.