UNIT SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

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5 TIME ALLOTMENT:
LIST OF TOPICS
Lesson 1. Kinetic Molecular Models of
Solids and Liquids
Lesson 2. Intermolecular Forces of
5 HOURS
Attraction
Lesson 3. Intermolecular Forces and
Properties of liquids
Lesson 4. Types and Properties of Solids
Lesson 5. Phase Changes and Phase
Diagrams

In the previous module, gases were discussed – how they behave under certain
conditions and how this can affect its properties. This module will now be covering the two states
of matter- solid and liquid. Like gases, properties of these two states are depended on certain
factors which include the forces that hold the particles together.

What you are seeing above is an experiment connected under certain conditions
(temperature and pressure), where the three states of matter-solid, liquid, and gas co-exist. This
module will be explaining the concepts behind this occurrence.

I. Objectives: At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
a. use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids;
b. describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces;
c. describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of
intermolecular forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor
pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization;
d. explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and
intermolecular forces;
e. describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solid;
f. interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide; and
g. determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance.

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 Posing Question (to be answered as the generalization for this module):
Why do solids and liquids behave differently?

Lesson 1. Kinetic Molecular Models of Solids and Liquids

The Kinetic Molecular model explains how the properties of solids and liquids are
dependent on their forces of attraction between particles and with the kinetic energy of
each particle.

The forces of attraction responsible for Kinetic energy (energy possessed by a

pulling particles together is what we call the moving body) keeps the particles at a
distance and/or moving around. This is
intermolecular forces of attraction. The
dependent on the temperature of the
stronger the attractive force between substance, where the higher the
particles, the closer they are to each other. temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of
particles. Which between solid and liquid has
Given these facts, which between solid and
faster (higher kinetic energy) movement of
liquid has the strongest intermolecular force particles? ___________________________.
of attraction? __________________________ . What will happen to the kinetic energy
if you increase the temperature?
Which has the weakest? __________________.
____________________________

As a summary, study the table below.

Characteristics of Solids and Liquids

Solids Liquids
+ have definite shape + have no definite shape
+ do not flow + flow and take the shape of their
container
Properties +virtually incompressible
+expand when heated, but to a + very difficult to compress
lesser extent than liquids and +slightly expand when heated
gases
+ strongly attracted to each + weakly attracted to each other;
other break their interaction easily
+vibrate and move more than
Particles
+ vibrate a little, but not much those in a solid
compared to liquids and gases + move faster when heated
+ vibrate faster when heated

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 Lesson 2. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Recall your lesson from the previous module (chemical bonding. The attractive forces
that hold particles together in ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds are called intramolecular
forces. Intramolecular forces however, do not account for all attractions between particles.
There are forces of attraction called intermolecular forces.

The force of attraction that holds the formula units (particles of ionic compounds) is
strong enough to keep compound solid at room temperature. The forces of attraction
between neighboring molecules (particles of covalent compounds), on the other hand, is
weaker than that between formula units because molecular attraction involves only partial
charges. However, the strength of such intermolecular forces can be sufficient enough to
hold the molecules together in a solid (e.g., sugar). Covalent compounds with relatively
weaker intermolecular forces may only exist as liquids (e.g., water). Substance with no
appreciable intermolecular forces have their molecules moving around and less contained
by the attraction of other surrounding molecules; hence, they usually exist as gases (e.g.,
hydrogen).

The intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure substance are collectively known

as van der Waals forces, which include dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole, and
London dispersion forces.

London dispersion forces

London dispersion forces, or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular forces of attraction that
exist between all atoms and molecules. These are the only forces acting in nonpolar molecules. They
arise from the continuous movement of electrons in particles. Recall that a nonpolar molecule has its
electrons evenly distributed however, electrons have some freedom to move causing it to temporarily
exhibit dipole moment. That is when a nonpolar molecule will have regions of partially positive and
partially negative.
The size pf a molecule can affect the LDF between
two molecules. The bigger the molecule (which
means that the molecule has greater surface area),
the stronger the attraction between molecules. For
example, the attraction between two helium atoms
will be stronger that between two hydrogen atoms.

Dipole-dipole forces
Polar molecules contain permanent dipoles; that is, some regions of a polar molecule are
always negative and some regions are always positive. These attractions between oppositely
charged regions of polar molecules are called dipole-dipole forces.

In the given example on the right, the partially positive (δ+)

region of H2S is attracted to the partially negative (δ-) of
another H2S molecule. Because the dipoles are permanent, this
is generally stronger than dispersion forces.

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 Hydrogen bonds
This is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between molecules that contain
a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom (F, O, N). The more electronegative
atom pulls the electron toward itself and gains a relatively large partial negative charge. This will, in
turn, make the hydrogen acquire a similarly large partial positive charge that attracts the partial
negative charge of a neighboring electronegative atom. Typically, a hydrogen bond is about five to
ten times stronger than other dipole-dipole attractions.

Note that unlike covalent bonding, where

electrons are involved and shared between
atoms, hydrogen bond is not real chemical
bond participated in by electrons. A covalent
bond is a type of intramolecular force of
attraction, while hydrogen is intermolecular in
nature.

ion-dipole forces
This force acts between an ion (cation or anion) and a polar
molecule. Such is the case for the aqueous solution of sodium
chloride, where the sodium ion and chloride ion are dispersed
amidst polar water molecules.

CHECKPOINT

Problem Solving
Directions: What type of intermolecular force will act in the following substances between their
particles? Provide justification.

1. CO (carbon monoxide) = ___________________________________________________

2. I2 (iodine gas) = ___________________________________________________________
3. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) = __________________________________________________

attracted to hydrogen)
3. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) =hydrogen bond; fluorine (one of the highly electronegative atom is
2. I2 (iodine gas) = London dispersion force; iodine gas is nonpolar.
1. CO (carbon monoxide) = dipole-dipole because carbon monoxide is a polar substance.
The answers are:

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 Lesson 3. Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Liquid

You have learned from the previous discussion that a liquid can take the shape of its
container but its volume is fixed. In other words, the particles can flow to adjust to the shape
of the container, but the liquid cannot expand to fill its container. According to the kinetic
molecular theory, individual particles do not have fixed positions in the liquid. Forces of
attraction between particles remain closely packed in a fixed volume.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

surface tension
This is a property of liquid to resist an external
force and thus assume a lesser surface area. This is
attributed to the strong attractive and cohesive forces
between and among the molecules, particularly at the
surface of the liquid. Several manifestations of this
property include the ability of water to hold a relatively
heavier paper clip on its surface and to allow water
striders to walk on its surface. Moreover, the strong
cohesive force explains why spherical water droplets
form on leaves.

viscosity
This is the resistance of a liquid to flow. It is
loosely referred to as the thickness or thinness of a
liquid. A glassful of water is relatively faster to pour than
a glassful of oil or honey. The greater the intermolecular
forces, the more viscous the substance. Long-chained
substances like oil have greater intermolecular forces
because there are more atoms that can attract one
another, contributing to the substance’s total attractive
forces.

viscosity
Vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure exerted by its
vapor when in equilibrium with its solid or liquid. This means that
when a liquid or a solid substance is made to evaporate in a closed
container, the gas exerts a pressure above the liquid.
Substances with relatively strong intermolecular forces will
have low vapor pressure because the particles will have difficulty
escaping a gas. For example, at 25 C, water (H 2O, hydrogen bonding)
has a lower vapor pressure (0.03 atm), than ethyl ether (C 4H10O;
dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces) (0.68 atm)

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 boiling point

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at

which vapor pressure is equal to the external or atmospheric
pressure. Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises the
kinetic energy of its molecules until such point where the
energy of the particle movement exceeds the intermolecular
forces that hold them together. The liquid molecules then
transform to gas and are seen as bubbles that rise to the
surface of the liquid and escape to the atmosphere. The
temperature at which a liquid boils under an atmospheric
pressure of 760 mm Hg (1 atm) is referred to as its normal
boiling point. The normal boiling point of water is 100 C. at
higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is lower; hence,
the boiling point will subsequently decrease.

The boiling point of a liquid is influenced by the strength of its intermolecular forces. The greater
the attractive forces, the higher the energy needed to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules to
break these forces. This explains why the boiling point of water (100 C) is higher than that of hexane
(60 C). Stronger hydrogen bonding exists in water, while a weaker dispersion force acts in hexane.

heat of vaporization
Molar heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) is the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a
substance at its boiling point. The application of heat disrupts the intermolecular forces of
attraction of the liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize. Boiling point generally increases as
molar heat of vaporization increases. The ∆Hvap is also determined by the strength of the
intermolecular forces between molecules.
Looking at the table on the left, you might Molar Heat of Vaporization for Some Liquids
notice that although both methane and argon are
Boiling ∆Hvap
Substance IMFA
acted upon by London dispersion forces, methane point (°C) (KJ/mol)
has a higher boiling point and higher ∆Hvap than Argon (Ar) LDF -186.0 6.3
argon because methane has larger surface area.
Methane
LDF -164.0 9.2
Compared to methane, diethyl ether has higher (CH4)
Diethyl
boiling point and ∆Hvap because its molecules are Dipole-
ether 34.6 26.0
dipole
held together by both dipole-dipole and London (C2H5OC2H5)
Hydrogen
Dispersion forces. Water (H2O) 100.0 40.8
bonding
The high value of water is attributed to hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole attraction.

CHECKPOINT

Problem Solving
Directions: From the given pair of substances, predict which do you think has higher ∆Hvap.

1. N2 (nitrogen gas) vs. Br2 (bromine gas)

2. H2 (hydrogen gas) vs. HF (hydrogen fluoride)
2. HF has higher heat of vaporization. (HF = hydrogen bonding > H2 = LDF)
1. Br2 has higher heat of vaporization. (Both have LDF but bromine gas has greater surface area/higher molecular mass)
The answers are:
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 Lesson 4. Types and Properties of Solids

Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the arrangement of their

particles. Crystalline solids have a highly regular arrangement of particles, while amorphous
solids have considerable disorder in their structure. Amorphous solids have varying degrees of
short-range order and only within a few atomic or molecular dimensions.

a. crystalline solids

A crystalline solid is a solid whose atoms, ions, or

molecules are arranged in orderly, geometric structure. The
locations of particles in a crystalline solid can be
represented as points on a framework called a crystal
lattice. As seen on the image on the left (crystal lattice of
NaCl), this shows how each particle is arranged in the
crystal formation of NaCl.

A unit cell is the smallest arrangement of atoms in a

crystal lattice that has the same symmetry as the whole
crystal. Like the formula unit, a unit cell is a small,
representative part of a large whole. The unit cell can be
compared to a building block whose shape determines the
shape of the crystal.

Crystal shapes differ because the surfaces, or faces, of unit cells do not always meet at the right
angles, and the edges of the faces vary in length. The diagram below shows seven categories of
crystals based on shape and the edges are labeled a, b, c; the angles at which the faces meet are
labeled α, β, andγ.

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 Types of crystalline solids

Crystalline solids can be classified into five categories based on the types of particles that they
contain and how those particles are bonded together; atomic solids, molecular solids, covalent network
solids, ionic solids, and metallic solids. The table below summarizes the general characteristics of each
category and provides examples. The only atomic solids are noble gases. Their properties reflect the
weak dispersion forces between atoms.

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 Molecular solids

In molecular solids, the molecules are held together by dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces,
or hydrogen bonds. Most molecular compounds are not solids at room temperature. Even water, which
can form strong hydrogen bonds, is liquid at room temperature. Molecular compounds such as sugars
are solids at room temperature because of their large molar masses. With larger molecules, many weak
attractions can combine to hold the molecules together. Because they contain no ions, molecular solids
are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

covalent solids

Atoms such as carbon and silicon, which can form multiple

covalent bonds, are able to form covalent network solids. The covalent
network structure of quartz, which contain silicon. Carbon forms
different types of covalent network solids like diamond, graphite, and
buckminsterfullerene.

covalent solids
Ionic crystals are strong, but brittle. When
ionic crystals are struck, the cations and anions are
shifted from their fixed positions. Repulsions
between ions of like charge cause the crystal to
shatter. The network of attractions that extends
throughout an ionic crystal gives these compounds
their high melting point and hardness.

metallic solids
Metallic solids consist of positive metal ions
surrounded by a “sea of mobile electrons”. The
strength of the metallic bonds between cations and
electrons varies among metals and accounts for
their ide range of physical properties. For example,
tin melts at 232 C, but nickel melts at 1 455 C. the
mobile electrons make metals malleable and
ductile. Mobile electrons make metals good
conductors of heat and electricity.

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 b. amorphous solids
An amorphous solid is one in which the particles are
not arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. It does not
contain crystals. The term amorphous is derived from
Greek word that means without shape. An amorphous solid
often forms when a molten material cools too quickly to
allow enough time for crystals to form.
Glass, rubber, and many plastics are amorphous
solids. Recent studies have shown that glass might
have some structure. when X-ray diffraction is used to
study glass, there appears to be no pattern to the
distribution of atoms. When neutrons are used instead,
an orderly pattern of silicate units can be detected in
some regions. Researchers hope to use this new
information to control the structure of glass for hope to
use this new information to control the structure of
glass for optical applications and to produce glass that
can conduct electricity.

Lesson 5. Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Most substances can exist in three states depending on the

temperature and pressure. A few substances, such as water, exist
in all three states under ordinary conditions.

A change from one state of matter to another. Phase.

changes are physical changes because they do not affect the
chemical makeup of a substance.

What happens during a phase change?

During a phase change heat energy is either

absorbed or released

Heat energy is released as molecules slow

down and move closer together- exothermic

Heat energy is absorbed as molecules speed

up and expand-endothermic

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Different phase changes

Phase change of water

1. Why is there no change in

temperature during a phase
change?
2. What is the melting and
boiling point of water?
3. At what temperature does
water freeze and become a
solid?

Answers will be discussed during the online classes.

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 Phase diagrams

Each substance has specific conditions at which their phase changes occur. These
conditions may be obtained from phase diagrams. A phase diagrams is a graphical
representation of the pressure-temperature relationships that may apply to the equilibria
between the phases of a substance. It is useful in determining the combination of
temperature and pressure at which a substance will exist as a solid, liquid, or gas, or the
conditions at which to phases exist in equilibrium. Two commonly studied phase diagrams
are those of water and carbon dioxide.
The conditions of pressure and temperature at which two phases exist in equilibrium
are indicated on the phase diagram by a line separating the phases.

The phase diagram of water shows the relationship among pressure, temperature, and the
physical states of water.

• In each of the curving regions of the

phase diagram, water is in a single
phase.

• The curving line that separates water’s

vapor phase from its liquid phase
describes the equilibrium conditions
for liquid and vapor.

• The other two lines describe the

conditions for equilibrium between
liquid water and ice and between
water vapor and ice.

• The point on the diagram at which all

three lines meet is called the triple
point.

•
The triple point describes the only set of conditions at
which all three phases can exist in equilibrium with one
another.

For water, the triple point is a temperature of

0.016°C and a pressure of 0.61 kPa.
The flask on the left is at the triple point.
Freezing, melting, boiling, and condensation are all
occurring at the same time in the flask.

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 By referring to the phase diagram of water, you can determine what happens if you melt ice or
boil water at pressures less than 101.3 kPa.

• A decrease in pressure lowers the

boiling point and raises the melting
point.
• An increase in pressure will raise the
boiling point and lower the melting
point.
• Increasing the pressure won’t change
the vapor to a liquid.
• The solid and vapor are in equilibrium
at temperatures below 0.016°C.
• With an increase in pressure, the vapor
begins to behave more like a solid.

Exit Instructions

After completing this module, check whether all items were answered. Submit the activity sheets in
school on _________ 2021. Should you have queries, please use this contact information: 099744379474.
Please ensure to identify yourself first before asking the question. Calls and SMS should be done at this
specific time: 10:00 am – 4:00 pm (TTH).
References

Book/Publication/Journals
• Bayquen, A, Peña, G (2017). Exploring Life through Science series: General Chemistry 2
• Bettelheim, F. Brown, W. Campbell, M. (2014). Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry tenth edition
• Buthelezi, T. et.al. (2013). Glencoe Chemistry: Matter and Change
• Clugston, M. and Flemming, R. (2001). Advanced Chemistry
• Fornias, V. Ungson, O. (2010). Science, Environment, Technology, and Society Chemistry

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• All credits be given to the owners of the pictures used.

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