Aerodynamics:
Aerofoil, Drag, Lift, Theories of lift
Prem Ulhas Shirodkar BTech. Automobile Engg
Mechanical Subsystem. prem29shirodkar@protonmail.com
Team Solarmobil
Abstract—Aerodynamics is a fundamental branch of fluid
dynamics that plays a pivotal role in the design and operation
of aircraft, wind turbines, and other aerodynamic systems.
This report provides an in-depth exploration of key concepts in
aerodynamics, including aerofoils, drag, lift, and theories of
lift. This Is a Level 1 Heading
Aerodynamics is the branch of science and engineering
that deals with the study of air in motion and the forces
acting on objects as they move through air. This field plays a
pivotal role in various applications, particularly in aviation,
spacecraft design, automotive engineering, and wind energy.
Understanding the fundamental principles of aerodynamics is
crucial for optimizing the design and performance of
vehicles, structures, and devices that interact with air. Use the
enter key to start a new paragraph. The appropriate spacing
and indent are automatically applied.
Aerofoil
Definition: An aerofoil, often referred to as a wing or
blade, is a streamlined, shaped structure designed to interact
with a fluid, typically air. It is characterized by its
specialized cross-sectional shape that enables it to produce
lift when air flows over and around it. The primary purpose
of an airfoil is to generate lift, which allows an object (such
as an aircraft or wind turbine blade) to overcome gravity and
achieve controlled flight or produce mechanical power.
Key Features of an Aerofoil:
 Chord Line: The chord line is an imaginary straight
line that connects the leading edge (front) and trailing
edge (rear) of the aerofoil. It serves as a reference for
various measurements and calculations.
 Camber: Camber refers to the curvature or
asymmetry of the aerofoil's upper and lower surfaces.
Aerofoils can be either symmetric (having no camber)
or cambered (having a curved shape). Cambered
airfoils are more common in aviation.
 Leading Edge: The leading edge is the front edge of
the airfoil that encounters the oncoming airflow first.
It often has a rounded shape to facilitate smooth air
entry.
 Trailing Edge: The trailing edge is the rear edge of
the airfoil. Its shape can vary and affects the
aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil.
How an Airfoil Works:
The operation of an airfoil is based on several key
aerodynamic principles:
 Bernoulli's Principle: Air flowing over an airfoil
follows Bernoulli's principle, which states that as the
velocity of a fluid (in this case, air) increases, its
pressure decreases. This principle explains why air
moves faster over the curved upper surface of an
airfoil, resulting in lower pressure above and higher
pressure below the wing. This pressure difference
generates lift.
 Angle of Attack: The angle at which an airfoil meets
the oncoming airflow is called the angle of attack
(AOA). By changing the AOA, pilots or operators
can control the amount of lift produced. Increasing
the AOA typically generates more lift until a critical
angle is reached, leading to a stall where lift
decreases sharply.
 The critical or stalling angle of attack is typically
around 15° - 18° for many airfoils. Some aircraft
are equipped with a built-in flight computer that
automatically prevents the aircraft from increasing
the angle of attack any further when a maximum
angle of attack is reached, regardless of pilot input.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow: Airflow over an
airfoil can be either laminar (smooth and orderly) or
turbulent (chaotic). The transition between these flow
regimes can significantly affect lift and drag
characteristics.
 Boundary Layer: The thin layer of air that adheres
to the surface of the airfoil is known as the boundary
layer. Managing the boundary layer is crucial for
minimizing drag and optimizing lift.
 Applications of Aerofoils:
Airfoils are used in various applications, including:
 Aeronautics: In aircraft wings and control surfaces
(elevators, ailerons, and rudders), where they provide
lift and control.
 Wind Energy: In wind turbine blades to capture and
convert wind energy into electricity.
 Propulsion: In propellers and jet engine components
for thrust generation.
 Hydrodynamics: In ship and boat hulls to reduce
water resistance and increase efficiency.
B. Drag
1) Definiton: Drag, in the context of aerodynamics, refers
to the resistive force that opposes the motion of an object as
it moves through a fluid, typically air. It is a crucial concept
in understanding the behavior of vehicles, aircraft, and other
objects in fluid environments. Drag acts in the direction
opposite to the object's motion and is responsible for
slowing down or impeding its progress.
Exponential Increase with Velocity:
 As the velocity (speed) of an object moving
through a fluid increase, the drag force it
experiences tends to increase exponentially. This is
due to the fact that the drag force is proportional to
the square of the velocity
Linear Increase with Cross-Sectional Area:
 The reference area (A) in the drag equation
represents the cross-sectional area of the object
facing the fluid flow. If you increase the size or
cross-sectional area of the object, the drag force
will increase linearly with it. In other words,
doubling the object's size will double the drag
force, and so on.
1. Types of Drag:
There are several components or types of drag that
collectively make up the total drag experienced by an
object in motion
a. Parasitic Drag: This is also known as form drag
and results from the shape and surface characteristics of
the object. It is caused by the separation of airflow around
the object, which creates low-pressure areas and
turbulence. Parasitic drag increases with the object's
speed.
b. Skin Friction Drag: This type of drag is a
subset of parasitic drag and is caused by the frictional
resistance between the object's surface and the fluid (air or
water) it is moving through. It depends on the surface
roughness of the object and the viscosity of the fluid.
c. Pressure Drag: Pressure drag is caused by the
pressure difference between the front and rear sides of an
object as it moves through the fluid. It is most significant
when the flow separation is abrupt, leading to large
pressure differences.
d. Induced Drag: Induced drag occurs in the
presence of lift-generating surfaces like wings. It is
associated with the creation of vortices at the wingtips,
which are necessary for lift generation but also produce a
form of drag.
2. Factors Affecting Drag:
The magnitude of drag experienced by an object is
influenced by several factors:
a. Velocity: Drag increases with the square of the object's
velocity. In other words, doubling the speed results in four
times the drag force.
b. Cross-Sectional Area: Larger objects experience more
drag due to their increased surface area exposed to the
fluid.
c. Shape: The streamlined shape of an object can reduce
drag by minimizing turbulence and pressure differences.
Objects with a streamlined or aerodynamic design
experience less drag than those with irregular shapes.
d. Surface Roughness: Rough surfaces increase skin
friction drag. Smoother surfaces reduce this component of
drag.
e. Viscosity of the Fluid: The viscosity of the fluid
through which an object is moving affects drag. Highly
viscous fluids, like honey, create more drag than less
viscous fluids, like air.
d. Interference Drag: type of aerodynamic drag that
occurs when different components of an object or vehicle
interfere with each other's airflow, causing increased drag.
Interference drag can reduce aerodynamic efficiency and
increase fuel consumption, so aircraft designers strive to
minimize it by optimizing component placement and
streamlining shapes.
f. Wave drag: is a type of aerodynamic drag that occurs
when an object, like an aircraft, travels at or near the speed
of sound (supersonic or transonic speeds). It results from the
formation of shock waves and increased air pressure due to
the object breaking the sound barrier. Wave drag can
significantly increase an object's drag, making it harder to
maintain high speeds and efficiency. Reducing wave drag
often involves careful design, such as using streamlined
shapes and minimizing shockwave formation.
 3. Minimizing Drag:

Efforts to minimize drag are essential in various

applications, particularly in aviation and automotive
engineering, where fuel efficiency and speed are critical.
Strategies to reduce drag include:

a. Streamlining: Designing objects with smooth and

aerodynamic shapes to minimize form drag.

b. Surface Treatments: Smoothing and polishing the

surfaces to reduce skin friction drag.

c. Wingtip Devices: Using devices like winglets on

aircraft wings to reduce induced drag.

d. Control Surfaces: Adjusting the orientation of control

surfaces to minimize drag in specific flight conditions.

e. Reduced Speed: Slowing down an object to reduce the

impact of drag.

Wake
the turbulent and disturbed airflow that occurs behind an
object as it moves through a fluid, like air. This region of
chaotic air can create drag, reduce downforce, and affect the
performance and safety of vehicles and objects, especially in
fields like aviation and motorsports. Managing and avoiding
wakes is essential for optimizing efficiency and safety in
these applications.

C. Lift
Definition: Lift is a fundamental aerodynamic force
that acts perpendicular to the relative motion of an object
(such as an aircraft or wing) as it moves through a fluid,
typically air. This force is responsible for counteracting the
force of gravity, enabling objects to overcome gravity and
achieve flight. Lift is a crucial concept in aviation and
aerodynamics.

1. Generation of Lift:
Lift is generated primarily on the wings of aircraft, but
it can also be produced on other surfaces or objects
with an aerodynamic shape. The fundamental principle
behind lift generation is Bernoulli's principle and
Newton's third law of motion.
Bernoulli's Principle: As air flows over the curved upper
surface of an airfoil (such as an aircraft wing), it
accelerates and its pressure decreases, creating a region of
low pressure above the wing. Meanwhile, air flowing below
the wing moves more slowly and exerts higher pressure.
This pressure difference results in an upward force known
as lift.
Newton's Third Law: Lift can also be explained by
Newton's third law, which states that for every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction. The airfoil deflects air
downward (action), and in response, the air imparts an
equal and opposite force upward on the airfoil (reaction),
resulting in lift.
2. Factors Affecting Lift:
a) Airfoil Shape: The shape of the airfoil's cross-
section, particularly its curvature (camber) and angle
of attack (the angle between the airfoil's chord line and
the oncoming airflow), significantly affect lift.
Cambered airfoils are designed to generate lift
efficiently.
b) Airfoil Size: The size of the airfoil's wing area
affects the total lift force. Larger wings generally
produce more lift.
Airfoil Speed: Lift is proportional to the square of the
airfoil's velocity. Doubling the airspeed results in four times
the lift force (assuming other factors remain constant).
Angle of Attack (AOA): Changing the angle at which the
airfoil meets the oncoming airflow (AOA) can vary lift.
Increasing the AOA generally increases lift until a critical
angle is reached, leading to a stall, where lift decreases
sharply.
Air Density: Lift is also influenced by the density of the fluid
(air). Higher air densities result in greater lift forces.
3. Control of Lift:
In aviation, pilots have control over lift through the
use of control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators, and
flaps. These surfaces allow pilots to adjust the angle of
attack, camber, and airflow over the wings, enabling
precise control of lift. By manipulating these surfaces,
pilots can control the aircraft's attitude, altitude, and
overall flight performance.
Applications of Lift:
Lift plays a critical role in various applications,
including:
a) Aeronautics: Enabling aircraft to achieve and
maintain flight, as well as control their movement in the air.
b) Wind Energy: Lift is harnessed in wind turbines to
produce mechanical power, which is then converted into
electricity.
c) Sports: In sports like tennis and golf, lift is
employed to control the trajectory and flight of balls and
other projectiles.
D. Theories of lift
a) Definiton: Theories of lift are scientific
explanations that seek to describe the physical principles
and mechanisms behind the generation of lift, which is the
aerodynamic force that enables aircraft to overcome gravity
and achieve flight. Several theories have been developed
over the years to explain how lift is generated. Here are
some of the key theories of lift:
Bernoulli's Principle Theory:
b) Principle: Bernoulli's principle states that as the
speed of a fluid (such as air) increases, its pressure
decreases. This principle is often used to explain lift
generation.
c) Explanation: According to this theory, lift is
generated by the difference in airspeed and pressure
between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil (such as
an aircraft wing). The curved shape of the wing's upper
surface causes the airflow to accelerate, creating lower
pressure above the wing compared to below it. This
pressure difference results in an upward force, which is lift.
Where:
v = Fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline g =
Acceleration due to the gravity z = Elevation of the point
above a reference plane p = Pressure at the chosen point ρ =
Density of the fluid at all points of the fluid
 Assumptions and Conditions for Bernoulli’s Equation:
1. Steady Flow: The fluid's properties don't change
with time.
2. Incompressible Flow: Applicable to liquids and
low-speed gases with negligible density changes.
3. No Viscosity: Assumes no internal friction within
the fluid.
4. Along a Streamline: Applies along an imaginary
path that follows the fluid's flow pattern.
5. No External Forces: Excludes forces like
magnetism or electricity, except for gravity.
6. Constant Gravitational Field: Assumes gravity
doesn't vary significantly.
7. Conservation of Energy: Describes the
conservation of mechanical energy in a fluid.
8. Ideal Fluid: Offers a simplified description of real
fluids for many engineering applications.
surface of the wing due to the Coandă effect. As the air
follows the contour of the wing, it creates a pressure
difference that results in lift.
g) Limitations: The Coandă effect theory provides
insights into the behavior of airflow over curved surfaces
but may not fully explain all aspects of lift generation.
REFERENCES
[1] https://resources.system-analysis.cadence.com/blog/msa2022-
aerodynamic-lift-explained-in-terms-of-fluid-flow
[2] https://www.britannica.com/technology/airfoil
[3] https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/what-is-
drag/

d) Limitations: While Bernoulli's principle provides a

useful explanation for lift, it is an oversimplification and
does not account for all aspects of lift generation,
particularly at high angles of attack and during stall
conditions.

Newton's Third Law Theory:

a) Principle: Newton's third law of motion states that
for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

b) Explanation: In the context of lift, this theory

suggests that the wing (or airfoil) deflects the incoming air
downward as it passes over the curved upper surface. As a
result, the air imparts an equal and opposite reaction force
on the wing, pushing it upward. This reaction force is lift.

c) Limitations: This theory provides a fundamental

explanation for lift generation but does not provide insights
into the specific aerodynamic factors that influence lift, such
as the shape of the airfoil.

Vortex Theory:
a) Principle: The vortex theory of lift focuses on the
creation of vortices or swirling air patterns above and
behind an airfoil.
b) Explanation: According to this theory, lift is
generated as a result of the circulation of air around the
airfoil. The curved upper surface of the airfoil causes the
airflow to separate into two vortices: one above the wing
and one below. These vortices create low-pressure regions
above the wing, resulting in lift.
c) Limitations: While the vortex theory provides
insights into lift generation, it is a more complex
explanation that involves the behavior of airflow and
vortices.
d) Coandă Effect Theory:
e) Principle: The Coandă effect describes the tendency
of a fluid jet (in this case, airflow) to adhere to a nearby
curved surface rather than follow a straight path.
f) Explanation: According to this theory, lift is
generated when the airflow follows the curved upper