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Content Analysis as a Research Method in Investigating the Cultural

Components in Foreign Language Textbooks
Article in Journal of Language and Cultural Education · February 2019
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Journal of Language and Cultural Education, 2(1)
ISSN 1339-4045 (print), ISSN 1339-4584 (online)
Copyright © 2014 SlovakEdu
Content Analysis as a Research Method in Investigating

the Cultural Components in Foreign Language Textbooks
Zuzana Sándorová, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
zuzana.sandorova@ukf.sk
Abstract
In a broader context, the paper deals with content analysis as one of the most
frequently applied research methods in the field of education; in a narrower sense it is
concerned with the analysis of the cultural content in foreign language (FL) textbooks. The
first part of the paper sheds light on the basic principles of content analysis. First of all, the
meaning of the term is discussed through different definitions. This is followed by the
comparison of the qualitative content analysis to its quantitative counterpart. In addition,
considerable attention is paid to the process of content analysis. Furthermore, the issues
of reliability and validity are discussed. Last, but not least, a summary of the theoretical
background of FL textbook analysis and suggested checklists are provided.
The second half of the paper provides the methodology, the description and analysis of
ten studies that applied content analysis in the process of investigating the cultural
content of FL textbooks. The summary outlines the basic features of the examined studies.
Keywords
content analysis, cultural content, foreign language
Introduction
Content analysis – originally used in communication, journalism, sociology,
psychology, and business (Neuendorf, 2002) – is today considered to be one of
the main methods of educational research and it is also frequently applied in
areas such as law and health care. In order to shed light on the principles of
conducting this research method, the following part will be devoted to the
definition of the concept of “content analysis” and the differences between its
qualitative and quantitative approaches. Furthermore, we will also pay attention
to the procedure of its application in practice, as well as the aspects of reliability
and variability.
What is content analysis?

As Weber (1990, p. 117) puts it “content analysis is a research method that
uses a set of procedures to make valid inferences from text”, and it has several
advantages in comparison with other research methods. First of all, content
analysis is applied directly to texts or transcripts, i.e. the products of human
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communication, which is the core of social interaction. Secondly, high quality

studies combine both qualitative and quantitative analysis of texts and mixing
methods is generally acknowledged as an effective way to ensure the
trustworthiness of the research in terms of validity and reliability. Furthermore,
documents of different kinds provide a reliable source of information for a long
period of time, as they can have a “lifespan” of several decades or even centuries.
Last but not least, the unobtrusive feature of this method ensures that neither
partner of the communicational situation is being analysed; therefore, there is
little risk that they will behave according to certain expectations, which could
consequently modify the nature of the data (Weber, 1990; Cohen et al., 2007;
Stemler, 2001).
According to Cohen et al. (2007), content analysis in a broader sense refers to
the process of summarising and interpreting written data, whereas, in
a narrower context, it is “a strict and systematic set of procedures for rigorous
analysis, examination and verification of the contents of written data” (ibid., p.
475). One of the fundamental features of content analysis is that a vast amount of
written data is reduced to smaller groups of information (ibid.), or as put by
Weber (1990), long texts with loads of words are represented by fewer words or
expressions. In addition, content analysis can be conducted with any written
material, from documents to interview transcriptions and can be applied to
examine large amounts of text (Cohen et al., 2007).
Neuendorf (2002, p. 10) considers content analysis, as a summarising method
of analysing messages quantitatively, to be scientific, in terms of “objectivity-
intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalisability, replicability,
and hypothesis testing”; without being limited to the measurable types of
variables or the context of the messages.
As it can be seen in the above perceptions of this research method, two
fundamental approaches to content analysis exist: a qualitative and a
quantitative one. Therefore, we will look at the meaning of these terms and the
aspects in which they differ from each other.
Qualitative or quantitative analysis?

Qualitative content analysis, compared against quantitative content analysis,
is often referred to as “latent level analysis, because it concerns a second-level,
interpretative analysis of the underlying deeper meaning of the data” (Dörnyei,
2007, p. 246); whilst the latter is usually described as “manifest level analysis”,
providing an objective and descriptive overview of the “surface meaning of the
data” (ibid.).
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A similar definition and differentiation is also provided by Zhang and

Wildemuth (2009, p. 308) outlining that “qualitative content analysis goes
beyond merely counting words or extracting objective content from texts to
examine meanings, themes and patterns that may be manifest or latent in a
particular text”. In fact, according to the authors, the differences between these
two fundamental types of content analysis can be divided from several points of
view.
One of them is the fields of research from which they have developed;
quantitative content analysis has been mainly applied in mass communication
and related areas, while its qualitative version was originally used in
anthropology, qualitative sociology, and psychology. Secondly, quantitative
content analysis is considered to be deductive, aimed at testing hypotheses or
finding answers to questions based upon theories or previous empirical research.
On the contrary, qualitative content analysis is mainly inductive, as it draws
inferences from the examination of topics and themes and data. Furthermore, the
techniques of data sampling are different, as the quantitative approach requires
random sampling or other techniques of probability to ensure validity, while
qualitative analysis uses intentionally chosen texts. Last, but not least, there are
different products of the two approaches; while quantitative analysis caters for
statistical methods and numerical results, the qualitative approach brings
descriptions. In addition, it draws attention to unique themes that depict the
variety of the perceptions of the phenomenon, rather than statistical importance
of the frequency of particular concepts.
Despite of these differences, it has been highlighted by numerous scholars
that, in research practice, the two approaches are often applied in combination
(Dörnyei, 2007; Flick, 2007; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). In fact, mixing
qualitative and quantitative methods is known as one of the ways of using
triangulation, which, according to Flick (2010, p. 405), is “used as a strategy of
improving the quality of qualitative research …”. Indeed, they mutually support
each other´s advantages and strengthen the validity of the findings, thus both
contribute to obtain a broader, holistic knowledge about the examined field of
study (Dörnyei, 2007; Flick, 2007).
As we are primarily concerned with the analysis of cultural content of
textbooks, it is noteworthy to mention that even this specific type of investigation
can be performed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Therefore, the second
part of this paper is also aimed at finding out whether the selected studies opted
for the qualitative or quantitative approach to conduct content analysis.
However, prior to proceeding to this stage, we pay attention to the procedures
that need to be undertaken when carrying out this type of method, i.e. how
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content analysis works in practice. In addition, definitions of the basic

terminology connected with the given issue will also be provided.
The process of content analysis

Cohen et al. (2007) define content analysis simply, as the process of four “C”s,
i.e. coding, categorising, comparing and concluding. According to Dörnyei (2007),
coding is used to reduce or simplify the data while emphasising their specific
features in order to connect them to broader concepts, e.g. categories, whereas
“code” is simply a label attached to a chunk of text intended to make the
particular piece of information manageable and malleable” (ibid., p. 250). In
addition, categorising refers to developing meaningful categories into which
words, phrases, sentences, etc. as the units of analysis can be grouped, while
comparing means making connections between categories. Finally, concluding
stands for drawing theoretical considerations on the basis of the text and the
results of the analysis (Cohen et al, 2007).
Cohen et al. goes further; stating the following “essential features of the
process of content analysis:
1. breaking down text into units of analysis;
2. undertaking statistical analysis of the units;
3. presenting the analysis in as economical a form as possible” (ibid., p. 476).
However, these three phases also cover some other important features, so the
whole procedure of content analysis can be further divided into several steps.
The number of the phases is perceived by various scholars differently, although
the steps, to a greater or lesser extent, share the same focus.
Neunendorf (2002, p. 50-51) defines nine stages, as following:
1. “Theory and rationale” which is about giving answers to questions such as
what will be analysed and why it will be analysed, what the research
questions are, and alike;
2. “Conceptualisations” caters for defining the variables;
3. “Operationalisations” stands for determining the units of data collection, as
well as the aspects of measurement, i.e. internal validity;
4. “Coding schemes” which both in human and computer coding means creating
a “codebook” (containing an explanation of all variable measures); in addition,
in the case of human coding, a “coding form” is also required;
5. “Sampling” which could be done by different subsets, e.g. by issue, by pages,
etc.
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6. “Training and pilot reliability” refers to the agreement of different coders on

codes and noting the reliability of each variable when piloting the an
independent test;
7. “Coding” – in case of human coding in order to ensure “intercoder reliability”,
the use of at least two coders is required, whereas computer coding should
apply dictionaries;
8. “Final reliability” is concerned with calculating a reliability figure;
9. “Tabulation and reporting” stands for the (statistical) presentation of the
results in tables or figures, as well as their interpretation.
Numerous scholars (Dörnyei, 2007; Flick, 2007; Weber, 1990; Zhang &
Wildemuth, 2009) emphasise the step of creating and applying a coding scheme
and considers it to be of crucial importance amongst the phases of content
analysis, as it influences the outcomes of the whole study to the largest extent.
Hence, Weber (1990) provides an eight-step framework of developing and using
a coding scheme that draws on the following issues: determining the units of
analysis, defining the categories, piloting coding on a small sample of text,
assessing accuracy and reliability, revising the rules of coding (in case of a poor
reliability), returning to step three, i.e. testing the scheme on a sample. This cycle
will be repeated until a relatively high reliability is achieved. The last two phases
involve the coding of the whole text and finally assessing reliability and accuracy
of human coders.
As we are primarily concerned with content analysis in the field of education,
we will pay considerably more attention to the model drawn by Cohen et al.
(2007) consisting of eleven steps.
1. At first, similarly to Neuendorf (2002), the formulation of the research
questions – derived from the theory to be tested – is required to be done.
2. Secondly, the population – from which samples are to be selected – must be
defined. This does not refer only to people, but rather to texts, such as
newspapers, textbooks, emails and so on.
3. The third step is to decide which sampling strategy to choose, i.e. whether to
apply stratified sampling, random sampling, cluster sampling, etc. with regard
to the key aspects of sampling that include “representativeness, access, size of
the sample and generalisability of the results” (ibid, p. 477).
4. The next stage is connected with answering the questions about the
generation of the document, such as how it was created, where is comes from,
how it was recorded and so on.
5. Establishing the units of analysis, e.g. words, sentences, paragraphs or the
whole text, people or themes, etc. should be the fifth step of the analysis. Two
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types of units must be distinguished here, the coding and contextual units, the
former standing for the smallest analysable element of the material, while the
latter meaning “the largest textual unit that may appear in a single category”
(ibid., p. 477).
6. The next step focuses on the development of codes to be used in the analysis.
Codes can be very general, or more specific. It can have a form of a word or
abbreviation, which is then ascribed to each piece of datum; hence, it must
clearly represent what it stands for. This way, the frequency and the patterns
of codes can be easily detected.
7. Stage seven is concerned with the establishing of the categories for the
analysis. They can be defined as “the main groupings of constructs or key
features of the text, showing links between units of analysis” (ibid., p. 478). In
fact, categories can be formed by using one, a few, or plenty of terms. The
notion “category” can stand for words, phrases, sentences or other units of
text sharing similar meanings. According to the aim of the research, words can
be presumed as similar in terms either of their accurate, dennotational or
their connotational meaning (Weber, 1990). Several aspects have to be
decided upon, such as whether to develop mutually exclusive, broader or
narrower, general or more specific categories. In order to ensure content
validity, they need to be exhaustive (Stemler, 2001). One of the differences
between codes and categories is that the former is usually more specific than
the latter, which is also referred to as a “node”. Thus, while “a code is a label
for a piece of text; a node is a category into which different codes fall or are
collected” (Cohen et al., 2007, p. 479). Or in other words “whereas codes
describe specific textual moments, nodes draw together codes into a
categorical framework, making connections between coded segments and
concepts” (ibid.). In these terms a node can be understood as a concept, an
idea, a place, a group of people, etc.
8. Step number eight is the process of coding and categorising of the data, which
deals with the ascription of codes and categories to each piece of data. Codes
and categories can be decided upon in advance (as written in the previous
stages), or retrospectively, i.e. “in response to the data that have been
collected” (ibid., p. 480). Pre-coding of several questions during the preceding
phases of the analysis enables an objective and immediate conversion of each
data into a score. Examples of pre-coded questions can be rating scales and
checklists. In addition, “it is important to decide whether to code simply for
the existence or the incidence of the concept” (ibid.), as, in the case of the
former, the aspect of frequency would be lost, which could indicate the
significance of the examined concept in the text. It is also noteworthy to
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mention that a number of computer software products exist to help the work
of the coder, just to mention some of them, without attempting to be
comprehensive, are for example ETHNOGRAPH, N-Vivo, Code-AText and
many others (Cohen at al., 2007; Stemler, 2001; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009).
9. Having performed the process of coding and categorising, data analysis can be
conducted, e.g. the researcher can count the number of occurrences of each
code or word in the text, as well as the number of words in each category.
Some words can be ranked in more than one category, for instance when a
category is subsumed by another category. Having calculated the frequencies,
statistical analysis can be performed, such as tabulation, graphical
representation, regression, etc. In a less quantitative version of analysis,
connections between concepts and categories, their strength and direction
will be established.
10. The penultimate step is concerned with summarising, i.e. identifying the key
features, such issues, factors or areas of the investigation.
11. Finally, the whole process of content analysis is completed by making
speculative inferences, i.e. by drawing conclusions on the basis of the
summarised results of the research.
Reliability and validity in content analysis

In the process of content analysis, investigators are most often challenged
with difficulties arising from aspects of reliability and validity.
In case of content analysis, reliability is commonly associated with notions of
stability, reproducibility, and accuracy. Stability is considered to be the weakest
form of reliability, as it is coded only by one coder and can be understood as the
persistence over time of the rules of the coding scheme. Reproducibility, also
referred to as intercoder reliability, means the same results of coding, when the
same text is coded by two or more coders. Accuracy, being the strongest feature
of reliability, stands for “the extent to which the classification of text corresponds
to a standard or norm” (Weber, 1990, p. 120).
Scholars distinguish between three fundamental forms of validity in content
analysis. Face validity represents the extent to which a category measures what it
is intended to measure and, as single-variable validity, it is considered to be the
weakest of all the forms. External validity is “obtained by comparing content-
analytic data with some external criterion” (ibid., p. 121), hence, it is perceived as
much stronger than other types of validity. Semantic validity means the
agreement between persons on the meanings or connotations of words they are
examining.
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To put it simply, in order to make valid conclusions, the procedure of coding

and classification is of crucial importance and must be reliable. This primarily
means that the same text should be coded in the same way by different
investigators. In addition, the variables developed in this process must be valid as
well, which means that it represents what is attempted to measure by the
researcher (Weber, 1990; Neuendorf, 2002; Stemler, 2001; Zhang & Wildemuth,
2009).
As pointed out, problems of both reliability and validity usually arise from the
“ambiguity of word meanings, category definitions, or other coding rules”
(Weber, 1990, p. 118). Hence, it is advisable to start work on small units of text to
pilot the coding and categorisation, and make changes where necessary.
Analysis of FL textbooks
It is commonly acknowledged that textbook analysis should primarily serve
for teachers in the process of choosing the most appropriate material, which is of
particular importance for several reasons. First of all, it is one of the main
strategic decisions in FL education and in education in general, as teachers
usually do not choose course-books for a short period of time; furthermore, if
used for several years, a large amount of money is going to be spent. In addition,
the learning experience and language proficiency level of a large group of
students is going to be influenced which, consequently, can have an impact on
their professional future. Finally, from a student´s point of view, it can be
confusing and demanding to get accustomed to a new set of materials if we
decide to change the previous package within the same programme
(Cunningsworth, 1995).
A number of scholars agree that textbook selection is one of the key problems
of today´s EFL education and at the same time one of the most demanding tasks
(Cunningsworth, 1995; Straková, 2001). On one hand, the reasons which lay
behind it include the fact that one can feel completely lost, due to the
overwhelming and confusing range of EFL products. On the other hand, teachers
still lack the necessary skills to choose the most appropriate course-books and
they often decide under the pressure of time or other circumstances (Ansary &
Babaii, 2002).
It would be naïve to think that there is a course-book which could fulfil one´s
overall expectations (Cunningsworth, 1995; Gadušová & Harťanská, 1995), “but
the aim is to find the best possible fit, together with potential for adapting or
supplementing parts of the material where it is inadequate or unsuitable”
(Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 5). Therefore, an in-depth analysis of the selected
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textbooks must be undertaken, in which we actively look for information in the

material according to the agenda we have decided on prior to it.
Two fundamental approaches to assessing textbooks can be differentiated;
being analysis for potential and analysis for suitability. Whilst the former refers
to textbook analysis in general, without any specific use in mind, the latter stands
for “matching the course-books against a specific requirement” (ibid., p. 15).
General FL textbook analysis

It must be noted that different educational realities require different criteria,
so, what is important, is to identify one´s own priorities and to draw up a range of
categories according to them. These criteria can also comprise some parts of the
commonly acknowledged checklists used for course-books evaluation in general
and provided by numerous experts in the field that focus on more or less the
same attributes of materials, as follows: financial affordability, physical
availability, visual appearance, methodology and methodological guidance,
interesting topics and appropriate handling of skills and stereotyping,
correspondence with the syllabus, etc. (Ansary & Babaii, 2002; Cunningsworth,
1995; Harmer, 1998; Ur, 1999).
In connection to the principles of content analysis, checklists are examples of
pre-coded questions formed prior to the phase of coding and categorising data.
They are also of crucial importance with regard to content analysis of textbooks,
as they help the objective and systematic transformation of each data into a score
(Cohen et al., 2007). The content and the length of the check-sheet will depend on
a lot of factors, as already mentioned, except for the circumstances in which the
textbooks are going to be used, whether one evaluates teaching material for
general purposes or looking for a specific feature. “However, it is important to
limit the number of criteria used and, the number of questions asked, to
manageable proportions. Otherwise, we risk being swamped in a sea of detail”
(Cunningsworth, 1995, p. 2).
Textbook analysis for suitability

As previously stated, there are situations when one analyses a FL course-book
to determine whether it is suitable from one particular point of view. In such
cases, we are limited by the number of criteria that, on one hand, can be
considered to be an advantage, because we are not overwhelmed with a huge
amount of categories. On the other hand, the careful construction of a useful
checklist gains extreme importance, as inappropriately set guidelines might
negatively affect the whole process of analysis and consequently the results of
the investigation, too.
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As we are primarily concerned with the analysis of the cultural content in

textbooks, we will draw attention to checklists suggested in this area. However, it
must be noted that our examination of numerous lists of criteria for general
analysis indicated that majority of them did not include cultural aspects of the
target language at all. In fact, there are not many checklists focusing specifically
on the cultural dimension in FL courses (Byram, 1989; Saluveer, 2004). In the
following part of the study, without attempting to be comprehensive, we provide
a summary of some of the guidelines for evaluating FL course-books proposed by
different authors with regard to the given prospective.
Criteria for analysing cultural content in FL textbooks

As cited in Byram (1989), Huhn (1978) distinguishes seven criteria dealing
with the cultural content of FL textbooks as follows:
- Cultural information must be accurate and contemporary;
- The question of stereotypes must be handled critically;
- It must provide a realistic picture of the foreign society;
- It must be free from ideologies;
- Facts should not be presented in isolation;
- The historical material should be presented explicitly.
Another classification of criteria is provided by Risager (1991, p. 182-183):

1. The micro level – phenomena of social and cultural anthropology:
a. The social and geographical definition of characters
b. Material environment
c. Situations of interaction
d. Interaction and subjectivity of the characters: feelings, attitudes, values,
and perceived problems.
2. The macro level – social, political, and historical matters:
a. Broad social facts about contemporary society (geographical, economic,
political, etc.)
b. Broad socio-political problems (unemployment, pollution, etc.)
c. Historical background
3. International and intercultural issues
a. Comparisons between the foreign country and the pupils´ own
b. Mutual representations, images, stereotypes
c. Mutual relations: cultural power and dominance, co-operation and conflict
4. Point of view and style of the author
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Continuing with Cunningsworth (1995), the social and cultural context in the
FL course must be comprehensible to the students and they should be able to
interpret “the relationships, behaviour, intentions, etc. of the characters
portrayed in the book” (ibid., p. 92). His checklist pays special attention to gender
differences. For instance, it is important to examine whether women are treated
equally to men, what inner qualities and physical attributes women are given, or
the professional and social status women occupy. Other aspects involved in the
list focus on the inner lives of the characters portrayed in the course and the
social background in which they exist.
According to Kilickaya (2004), prior to using FL textbooks with students,
teachers should take into consideration such factors as “socio-cultural
information, learners' needs, stereotypes, generalisations and intercultural
communication”.
A further model for analysing the cultural content in FL textbooks was
presented by Hatoss (2004). It was drawn up based upon a pilot study that was
carried out as a content analysis of textbooks used for business communication
in produced in the English language, but with a European context. It focuses on
the evaluation of three dimensions: text and visual input, methods used to teach
the cultural content and aims set by the author/s or publisher/s of a particular
textbook for developing learners´ cultural competence. Input factors include
sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences, sociocultural knowledge, as well as
paralinguistic and semiotic input. The aspect of methods is concerned with
implicit versus explicit as well as cognitive versus experiential teaching of the
cultural input. The criterion of the authors/publishers´ aims deals with the issue
of assimilation.
Having drawn the most fundamental principles of content analysis in terms of
investigating cultural content in FL textbooks, we proceed to the second part of
this paper, which is focused on the analyses of studies conducted in the examined
area. The diversity of the randomly chosen studies in terms of the investigated
issues, methodology, size and character of the samples etc. was intentional. In
fact, we primarily wanted to find out, which aspects of the guidelines presented
above had been examined in the studies, how the analysis had been carried out,
and whether there are any similarities or differences with regard to these
viewpoints. In addition, we also provide our personal opinion about the analysed
studies, their benefits or deficiencies, as well as a summary of our findings.
Content analysis of the cultural content in FL textbooks

The second part of this paper focuses on applying the method of content
analysis in FL textbook evaluation. As we are primarily interested in examining
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the cultural content of FL textbooks, a sample of ten studies dealing with at least
one aspect of the given perspective is presented and analysed. The provided
examples of cultural content analysis in FL textbooks were retrieved from
different sources, involving printed and online versions of various publications,
regardless of the date of publishing. The common feature of the studies is that
they investigated one or more aspects of the cultural dimension in FL course-
books, as one of our basic intentions was to learn about the types of cultural
issues that researchers seek, using the method of content analysis. The studies
were selected from sources, the majority of which is specialised in language
pedagogy or applied linguistics, such as journals, a conference proceeding, a
printed volume of studies and a monograph, as follows: Pan-Pacific Association of
Applied Linguistics (Japan, conference proceeding), Bulletin of Niigata Institute of
Technology (Japan, journal), Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching
(Singapore, journal), Canadian Social Science (Canada, journal), Hawaii Pacific
University TESOL Working Paper Series (USA, journal) International Journal of
English Language Education (Macrothink Institute, USA, journal), Cultural Studies
in Foreign Language Education (Byram, monograph), Mediating Languages and
Cultures: Towards an Intercultural Theory of Foreign Language Education
(England, volume of studies), Ibérica (Spain, journal) and SAGE Open (England,
journal).
The main objectives of the present study were as follows:
1. To learn about the diversity of different issues investigated in FL textbooks;
2. To find out whether the qualitative or the quantitative approach was
preferred by the researchers;
3. To find out whether content analysis was supplemented by other methods of
research;
4. To learn about selected aspects of research methodology applied in the
studies, i.e. sampling, units of analysis, checklists, categories, etc.
5. To learn about the results of the studies;
With regard to the research aims, we have formulated the following research
questions:
1. What cultural issues are investigated in the selected FL textbooks, i.e. what
was the focus of the studies?
2. Did the researchers conduct qualitative content analysis or its quantitative
counterpart? Are there any studies combining the two approaches?
3. Were the examples of the content analysis supplemented by other research
methods?
106
4. What information is provided about the sample and the units of analysis? Did
the researchers use suggested checklist/s? If yes, which one/s?
5. What were the conclusions of the researchers based upon the results? Did the
selected materials adequately represent the investigated issue?
As to the data processing, firstly, the content of the studies was summarised,
then they were examined from the point of view of the given questions. The
results of the investigation were recorded in a table according to which
conclusions were drawn up. The summary of the results also provides some
interesting viewpoints outlined by the researchers of the studies.
Examples of cultural content analysis in FL textbooks
As we have arranged the selected studies in chronological order, we will start
with the research conducted by Byram in 1989. The reason why we opted for this
study was that Byram is considered to be one of the most prominent scholars,
emphasising the importance of introducing the intercultural element to FL and
he has developed a model for intercultural communicative competence (ICC). The
aim of the presented study was to investigate the extent to which issues such as
cultural knowledge and cultural information played role in language teaching. It
comprised analysis of a ‘French as foreign language’ textbook, as well as
interviews and observations of teachers and students. The research was carried
out in two English comprehensive schools over three years. Findings revealed
that the cultural content of the lessons was deeply influenced by the textbooks.
The observation of teachers; and interviews with them, indicated that the
cultural content of the books had been complemented by the teachers. Moreover,
the interviews with students revealed that the majority of them enjoyed the
culture component.
Concerning the textbook analysis, the research sample consisted of the first
three volumes of the textbook titled “Action! Graded French”, published in the
1980s. It was intended for teaching French as a foreign language to 11 to 16 year
olds. Units of the textbook demonstrated different aspects of the life of French
people. As to the research procedure, the coding system for the purpose of the
analysis covered several different aspects. The data were analysed both
quantitatively and qualitatively.
As far as the analysis by theme was concerned, the results implied a thematic
and pragmatic approach to intercultural language teaching, as all the three
volumes were full of a wide range of different topics, connected mainly to a visit
in France and using services. Regarding the second category, which was
concerned with the image of the target country, a positive view of the French
society and culture was portrayed in the textbooks. Furthermore, when it came
107
to the aspect of stereotypes, the findings of the analysis indicated that in general,
neither French people nor their country was stereotyped. Finally, concerning the
realistic view or authenticity of the information, two controversial groups of
results were found. One of them was connected with the previously mentioned
superficial, exclusively positive image of the target culture, where the author
apparently failed to provide a realistic picture. On the other side, places,
especially when supplemented with photos or pictures, proved a realistic
approach of conveying information.
Based upon these findings, Byram assumed that some aspects of the French
culture in the analysed textbooks reflected the reality (e.g. places, situations);
however others appeared to be less real (e.g. characters). According to the
researcher, the examined materials could only lead to a superficial understanding
of French, mainly for the reasons that they lacked less attractive realities of the
target culture, a more genuine picture of French people and their lifestyle, as well
as some other sociocultural issues, such as religion or politics.
As for our second example, we have chosen a textbook analysis carried out by
another famous scholar and researcher, who claims that one of the roles FL
textbooks should gradually acquire is the role of mediator between the home and
the target culture, i.e. the role of “presenting the country in a nut-shell” (Risager,
1991, p. 191). Risager is also known for developing a list of criteria dealing with
the cultural content of FL textbooks (refer to the theoretical part of the study).
Her research, conducted in 1991, aimed at mapping the development of
incorporating the intercultural component in FL textbooks. As for the coding
scheme, she applied the model of four categories presented above. The data were
processed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The research sample included
textbooks used for the elementary level in Scandinavia since the 1950s, the
majority of which were produced in Sweden. Yet, the researcher considered the
results of the analysis to be generalisable to other western countries of Europe.
Based on the findings of the analysis, Risager claimed that textbooks shared
some features regardless of the time of production. First of all, the sociocultural
focus consisted of the same elements in all examined materials, e.g. characters
living in urban environment came from the middle-class, their age distribution
was close to that of the intended learners, the linguistic interaction between
them appeared to be trivial and focused mainly on situations of free time and
consumption. The researcher highlighted that the tendency to focus on average
learners needed a shift towards a more heterogeneous group of students in terms
of both their age and social status.
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The second type of common features was connected with the under-
presented emotions and subjectivity of characters; thus providing a picture of so
called “half-persons”, which questioned the authenticity of the heroes and
situations. The following feature referred to the objective, neutral style
commonly shared by all the investigated textbooks. It was reflected mainly in
avoiding provocative and controversial issues that, in fact, could hinder
discussion and engagement.
On the other side, results of the analysis at the micro-level demonstrated
some shifts in the development of EFL textbooks throughout the examined
period of time. One of them is the tendency to individualisation and weak social
network of the characters. In addition, gender stereotypes seemed to become less
apparent, trying to establish an egalitarian representation of both sexes. Other
changes could be related to the replacement of the unrealistic drawings of early
textbooks by more authentic pictures and photos.
As far as the macro-level analysis was concerned, changes were traced in
terms of geographical information and socio-political problems, as newer
textbooks paid more attention to these issues. However, whatever the time of
publishing, textbooks lacked information on historical background.
Within the category of “International and Intercultural Issues”, the tendency
to confront the target culture with the learners´ own in the latest materials was
mentioned. In addition, they were also concerned with national stereotypes to a
greater extent than earlier textbooks.
Apparently, the two studies that were presented do not share a lot of common
features, mainly as far as their focus, research sample and methodology are
concerned. However, it was not our objective to investigate identical studies, as
we primarily aimed at looking for the type of cultural issues analysed in FL
textbooks. Yet, what these two examples do have in common is that they both
could serve as a model for researchers when analysing the cultural content of FL
textbooks; due to the thoroughly designed and conducted research, as well as the
objective interpretation of the results using the method of triangulation. Hence,
apart from looking for the answers to the predefined questions, we will also
provide our opinion about the advantages or the limitations of the following
studies at the end of each of them.
The next study conducted by Aliakbari (2005) and dealing with the cultural
content of current ELT textbooks in Iran, attempted to find the answers to two
sorts of questions. One of them was interested in whose culture and, to what
extent, is represented in ELT textbooks. The other tried to find out whether the
given teaching materials provided sufficient support to develop learners´ ICC.
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Based on Cortazzi and Jin´s model (1999), he also examined whether the
particular ELT textbook reflected the source culture, i.e. Iranian, the target
culture (the culture of English-speaking countries), the international target
cultures (countries where English is not used as first language) or remained
neutral, i.e. focusing merely on leaners´ linguistic competence. In both cases the
data were analysed quantitatively.
As to the research sample, Aliakbari chose the four levels of a nationally
developed textbook, called “English book”, used in Iranian upper secondary
schools. Each of the levels consisted of a vocabulary building section, a reading
comprehension part, listening comprehension and pronunciation practice, a
grammar builder and a conversation practice part. However, the study
investigated only the vocabulary and reading section as, during the process of
investigation, they turned out to be the core of each unit and of every level.
With regard to the different nature of the two investigated parts, two different
schemes of categories were developed for the purpose of the content analysis. In
the vocabulary section, sentences following the particular word or phrase were
classified into four categories. Thus, sentences without any cultural information
belonged to the so-called “No Reference, Culture Free Statements” (NRCFS). The
second category, labelled as “No Reference, Culture Specific Statements” (NRCSS)
comprised examples with unidentifiable cultural content. “Sentences with
Culture General References” (SCGR) contained cultural information that could
not be restricted only to one nation or country. The fourth category, however,
included references to a particular culture or country; hence the name
“Sentences with Culture Specific References” (SCSR). Finally, to make the analysis
easier, the categories were further marked as A, B, C and D.
For the analysis of the reading passages, Aliakbari established eight categories
as follows: “reference to English speaking countries (H), reference to non-English
speaking western countries (I), reference to eastern countries (L), cross-national
comparison (M), reference to Iran (N), reference to Islam and Islamic traditions
(O)” (ibid., p. 8). Categories (J) and (K) were also added, the former referring to
texts with a general content, such as science, history and alike; whilst the latter
included unidentifiable references.
According to Aliakbari, findings of the analysis demonstrated that the
investigated textbook did not provide sufficient support for fostering learners´
ICC, as only 11 % of the sentences of the vocabulary sections could be classified
as SCSR. As far as the content of reading passages was concerned, it primarily
focused on science and references to issues, such as literature and arts, were
almost missing. As 28% of the cultural information in reading comprehension
sections could not be connected to any culture or country, it was considered to be
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a further disadvantage of the examined textbooks. In addition, the range of

different references appeared to be limited and insufficient.
Based upon these results, Aliakbari assumed that the analysed Iranian
textbook failed to develop ICC; therefore, a shift in the ideology of ELT and thus
also in developing textbooks would be necessary. However, in our opinion the
conclusion that the investigated course-book did not provide sufficient support
to build one´s intercultural competence seems to be overstating. Certainly, the
equal representation of home, target and international target culture can
broaden students´ horizons and contribute to their cultural understanding; yet
ICC also comprises other components, such as sociolinguistic and pragmatic
competences, which the present study did not pay attention to.
Another example, carried out by Mineshima (2008), is an investigation about
how genders were portrayed in a Japanese upper secondary-school English
textbook. The examined material, titled Birdland Oral Communication I, used for
teaching oral communication was written by a group of 9 authors, consisting of
both native (2) and non-native Japanese (7) speakers of English.
As far as the procedure of the research is concerned, both quantitative and
qualitative analysis was carried out focusing mainly on the language of the
textbooks; although pictures were also examined where appropriate.
Quantitative analysis was conducted in order to examine two aspects of sexism,
which were the representation of genders and character traits. The former took
into account the number of female/male characters in the whole textbook and in
each lesson as well, the number of their utterances and it also checked which of
the genders appeared first when mentioned together. On the other hand, the
latter investigated the differences between the two genders in terms of school
subjects and occupations, interests and lifestyle, as well as the division of
household chores. Qualitative analysis was carried out to get a holistic view of the
gender representation in the given textbook. For this purpose, five dialogues
were chosen and analysed from the point of view of gender portrayal.
Furthermore, some illustrations were also investigated, with a special focus on
occasions when females and males wore aprons.
Findings of the quantitative analysis implied that female and male characters
were almost equally present both in the textbook as a whole, as well as in each of
its lessons. Similarly, the number of their utterances shared a balanced value and
so did the frequency of their first appearances. Regarding personality traits, both
genders were provided with approximately the same number of school subjects,
professions, leisure activities and household duties.
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In spite of the egalitarian approach demonstrated through the results of the

quantitative analysis, the qualitative investigation, on the contrary, brought more
controversial results. On one hand, the unequal distribution of household chores
in favour of men appeared in various contexts; however, males working in
aprons and ambitious female characters were also equally present in the
textbook.
Based on the majority of the findings, Mineshima concluded that the
examined textbook contributed to an egalitarian and broad-minded
manifestation of both genders, strengthening their equal position in different
fields of life. In addition, he suggested two pedagogical implications. Firstly, he
emphasised the preventive role of the teachers with regard to gender
discrimination, i.e. they should treat the unequal representation of the genders in
textbooks as pedagogical opportunities. Secondly, teachers should avoid
attributing any prescribed roles to either of the genders, e.g. to practise various
roles demonstrated in the dialogues of the textbook, regardless of the students´
gender.
Amongst the limitations of the study, Mineshima mentioned the small number
of the analysed pictures while conducting qualitative analysis; hence, more
samples could contribute to a more precise picture of the examined issue.
Furthermore, as the investigation focused only on one textbook, a comparison of
different textbooks would be necessary for the purpose of making
generalisations. Despite the limitations of the study, Mineshima believed that it
could serve as a source of criteria for teachers, when selecting and choosing
textbooks.
Si Thang Kiet Ho (2009) analysed the aspects of intercultural communication
in two EFL textbook units currently used in a Vietnamese university.
Furthermore, according to the principles of intercultural language learning a
cultural component of each unit was developed. Through a variety of interactive
language tasks and activities the proposed framework aimed at raising learners’
cultural awareness and fostering culture learning cognitively, behaviourally and
affectively.
As for the research sample, Si Thang Kiet Ho chose a unit dealing with the
topic of family in a Speaking course titled “Let’s Talk 2“ (Jones, 2002) and another
lesson focused on food and drinks in a textbook titled “British Culture“ (Thai &
Duong, 1998). As far as the analysis of the cultural content was concerned, Si
Thang Kiet Ho evaluated separately two different aspects within each unit.
Firstly, the analysis focused on how culture was incorporated in the given unit,
i.e. the types of activities through which cultural issues were introduced. In
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addition, the treatment of culture in terms of language-culture relationship was

also examined, i.e. whether the textbook taught culture explicitly or implicitly.
The collected data were analysed qualitatively.
Regarding the results of the analysis, the unit dealing with the issue of
families involved two main activities. One of them was to describe family
relationships using the target language through vocabulary building tasks. The
other one focused on discussion about learners’ family life in their home country.
The activities were introduced mainly through pair work, group work and
individual work. Concerning the second aspect, the unit taught culture
exclusively in a static-cognitive way, as it did not provide opportunities for active
and dynamic culture learning, i.e. did not expose learners to the exploration of
the target culture, to its confrontation with the home culture and the reflection
on the similarities and differences of these two entities.
In the lesson concerned with food and drinks, reading comprehension and
post-reading activities were applied. In addition, a glossary of cultural terms
related to the topic was provided. Similarly to the unit of families, learners were
not enhanced to actively build their ICC, as the culture-related issues were
represented merely as facts.
Based on the findings of the analysis, Si Thang Kiet Ho made several
suggestions how to use the cultural elements presented in the units more
efficiently in order to develop learners´ intercultural competences. The proposed
model was developed with regard to the basic principles of intercultural learning.
One of them is the aspect of “exploring self”, which according to Si Thang Kiet Ho
could be realised through groups discussions about the cultural differences and
similarities, or through cultural connotations of vocabulary, for instance by
drawing pictures. Secondly, cultural awareness could be developed by creating
an authentic environment, a so-called “cultural island”, through decorating the
classroom with authentic picture, drawings, and so on. The cultural behaviours of
people of the target culture could be further observed by watching videos. In
addition, cultural exploration might be also fostered through conducting
ethnographic interviews with native speakers, cultural simulations, identifying
and reflecting on cultural stereotypes. Furthermore, comparing cultures and
reflecting on the differences and similarities is another effective tool for
enhancing cultural awareness. Finally, Si Thang Kiet Ho ranked problem-solving
activities among the effective ways of mediating between cultures, i.e. avoiding or
solving intercultural misunderstandings.
Apparently, Si Thang Kiet Ho provided a wide range of interactive tasks to
effectively exploit the cultural content of the analysed units and to enhance
students´ ICC. However, what we miss is the critical analysis of the underlying
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assumptions about culture in the given materials what he primarily aimed at.
Except for the method of teaching the cultural content, the study obviously failed
to provide a broader picture of the cultural input in the two selected units. In
addition, even if an analysis of the cultural content was provided, the sample of
two units, i.e. one unit per textbook, seems to be too small to make conclusions
about “the under-lying assumptions about culture in two traditional EFL
textbooks“.
The cultural content of EFL textbooks used in higher education in China was
examined by Juan (2010). Her study aimed at finding out what kinds of cultural
information the college EFL textbooks contained. It also tried to answer the
question of the typical features the cultural content had. In addition, the purpose
of the research was to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of the
cultural references.
Regarding the research methodology, the sample comprised the first four
volumes of New College English (Yinhua et al., 2001), published in Shanghai and
used at the Tianjin Polytechnic University. Each of the levels consisted of eight
lessons of different focus reflected in two texts and the supplementing parts.
Hence, the content analysis focused on the evaluation of the two texts in each
unit, as well as the proceeding and following tasks, such as the pre-reading and
post-reading activities. In addition, it also examined the preface of the books. The
data were gathered at two levels: on one hand – similar to the technique of
skimming – the analysis tried to identify the gist of the whole unit, i.e. the main
topic; on the other hand it also scanned the particular parts of the units for more
detailed and specific information. For these purposes, the strategies of both
quantitative and qualitative research were combined. Concerning the evaluation
criteria, she reached for Byram´s model to analyse the given materials.
The results were discussed within several sections. As to the preface of the
textbooks, Juan claimed that it completely lacked the aspect of developing
leaners´ communicative competence. She considered it to be disappointing as,
according to her, the preface is the representation of the ideology and the
framework of the textbook in a nutshell.
As to the content of the texts, they mostly focused on issues of the
contemporary society covering a great variety of topics, e.g. unemployment,
terrorism, friendship, etc. and using mostly up-to-date sources. Concerning the
leading topic of the units, i.e. the analysis for a gist, except for the category of
“social and political institutions”, all the other criteria of Byram´s model were
represented. When it came to the search for details, the largest proportion of
information was provided on “national geography” and “socialisation and the life
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phrase”; however, the criteria of “stereo types and national identity” was almost
completely neglected.
Regarding pre-reading activities, with one exception, the results of the
analysis for a gist and that of details corresponded with each other, showing that
72.22% of the pre-reading passages contained information on “social identity
and social groups”. Post-reading tasks, except for the “points for discussion”,
lacked cultural issues and were mainly concerned with improving students´
language proficiency.
Based on the findings mentioned above, Juan made some conclusions, which
she referred to as advantages and disadvantages of the New College English
textbook. Amongst the pros of the investigated material, she ranked the diverse
range of topics, the realistic view of the target community, the large number of
literary works, the authors´ explanations and attitudes. On the other hand, she
also drew the attention to some drawbacks of the analysed textbook. One of them
was the prevailing focus on the American culture and neglecting other English-
speaking countries. In addition, the representation of international cultures and
the learners´ home culture, i.e. Chinese, was limited. It also lacked the
confrontation of various cultures, which is important in order to raise students´
awareness of the differences. Last, but not least, the primary emphasis on
language proficiency did not foster the students´ cultural awareness. Therefore,
Juan suggested that the future, improved version of the given textbook should
include the confrontation of as many English-speaking and international cultures
with the home culture as possible. In addition, the integration of cultural
elements in all sections of the textbooks should be another necessary step.
In our opinion, based on Byram´s criteria, Juan managed to provide a clear
view of the cultural content of the analysed textbooks. In addition, the above
listed benefits and drawbacks of the investigated materials and the offered
suggestions could contribute to the implementation of the cultural element in the
college English teaching in China and thus to the development of intercultural
language teaching.
In another study, Korean EFL textbooks were investigated from the point of
view of cultural and social biases by Kim (2012). The researcher attempted to
find out what social identities and social stereotypes were present in the
analysed textbooks. In addition, he also investigated the representations of
gender identity and gender stereotypes. Finally, he aimed at examining whether
the given textbooks contained elements of multiculturalism, global community,
creativity, multi-cultural society and global etiquette.
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The research sample included three of the English textbooks that were most
commonly used in secondary schools across South Korea. All the book were titled
Middle school English 1; however, one of them was written by Lee et al. (2009)
and published by Doosan Dong-A B., another one was developed by J. Lee et al.
(2009) and published by Chunjae Education, while the third one was written by
Jang et al. (2009) and the publisher was Neungyule Education.
As to the research method, quantitative and qualitative content analysis was
applied. Both the visible and invisible elements of culture were examined in the
three textbooks. Categories for social identification involved factors, such as
gender, age, race, social class, and disability.
Races were further analysed based on various features, e.g. hair colour, skin
colour, etc. and were classified as Asian, Caucasian, and African American.
Genders were divided into males and females. Pictures included in the textbooks
were examined from the point of view of professions and activities.
Summarising the findings of the study, it is noteworthy that women were
often represented as housewives. In addition, there were almost twice more
images depicting males playing sports than those featuring sporting women. The
types of sports were also biased, as team sports, especially ball games were
connected to men, while non-team sports were more characteristic for women.
Moreover, some activities and occupations were also limited to a particular
gender. Hence, these results, according to Kim, indicated that textbooks do
stereotype certain gender roles and so could have a negative impact on the
development of the learners´ personality.
The analysis of racial bias revealed that there were a prevailing proportion of
Caucasian teachers in comparison to those of Asian origin or to those of other
parts of the world. Kim understood this fact as the preference of the Korean
society for Caucasian teachers of English.
We appreciate that based on the findings of the research and on the
suggestions of Triyoda (2010), the author of the study recommended some
changes to be taken into consideration. Firstly, images in EFL textbooks should
support ethnic and social diversity of both the home and target country, which
should also be reflected in the names and personalities of characters.
Furthermore, both genders and different age groups should be equally
represented in terms of different leisure activities, occupations or family roles.
Finally, appearance and emotions of the genders should not be stereotyped
either. However, the study did not give an answer to the third research question,
i.e. whether the analysed textbooks “contained elements of multiculturalism,
global community, creativity, multi-cultural society and global etiquette based on
the addition of the 7th English National Curriculum” (ibid., p. 32). Therefore, we
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consider the findings of the research to be only partial and insufficient to provide
a holistic view of the cultural content of the investigated materials.
In the last example of Asian studies, Liu (2012) investigated textbooks in
order to identify which type and what kind of culture was present in Chinese EFL
university textbooks. The materials investigated in the study consisted of eight
widely used Chinese College English textbooks (four students’ books and four
teachers’ manuals), namely Listening and Speaking 1-4 of New Horizon College
English (NHCE), compiled by Chinese authors. However, it must be noted that the
analysis focused primarily on the teachers’ books, while students’ books of NHCE
served only as a reference, as according to the researcher the latter was not as
informative as the former. Regarding the structure of the teacher´s manual
(similar to the student´s book) it contained a sum of forty lessons, each consisting
of five parts: “Audio Scripts” for listening activities, “Notes for Teachers” for
language work, “Culture Notes” providing cultural information, “Key to answer”
and “Key for reference” for extra information. The collected data were analysed
quantitatively.
As far as the research procedure was concerned, for the purpose of the
analysis, Cortazzi and Jin (1999)’s framework was applied, according to which
the source of culture could be distinguished as target, international target or
source culture. However, as the given model did not cater for the case of
unidentifiable, non-reference origins, another category of “unidentified sources
of culture” was added.
Apart from the perspective of the source of culture, the aspect of big “C” and
little “c” culture was taken into consideration. The researcher established the
codes for this perspective based on Chen (2004) and Lee (2009)’s concepts on
the cultural themes under Big “C” and little “c”, as follows:
“1. Big “C” culture (12 themes): Politic, Economy, History, Geography,
Literature/Art, Social norms, Education, Architecture, Sports, Music, Movie,
and Science.
2. Little “c” culture category (7 themes): Food, Holiday, lifestyles, Customs,
Values, Hobbies and Gestures / body language” (ibid., p.87).
The results of the analysis revealed that the cultural content in more than half
of the examined textbooks fell into the category of unidentifiable sources. In
addition, identified cultural content was dominated by the target culture, while
international target culture and home culture were present in a very small
proportion. Furthermore, the findings also demonstrated that the pre-pondering
theme was little “c” of “values”, whilst common little “c” topics such as food,
holidays, hobbies, etc. were missing. Hence, Liu considered the lack of
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information on the source of culture and the imbalanced range of cultural themes
to be insufficient to foster students’ ICCs; thus causing problems in situations of
intercultural communication. However, we cannot completely agree on this
statement, as the information on the target and home culture, as well as the range
of cultural topics, i.e. the sociocultural knowledge is just one of the aspects that
attention must be paid to when developing ICC. Hence, in our opinion, in order to
find out whether a textbook contributes to the improvement of ICC, other issues
such as the sociolinguistic and paralinguistic input must also be analysed.
On the basis of the research findings, the researcher suggested that, apart
from materials focused on the target culture, NHCE textbooks should include
international target culture and source culture. Also, teaching materials should
comprise a large variety of both big “C” and little “c” culture themes. Moreover,
according to Liu, it was advisable for the teacher´s manuals to include rich
cultural information and adequate methodological guidance on how to teach
culture.
In spite of the thorough analysis of the given aspects and the researcher´s
recommendations, amongst the limitations of the study, we would mention the
research sample chosen for the analysis. Even though according to the
researcher, the student´s books were not as informative as teacher´s manuals, we
do not consider the choice of the latter as the research sample to be rational;
since the aim of the research was to investigate the given cultural issues in
Chinese EFL university textbooks.
A current study was conducted by two Spanish researchers, Oñate and
Amador (2013) who examined what role the intercultural component had played
in Business English textbooks since the 1960s. In the selected materials, they
studied the presence of the aspect of intercultural communication, the attention
given to this concept in whole units, and how it had been taught within the
lessons. Furthermore, the range of chosen cultural issues and business contexts
in which they appeared were also studied. Last, but not least, the paper also
investigated which cultures had been mentioned in the chosen textbooks and
whether they contained any national stereotypes.
To track the development of the given aspects, a number of 67 general
Business English textbooks published between 1963 and 2009 were analysed.
The selected teaching materials catered for different levels of English proficiency,
from beginner to upper intermediate. Categories and codes for the purpose of the
analysis were established with regard to the viewpoints mentioned above. The
textbooks were divided into four main groups according to the date of publishing.
Thus, the first category included seven books published between 1963 and 1979.
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The remaining three groups included a ratio of 20 textbooks per decade, i.e. the
1980s, 1990s, 2000s. The collected data were processed quantitatively.
Oñate and Amador interpreted the findings of the research and divided them
into different sections. In the first group, i.e. books published between 1963 and
1979, cultural issues were almost completely neglected; hence, the analysis of the
further aspects was impossible. As to the analysis of the second group, i.e. books
from the 1980s, almost half contained some kind of intercultural element which
were taught through a range of activities including reading, listening and
conversational tasks. Some of the examined books even put an emphasis on
paralinguistic issues related to the world of business, e.g. negotiations or
meetings. The books focused mainly on the culture in the UK and the USA, but
some Asian and European countries got also some attention. However,
information on South America, Canada and Africa was almost completely missing.
The third group of the investigated materials, i.e. that of the books published
in the 1990s proved a larger proportion of intercultural component not only in
whole textbooks, but also within the units. Similar to the previous category, the
intercultural aspect was fostered through the activities of reading, listening and
communication. Non-verbal communication, business-related issues and
principles of socialising were also dealt with. Among the countries mentioned,
the UK and the USA still played a leading role; however, countries on the other
continents appeared to a lesser or greater extent as well.
As to the last group of the analysed books, the 2000s could be characterised
with a boom of incorporating the aspects of intercultural communication.
Regarding activities through which cultural issued were introduced, no sharp
differences could be highlighted in comparison with the previous groups. In
addition, emphasis placed on non-verbal communication reached a similar
conclusion. On the other hand, business-related issues, together with socialising,
got considerable attention. Apart from the UK and the USA, Germany, Japan and
China became prominent; countries, such as Poland or Sweden were also
introduced, though.
Obviously, due to the considerable research sample, Oñate and Amador
managed to provide a broad overview of the development of the intercultural
component in Business English textbooks since the 1960s. With regard to the
results that showed a significant development in integrating culture to Business
English language teaching, their conclusion that current Business English
textbooks increase student´s cultural awareness and lead them to a respectful as
well as sensitive attitude toward other cultures, seems to be relevant.
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Another example of the latest studies, done by a Tunisian researcher, Melliti

(2013), focused on exploring the issue of “globality” in global EFL textbooks, in
terms of connectedness, inappropriacy and inclusivity. “The study raised
questions about the suitability of global course-books to globally diverse
learners” (ibid, p. 1). For this purpose, the methods of content analysis and
questionnaire were applied. As to the research sample, the former focused on the
analysis of a widely used course-book, which is known worldwide, Headway
Intermediate (H/I), whilst the latter investigated the perception of 251 of its
users at Institute Bourguiba for Living Languages (IBLV) in Tunisia. As the
purpose of this study is to analyse studies focused on content analysis of the
cultural content in EFL textbooks, the following part will draw attention mainly
to the first phase of the research, i.e. to the analysis of H/I course-book.
Regarding the research procedures, words and pictures in the lessons of H/I
“was discussed in terms of its treatment of the principles of preserving
inclusivity, avoiding inappropriacy and investing in connectedness” (ibid., p. 5);
these aspects actually represented the categories of the coding scheme. Within
the aspect of inclusivity of minorities, codes were developed to cater for “the
numbers, the roles, and the topics related to women, men, Whites, Blacks, and
other diverse characters” (ibid.). The concept of inappropriacy was investigated
in terms of the next issues: sex (overt mention), narcotics, isms, pork, anarchy,
AIDS, Israel and six-pointed stars, racism, genetic engineering, terrorism, politics,
violence, alcohol, out of marriage relationships (i.e. relations with someone other
than ones’ spouse such as cohabitation, dating, boy/girlfriend), glorifying some
dangers in some countries, religion, ideological icons and revealing clothes”
(ibid). With regard to connectedness “leisure activities, the issue of language and
global locations” were determined as codes. It is noteworthy that only apparent
examples representing the given codes were taken into consideration. The
collected data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively.
As far as the aspect of inclusivity was concerned, findings revealed that
females were mentioned less frequently than males and portrayed as women of
Western cultures. In addition, some stereotypical representations appeared as
well. Furthermore, in terms of numbers, roles and topics, Whites were preferred
over other groups, such as Blacks, Asians, Native Americans, etc. Based on these
results, Melliti assumed that global course-books failed to support the principle
of inclusivity of different minorities living in today´s world.
Regarding the prospective of inappropriacy, results of the study
demonstrated that controversial issues such as “sex, narcotics, anarchy, Israel
and six-pointed stars, racism, genetic engineering, terrorism, isms and pork”
were avoided. However, according to Melliti, the given topics could provide a
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motivating source for fostering the skills argumentation. Furthermore, the

findings also revealed that the three topics politics, violence and AIDS were
treated with caution. The researcher explained this fact by the general aim of
publishers not to lose markets, thus hindering cultural awareness of the learners
from different parts of the world. On the other side, H/I did cater for
controversial topics, such as alcoholic beverages, revealing clothes, out of
marriage relationships like dating and cohabitation, dealing with some dangers
in particular countries, religion and celebrating specific ideological icons.
Within the category of connectedness, the researcher interpreted the
following results. The majority of the leisure activities was connected with
travelling and sports that, according to Melliti, could be considered as an attitude
of the publishers towards safe topics; yet, reading between the lines, the signs of
ethnocentric orientation could be noticed. Examining the issue of the language
variety, H/I could be characterised by the pre-dominant position of Standard
British English and everyday English, neglecting other geographical and social
varieties, including American English. In addition, the obvious dominance of the
Western locations, such as Europe, Australia and America in H/I also manifests –
consciously or unconsciously - the idea of ethnocentricity.
Based on the findings of the content analysis, supported by the results of the
questionnaire, Melliti´s conclusion seems to be realistic; for he considered H/I to
be global in terms of connectedness, inappropriacy, but only partially global with
regard to inclusivity. Furthermore, the researcher´s recommendation to produce
locally designed course-books corresponds with the idea that “the intercultural
element” in FL education draws the attention to the home culture and the home
language, and therefore it must be also reflected in the materials used for
language teaching (Corbett, 2003; Kramsch, 1998).
Summary
We have drawn our conclusions based upon the findings displayed in Tables 1
- 2. However, it must be noted that during the process of the analysis, we decided
not to include the examples of categories set by the researchers as there was not
enough place in the chart to involve them due to their extensive character.
Therefore, they are provided within the description of the studies.
To summarise the principal features of the analysed studies, we have decided to
answer the research questions one by one.
1. What cultural issues are investigated in the selected FL textbooks, i.e. what was
the focus of the analysis?
Looking at the list of cultural issues in Table 1, we can claim that the selected
studies focused on a range of different aspects. The most frequently examined
121
perspectives include “gender representation and stereotypes” (4 studies), “social

identification and stereotypes” (3 studies). Issues, such as “type of culture”,
“developing ICC”, range of cultural topics, “development of integrating cultural
aspect in FL textbooks” were present in two studies each. Individually examined
topics involved “methods of teaching culture”, “image of the target country”, “big
C and little c culture” and “globality”.
2. Did the researchers conduct qualitative content analysis or its quantitative
counterpart? Are there any studies combining the two approaches?
Based upon the findings, we can state that the majority, i.e. six of the
examined studies, used a combination of qualitative and quantitative content
analysis; however, exclusively quantitative approach was applied in three cases
and in one example the data were analysed only qualitatively.
3. Were the examples of the content analyses supplemented by other research
methods?
Despite the recommendation of numerous researchers, only two studies tried
to verify the results of the content analysis by using other research methods as
well. One of them was the research focusing on the “globality” of Headway
Intermediate, with the researchers opting for a questionnaire, which was
answered by 251 of its users. Byram (1989) investigated the diversity of topics,
image of the target country and stereotypes by the triangulation of content
analysis, observation and interviews.
4. What information is provided about the sample and the units of analysis? Did
the researchers use suggested checklist/s? If yes, which one/s?
We can assume that the majority of the studies (eight) analysed FL textbooks
used by adolescents and young adults, as four of them investigated upper-
secondary school textbooks, three examined university or college books and one
was concerned with business textbooks, which can be also ranked among
materials for more mature learners. Only two of the examples focused on FL
textbooks used at lower levels, one at elementary and one at lower-secondary
education.
Apart from the aspect of learners´ age, eight studies investigated the cultural
content in English as foreign language textbooks. The remaining two conducted
analysis of a ‘French as foreign language’ textbook and another one focused on
the development of the cultural aspect in textbooks of different languages.
As to the units of analysis, the units of analysis included words, sentences,
dialogues, illustrations, sections of the units, units as a whole, and each textbook
as a whole.
122
As far as the use of checklists is concerned, eight researchers developed their

own coding scheme according to the aspect they were investigating. In two cases,
the model of source, target and international target cultures suggested by
Cortazzi and Jin (1999) was applied. In addition, Byram´s model (1993) and
Risager´s checklist (1991) were also used.
5. What were the conclusions of the researchers based upon the results? Did the
selected materials adequately represent the investigated issue?
In the majority of the studies, researchers expressed their complete or partial
dissatisfaction and disappointment about the results of the analysis. Only in one
case was the content of the textbook evaluated positively with regard to the
research aim, as the Japanese upper secondary-school English textbook, titled
“Birdland Oral Communication I” catered for an equal representation of genders.
The other optimistic view was expressed by the Spanish researchers, Oñate and
Amador (2013), concerning the significant development in integrating culture to
Business English textbooks.
The most frequently mentioned deficiencies included the insufficient support
of improving learners´ intercultural competences, the dominant and almost
exclusive focus on the target culture, usually American, gender and social
stereotyping, passive and only cognitive learning of culture, etc.
To sum up, based upon the negative opinions expressed by the researchers,
we have the impression that there is still a lot to do in the field of textbook
development, to which analysis of the cultural content of currently used
textbooks can contribute to a large extent. However, in order to come up with
relevant suggestions and recommendations, the carefully planned and conducted
process of content analysis, as well as the objective interpretation of the results,
is of particular significance. Drawing on the limitations found during the analysis
of the presented studies, researchers should pay attention mostly to the selection
of the appropriate research sample and the establishing of the units of analysis,
as well as the development of categories and codes. No less important is to avoid
exaggerating statements and overgeneralisations in case of analysing only a few
aspects of the particular area.
As to the diversity of the investigated issues, it would be advisable to focus on
aspects of the ICC, which are less frequently investigated; for instance, none of
the ten studies investigated the paralinguistic or sociolinguistic input in FL
textbooks. Furthermore, it would be important to pay attention to the cultural
content used at nursery, primary and lower secondary schools. As recommended
by numerous scholars (Dörnyei, 2007; Flick, 2010) the results of the content
analysis should be contrasted to the findings of other methods, such observation,
123
interviews or questionnaires addressed to the users of the given textbook.

Finally, despite the dominance of English language as “lingua franca”, textbooks
of other languages should be investigated to a larger extent.
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Contact
Mgr. Zuzana Sándorová
Department of Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Studies
Faculty of Education, Constantine the Philosopher University,
Dražovská 4, Nitra 949 74, Slovakia
zuzana.sandorova@ukf.sk
125
APPENDIX
Table 1 Principal features of the analysed studies 1
Name of the Cultural Issue/ Quan Qual Other Sample
researcher/ Focus methods
country of the
research
Byram/England range of topics, ✔ ✔ interviews first three volumes of lower

image of the and secondary French textbook titled
target country, observations “Action! Graded French”
stereotyping of teachers
and pupils
Risager /Sweden development of ✔ ✔ X textbooks used for the
incorporating the elementary level in Sweden since
intercultural the 1950s (different languages)
component in FL
textbooks
Aliakbari /Iran type of ✔ X X four levels of Iranian upper-
culture/developin secondary textbook “English
g ICC book”
Mineshima/ sexism ✔ ✔ X Japanese upper secondary-school

Japan English textbook, “Birdland Oral
Communication I”
Si Thang Kiet Ho the way of X ✔ X a unit dealing with the topic of
/Vietnam teaching culture family (Jones, 2002) in a Speaking
course and lesson focused on food
and drinks (Thai & Duong, 1998) in
a British Culture course
Juan /China range of cultural ✔ ✔ X the first four volumes of "New
topics/developin College English" used Tianjin
g ICC Polytechnic University
Kim/South Korea social ✔ ✔ X three English textbooks most
identification and commonly used in South Korean
stereotypes(gend secondary schools
er, age, race,
social class, and
disability)
126
Liu/China type of ✔ X X 8 (4students’ books and 4

culture/big “C” teachers’ manuals), Listening and
and little “c” Speaking 1-4 of New Horizon
culture College English (NHCE).
Oñate and the development ✔ X X 67 general Business English
Amador /Spain of the cultural textbooks published between
aspect in FL 1963 and 2009
textbooks
Melliti/Tunis “globality”: ✔ ✔ questionnair Headway Intermediate
connectedness, e251 of H/I
inappropriacy users
and inclusivity
Table 2 Principal features of the analysed studies 2
Name of the
researcher/
Units of analysis Checklist/models Conclusions/implications
country of the
research
sections of the units of the
wide range of topics, too positive,
Byram/England textbook, the whole X
unrealistic image, no stereotypes;
textbook
common features: same elements of
the sociocultural focus, under-
presented emotions and subjectivity of
Risager´s model characters, objective, neutral style;
Risager /Sweden the whole textbook
(1991) development: egalitarian
representation of both sexes,
individualisation, more authentic
pictures, more diverse topics;
sentences in the Cortazzi and
Aliakbari /Iran vocabulary and reading Jin´s model insufficient support of developing ICC
sections in each unit (1999)
Mineshima/
textbook, the whole X equal manifestation of genders
Japan
textbook, dialogues
127
teaching culture passively; a model to

Si Thang Kiet Ho sections of the units of the efficiently develop learners´
X
/Vietnam textbook, the whole unit intercultural competences was
proposed by the researcher.
insufficient support of developing ICC,

Byram´s model wide range of cultural topics,
Juan /China textbook, the whole
(1993) dominance of the American culture,
textbook
lack of source and other cultures;
sections of the units of the textbooks do stereotype certain

Kim/South Korea textbook, the whole X gender roles and prefer Caucasian
textbook teachers of English
lack of information on the source of
Cortazzi and Jin culture, insufficient international
Liu/China textbook, the whole
(1999)’s model target culture imbalanced range of
textbook
cultural themes;
sections of the units of the significant development in integrating
Oñate and
textbook, the whole X culture to Business English language
Amador /Spain
textbook teaching
words and pictures in the

only partial globality, production of
lessons of the units of the
Melliti/Tunis X locally designed course-books
textbook, the whole
suggested by the author;
textbook
128
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Content Analysis as a Research Method in Investigating the Cultural

Article in Journal of Language and Cultural Education · February 2019

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Content Analysis as a Research Method in Investigating

What is content analysis?

communication, which is the core of social interaction. Secondly, high quality

Qualitative or quantitative analysis?

A similar definition and differentiation is also provided by Zhang and

content analysis works in practice. In addition, definitions of the basic

The process of content analysis

6. “Training and pilot reliability” refers to the agreement of different coders on

Reliability and validity in content analysis

To put it simply, in order to make valid conclusions, the procedure of coding

textbooks must be undertaken, in which we actively look for information in the

General FL textbook analysis

Textbook analysis for suitability

As we are primarily concerned with the analysis of the cultural content in

Criteria for analysing cultural content in FL textbooks

Another classification of criteria is provided by Risager (1991, p. 182-183):

Content analysis of the cultural content in FL textbooks

a further disadvantage of the examined textbooks. In addition, the range of

In spite of the egalitarian approach demonstrated through the results of the

addition, the treatment of culture in terms of language-culture relationship was

Another example of the latest studies, done by a Tunisian researcher, Melliti

motivating source for fostering the skills argumentation. Furthermore, the

perspectives include “gender representation and stereotypes” (4 studies), “social

As far as the use of checklists is concerned, eight researchers developed their

interviews or questionnaires addressed to the users of the given textbook.

MINESHIMA, M. (2008, October). Gender Representations in an EFL Textbook. [Electronic

Byram/England range of topics, ✔ ✔ interviews first three volumes of lower

Mineshima/ sexism ✔ ✔ X Japanese upper secondary-school

Liu/China type of ✔ X X 8 (4students’ books and 4

Table 2 Principal features of the analysed studies 2

teaching culture passively; a model to

insufficient support of developing ICC,

sections of the units of the textbooks do stereotype certain

words and pictures in the

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