M12-Arranging Circuits, Controlling and Protecting

ON-SITE BUILDING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION L -IV
Based on October, 2018, Version 2 Occupational standards (OS)
Module Title: Arranging Circuits, Controlling and

Protecting for General Electrical Installations
LG Code: EIS OBE4 M12 0121 LO (1-3) LG (49-51)
TTLM Code: EIS OBE4 TTLM 0121v1
January 2021
Adama, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
LO #1- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits, control and protection 1
Information Sheet -1 # Determine extent and nature of the electrical installation .. 2
Self –Check-1 written test........................................................................................... 12
Information Sheet -2# Identify, obtain and understand electrical installation Safety
requirements ............................................................................................................... 13
Self-check -2# written test ....................................................................................... 19
Information Sheet -3 # Determining load requirement for individual current-using

equipment with appropriate personal protective equipment .................................. 20
Self-Check -3 # Written Test ....................................................................................... 44
LO #2- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits, control and protection

...................................................................................................................................... 45
Information Sheet -1 # Arranging Circuits, control and protective devices to

ensure safe and functional operation of the building electrical installation .......... 48
Self-check -4# Written test ......................................................................................... 51
Information Sheet -2# Series circuit, parallel circuit and series and parallel Ckt .. 52
Information Sheet -3# Switch (on/off) and push button ........................................... 65
Self-check -6# written test ........................................................................................ 71
Information Sheet -4# Circuit breaker ....................................................................... 72
Page i of 344 Federal TVET Agency TVET Program Title- Onsite Building Version -1
Author/Copyright Electrical Installation Level IV
January-2021
Information Sheet -5# Fuse ...................................................................................... 100
Self-check -8# written test ...................................................................................... 118
Information sheet -6# Relay ..................................................................................... 119
Self-check -9# written test ................................................................................... 134
Information Sheet -7# Arrange and terminate Earthling. ..................................... 135
Self-check -10# Written test ..................................................................................... 162
Information Sheet -8# Selecting Protective devices. ............................................. 163
Information Sheet -9# Circuit breaker releases / Tripping units ........................... 170
Information Sheet -10# Short ckt protection ........................................................... 175
Information Sheet -11# Select Residual current devices ....................................... 181
Information Sheet -12# Select Switch gear/control gear ....................................... 189
Information Sheet -13................................................................................................ 201
Arrange Switch boards to accommodate control and protective devices ........... 201
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January-2021
Information Sheet -14# Ground (earthling) ............................................................. 213
Information Sheet -15# Insulators ........................................................................... 236
Self-check -18 # Written test .................................................................................... 245
Information Sheet -16 # Connectors ........................................................................ 246
Information Sheet -17# Junction cover ................................................................... 259
Information Sheet -19# arranging various types of circuit breakers .................... 278
LO #3 Document electrical installation circuits, control and protection

arrangements ............................................................................................................ 286
Information Sheet -1# Obtaining and selecting Evidence from manufacturer’s

electrical equipment complies with safety. ............................................................. 287
Self- check -1# written test ....................................................................................... 297
Information Sheet -2 ................................................................................................. 298
Selecting document of Electrical installation ......................................................... 298
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January-2021
Information Sheet -2# Selecting document of Electrical installation.................... 298
Information Sheet -3# Overload current or fault currents in an electrical

installation ................................................................................................................. 309
REFERANCE: ............................................................................................................. 318
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January-2021
Table 1: Type of installation and Testing Frequency ...................................................... 8
Table 2: for individual Facilities ..................................................................................... 24
Table 3: Basic for Comparison b/n Series Circuit and Parallel Circuit ........................... 63
Table 4: Distance of Probe from inner stake and outer stake to Depth of the ground . 154
Table 5: Type of load and its Suitable type of device .................................................. 168
Table 6: Various types of lines Faults.......................................................................... 179
Table 7: Type of Soil resistivity .................................................................................... 222
Table 8: Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems ........................................... 223
Table 9: Types of soil and mean value of resistive ...................................................... 230
Table 10: Types of soil average value of resistive ...................................................... 230
Table 11: Rated System Voltage number of disc insulator used in strain type tension
insulator string and disc insulator used in suspension insulator string. ....................... 244
Table 12:Different Types of socket .............................................................................. 249
Table 14: The key principles of electrical safety at work are ....................................... 294
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January-2021
Figure 1: Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) .................................................................. 66
Figure 2: Single-pole, double-throw (A DPST) Switch ................................................... 67
Figure 3: Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) ................................................................. 68
Figure 4: Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) ........................................................... 68
Figure 5: Triple-pole, single-throw (3PST)..................................................................... 69
Figure 6: normally opens (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts, ............................... 70
Figure 7: Circuit breaker and Schematic symbol for circuit breaker. ............................. 73
Figure 8: Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB), RCD .................................................. 75
Figure 9: Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB) ................................ 75
Figure 10: Voltage Base ELCB ..................................................................................... 77
Figure 11: Current-operated ELCB (RCB)..................................................................... 80
Figure 12: MCB Circuit Breaker: ................................................................................... 81
Figure 13: Common trip breakers .................................................................................. 83
Figure 14: Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB) ........................................................ 83
Figure 15: Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) ............................................................................. 84
Figure 16: the secondary of a current transformer. ....................................................... 85
Figure 17: Remove the circuit breaker to be replaced ................................................... 88
Figure 18: Remove the circuit wire from the old circuit breaker .................................... 89
Figure 19: The burn out wire and breaker ..................................................................... 90
Figure 20: new circuit breaker back into the proper slot ................................................ 91
Figure 21: Circuit breaker retainer molding ................................................................... 92
Figure 22: Leave the breaker switched to its OFF position. ......................................... 92
Figure 23: Push breaker clip or insert retainer bar first.................................................. 93
Figure 24: Connect the circuit wire to the new, replacement circuit breaker ................. 94
Figure 25: Bus bar connection and Retainer bar .......................................................... 95
Figure 26: main power switches for this panel ............................................................. 95
Figure 27: Inspect the panel interior ............................................................................. 96
Figure 28: Replace the electrical panel cover .............................................................. 96
Figure 29: Panel cover not properly seated around breakers ........................................ 97
Figure 30: Fuse and its Schematic symbol for fuse. .................................................... 100
Figure 31: Cartridge Fuse ........................................................................................... 101
Figure 32: HRC Fuse .................................................................................................. 102
Figure 33: shows a typical plug-type fuse ................................................................... 103
Figure 34: Cartridge fuses are available in a variety of physical sizes ........................ 104
Figure 35: fuse with the old military designation .......................................................... 109
Figure 36: fuse coded in the new military designation ................................................. 110
Figure 37: Fuse Visual inspections ............................................................................. 112
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January-2021
Figure 38: Preventive maintenance of fuses ............................................................... 116
Figure 39: indicator of open or good fuse wire ............................................................ 117
Figure 40: Relay and Its representation symbol ......................................................... 119
Figure 41: Relay operation .......................................................................................... 122
Figure 42: Energized Relay (ON) and De-Energized Relay (OFF) ............................ 122
Figure 43: Relay Coil ................................................................................................... 124
Figure 44: Earth leakage or earth fault relay (ELR) ..................................................... 125
Figure 45: use relays in a circuit .................................................................................. 126
Figure 46: particular relay............................................................................................ 129
Figure 47: Multi Grounded Neutral system (MEN) ...................................................... 137
Figure 48: single grounded neutral .............................................................................. 138
Figure 49: Earth Fault Protection Relay setting ........................................................... 142
Figure 50: Four point Earth resistance Testing Method............................................... 147
Figure 51: Three point method by four and three terminal and Earth tester ................ 151
Figure 52: connection setup using clamp resistance method ...................................... 157
Figure 53: star delta testing method ............................................................................ 160
Figure 54 Slop methods for earth Resistance testing .................................................. 161
Figure 55: Types of Circuit Protection Devices ........................................................... 165
Figure 56: RCD ........................................................................................................... 182
Figure 57: protected socket ......................................................................................... 182
Figure 58: As a plug-in unit which can convert any socket into to a protected circuit .. 183
Figure 59: a plug for wiring on to the lead of an individual appliance .......................... 183
Figure 60: Residual Current Breaker with Overload protection (RCBO)...................... 184
Figure 61: Unit Substation ...................................................................................................... 190
Figure 62: common low voltage switchgear ................................................................ 196
Figure 63: air break ..................................................................................................... 197
Figure 64: Isolator and oil switches ............................................................................. 197
Figure 65: Draw out low Voltage switch gear
..................................................................................... 199
Figure 66: Switchboard construction ........................................................................... 201
Figure 67: Rear Connected Switchboard ................................................................... 203
Figure 68: Medium voltage switchgear ........................................................................ 208
Figure 69: Distribution switchboard ............................................................................ 209
Figure 70: TN system .................................................................................................. 215
Figure 71: TN-S system .............................................................................................. 216
Figure 72: TN-C-S systems ......................................................................................... 217
Figure 73: TT system .................................................................................................. 217
Figure 74: IT systems .................................................................................................. 218
Figure 75: Relationship b/n earth electrode resistance and distance .......................... 221
Figure 76: Wenner Soil Resistivity Testing and Earth electrode installation ................ 222
Figure 77: Pin type insulators ...................................................................................... 239
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January-2021
Figure 78: Suspension type insulator ......................................................................... 240
Figure 79: Strain insulators ........................................................................................ 241
Figure 80: Shackle insulators ...................................................................................... 241
Figure 81: Disc Insulator ............................................................................................. 242
Figure 82: Polymer Insulator ....................................................................................... 242
Figure 83: Glass Insulator .......................................................................................... 243
Figure 84: string insulator ............................................................................................ 243
Figure 85: glass insulator ............................................................................................ 244
Figure 86: Porcelain insulators .................................................................................... 244
Figure 87: Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (a) Spade lug. (b)
Alligator clip. (c) Double banana-pin plug. (d) Terminal strip. ...................................... 248
Figure 88: (continued): Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (e) RCA-type
plug for audio cables. (f) Phone plug. (g) F-type plug for cable TV. (h) Multiple-pin
connector plug. (i) Spring-loaded metal hook as grabber for temporary connection in
testing circuits ............................................................................................................. 249
Figure 89: Power fitting connector ............................................................................... 257
Figure 90: Porcelain bushing for SF6 Switch and Condenser Bushing sets ................ 257
Figure 91: Porcelain bushing for Capacitors and porcelain bushings for LV and MV
Transformer ................................................................................................................. 257
Figure 92: Electrical Junction Box ............................................................................... 260
Figure 93: junction boxes and Distribution board ........................................................ 261
Figure 94: Protection coordination/ Selectivity ............................................................ 269
Figure 95: Circuit schematic from AS/NZS 3000:2018 ................................................ 271
Figure 96: AFCI Circuit Breakers ................................................................................ 279
Figure 97: oil circuit breakers ...................................................................................... 280
Figure 98: Air Circuit Breaker ...................................................................................... 282
Figure 99: Air blast Circuit Breaker ............................................................................. 283
Figure 100: Electrical Safety Mats ............................................................................... 288
Figure 101: Tester kits................................................................................................ 289
Figure 102: Insulation tester ........................................................................................ 289
Figure 103: Voltage indicator ...................................................................................... 290
Figure 104: Lockout kits .............................................................................................. 290
Figure 105: Ground Testing Blocks ............................................................................. 291
Figure 106: RCD ......................................................................................................... 291
Figure 107: Safety signs.............................................................................................. 292
Figure 108: PPE .......................................................................................................... 292
Figure 109: Sequence of conductors – labelled by letters. .......................................... 306
Figure 110: Connecting, turning .................................................................................. 307
Figure 111: Information bus ....................................................................................... 307
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January-2021
L G#49 LO #1- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits,
control and protection
Instruction sheet
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics:
 Determining extent and nature of the electrical installation.
 Identifying, obtaining and understanding electrical installation Safety requirements.
 Determining load requirement for individual current-using equipment with appropriate
personal protective equipment
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Determines extent and nature of the electrical installation.
 Identifies, obtains and understands electrical installation Safety requirements.
 Determines load requirement for individual current-using equipment with appropriate personal
protective equipment
Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below.
3. Read the information written in the ―Information Sheets‖. Try to understand what are being
discussed. Ask your trainer for assistance if you have hard time understanding them.
4. Accomplish the ―Self-checks‖ which are placed following all information sheets.
5. Ask from your trainer the key to correction (key answers) or you can request your trainer to
correct your work. (You are to get the key answer only after you finished answering the Self-
checks).
6. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to ―Operation sheets
7. Perform ―the Learning activity performance test‖ which is placed following ―Operation sheets‖ ,
8. If your performance is satisfactory proceed to the next learning guide,
9. If your performance is unsatisfactory, see your trainer for further instructions or go back to
―Operation sheets‖.
Page 1 of 344 Federal TVET Agency TVET Program Title- Onsite Building Version -1
January-2021
Information Sheet -1 Determine extent and nature of the electrical
installation.
Information Sheet -1 # Determine extent and nature of the electrical

installation
1.1. Nature of electrical Installation
An installer of electrical installation at this stage is skilled electrical work
(employee of this class performs assignments requiring the employment of
standard electrical trade practices and skills.
The work often includes the:
 Planning,
 Layout and
 accomplishment of electrical system improvements in accordance with
 Established
 Codes
 Laws and
 Ordinances.
The work may also include:
 The review and inspection of work accomplished by private contractors

employed by the City
 And the coordination of electrical installations accomplished by City forces
or electrical contractors.
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Under general supervision, the electrical installer (employee) performs:
 Skilled installation,
 Alteration,
 Maintenance,
 Inspection/testing,
 And repair of electrical wiring, apparatus, and equipment and
 Street lighting,
 Heat and power,
 Including but not limited to high voltage switch gears, transformers,
transmission lines for low voltage distribution,
 Secondary sub-panels,
 Alarm and signal circuits,
 Electrical power plant control systems,
 Elevators,
 And standby generators according to the specifications in the National and
State Electrical Codes and national Electrical Safety Codes.
Supervision is exercised over a small group of unskilled workers engaged in

electric installation, street lights, traffic signal maintenance, and City fiber cable
network; this employee may direct and inspect the work of contract employees
and may train and direct the work of laborers and other maintenance employees.
Work is performed under general direction of the electric installation manager.
Examples of Work
(Any one in position of this stage; that is on site building electrical installation
project ; may not include all duties listed, nor do listed work examples include all
duties that may be found in positions of this class)
 Assists in implementing programs for the electrical installation,

 Street lighting systems,
January-2021
 Assists in planning and installs electrical equipment and apparatus,
 Operation and maintenance of traffic control signal systems,
 Independent electrical installations owned by the City,
 And other school crossing signal systems
 Does interior and exterior wiring;
 Implements preventive maintenance programs and policies to ensure
routine servicing and repair of major electrical equipment and devices;
 Plans and performs routine maintenance and repairs on the electrical
systems of City-owned property Performs repairs to electrical,
 Electronic, or mechanical traffic signal devices and controls, including
street lights.
1.2 Minimum Requirements

College diploma; school experience gained through cooperative training in skilled
electrical work
Desirable education and experience Knowledge of the methods and practices of the
electrical trade; Knowledge of the principles of practical electricity; Knowledge of the
occupational hazards and safety precautions of the trade; Knowledge of national
electrical codes; Ability to interpret and work from electrical sketches, penciled layouts,
and blueprints; Skill in the use of tools and equipment of the trade; Possession of a valid
COC certification that ensured by the region for each level of enrollment.
1.3. Essential job functions
The following are considered to be essential to the successful performance of this

position, with or without reasonable accommodations, as described in the examples of
duty above: Must be able to Recognize Identify, And operate tools and equipment
necessary to accomplish tasks as assigned;
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1.4. Safety of an electrical installation
In so far as control procedures are respected, quality and safety will be assured
only if:
 The design has been done according to the latest edition of the
appropriate wiring rules
 The electrical equipment comply with relevant product standards
 The initial checking of conformity of the electrical installation with the

standard and regulation has been achieved
 The periodic checking of the installation recommended is respected.
1.5. Initial testing of an installation

Before a utility will connect an installation to its supply network, strict pre-commissioning
electrical tests and visual inspections by the authority, or by its appointed agent, must
be satisfied.
 These tests are made according to local (governmental and/or institutional)

regulations, which may differ slightly from one country to another. The principles
of all such regulations however, are common, and are based on the observance
of rigorous safety rules in the design and realization of the installation.
 IEC 60364-6 standards are the safety measures and approved installation
practices normally required for residential, commercial and (the majority of)
industrial buildings. Many industries however have additional regulations related
to a particular product (petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc.). Such additional
requirements are beyond the scope of this guide.
January-2021
1.6 The pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual-inspection checks for
installations in buildings include, typically, all of the following:
 Electrical continuity and conductivity tests of protective, equipotential and earth
bonding conductors
 Insulation resistance tests between live conductors and the protective conductors
connected to the earthing arrangement
 Test of compliance of SELV (Safety Extra Low Voltage) and PELV (Protection by
Extra Low Voltage) circuits or for electrical separation
 Insulation resistance/impedance of floors and walls
 Protection by automatic disconnection of the supply
 For TN, by measurement of the fault loop impedance, and by verification of the
characteristics and/or the effectiveness of the associated protective devices
(overcurrent protective device and RCD)
 For TT, by measurement of the resistance RA of the earth electrode of the

exposed-conductive-parts, and by verification of the characteristics and/or the
effectiveness of the associated protective devices (overcurrent protective device
and RCD)
 For IT, by calculation or measurement of the current Id in case of a fist fault at the
line conductor or at the neutral, and with the test done for TN system where
conditions are similar to TN system in case of a double insulation fault situation,
with the test done for TT system where the conditions are similar to TT system in
case of a double insulation fault situation.
 Additional protection by verifying the effectiveness of the protective measure
 Polarity test where the rules prohibit the installation of single pole switching
devices in the neutral conductor.
 Check of phase sequence in case of multiphase circuit
January-2021
 Functional test of switchgear and control gear by verifying their installation and
adjustment
 Voltage drop by measuring the circuit impedance or by using diagrams
After verification and testing an initial report must be provided including records of
inspection, records of circuits tested together with the test result and possible repairs or
improvements of the installation.
1.6.1. Put in out of danger the existing electrical installations
This subject is in real progress cause of the statistics with origin electrical installation
(number of old and recognized dangerous electrical installations, existing installations
not in ad equation with the future needs etc.)
1.6.1 Periodic check-testing of an installation

In many countries, all industrial and commercial-building installations, together with
installations in buildings used for public gatherings, must be re-tested periodically by
authorized agents.
The following tests should be performed
 Verification of RCD effectiveness and adjustments
 Appropriate measurements for providing safety of persons against effects of

electric shock and protection against damage to property against fire and heat
 Confirmation that the installation is not damaged
 Identification of installation defects
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Table 1: Type of installation and Testing Frequency
Type of installation Testing Frequency
Installations which  Locations at which a risk of Annually

require the degradation, fire or explosion exists
protection of
employees  Temporary installations at worksites
 Locations at which MV installations

exist
 Restrictive conducting locations

where mobile equipment is used
Other cases Every 3 Years
Installations in According to the type of establishment and From one to three

buildings used for its capacity for receiving the public years
public gatherings,
where protection
against the risks of
fire and panic are
required
Residential According to local regulation Example: the REBT

in Belgium which
imposes a periodic
control each 20
years.
As for the initial verification, a reporting of periodic verification is to be provided.

Conformity assessment (with standards and specifications) of equipment used in the
installation
Conformity of equipment with the relevant standards can be attested in several ways
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The conformity assessment of equipment with the relevant standards can be attested:
 By mark of conformity granted by the certification body concerned, or
 By a certificate of conformity issued by a certification body, or
 By a declaration of conformity given by the manufacturer
1.7. Declaration of conformity

As business, the declaration of conformity, including the technical documentation, is
generally used in for high voltage equipment or for specific products. In Europe, the CE
declaration is a mandatory declaration of conformity.
Note: CE marking
In Europe, the European directives require the manufacturer or his authorized

representative to affix the CE marking on his own responsibility. It means that:
 The product meets the legal requirements
 It is presumed to be marketable in Europe
The CE marking is neither a mark of origin nor a mark of conformity; it completes the
declaration of conformity and the technical documents of the equipment
1.7.1. Certificate of conformity

A certificate of conformity can reinforce the manufacturer's declaration and the
customer's confidence. It could be requested by the regulation of the countries, imposed
by the customers (Marine, Nuclear...), be mandatory to guaranty the maintenance or the
consistency between the equipment‘s
1.7.2. Mark of conformity

Marks of conformity are strong strategic tools to validate a durable conformity. It
consolidates the confidence with the brand of the manufacturer. A mark of conformity is
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delivered by certification body if the equipment meets the requirements from an
applicable referential (including the standard) and after verification of the manufacturer‘s
quality management system.
Audit on the production and follow up on the equipments are made globally each year.
1.7.3. Quality assurance

 A laboratory for testing samples cannot certify the conformity of an entire
production run: these tests are called type tests. In some tests for
conformity to standards, the samples are destroyed (tests on fuses, for
example).
 Only the manufacturer can certify that the fabricated products have, in
fact, the characteristics stated.
 Quality assurance certification is intended to complete the initial
declaration or certification of conformity.
 As proof that all the necessary measures have been taken for assuring the
quality of production, the manufacturer obtains certification of the quality
control system which monitors the fabrication of the product concerned.
 These certificates are issued by organizations specializing in quality
control, and are based on the international standard ISO 9001: 2000.
These standards define three model systems of quality assurance control

corresponding to different situations rather than to different levels of quality:
 Model 3 defines assurance of quality by inspection and checking of final

products.
 Model 2 includes, in addition to checking of the final product, verification of

the manufacturing process. For example, this method is applied, to the
manufacturer of fuses where performance characteristics cannot be
checked without destroying the fuse.
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 Model 1 corresponds to model 2, but with the additional requirement that
the quality of the design process must be rigorously scrutinized; for
example, where it is not intended to fabricate and test a prototype (case of
a custom-built product made to specification).
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Self-check 1 Written test
Self –Check-1 written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
Directions: Answer all the questions listed below.
Test I Short Answer Questions

1. List some points that under gone during supervision?(5pts)
2. List basic requirements during accomplishment of electrical system ?(5pts)
Note: Satisfactory rating – 10 points Unsatisfactory - below 10 points
You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test I
1.__________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________
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Information Sheet -2 Identify, obtain and understand electrical
installation Safety requirements
Information Sheet -2# Identify, obtain and understand electrical

installation Safety requirements
2.1. Safe working environment in electrical installations in a work place
It is important to maintain a safe working environment in a place where electrical

installations are carried out. The line between safe and unsafe environment is very
thin, which can be the difference between preventing accidents and causing them.
Providing circuit protection for safety
When correctly selected and applied, circuit breakers, fuses, and other protection
components can help keep workers safe from injuries and machines from damage.
2.2. Safety of an electrical installation
2.2.1. Here are some ways to ensure safe electrical installations

In so far as control procedure is respected safety will be assured only if:
 The design has been done according to the latest edition of the appropriate
wiring rules
 The initial checking of conformity of the electrical installation with the standard
and regulation has been achieved
 Ensure that you hire only the licensed electricians to install, repair and dismantle
the job site wiring. They always follow the electrical safety rules and ensure
greater protection to everybody using the power tools and construction safety It
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also helps in preventing injuries that may be a result of under-qualified and
unlicensed people installing.
 Always plug the GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter), which is required at every
plug-in point that is associated with your job site‘s temporary electrical supply.
Check that only the GFCI receptacles are installed and portable GFCIs are kept
handy in case additional grounding needs arise.
 Encourage the workers to always check the insulated tools for damage before
using them. If the insulation layer is cracked or damaged in any way, it becomes
an electrical conductor and would no longer be safe to use. Replace those
instruments immediately.
 Keep the electrical components, even surplus electrical inventory, away from
water or damp places. Store all the power tools in dry areas and keep the
outdoor receptacles covered. Never use electrically powered tools in a wet
environment.
 Thoroughly check the electrical wiring before cutting through any wall, ceiling or
floor. If the tools make contact with an unseen electrical wire, the person using
the tool will get electrocuted or shocked. It is always better to size up the
situation before you get started to reduce your risk of injury.
 Use the right power tools and extensions for the job at hand. Ensure that the
wattage rating of the extension is greater than the power requirement of the
equipment it‘s powering.
2.3. Initial testing of an installation

 Before a utility will connect an installation to its supply network, strict pre-
commissioning electrical tests and visual inspections by the authority, or by
its appointed agent, must be satisfied.
 These tests are made according to local (governmental and/or institutional)
regulations. The principles of all such regulations however, are common, and
are based on the observance of rigorous safety rules in the design and
realization of the installation.
January-2021
 IEC 60364-6 standards are the safety measures and approved installation
practices normally required for residential, commercial and (the majority of)
industrial buildings. Many industries however have additional regulations
related to a particular product (petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc.). Such
additional requirements are beyond the scope of this learning guide.
2.4. The pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual-inspection checks for

installations in buildings include, typically, all of the following:
 Electrical continuity and conductivity tests of protective, equipotential and earth
bonding conductors
 Insulation resistance tests between live conductors and the protective conductors
connected to the earthing arrangement
 Test of compliance of SELV (Safety Extra Low Voltage) and PELV (Protection by
Extra Low Voltage) circuits or for electrical separation
 Insulation resistance/impedance of floors and walls
 Protection by automatic disconnection of the supply
 For TN, by measurement of the fault loop impedance, and by verification

of the characteristics and/or the effectiveness of the associated protective
devices (overcurrent protective device and RCD)
 For TT, by measurement of the resistance RA of the earth electrode of the

exposed-conductive-parts, and by verification of the characteristics and/or
the effectiveness of the associated protective devices (overcurrent
protective device and RCD)
 For IT, by calculation or measurement of the current Id in case of a fist

fault at the line conductor or at the neutral, and with the test done for TN
system where conditions are similar to TN system in case of a double
insulation fault situation, with the test done for TT system where the
conditions are similar to TT system in case of a double insulation fault
situation.
 measure
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 Polarity test where the rules prohibit the installation of single pole switching
devices in the neutral conductor.
 Check of phase sequence in case of multiphase circuit
 Functional test of switchgear and control gear by verifying their installation and
adjustment
 Voltage drop by measuring the circuit impedance or by using diagrams
These tests and checks are basic (but not exhaustive) to the majority of
installations, while numerous other tests and rules are included in the regulations
to cover particular cases, for example: installations based on class 2 insulation,
special locations, etc.
Put in out of danger the existing electrical installations

This subject is in real progress cause of the statistics with origin electrical installation
(number of old and recognized dangerous electrical installations, existing installations
not in ad equation with the future needs etc.)
2.5. Periodic check-testing of an installation:

2.5.1.1. The following tests should be performed
 Verification of RCD effectiveness and adjustments
 Appropriate measurements for providing safety of persons against effects of

electric shock and protection against damage to property against fire and heat
 Confirmation that the installation is not damaged
 Identification of installation defects
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2.6. Look at some common causes for unsafe electrical installations and how you
can prevent them
2.6.1. Causes of Unsafe Electrical Installations
 Inadequate: Training If the person performing the electrical installations has
inadequate training or is incompetent, there is a greater chance of an unsafe
electrical installation. It will be dangerous for the worker in question as he could
attempt to work while the panel is still live, resulting in an electrical short and
suffer from serious burns.
 Presence of Unauthorized Personnel: There is a risk of electrical accidents if
the installations are carried under unauthorized personnel. You need to ensure
that only the authorized personnel are present on the job site to avoid unsafe
electrical installations.
 Using Poor or Old Wiring: Every single construction electrical material must be of
high quality. Faulty wiring or old wires are the leading causes of electrical fires
and accidents. The wiring needs to be checked every few years and if there is
any damage, get it replaced immediately.
 Not Informing the Electrical Inspector: Even if the electrical installations are
temporary, it is critical to inform the Electrical Inspector. Give them prior
intimation so that they can fix an appointment and check that everything is as per
the required standards, thus helping in preventing electrical accidents.
 Ignoring the Quality of Materials: If the installations are temporary in nature,
there is a chance that the contractors and workers don‘t bother with checking the
durability, safety and reliability of the construction electrical products. This leads
to numerous safety concerns. Ensure that the quality of the products used is
checked prior to the installation. Solutions to Ensure Safe Electrical Installations
2.7. Safeguards from shock and fire
To mitigate incidents like the two described above and others, NFPA 70E-2018:
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace provides detailed information regarding
electrical safety and many other regulations for electrical wiring and overcurrent
protection. In addition, NFPA 79-2018: Electrical Standard for Industrial Machinery,
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discusses protection of equipment as well.
There are many requirements and guidelines to follow to protect personnel and
machines from shock, fire, and other damaging events due to the presence of electrical
energy or electrical failures. An overview of some of the many electrical safeguards
includes:
 Provide a lockable disconnect means
 Interlock doors to disconnect power
 Include safety signs
 Provide overcurrent protection
 Provide surge protection.
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Self-check -2 Written test
Self-check -2# written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
Directions: Answer all the questions listed below briefly.

1. List some some common causes for unsafe electrical installations?(4pts)
2. List some ways to ensure safe electrical installations?(4pts)
Note: Satisfactory rating - 8 points Unsatisfactory - below 8points
Score = ___________
Rating: ____________
Answer Sheet
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test I
1.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
January-2021
Determining load requirement for individual current-
using equipment with appropriate personal protective
Information Sheet -3
equipment.
Information Sheet -3 # Determining load requirement for individual

current-using equipment with appropriate personal protective
equipment
3.1. Preliminary Data for Determination of load requirement

3.2. Scope.
This discussion provides an introduction to the criteria necessary for the proper
selection of electric power sources and distribution systems. It covers preliminary load
estimating factors and electrical power sources.
3.2. Load Data

Before specific electric power sources and distribution systems can be considered,
realistic preliminary load data must be compiled. The expected electric power demand
on intermediate substations, and on the main electric power supply, shall be calculated
from the connected load layout by applying appropriate factors.
Determine these factors by load analysis and by combining loads progressively. To

combine the loads, start at the ends of the smallest feeders and work back to the
electric power source. Because all loads must be on a common kilowatt (kW) or kilovolt
ampere (kVA) basis, it is necessary to convert motor horsepower ratings to input
kilowatts or kilovolt-amperes before combining them with other loads already expressed
in those terms. Preliminary electric power load estimates can be made by using the
approximate value of one kilovolt-ampere of input per horsepower (hp) at full load.
Preliminary estimates of lighting loads may be made by assuming watts per ft2 of
building area.
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3.2.1. Load Analysis
To determine appropriate load estimating factors, using the tables and factors in this
manual as guides to analyze the characteristics of each load. Consider items such as
environmental conditions of weather, geographical location, and working hours, as the
situation dictates. Notice that when the load densities in w/ft2 are used only in
preliminary estimates, the demand and load factors will be used in the final designs.
Terminology: Five terms are essential to the analysis of load characteristics: demand
factor, coincidence factor, diversity factor, and maximum demand. These terms are
defined below.
Demand Factor: The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand on a system
to the total connected load of the system or
Coincidence Factor
The coincidence factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part
under consideration, to the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
subdivisions or
3.2.2. Load factor.

The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time,
usually 1 year, to the maximum load occurring in that period or
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3.2.3. Maximum demand.
The maximum demand is the integrated demand for a specified time interval, i.e.,
5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, or other appropriate time intervals, rather
than the instantaneous or peak demand.
3.2.4. Estimation Loads

Preparation of load data: Load data are generally computed in steps such as:
a) Individual loads,
b) Area loads, and
c) Activity loads.
A particular design problem may be limited to step a), to steps a) and b), or may
encompass steps a), b), and c). This section outlines each step as a separate entity,
dependent only on previous steps for data.
3.3. Individual Loads

Individual loads are those with one incoming service supplying utilization voltage to the
premises. In general, these loads would comprise single structures. Large structures
could contain more than one function. Under this condition, factors that have been
developed would be used.
3.3.1. Lighting
To eliminate lighting loads, divide a facility area into its significant components by
function (for example, office, storage, mechanical, and corridor). Determine the average
lighting level and type of light source for each area. Consider requirements for
supplementary lighting (for example, floodlighting, security lighting, and special task
lighting). Preliminary load estimates may be made based on the following load
allowances:
a) 1 W/sf for each 6 to 8 fc of incandescent illumination.
b) 1 W/sf for each 15 to 20 fc of fluorescent illumination.
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c) 1 W/sf for each 12 to l8 fc of mercury vapor illumination.
d) 1 W/sf for each 26 to 36 fc of metal halide illumination.
e) 1 W/sf for each 33 to 54 fc of high-pressure sodium illumination.
3.3.2. Small Appliance Loads

Small appliance loads shall include those served by general purpose
receptacles. In general, the dividing of areas by function for estimating lighting
loads will serve for estimating small appliance loads. The determination of loads
requires not only knowledge of the function of an area, but to what extent its
occupants use small appliances. For example, an office area demand may
average about 1 W/sf but could vary from a low of 0.5 W/sf to a high of 1.5 W/sf
depending on the specific tasks to be performed. A minimum of 0.1 W/sf for
auditoriums to a maximum of 2.5 W/sf for machine shops is possible, although
the upper limit would occur very rarely. Mechanical spaces in building storage
areas and similar spaces in which outlets are provided but infer
3.3.3. Electric power Loads

Electric power loads shall include all loads other than lighting loads and those
served by general purpose receptacles and comprise the environmental system
electric power requirements and the facility occupancy equipment electric power
requirements.
3.3.4. System Loss
A system loss of approximately 6 percent, based on calculated maximum

demand, should be added to the building load.
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3.3.5. Demand and Load.
The demand and load factors for a specific facility will vary with the division of
load and hours of usage for values that can be applied to determine demand and
load factors. Annual hour‘s use of demand must be determined for each case in
accordance with methods of operation and characteristics of the installation.
Such factors should be used for quick estimating purposes and as a check when
a more precise calculation is undertaken
3.3.7. Load Growth

Determine the requirements for load growth for anticipated usage and life expectancy
with particular attention to the possibility of adding heavy loads in the form:
 Of air conditioning,
 Electric heating,
 Electric data processing,
 And electronic communication equipment.
Before determining the size of service and method of distribution to a facility, an

economic analysis shall be made to determine the most feasible way of serving this
future load. This analysis shall include the effect on the existing installation if future
loads require reinforcing or rehabilitation of the service system.
Table 2: for individual Facilities
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3.3.8. Emergency Loads
The determination of emergency electric power requirements is based on three types of

loads:
a) Minimum essential load,
b) Emergency load for vital operations, and
c) Uninterruptible (no-break) load.
When the three categories of emergency electric power requirements have been
ascertained,
Determine where local emergency facilities are required, Where loads may be grouped
for centralized emergency facilities, And what loads are satisfied by the reliability of the
general system. Base the aforementioned determinations on safety, reliability, and
economy, in that order.
3.3.9. Area Loads
Area loads consist of groups of individual facility loads served by a subdivision of the
electric distribution system. The term "area" applies to the next larger subdivision of an
overall distribution system.
Demand loads for an area must be known for sizing the distribution wiring and
switching, and in a large installation will be required for the design of substations
serving the area.
3.3.10. General Loads
To obtain the general load, add roadway lighting, area lighting, obstruction lighting, and
other loads not included in individual facility loads.
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3.4. Coincidence Factor
Determine the maximum expected demands, taking into consideration whether loads
within the area peak at the same or at different times
3.5. Selection
Areas with relatively insignificant residential type loads, where the load curve
indicates that most of the electric power consumed in the area is used during the
40 normal working hours of a week, and have coincidence factors at the higher
end of the range.
3.6. Electric Power Consumption

In general, areas where large amounts of electric power are consumed outside
the usual 40 working hours a week have a coincidence factor at the lower end of
the range (examples are hospitals, areas operated on two or more shifts, or large
barracks type activities). The upper limit of the range is for a 40 hour per week
operation; the lower limit is for a 60 hour per week operation .
3.7. Individual Loads

The coincidence factor are based on the individual loads in a group being
substantially the same size. If a single load or small group of loads in an area
represents a substantial percentage of overall loads, the coincidence factors will
no longer apply. With an individual load, increase the coincidence factor to a
value commensurate with its effect on the overall area load. This is not in
addition to, but in place of, the normal coincidence factor.
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3.8. How to Calculate Electrical Load
Electrical circuits have many applications, including household, automotive and
electronics. The electrical principles apply regardless of the application. You have a
number of components distributed on the circuit that constitute the circuit load.
3.8.1. Calculate Household Electrical Load

Calculate the load for a typical single-family house using an online electrical load
calculator. Utilize an online ―Single Family Dwelling Electrical Load Calculator.‖
Enter the square footage of your house. Enter the number of ―small appliance circuits‖
and ―laundry circuits,‖ and refer to an electrical diagram if necessary. Enter values for
―Fastened Appliances,‖ ―Cooking Appliances,‖ ―Heating or Cooling‖ and ―Largest Motor.‖
Press ―Calculate Load.‖
Note the ―Total Computed Load,‖ the ―Computed Amperage,‖ the ―General Neutral
Load,‖ the ―Total Neutral Load,‖ and the ―Total Neutral Amperage.‖
Kilowatts and amps are both different types of measurements in an electrical circuit. In
order to convert kilowatts to amps, figure out the voltage in the circuit first. The voltage
is from the power source, such as a 220-voltage. Use the formula of 30 kilowatts divided
by the number of volts, then multiplying the result by 1000 to get the number of amps
available in the circuit.
3.8.2 Load calculation Voltage drop and size cable

Before wiring installation process is carried out, it must follow the rules which require all
wiring, additional wiring or rewiring to carry out by Electrical Contractor or Electrical
Wiring Unit require approval writing from the licensee or supply authority. Wireman or
Contractor need to plan and identify the work want to carried out, so that work can be
more clean, tidy and safe to uses.
January-2021
The wireman or contractor should:
 Make a site visit

 Follow the guideline regulation from JKR
 Identifies the user load requirement
 Calculate the maximum demand and total connected load
 Determine the equipment
 Submit plants, drawings and specifications
 Guidance notes for wiring regulation can refer IEE wiring regulation by Brian
reference for all contractors, technicians and other professionals working in a
non- supervisory capacity, as well as newcomers to the industry, all of whom are
involved in inspecting and testing electrical installations, and need to ensure their
work complies with the latest version of the Wiring Regulations.
3.8.3. The installation on equipment and so on needs to follow regulation from

JKR such as:
L-S1: Specification for low voltage internal electrical installation system
L-S2: Specification for low voltage automatic power factor correction
L-S3: Specification for low voltage underground cable
L-S4: Specification for low voltage overhead line distribution
L-S5: Specification for three phase generator set
L-S6: Specification for acoustic treatment for generator room
L-S7: Specification for single phase diesel generator set
L-S8: Specification for lightning protection system( using stranded G.I wires)
L-S9: Specification for lightning protection system for structures.
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3.8.1.1. Nominal Voltage
The official mains power voltage is AC 230V with the tolerance of +10%, -6%. However,
the supplied voltage remains at 240V, as the supplied voltage is within the allowed
tolerance. Different areas rely on private power companies to receive a true 230V
supply
Remote villages which rely on off-grid localized diesel generators (i.e. small villages
and/or isolated holiday resorts on islands too far away from the mainland to have viable
overhead cabling) may receive unstable power with higher voltages, with some areas
recorded to be as high as 260 V.
3.8.1.2. Load Calculation

Each design want to be made need go through the process of load calculation, where
the process is calculated from distribution board (DB), sub-switch board (SSB) and main
switch board (MSB)
A distribution board is a panel or enclosure that houses the
 Fuses,
 Circuit breakers and
 Ground leakage protection units used to distribute electrical power to
numerous individual circuits or consumer points.
The board typically has a
 Single incoming power source and

 Includes a main circuit breaker and
 A residual current or earth leakage protection device.
A distribution board may be used to distribute either single or three phase supplies
depending on the installation specifics. Although distribution board equipment, layouts,
January-2021
and legislative requirements differ from country to country, the basic principles of
―distributing‖ a single supply to various individual points while ensuring safety and
control for each remains the same.
Sub-switchboard function is same as distribution board, but MSB is MSB is an assembly

of distribution panels, each of which contains switches and breakers that allow
electricity to be redirected to appropriate loads. The role of MSB is to divide the main
current provided to the switchboard into smaller loads for further distribution and to
provide switching, over-current protection and metering for these various loads.
3.8.2. Type of load

Electrical load types fall into four categories:
 Resistive,
 Capacitive,
 Inductive or a combination of these.
Few loads are purely resistive, capacitive or inductive. The imperfect nature of how
electrical and electronic devices are built causes inductance, capacitance and
resistance to be an inherent part of many devices.
3.8.2.1. Resistive Loads

A resistor is a device that resists the flow of electricity. In doing so, some of the
electrical energy is dissipated as heat.
Two common resistive loads are
 Incandescent light bulbs and

 Electric heaters. Resistance (R) is measured in ohms.
An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing an electric current through a

filament in a vacuum. The resistance of the filament causes it to heat up and the
January-2021
electrical energy is converted to light energy. Electric heaters work in the same way
except they produce little, if any, light.
The electrical current and the voltage in a resistive load are said to be ―in phase‖ with
each other. As voltage rises or falls, the current also rises and falls with it.
3.8.2.2. Capacitive Loads

A capacitor stores electrical energy. Two conductive surfaces are separated by a non-
conductive insulator. When an electrical current is applied to a capacitor, electrons from
the current gather on the plate attached to the terminal to which the electric current is
applied. When the current is removed, the electrons will to flow back through the circuit
to reach the other terminal of the capacitor.
The capability of a capacitor to store electrical energy is called capacitance (C). The
main unit of measure is the farad, but most capacitors are measured in microfarads.
The current leads the voltage of a capacitor. The voltage across the terminals starts out
at zero volts while the current is at its maximum. As the charge builds on the capacitors
plate, the voltage rises and the current falls. As a capacitor discharges, the current rises
as the voltage falls.
3.8.2.3. Inductive Loads

An inductor may be any conductive material. When a changing current passes through
an inductor, it induces a magnetic field around itself. Turning the inductor into a coil
increases the magnetic field. A similar principal occurs when a conductor is placed
within a changing magnetic field. The magnetic field induces an electrical current within
the conductor. Inductance (L) is measured in henries. The changing voltage and current
in an inductor are out of phase. As current rises to a maximum, the voltage falls.
January-2021
3.8.2.4. Combination Loads
All conductors have some resistance under normal conditions and also exhibit inductive
and capacitive influences, but these small influences are generally dismissed for
practical purposes. Other loads make use of various combinations of inductors,
capacitors and resistors to perform specific functions.
Single phase motors often use capacitors to aid the motor during starting and running.
The start capacitor provides an additional phase of voltage to the motor since it shifts
the current and voltage out of phase with each other.
3.8.3. Total Connected Load (TLC) and Maximum demand (MD)

One of the most calculation basic electrical calculations is to calculate the total
connected load (TCL) and maximum demand (MD)
The TCL is the mechanical and electrical load that will be connected for that particular
area, where all of the electrical loads in an installation be maximized and
simultaneously,
The MD is the total kW that actually contributes the total power used in one time after
applying the diversity factor based on the Total Connected Load calculated. It less than
or equal to the connected load (TCL). Value of maximum demand of a building and ratio
of diversity factor must be determined so as not overdesigned or under designed. By
using MD also, many cost can be reduced as cable size, the size of the breaker, bus bar
size etc.
By calculating the TCL, it can know the total load connected for a particular area and
also can determine the sizing of cables. But, the most important thing is by having the
TCL, it can determine the MD. This MD will be declared to the utility provider for the purpose
of meter deposit and utility bill.
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3.8.4. Diversity Factor (DF)
Diversity factor is different or ratio between MD and TCL.
The equation can relate MD, TCL to DF is:
MD = TCL x DF
Should be reminded, to determine DF normally it cannot be precisely determined. DF

value is only an approximate value only based on the guidance or previous data.
The diversity factor is almost always greater than 1 since all components would have to
be on at simultaneously at full load for it to be one.
3.8.5. Increase Burden

After MD known then it should be added 20% at DB and 30% in SSB or MSB to
determine the size of the incoming breaker. This is because taking into account the
increase in the load in the future. It is known as increase burden.
The specification percent of increase burden:
 Distribution Board
 School: MD + 20%
 Office : TCL
 Hospital : TCL + 20%
 Sub Switchboard and Main Switchboard
 MD + 30%
3.8.6. Circuit Breaker

To provide adequate over current protection, each circuit should be equipped with a
circuit breaker for automatic interruption of supply in the event of overload current and
fault current.
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The circuit breaker installed in a circuit should break any fault current flowing in the
circuit breaker before such current causes danger due to thermal or mechanical effect
produced in the circuit or the associated connection. The characteristics of the breaker
shall satisfy the condition that the breaking capacity should be greater than or equal to
the prospective short circuit current or earth fault current at the point at which the
breaker installed
The rated current of a circuit breaker is the current that it can carry continuously,
generally for duration of more than eight hours. The rated current must not cause a
temperature is between -5C to 40C. Different temperature rise limits are specified for
different parts of a circuit breaker. A circuit breaker will not operate (Trip) if the current
passing through it is 105% to 113% of its rated current. It will take one or two hours to
trip if the current passing through it is 130% to 145% of the rated current.
3.8.6.1. Type of Circuit Breaker need to be determined

3.8.6.1.2. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
MCB are used extensively for the protection of final circuit in domestic and commercial
installations. they offer these circuit protection, particularly when overload or short circuit
conditions are being considered than the fuse alternatives.
MCBs are available for both single phase and three phase circuit. In a single phase
circuit, a single MCB may be used in the live conductor or a two-pole MCB connected in
the live and natural conductor. three or four pole MCBs are used for protection in three
phase supplies. If a fault current flow through even one pole of an MCB, all the three
poles will be operated.
The main standard for MCBs in BS 3871 this standard covers MCB ratings up to 100A,
breaking capacities up to 9 kA and voltage ratings up to 415V.
The preferred value of the rated current are:
January-2021
6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, and 125A
Instead of specifying the breaking capacity, the standard specifies the value of the short
circuit capacity. The short circuit capacity refers to the prospective current expressed by its
rms value which the MCB is designed to make (closed), to carry for its operating time
and to break under the specified conditions.
The standard values of rated short circuit are 1.5, 3, 4.5, 6 and 10kA. For values above
10kA up to and including 25kA, the preferred value 20kA.
3.8.6.1.3. Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

Molded case circuit breakers (MCCB) are required for installations which have higher fault
level or higher current ratings exceeding 125A. MCCBs have several advantages over
ordinary switches and fuses in the control and protection of circuit and apparatus. They
have a repeatable non-destructive performance and are safe in operation under fault
conditions. It has built-in mechanism to simultaneously open all three phases for a
single phase fault.
This circuit breaker is mainly used to protect main feeder cables, for incoming supply to
sub circuit/distribution boards and for large motor circuit.
For installation, MCCBs are suitable as free standing units, or for building into compact
cubic-type switchboards. Auxiliary items such as shunt trio elements, status switches,
interlocks and motor-operated mechanism for remote operating can all be integrated
into the MCCB.
The main industrial standards for MCCBs are BS EN 60947-1 and BS EN 60947-2. These
two standards define the characteristics, conditions for operation, methods for testing
and the requirements for circuit breaker with rated voltages up to and including 1000V
a.c or 1500 d.c.
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As there are no other standard values specified in BS EN 60947, the followings are
some typical technical data for reference:
Current rating: 10, 16, 20, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, : 630, 800, 1250A
 Rated voltage: 380, 400, 415V

 Rated breaking capacity: 10, 20, 25, 35, 65, : 85kA(r.m.s)
 Rated making capacity: 17, 44, 53, 63, 84, : 143kA(peak)
 One minute‘s power
 Frequency withstand voltage: 2.5kV
3.8.6.1.4. Residual Current-operated Circuit Breaker (RCCB)

The Residual Current-operated Circuit Breaker (RCCB) is primarily designed to protect
against ‗indirect contact‘ electric shock. The term ‗indirect contact‘ refers to the contact
of the supply voltage indirectly through the touching of the exposed-conductive-part
such as the metallic enclosures of electrical appliances, the metallic conduit, trunking or cable
tray. These exposed-conductive-parts are insulated from the live conductor and are connected
to the earthing terminal and thus, should be at the earth potential. However, during an earth
fault, as there is an earth fault current flowing from the love conductor through the exposed-
conductive-part to the earth, the exposed metalwork may be at high potential relative to earth.
Touching the exposed- conductive-parts at this instance may cause an electric shock if
its potential to earth exceeds 50V. Furthermore, id it is a high impedance earth fault, the
magnitude of the earth fault current may not activate the overcurrent protective device.
Thus, a current will continue to flow to earth, possibly generating heat and causing fire.
RCCB is designed to detect such a residual current (ie. earth leakage current), to
compare it to reference value and to open the protected circuit when the residual
current exceeds this reference value.
RCCBs are not designed to have a high breaking capacity and in fact, they have only a
limited breaking capacity. They are therefore, not a replacement for other overcurrent
protective devices which are designed to interrupt high fault current. There are four
January-2021
standard for RCCBs namely, BS4293, IEC 755, IEC 1008- 1 and Singapore standard
SS 97.
Based on IEC 1008, RCCBs are specified as follows:
 Preferred rated voltage: single phase, phase to neutral: 230V
 Three phase, three wire: 400V

 Three phase, 4 wire: 400V
 Preferred rated current, IN:
10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 63, 80, 100, 125A
 Rated residual operating current, IË„N:
0.006, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5A
 Standard value of residual non
 operating current : 0.5 IË„N
 Minimum value of the rated

 Making and breaking capacity: 10 IN or 500A whichever is greater
 Rated condition short circuit
 Current: 3, 4.5, 6, 10, 20kA
 Maximum break time: 0.3s for residual current equal to 0.5 IË„N
 0.15s for residual current equal to 20.5 IË„N

 0.04s for residual current equal to 50.5 IË„N
 0.004s for residual current to 500A
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3.8.7. Voltage Drop
Voltage drop difference in voltage from one point in a current path to any other point in
the same current path. Voltage drop is the result that happens to a voltage value when it
meets with resistance in any current path while current is flowing, it only happens when
flowing current meets resistance in a current path, the higher the value of current
flowing, the higher the voltage drop across any conductor, connection, or contact in the
current path.
Based on Ohm‘s law; it takes one volt to push one amp through one ohm of resistance.
The location of a voltage drop in a parallel circuit determines the affect it will have on
the loads that are in parallel. When a voltage drop occurs before, or ahead of the last
parallel splice in a parallel circuit, it will provide less than source voltage to all loads in
parallel beyond the last parallel splice.
When a voltage drop occurs after the last parallel splice in a parallel circuit, the same
value of voltage drop has an identical effect on the load in the affected branch whether it
appears on the voltage feed side, or on the ground side of the branch load. When
current flows through the cable, the voltage drop will result. This is based on a formula:
 V = I x R; I = current flows through the cable

 R = Resistance of the cable
Based on requirement of IEE wiring regulation 525-01-01, ―The voltage drop between
the origin of the installation (usually the supply terminals) and terminals of the fixed
current – using equipment does not exceed 4% of the nominal voltage of the supply.‖
The voltage drop for building must make sure it not more than 4% depend to nominal
voltage, where:
January-2021
4% of 1Î¦ = 4% of 240 V= 9.6 Volt 4% of 3 Î = 4% of 415 V = 16.6 Volt
The voltage drop for outside building must not exceed 20V from nominal voltage.
3.8.7.1. The Voltage Drop is Closely Related with Size of Cable

Most circuits in a house do not have enough current or length to produce a high voltage
drop. In the case of very long circuits, for example, connecting a home to a separate
building on the same property, it may be necessary to increase the size of conductors
over the minimum requirement for the circuit current rating.
Heavily-loaded circuits may also require a cable size increase to meet voltage drop
requirements in wiring regulations.
Voltage drop and size cable can related with equation:
 VD – Total of voltage drop

 Vd – Voltage drop on cable mV/A/m
 In – Rated current of breaker (A)
 L – Length of Cable (meter)
3.8.7.2. Cable
In electrical engineering cables are used to carry electric currents. Cables are the mean
by which electrical energy is distributed from its source to its point of use. Copper wires
in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a thin layer of another metal, most
often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are
much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and makes
soldering easier.
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3.8.7.3. Insulation
The insulation surrounds each conductor to prevent direct contact between individual
conductors and earth.
Type of insulation will depends on
 The voltage,
 The operating temperature of the conductor and
 The mechanical and environmental condition affecting the cable during
both installation and operation.
3.8.7.4. Type of insulation material:

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Rubber
 Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
 Powdered mineral
 Oil impregnated paper tapes
3.8.7.5. Type of conductor

 PVC, PVC/PVC
 XLPE, XLPE/PVC (>25 mm2)
 PVC/SWA/PVC
 XLPE/SWA/PVC (>25 mm2)
 Fire Rated Cable
 MIMS (Mineral Insulated Mineral Sheathed Copper Conductor)
 MICC (Mineral Insulated Copper Clad Copper Conductor)
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3.8.7.6. Installation method
 GI Conduit – PVC
 Galvanized/H.D.G. Trunking – PVC
 Hot Dipped galvanized Perforated Cable Tray – PVC/PVC, XLPE/PVC,
PVC/SWA/PVC, XLPE/SWA/PVC
 Hot Dipped galvanized Cable Ladder – PVC/PVC, XLPE/PVC,
PVC/SWA/PVC, XLPE/SWA/PVC.
3.8.7.7. Cable type and selection

The current carrying capacity of a cable must be sufficient to cater for the maximum
sustained current which will normally flow through it. The insulation must be adequate to
deal with the voltage of the system and must not be damaged by the heat produced by
the current flow, high ambient temperature or by heat transferred. Cable selection
therefore is primarily related to the size of the cable which will carry the required current
without the temperature of the surrounding insulation rising above a critical level which
will result in the breakdown of the insulation.
3.8.7.8. Current rating of cable

The current rating of cable is determined by a number of factors:
 Ambient temperature
 Maximum allowable conductor temperature
 Conductor material insulation material
 Installation method
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3.8.7.9. Determine the Size of cable
The proper sizing of an electrical (load bearing) cable is important to ensure that
the cable can:
 Operate continuously under full load without being damaged
 Withstand the worst short circuits currents flowing through the cable
 Provide the load with a suitable voltage (and avoid excessive voltage drops)
 (optional) Ensure operation of protective devices during an earth fault
3.8.7.10. Selected the size cable can base on:
In = Ib
Iz â‰¥ In
Iz â‰¥ In â‰¥ Ib
* In – rated current
Iz – rated current of cable
Ib – design current
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Self-Check -3 Written Test
Self-Check -3 # Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page:
Part I Answer the question briefly!
1. List down what factors determine current rating of cable number (5%)
____________________________________,_________________________________
___________________________________,_________________________________
____________________________________,_________________________________
2. What doings must be expected from wireman before wiring installation process is
carried out! (5%)
____________________________,_____________________,____________________
Part II Say True or False!
3. The electrical current and the voltage in a resistive load are said to be ―in phase‖ with
each other
4. The current leads the voltage of a capacitor.
5. All conductors have some resistance under normal conditions and also exhibit
inductive and capacitive influences
Note: Satisfactory rating - 8 and 15 points Unsatisfactory - below 8and 15points
Answer Sheet
Name: _________________________ Date: ______________
Score = ___________
Rating: ____________
January-2021
L G#50 LO #2- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits,
control and protection
Instruction sheet
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 Arranging Circuits, control and protective devices to ensure safe and functional
operation of the building electrical installation.
 Series circuit, parallel circuit and series and parallel Ckt
 Switch(on/off) and push button
 . Circuit breaker
 Fuse
 Relay
 Arrange and terminate Earthling.
 .Selecting Protective devices
 For switching and tripping currents
 For short-circuit protection.
 Select Residual current devices.
 Select Switch gear/control gear.
 Arrange Switch boards to accommodate control and protective devices
 Ground(earthling)
 Insulators
 Connectors
 Junction cover
 Identifying and determining nature and extent of electrical installation.
 Determining load requirements for current using equipment‘s.
 Selecting protective devices and residual current devices
 For switching and tripping currents.
 For coordination and discrimination for overload and short circuit protection.
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 Arranging various types of circuit breakers
 Circuits, control and protective devices are arranged to ensure safe and functional
operation of the installation and to comply with technical standards and job
specifications and requirements.
 Earthling is arranged and terminated to comply with the MEN(multiple earth neutral)
system requirements.
 Protective devices are selected to meet the required switching and tripping currents,
co-ordination and discrimination for overload and short-circuit protection.
 Residual current devices are selected to meet the required circuit, switching and
tripping currents required.
 Switchgear/control gear is selected to meet current, voltage and IP ratings and
functional requirements.
 Switchboards are arranged to accommodate control and protective devices, links,
safety services, and other distributor equipment in accordance with requirements.
 Evidence is obtained from manufacturers/suppliers that electrical equipment selected
complies with safety requirements.
 Reasons for selections made, including calculations, are documented in accordance
with established procedures.
 Electrical installation arrangement and specifications for all selected items are
documented in accordance with established procedures and forwarded to appropriate
person(s).
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3. Read the information written in the ―Information Sheets‖. Try to understand what are
being discussed. Ask your trainer for assistance if you have hard time understanding
them.
5. Ask from your trainer the key to correction (key answers) or you can request your
trainer to correct your work. (You are to get the key answer only after you finished
answering the Self-checks).
7. Perform ―the Learning activity performance test‖ which is placed following ―Operation
sheets‖ ,
9. If your performance is unsatisfactory, see your trainer for further instructions or go back
to ―Operation sheets‖.
January-2021
Arranging Circuits, control and protective
devices to ensure safe and functional operation
of the building electrical installation
Information Sheet -1 # Arranging Circuits, control and protective

devices to ensure safe and functional operation of the building
electrical installation
1.1. An Electrical Circuit
Simple electrical circuit is electrical energy (here very roughly defined as a flow of
electrons) moves through a circuit to perform work such as lighting a light or
heating a room. Some people explain volts as similar to water pressure in a pipe,
and amps as water current or total quantity flow. A closed path of electron
movement is required to put electrical energy into use. This path is called a
circuit.
1.2. Every electric circuit has four basic parts:
 Electrical Energy Source - a source of electrical energy, AC (alternating

current, used in most homes) or DC (direct current)
 Electrical conductors - electrical wires to carry electrical energy from its
source to the point of use
 Electrical Load - an electrical device that uses energy such as a light bulb,
computer, or electric heater
 Electrical Switches - controls to turn on or off electrical energy being supplied
to an electrical load or device.
The real source of electrical power at most buildings in our area is an electric
utility from EEPC (Ethiopian electric power corporation) which operates an
electrical generator (a power station). The electric utility brings power from its
power generators into a neighborhood where power is to be used by means of
electrical transmission lines or power lines (big heavy wires).
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For efficiency, electrical power is usually delivered into a neighborhood at very
high voltage levels. In the neighborhood high voltage is converted by local power
transformers (those big boxes or "cans" you see on some electric utility poles) to
the lower voltage levels (240V or 120V) used in most buildings.
1.3. Circuit control devices

Definition: Circuit control devices are used everywhere that electrical or
electronic circuits are used. They are found in submarines, computers, aircraft,
televisions, ships, space vehicles, medical instruments, and many other places. In
this chapter you will learn what circuit control devices are, how they are used, and
some of their characteristics.
1.4. Need for Circuit control

Circuit control, in its simplest form, is the application and removal of power. This
can also be expressed as turning a circuit on and off or opening and closing a
circuit. Before you learn about the types of circuit control devices, you should
know why circuit control is needed. If a circuit develops problems that could
damage the equipment or endanger personnel, it should be possible to remove
the power from that circuit.
Even with this protection, a manual means of control is needed to allow you to
remove power from the circuit before the protection device acts. When you work
on a circuit, you often need to remove power from it to connect test equipment or
to remove and replace components. When you remove power from a circuit so
that you can work on it, be sure to "tag out" the switch to ensure that power is not
applied to the circuit while you are working. When work has been completed,
power must be restored to the circuit. This will allow you to check the proper
operation of the circuit and place it back in service. After the circuit has been
checked for proper operation, remove the tag from the power switch.
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1.2. Circuit protection devices
Electricity, like fire, can be either helpful or harmful to those who use it. A fire can
keep people warm and comfortable when it is confined in a campfire or a
furnace. It can be dangerous and destructive if it is on the loose and uncontrolled
in the woods or in a building.
Electricity can provide people with the light to read by or, in a blinding flash,
destroy their eyesight. It can help save people‘s lives, or it can kill them. While
we take advantage of the tremendous benefits electricity can provide, we must
be careful to protect the people and systems that use it. It is necessary then, that
the mighty force of electricity be kept under control at all times. If for some
reason it should get out of control, there must be a method of protecting people
and equipment.
Devices have been developed to protect people and electrical circuits from
currents and voltages outside their normal operating ranges. Some examples of
these devices are discussed in this section. While you study this section, it
should be kept in mind that a circuit protection device is used to keep an
undesirably large current, voltage, or power surge out of a given part of an
electrical circuit.
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Self-check -4# Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. Electric circuit has four basic parts. List them (4pts)
2. What is circuit control?(4pts)
Test II: Say True or False

3. Even with this protection, a manual means of control is needed to allow you to
remove power from the circuit before the protection device acts.
4. Protective devices have been developed to protect people and electrical circuits
from currents and voltages outside their normal operating ranges.
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test I
1.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -2 Series circuit, parallel circuit and series and
parallel Ckt
Information Sheet -2# Series circuit, parallel circuit and series and
parallel Ckt
2.1. Series circuit, parallel circuit and series and parallel Ckt
Definition of Series Circuit
In the series circuit, the components in the circuit are connected one after the other or
we can say in a cascaded fashion. More specifically we can say that a series circuit
allows the connection in a manner that tail of one component is directly connected to
the head of the other and so on corresponding to the two ends of the battery.
The figure below shows the series connection of 4 resistors in a circuit:
2.1.1. Series Circuits

Current: The amount of current is the same through any component in a series circuit.
Resistance: The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances.
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Voltage: The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
voltage drops. The first principle to understand about series circuits is as follows:
The amount of current in a series circuit is the same through any component in the
circuit. We‘ll start with a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery
The total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances.
In the example problem, we had a 3 kΩ, 10 kΩ, and 5 kΩ resistors in series, giving us a
total resistance of 18 kΩ:
The supply voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.
2.1.2. Parallel circuit

Definition of Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, the components are arranged in a way that the heads of each
component are connected together with a common point. The tails are connected
together with another common point, there by forming multiple parallel branches in the
circuit. The figure here shows the parallel connection of 4 resistors in a circuit:
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2.1.2.1. The three principles you should understand regarding parallel circuits:
Voltage: Voltage is equal across all components in a parallel circuit.
Current: The total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
Resistance: Individual resistances diminish to equal a smaller total resistance rather

than add to make the total.
We‘ll start with a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery:
2.1.2.2. Calculating Component Voltages Using Ohm’s Law

Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit (and we just
determined the current through the battery), we can go back to our original circuit
schematic and note the current through each component:
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 Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can use
Ohm‘s Law to determine the voltage drop across each one (applying Ohm‘s Law
in its proper context):
 Components in a series circuit share the same current: I Total = I1 = I2 = . . . In

 The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances: RTotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn
 Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops
ETotal = E1 + E2 + . . . En
 Series Circuits
 Nodes and Current Flow
 Before we get too deep into this, we need to mention what a node is. It's
nothing fancy, just representation of an electrical junction between two or
January-2021
more components. When a circuit is modeled on a schematic, these nodes
represent the wires between components.
Example: Schematic with four uniquely colored nodes.

That's half the battle towards understanding the difference between series and parallel.
We also need to understand how current flows through a circuit.
Current flows from a high voltage to a lower voltage in a circuit. Some amount of current
will flow through every path it can take to get to the point of lowest voltage (usually
called ground). Using the above circuit as an example, here's how current would flow as
it runs from the battery's positive terminal to the negative:
Current (indicated by the blue, orange, and pink lines) flowing through the same
example circuit as above. Different currents are indicated by different colors.
Notice that in some nodes (like between R1 and R2) the current is the same going in as
at is coming out. At other nodes (specifically the three-way junction between R2, R3, and
R4) the main (blue) current splits into two different ones. That's the key difference
between series and parallel!
January-2021
Series Circuits Defined
Two components are in series if they share a common node and if the same
current flows through them. Here's an example circuit with three series resistors:
There's only one way for the current to flow in the above circuit. Starting from the
positive terminal of the battery, current flow will first encounter R 1. From there the
current will flow straight to R2, then to R3, and finally back to the negative terminal of the
battery. Note that there is only one path for current to follow. These components are in
series.
 Parallel Circuits
 Parallel Circuits Defined
 If components share two common nodes, they are in parallel. Here's an example
schematic of three resistors in parallel with a battery:
From the positive battery terminal, current flows to R1... and R2, and R3. The node that
connects the battery to R1 is also connected to the other resistors. The other ends of
these resistors are similarly tied together, and then tied back to the negative terminal of
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the battery. There are three distinct paths that current can take before returning to the
battery, and the associated resistors are said to be in parallel.
 Where series components all have equal currents running through them, parallel
components all have the same voltage drop across them -- series:
current::parallel: voltage.
2.1.3. Series and Parallel Circuits Working Together

From there we can mix and match. In the next picture, we again see three resistors and
a battery. From the positive battery terminal, current first encounters R 1. But, at the
other side of R1 the node splits, and current can go to both R2 and R3. The current paths
through R2 and R3 are then tied together again, and current goes back to the negative
terminal of the battery.
 In this example, R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and R1 is in series with
the parallel combination of R2 and R3.
 Calculating Equivalent Resistances in Series Circuits
 Here‘s some information that may be of some more practical use to you. When
we put resistors together like this, in series and parallel, we change the way
current flows through them. For example, if we have a 10V supply across a 10kΩ
resistor, Ohm‘s law says we've got 1mA of current flowing.
January-2021
If we then put another 10kΩ resistor in series with the first and leave the supply
unchanged, we've cut the current in half because the resistance is doubled.
In other words, there's still only one path for current to take and we just made it even
harder for current to flow. How much harder? 10kΩ + 10kΩ = 20kΩ. And, that‘s how we
calculate resistors in series -- just add their values.
To put this equation more generally: the total resistance of N -- some arbitrary number
of -- resistors is their total sum.
2.1.3.1. Calculating Equivalent Resistances in Parallel Circuits

What about parallel resistors? That‘s a bit more complicated, but not by much. Consider
the last example where we started with a 10V supply and a 10kΩ resistor, but this time
January-2021
we add another 10kΩ in parallel instead of series. Now there are two paths for current to
take. Since the supply voltage didn‘t change, Ohm‘s Law says the first resistor is still
going to draw 1mA. But, so is the second resistor, and we now have a total of 2mA
coming from the supply, doubling the original 1mA. This implies that we‘ve cut the total
resistance in half.
While we can say that 10kΩ || 10kΩ = 5kΩ (―||‖ roughly translates to ―in parallel with‖),
we‘re not always going to have 2 identical resistors. What then?
The equation for adding an arbitrary number of resistors in parallel is:
If reciprocals aren't your thing, we can also use a method called ―product over sum‖
when we have two resistors in parallel:
However, this method is only good for two resistors in one calculation. We can combine
more than 2 resistors with this method by taking the result of R1 || R2 and calculating
that value in parallel with a third resistor (again as product over sum), but the reciprocal
method may be less work.
Notice the voltage drops across each resistor, and how the sum of the voltage drops
(1.5 + 5 + 2.5) is equal to the battery (supply) voltage: 9 volts.
This is the third principle of series circuits:
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The first principle to understand about parallel circuits is that the voltage is equal across
all components in the circuit. This is because there are only two sets of electrically
common points in a parallel circuit, and the voltage measured between sets of common
points must always be the same at any given time.
Ohm’s Law Applications for Simple Parallel Circuits

Just as in the case of series circuits, the same caveat for Ohm‘s Law applies: values for
voltage, current, and resistance must be in the same context in order for the
calculations to work correctly.
However, in the above example circuit, we can immediately apply Ohm‘s Law to each
resistor to find its current because we know the voltage across each resistor (9 volts)
and the resistance of each resistor:
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At this point, we still don‘t know what the total current or total resistance for this parallel
circuit is, so we can‘t apply Ohm‘s Law to the rightmost (―Total‖) column. However, if we
think carefully about what is happening, it should become apparent that the total current
must equal the sum of all individual resistor (―branch‖) currents:
As the total current exits the positive (+) battery terminal at point 1 and travels through
the circuit, some of the flow splits off at point 2 to go through R 1, some more splits off at
point 3 to go through R2, and the remainder goes through R 3. Like a river branching into
several smaller streams, the combined flow rates of all streams must equal the flow rate
of the whole river. The same thing is encountered where the currents through R 1, R2,
and R3 join to flow back to the negative terminal of the battery (-) toward point 8: the
flow of current from point 7 to point 8 must equal the sum of the (branch) currents
through R1, R2, and R3.
This is the second principle of parallel circuits: the total circuit current is equal to the
sum of the individual branch currents.
2.1.4. Difference between Series and Parallel Circuit

The crucial difference between series and parallel circuit exist on the basis of orientation
of the components in the circuit. In a series circuit, the multiple components are
connected in a cascaded manner i.e., the tail of a component is connected to the head
of the other.
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Table 3: Basic for Comparison b/n Series Circuit and Parallel Circuit
Basis for Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Comparison
Component The components are connected Here the components are

Orientation in one after the other manner. connected in head to head and tail
to tail manner.
Current Same current flows through all Different current flows through
the components in the circuit. each component in the circuit.
Voltage Different potential difference The potential difference (voltage)

(voltage) exists across each existing across the various
component. component in the circuit is same.
Number of paths Single Multiple (depends on number of

components).
Fault Fault in one of the circuit Fault in a single component does

components causes hindrance in not hinder the operation of rest of
operation of complete circuit. the circuit.
Troubleshooting Difficult. Quite easy.
Equivalent The equivalent resistance is The equivalent resistance always

resistance always more than highest value has a less value than any of the
of resistance in the series single resistors connected parallel.
connection.
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
Test I : Choose the best answer
1. If one resistors in a parallel circuit is removed, the total resistance

A. decrease B. increase C. Remain the same D. doubles
2. A sudden increase in the total current into a parallel circuit may indicate
A. a drop in source voltage B. an open resistor C. an increase in source voltage
D. ether a drop in source voltage or an open resistor
3. In a certain three- branch parallel circuit, R1 has 12mA through it, R2 has 12mA
through it. After measuring a total of 27mA, you can say that
A. R3 is open B. R1 is open C. R2 is open D. the circuit is operating properly
4. Six resistors are in parallel. The two lowest- value resistors are both1.2kΩ.
The total resistance: A.is less than6 kΩ. B. is greater than 1.2 kΩ. Is less
than 600 kΩ.
5. Three lights are connected in parallel across a 220 volt source. If one light
Burns out A. the remaining two will glow dimmer
B. the remaining two will glow brighter C. the reaming two will not light.
D. the remaining two will glow with the same brightness as before
Note: Satisfactory rating - 15 points Unsatisfactory - below 15-points
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -3 Switch(on/off) and push button
Information Sheet -3# Switch (on/off) and push button

3.1. Switches
Switches are identified by the number of conductors (poles) they connect to, and the
number of positions (throws) they can switch to. Switches are also rated
for voltage and power and must be operated within their limits
3.1.1. Switches Types

Most users‘ associate switches with turning lights on and off, but these simple
devices are at work in nearly every electronics application. Electromechanical
switches, for instance, break or form connections in electrical circuits. Let's look at
the most common types of switches and how to apply them in your next circuit
design.
3.1.2. Types of Electrical switches
The four most common types of switches in circuit design are:
· Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
· Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
· Double Pole Single Throw (DPST)
3.1.1.1. Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)
Manual switches are more common in day-to-day life, but you can apply the same
concepts to relays. Relays are electrically auctioned electromechanical switches.
Every type of switch has two main components that control the circuit: a switch
pole and a switch throw.
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Switch pole: A switch pole describes the number of separate circuits that the
switch or relay controls. As we will see later, a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
switch controls a single circuit.
Switch throw: A switch throw describes the number of output connections each
pole of the switch can have. For example, a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
switch has a single pole and two different switch output options.
3.1.1.2. Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) Switch

The simplest form of a switch is an SPST switch. An SPST switch embraces a
basic "ON/OFF" control of a single circuit and consists of two terminals that serve
as electrical connection points. Power the switch "ON" to establish a connection
between the two terminals. Turn the switch to "OFF" to eliminate the terminals'
connection.
The light switch in the room you're in right now probably uses an SPST switch.
When in the "OFF" position, the circuit breaks and the light turns off. When the
switch is set to "ON," the two connected terminals complete the circuit and the
light turns on.
Figure 1: Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
3.1.1.3. Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) Switch

An SPDT switch consists of three terminals and connects the source terminal and
one of two output terminals. An SPDT switch allows for an "ON/ON" configuration,
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which means the switch's input terminal is always completing one of the two
possible circuits that the switch controls.
If the switch is in the "ON-1" position, the connection between the input terminal is
established with the first output terminal, thus completing the first circuit.
If the switch is set to "ON-2," the second output terminal establishes the
connection with the input terminal, thus completing the second circuit.
Since both circuit options rely on the input terminal, this switch is a single pole
switch because only one completed circuit can exist at any given time.
Confusingly, a third configuration exists for some SPDT switches. This third switch
can be set to an "OFF" status in which neither circuit one or two is complete. This
SPDT switch configuration is noted as "ON/OFF/ON."
Figure 2: Single-pole, double-throw (A DPST) Switch
3.1.1.4. A Double-pole, single-throw (DPST)

Switch has four different terminals and is often used to connect two source
terminals to their respective output terminals (but never to each other). A DPST
switch can be used in an "ON/OFF" configuration, where its terminal pairs are
either connected ("ON") or not connected ("OFF"). Imagine the switch has four
terminals, numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4: Terminals 1 and 3 are the first pair of
terminals, and they are completely electrically isolated from terminals 2 and
4.Terminals 2 and 4 are the second pair.
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If the switch is in the "ON" position, it creates a connection between terminal 1 and
3, completing circuit 1. Terminal 2 and 4 simultaneously connect to complete the
isolated circuit 2.
Functionally, a DPST switch is the same as two SPST switches actuated in

tandem. The main advantage of a DPST switch is that both circuits are completely
isolated from each other. This setup can be advantageous in applications with
different voltages. One practical example of a DPST switch is when a status light
circuit indicates the connection of a higher- volume.
Figure 3: Double Pole Single Throw (DPST)
3.1.1.5. A Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) Switch

A Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch consists of six terminals, two of which
are independent input terminals. Each of the poles can complete two different
circuits. In other words, each input terminal connects with two output terminals,
and all four output terminals are separate. DPDT switches are the most advanced
type of switch we'll cover here, so be sure to consult a datasheet when you order a
DPDT switch.
Figure 4: Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)
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3.1.1.6. Triple-pole, single-throw (3PST)
These are used to interrupt current to three-phase circuits and motors. With a single
external handle, three current-carrying conductors can be opened or closed at once.
The switches often come with housing for the mounting of fuses to provide overcurrent
protection. The switch must be horsepower rated if it is used to interrupt current to a
motor.
Figure 5: Triple-pole, single-throw (3PST)
3.2. Isolating switch

An isolating switch is connected upstream of a power circuit and is NOT horsepower
rated and so it is not meant to interrupt current flow. Isolating switches are not meant to
control motor loads. Rather once a motor has been properly shut off, an isolating switch
can be used for lockout purposes. An isolating switch can have any number of pole
contacts, but to be used for lockout purposes it must provide only a single throw option.
3.3. Pushbuttons
Pushbuttons are momentary contacts that come available as either normally open
(NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts, although many pushbuttons come with both
NO and NC sets of contacts.
When you depress the button, you change the state of the contacts, and when you
release the button, a spring returns the contacts to their original state.
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These are ideal for use in low-voltage control circuits.
Figure 6: normally opens (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts,
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Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. List the four most common types of switches in circuit design (4pts)
2. Explain A Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch consists of six terminals?
(4pts)
Test II: Say True or False

3. Even with this protection, a manual means of control is needed to allow you to
remove power from the circuit before the protection device acts.
4. Protective devices have been developed to protect people and electrical circuits
from currents and voltages outside their normal operating ranges.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Rating: ____________
Test I
1.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -4 Circuit breaker
Information Sheet -4# Circuit breaker

4.1. Introduction to Circuit Breaker
The modern power system deals with huge power network and huge numbers of
associated electrical equipment. During a short circuit fault or any other type of electrical
fault (such as electric cable faults), a high fault current will flow through this equipment as
well as the power network itself. This high current may damage the equipment and
networks permanently. A circuit breaker is a device that can stop the flow of electricity
around a circuit by switching itself off if anything goes wrong.
The circuit breaker works as a protection whenever electrical wiring in a building has too
much current flowing through it. A residual current circuit breaker cannot remove all risk
of electric shock or fire. A circuit breaker is a device that can stop the flow of electricity
around a circuit by switching itself off if anything goes wrong.
4.2. Operation
Magnetic circuit breakers are implemented using a solenoid (electromagnet) that‘s
pulling force increases with the current. The circuit breaker's contacts are held closed by
a latch and, as the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit
breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to open by
spring action.
4.2.1. Thermal breakers:
Use a bimetallic strip, which heats and bends with increased current, and is similarly
arranged to release the latch. This type is commonly used with motor control circuits.
Thermal breakers often have a compensation element to reduce the effect of ambient
temperature on the device rating.
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4.2.2 Thermomagnetic circuit breakers:
Which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with
the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits)
and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term overcurrent
conditions.
Figure 7: Circuit breaker and Schematic symbol for circuit breaker.
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which
operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
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Operation Magnetic circuit breakers are implemented using a solenoid (electromagnet)
whose pulling force increases with the current. The circuit breaker's contacts are held
closed by a latch and, as the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the
circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to
open by spring action. A thermal breaker uses a bimetallic strip, which heats and bends
with increased current, and is similarly arranged to release the latch. This type is
commonly used with motor control circuits. Thermal breakers often have a
compensation element to reduce the effect of ambient temperature on the device rating.
Thermomagnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards,
incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large
surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but
longer-term overcurrent conditions.
4.3. Types of circuit breaker
There are many different technologies used in circuit breakers and they do not always
fall into distinct categories. Types that are common in domestic, commercial and light
industrial applications at low voltage (less than 1000 V) include:
 Voltage earth leakage circuit breaker (Voltage-ELCB)

 Current Earth leakage Circuit breaker-(Current-ELCB)
 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not more than 100 A.
Circuit Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic

operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category:
 MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 1000 A.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be
adjustable.
 ACB (Air circuit breaker) – rated current up to 4000 A .Thermal and
magnetic operation . Trip current adjustable.
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4.4. Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
Figure 8: Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB), RCD
4.4.1. There are two types of ELCBs:

1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
Figure 9: Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
Voltage-ELCBs were first introduced about sixty years ago and Current-ELCB was first
introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the voltage operated ELCB and the
differential current operated ELCB were both referred to as ELCBs because it was a
simpler name to remember. But the use of a common name for two different devices
gave rise to considerable confusion in the electrical industry.
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If the wrong type was used on an installation, the level of protection given could be
substantially less than that intended.
To ignore this confusion, IEC decided to apply the term Residual Current Device
(RCD) to differential current operated ELCBs. Residual current refers to any current
over and above the load current.
4.5.1.1. Voltage Base ELCB

 Voltage-ELCB is a voltage operated circuit breaker. The device will function
when the Current passes through the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB contains relay
Coil which it being connected to the metallic load body at one end and it is
connected to ground wire at the other end.
.
 If the voltage of the Equipment body is rise (by touching phase to metal part
or failure of insulation of equipment) which could cause the difference
between earth and load body voltage, the danger of electric shock will occur.
This voltage difference will produce an electric current from the load metallic
body passes the relay loop and to earth. When voltage on the equipment
metallic body rose to the danger level which exceed to 50Volt, the flowing
current through relay loop could move the relay contact by disconnecting the
supply current to avoid from any danger electric shock.
 The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire within
the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB‘s
sense coil, it will switch off the power, and remain off until manually reset. A
voltage-sensing ELCB does not sense fault currents from live to any other
earthed body.
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Figure 10: Voltage Base ELCB
 These ELCBs monitored the voltage on the earth wire, and disconnected the
supply if the earth wire voltage was over 50 volts.
 These devices are no longer used due to its drawbacks like if the fault is
between live and a circuit earth, they will disconnect the supply. However, if
the fault is between live and some other earth (such as a person or a metal
water pipe), they will NOT disconnect, as the voltage on the circuit earth will
not change. Even if the fault is between live and a circuit earth, parallel earth
paths created via gas or water pipes can result in the ELCB being bypassed.
Most of the fault current will flow via the gas or water pipes, since a single
earth stake will inevitably have a much higher impedance than hundreds of
meters of metal service pipes buried in the ground.
 The way to identify an ELCB is by looking for green or green and yellow earth
wires entering the device. They rely on voltage returning to the trip via the
earth wire during a fault and afford only limited protection to the installation and
no personal protection at all. You should use plug in 30mA RCD‘s for any
appliances and extension leads that may be used outside as a minimum.
Advantages
 ELCBs have one advantage over RCDs: they are less sensitive to fault
conditions, and therefore have fewer nuisance trips.
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 While voltage and current on the earth line is usually fault current from a live
wire, this is not always the case, thus there are situations in which an ELCB
can nuisance trip.
 When an installation has two connections to earth, a nearby high current
lightning strike will cause a voltage gradient in the soil, presenting the ELCB
sense coil with enough voltage to cause it to trip.
 If the installation‘s earth rod is placed close to the earth rod of a neighboring
building, a high earth leakage current in the other building can raise the local
ground potential and cause a voltage difference across the two earths, again
tripping the ELCB.
 If there is an accumulated or burden of currents caused by items with
lowered insulation resistance due to older equipment, or with heating
elements, or rain conditions can cause the insulation resistance to lower due
to moisture tracking. If there is a some mA which is equal to ELCB rating
than ELCB may give nuisance Tripping.
 If either of the earth wires become disconnected from the ELCB, it will no
longer trip or the installation will often no longer be properly earthed.
 Some ELCBs do not respond to rectified fault current. This issue is common
for ELCBs and RCDs, but ELCBs are on average much older than RCB so
an old ELCB is more likely to have some uncommon fault current waveform
that it will not respond to.
 Voltage-operated ELCB are the requirement for a second connection, and
the possibility that any additional connection to earth on the protected
system can disable the detector.
 Nuisance tripping especially during thunderstorms.
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Disadvantages
 They do not detect faults that don‘t pass current through the CPC to the earth
rod.
 They do not allow a single building system to be easily split into multiple
sections with independent fault protection, because earthing systems are
usually use common earth Rod.
 They may be tripped by external voltages from something connected to the
earthing system such as metal pipes, a TN-S earth or a TN-C-S combined
neutral and earth.
 As electrically leaky appliances such as some water heaters, washing machines
and cookers may cause the ELCB to trip.
 ELCBs introduce additional resistance and an additional point of failure into the
earthing system.
 Checking the health of the ELCB is simple and you can do it easily by pressing
TEST Push Button Switch of ELCB. The test push-button will test whether the
ELCB unit is working properly or not. Can we assume that If ELCB is Trip after
Pressing TEST Switch of ELCB than your system is protected against earth
protection? Then you are wrong.
 The test facility provided on the home ELCB will only confirm the health of the
ELCB unit, but that test does not confirm that the ELCB will trip when an electric
shock hazard does occur. It is a really sad fact that all the while this
misunderstanding has left many homes totally unprotected from the risk of
electric shocks.
 This brings us or alarming us to think over second basic requirement for earth
protection. The second requirement for the proper operation of a home shock
protection system is electrical grounding .
 We can assume that the ELCB is the brain for the shock protection, and the
grounding as the backbone. Therefore, without a functional grounding (Proper
Earthing of Electrical System) there is totally no protection against electrical
January-2021
shocks in your house even if You have installed ELCB and its TEST switch
show proper result. Looking after the ELCB alone is not enough. The electrical
Earthing system must also be in good working order for the shock protection
system to work. In addition to routine inspections that should be done by the
qualified electrician, this grounding should preferably be inspected regularly at
shorter intervals by the homeowner and need to pour Water in Earthing Pit at
Regular interval of Time to minimize Earth Resistance.
4.5.1.2. Current-operated ELCB (RCB)

 Current-operated ELCBs are generally known as Residual-current devices
(RCD). These also protect against earth leakage. Both circuit conductors
(supply and return) are run through a sensing coil; any imbalance of the
currents means the magnetic field does not perfectly cancel. The device detects
the imbalance and trips the contact.
 When the term ELCB is used it usually means a voltage-operated device.
Similar devices that are current operated are called residual-current devices.
However, some companies use the term ELCB to distinguish high sensitivity
current operated 3 phase devices that trip in the milliamp range from
traditional 3 phase ground fault devices that operate at much higher
currents.
Figure 11: Current-operated ELCB (RCB)
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4.6. The MCB Circuit Breaker:
Construction: Figure below shows a single-phase, single- pole MCB
Figure 12: MCB Circuit Breaker:
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also
indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are
designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the on position.
This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current to flow when touching and break the flow of current
when moved apart
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current
of the device after assembly.
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7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider / extinguisher
4.6.1. Breaking Capacity

The maximum value of the estimated short circuit current that can enable the device to
break the circuit at a given voltage is called the breaking capacity.
4.6.2. Closing Capacity

The maximum short circuit current that can enable the device to reach its rated voltage
at specific condition is called the closing capacity. It is the rational multiple of breaking
capacity.
4.6.3. Rated current
International Standard IEC 60898-1 defines the rated current In of a circuit breaker for
household applications as the current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously
(at an ambient air temperature of 30 °C).
The commonly-available preferred values for the rated current are 6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16

A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A and 100 A .The circuit breaker is labeled
with the rated current in ampere, but without the unit symbol "A". Instead, the ampere
figure is preceded by a letter "B", "C" , "D" "K" or "Z" that indicates the instantaneous
tripping current, that is the minimum value of current that causes the circuit-breaker to
trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in less than 100 ms):
4.6.4. Common trip breakers
MCB is also used for 3-phase applications; the figure shows a three- pole
common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 5 A
rating.
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Figure 13: Common trip breakers
4.7. Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB)
These circuit breakers are mainly used for 3-phase circuits and for currents larger than
100A and up to 1600A. Types of this C.Bs are shown below: These breakers are used
mainly in industrial applications to protect cables and equipment
Figure 14: Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB)
4.8. Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)
This type of circuit breaker is used for heavy current applications up to 6000A.Its
construction is shown below:
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Figure 15: Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)
4.9. Other types of circuit breakers

4.9.1. Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an overcurrent
device:
 RCD—Residual Current Device (formerly known as a Residual Current

Circuit Breaker (RCCB)) - detects current imbalance. Does NOT provide
overcurrent protection.
 RCBO—Residual Current Breaker with Overcurrent protection - combines
the functions of an RCD and an MCB in one package.
 ELCB—Earth leakage circuit breaker. This detects earth current directly
rather than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new
installations for various reasons.
4.9.2. High Voltage Circuit breakers
4.9.3. The most important types of H.V circuit breakers are the following:
1- Oil circuit breakers (OCBs).

2- SF6 circuit breakers.
3- Vacuum circuit break.
4- Air-blast circuit breaker
The triggering action that causes a circuit breaker to open is usually produced by means
of an overload relay that can detect abnormal line conditions. For example, the relay
January-2021
coils in Fig: above is connected to the secondary of a current transformer. The primary
carries the line current of the phase that has to be protected. If the line current exceeds
a preset limit, the secondary current will cause relay contacts C1, C2 to close. As soon
as they close, the tripping coil is energized by an auxiliary dc source. This causes the
three main line contacts to open, thus interrupting the circuit.
Figure 16: the secondary of a current transformer.
4.10. Steps in Replacing a Circuit Breaker
Fatal Shock Hazard Warning: Inspecting electrical components and systems risks
death by electrocution as well as serious burns or other injuries you or to others. Do not
January-2021
remove the cover from an electrical panel to expose live wires and connections unless
you are properly trained and equipped.
Step 1: Turn off all electrical power to the panel
Anyone with any sense will be sure that electrical power in the electric panel is OFF
before removing the cover for inspection or for circuit breaker installation or
replacement.
If there is a separate, external power switch for the main panel turn that to OFF.
At the electrical pane itself, if there is a main switch, or more than one main switch, turn
the main circuit breaker(s) OFF - there may be more than one breaker labeled MAINS.
Or if the panel is a fuse/breaker combination panel, pull out the main fuse blocks.
Watch out: you may be turning on or off building equipment that you don't want to
interrupt such as life-safety equipment, breathing apparatus (in some homes), as well
as air conditioners and refrigerators.
Watch out: if the circuit breaker is loose and wobbling in its mount in the electrical
panel it is unsafe. It may simply need to be re-mounted or pushed into position inside
the panel, or a mounting screw may be loose, or the panel may be damaged.
Step 2: Remove the electrical panel cover
Watch out: if electrical power is not really off, simply removing the panel cover itself
can be dangerous, even fatal. Installation of a new or replacement circuit breaker
requires removing the electrical panel cover - not something you should attempt if you
are not trained in safe electrical repairs as touching a live connection in the panel can
shock or kill you.
There can also be subtle hazards such as an electrical panel screw that has pierced a
live wire or a spring-loaded electrical panel cover that, when removed, can allow loose
January-2021
circuit breakers to move, causing an electrical arc explosion. It's not just theory. An
electrician was killed by just such an event.
Step 3: Confirm that electrical power is really off
Once shocked twice shy - if you've survived. With the panel cover removed to expose
electrical power connections, many electricians us a simple neon tester like the tool
shown here to confirm that power to a circuit or device is actually OFF.
Watch out: unless power into the panel to be worked-on is controlled by a separate
switch box, even when the main fuse is pulled or the main circuit breaker in the panel is
in the OFF position, live electrical wires are entering the panel from the electrical meter.
You can be shocked or killed touching or inserting any tool into an electrical panel. If
you are not trained and equipped to do so, don't try it.
The only way that all electrical power into a main electrical panel can be turned off when
there is no separate external main switch is by having the electric utility company pull
the meter or drop electrical power at the service entry. Many electricians use a simple
neon tester to check that a wire or circuit or connector has been powered OFF.
Other experts may us a VOM (voltmeter) or DMM (digital multi meter) to perform this
test using the Voltage scale.
Touching the leads between a "hot" circuit breaker connector or bare electrical wire tip
and ground (120V) or between two wire connectors on a 240V breaker 240V will light
the neon light if power is present.
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Touching the leads to the terminal screws at the main power terminals in a panel will
also tell you - if you are not killed by having touched a live connector yourself - that the
panel is receiving power.
Watch out: before relying on any test device to determine if power is off, test the device
at a known power source to be sure it is working properly.
Step 4: Remove the circuit breaker to be replaced
Figure 17: Remove the circuit breaker to be replaced
Switch the breaker to be removed to the OFF position and pull it out of its slot in the
panel. In the electrical panel one end of a circuit breaker is clipped to an electrical bus
bar that supplies power. The other end is often held in place by a steel clip into which a
recess in the breaker end was inserted.
The breaker end that was clipped to the bus bar is what needs to be pulled up or out
first. Then the breaker will slide out of position and can be lifted away.
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Step 5. Remove the circuit wire from the old circuit breaker
Holding the disconnected circuit breaker firmly with one hand, use a screwdriver to
loosen the screw terminal that holds the circuit wire in place in the breaker terminal.
With the screw loose, pull the circuit wire out of the circuit breaker terminal.
Figure 18: Remove the circuit wire from the old circuit breaker
If the circuit breaker was a single pole 220-volt unit it will have just one wire connected
(see exceptions below). If the circuit breaker was a double pole (two switches or
double-width breaker) it is a 240V breaker and will have two hot wires (usually one
black, one red) connected to each of two screw terminals on the breaker.
While you have that circuit wire disconnected, inspect the end of the electrical wire(s). If
a wire end is cut, squashed, corroded has been damaged in any way you will need to
clip off the damaged end and strip back insulation to permit the wire to connect to the
replacement or new breaker.
Watch out: if you find overheated, burned electrical wires like the ones shown in our
photo below, there have been unsafe conditions in the panel and building's electrical
wiring system. The cause of overheating must be determined and corrected before you
can think that the electrical wiring and panel are safe.
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Figure 19: The burn out wire and breaker
When the overheat problem has been diagnosed (probably a circuit breaker that did not
trip in response to overcurrent) and addressed, the burned wire end and insulation need
to be cut off and the wire stripped anew. Exceptions to number of wires on circuit
breakers:
Follow the installation wiring details given by the manufacturer.
On these special circuit breakers you will see three wires: circuit hot, circuit neutral, and
AFCI neutral-bus connector
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Step6. Plug the new circuit breaker back into the proper slot in the electrical
panel
Figure 20: new circuit breaker back into the proper slot
Above: the notch molded into the circuit breaker body is to fit into the retainer bar or clip
in the electrical panel first, then you push the connector-clip end down onto the bus bar.
Below: the under-side of the same circuit breaker.
Photo above: On this Square D-brand 240-V double pole circuit breaker bottom surface
you can see the connector clips that will connect to the bus bars in the electrical panel.
Fig: 21 Square D-brand 240-V double pole circuit breaker bottom surface
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Photo below: here is a closer look at the retainer lugs shaped into the end of a molded-
case circuit breaker. The retainer is what will be inserted under a steel retainer bar or
clip in the electrical panel first when the breaker is being inserted.
Figure 21: Circuit breaker retainer molding
Below: in a different circuit breaker retainer design, this double-pole 240V 50-A Square
D circuit breaker uses metal clips: one pair clips onto a raised retainer lip in the
electrical panel and the other pair at the other end of the breaker will clip onto bus-bars
in a Square D electrical panel like the panel shown next below.
Figure 22: Leave the breaker switched to its OFF position.
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To connect wires to a new circuit breaker you'll need to loosen its terminal screw
enough that the new stripped wire end can be pushed into the connector. Do this now.
Figure 23: Push breaker clip or insert retainer bar first
Then push the circuit breaker back into place in the electrical panel by reversing the
procedure you used at step 4. Watch out: it is essential to first insert the end of the
circuit breaker that slips under a retainer in the panel and then second push the breaker
down to connect its clip-on connector to the electrical bus. If you just push the breaker
clip onto the bus without having inserted the other end of the breaker under the retainer
in the panel, the circuit breaker will be loose and unsafe. You can usually tell that the
breaker has been properly inserted because its outer face will be flush with other circuit
breakers in the panel. If the breaker is clipped to the bus but its other end sticks up
above its neighbors, then it has not been inserted properly.
Step7. Connect the circuit wire to the new, replacement circuit breaker
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Figure 24: Connect the circuit wire to the new, replacement circuit breaker
Good electrical practice is to strip off just enough insulation to fully insert the wire into
the screw terminal: typically that's about 1/2". There may be a wire strip gauge marked
on the breaker. Insert the clean stripped wire end into the terminal on the circuit breaker
and tighten the screw firmly down against the electrical wire
Check that the circuit wire is routed neatly and smoothly in the panel and to the breaker.
You can recognize professional electrical work in a panel by neatness and by observing
that all of the wire bends are rounded and smooth. A sharp right-angle bend in an
electrical wire can weaken it and lead to an unsafe condition, broken wire, or circuit
failure.
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Figure 25: Bus bar connection and Retainer bar
Above: neatness counts as doe‘s avoidance of sharp bends in electrical wires as shown
in the panel above. Missing are twist-on connectors to cap the wire splices that the
electrician has just wrapped in electrical tape.
Notice that the main power switch for this panel is not found inside the panel. In our
photo below you'll see that a separate main switch is used for this electrical system.
Figure 26: main power switches for this panel
Step 8. Inspect the panel interior
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Double check in the panel for other disturbed wires, loose circuit breakers, or a twist on
connector that you knocked off leaving a bare wire splice exposed.
Figure 27: Inspect the panel interior
Above: in this fuse panel we observed that live bare wires spliced together were un-
protected by a twist-on connector. These wires could easily be touched or could touch
the panel enclosure - very unsafe conditions.
Step 9. Replace the electrical panel cover
Figure 28: Replace the electrical panel cover
Place the electrical panel covers in position, taking care that the cut-out openings for the
circuit breakers fit neatly around the circuit breaker edges. If the panel cover is askew
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you may see that some breakers are being pushed further into the panel while others
are not properly secured in their openings in the cover front. Holding the cover in place
with one hand and start a screw in a convenient hole in the panel cover, taking care not
to cross-thread the screw. Turn the screw in but don't try to make it fully tight.
Install the remaining screws in the panel cover.
Then tighten all of the cover screws securely in place.
Below: an example of an electrical panel not properly-installed.
Figure 29: Panel cover not properly seated around breakers
Watch out: if you have lost one of the electrical panel cover screws, do NOT replace it
with a sharp pointed sheet metal screw - as is tempting. Below we illustrate a subtle
panel cover hazard: a sheet metal screw had been used to replace the proper panel
cover screw; the pointed screw tip pierced the service entry wires causing an arc burn
and presenting a shock hazard.
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Step10. Restore electrical power to the panel
Turn the main circuit breaker(s) back on, or if there was an external separate main
switch, return that to the ON position.
Step 11. Turn on the new circuit breaker
Move the circuit breaker toggle switch from OFF to ON. If by chance the circuit breaker
was in tripped position and you need to re-set it to ON, see details at circuit breaker reset
steps
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. List the most important types of H.V circuit breakers (4pts)
2. Name the types of Breakers used for protections against earth faults too small to
trip an overcurrent device: (4pts)
3. In exception to the amperage listed on the breaker what is the purpose of the letter
"B", "C‖, "D" "K" or "Z" that indicates on the breaker? (4pts)
Test II: Say True or False. (2-each point)
1. Thermal breakers are used for motor control circuits only.
2. A circuit breaker is a device that can allow the flow of electricity around a circuit by
switching itself off if anything goes wrong.
3.ACB (Air circuit breaker) – rated current up to 4000 A .Thermal and magnetic
operation. Trip current adjustable


Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Rating: ____________
Test I
1.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -5 Fuse
Information Sheet -5# Fuse

5.1. Fuse
In electrical circuits, a fuse is an electrical device used to protect the circuit from
overcurrent. It consists of a metal strip that liquefies when the flow of current through it
is high. Fuses are essential electrical devices, and there are different types of fuses
available in the market today based on specific voltage and current ratings, application,
response time, and breaking capacity. The characteristics of fuses like time and current
are selected to give sufficient protection without unnecessary disruption.
Figure 30: Fuse and its Schematic symbol for fuse.
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5.2. Operation of a Fuse
Fuse is a short length of wire designated to melt and separate in case of excessive
current. The fuse is connected in the phase of the supply. It is always connected in
series with the circuit / components that need to be protected. When the current drawn
by the circuit exceeds the rated current of the fuse wire, the fuse wire melts and breaks.
This disconnects the supply from the circuit and thus protects the circuit and the
components in the circuit.
5.3. Rating of Fuse Wire

The maximum current that a fuse can carry, without being burnt, is called the rating of
the fuse wire .It is expressed in Amperes. Current rating of the fuse, selected for the
circuit, should be equal to the maximum current rating of the machinery, appliance or
components connected in the circuit.
5.3.1.Fuse Carrier and Fuse Channel

Fuse carrier and channel are made of porcelain or Bakelite material. They are used for
all domestic, commercial and industrial application up to 100 A capacities.
5.3.2. Cartridge Fuse
Figure 31: Cartridge Fuse
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This fuse unit is in the form of a cartridge.
 It‘s normally manufactured in the range of 2 A to 100 A.

 Whenever the fuse blows off, fuse with carrier is replaced by a new one.
 As it is sealed, it cannot be rewired.
Cartridge fuses are used to protect motors and branch circuit where higher amps or volt
ratings are required. They are available in wide variety of sizes, amp and volt ratings up
to 600 Vac and 600 amps. Cartridge fuses are used extensively in commercial,
industrial and agricultural applications as well as residential fuse panels, air
conditioning, pumps, appliances and other equipment.
5.3.3. Cartridge Fuses are available in two types-

General purpose fuses have no time delay and protect fuse panel, appliances and
branch circuits. Heavy duty fuses have a time delay feature.
5.3.4. HRC Fuse
Figure 32: HRC Fuse
HRC Fuse High Rupture Capacity fuse unit. It is normally designed for high current.
When fuse is blown off, the entire unit is to be replaced by a new one .It cannot be
rewired as it is a sealed one.
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5.3.5. Types of Fuse
Fuses are manufactured in many shapes and sizes. In addition to the copper fuse link
already described, figure below shows other fuse types. While the variety of fuses may
seem confusing, there are basically only two types of fuses: plug-type fuses and
cartridge fuses. Both types of fuses use either a single wire or a ribbon as the fuse
element (the part of the fuse that melts). The condition (good or bad) of some fuses can
be determined by visual inspection. The condition of other fuses can only be determined
with a meter. In the following discussion, visual inspection will be described.
5.3.6. Plug-type fuses

The plug-type fuse is constructed so that it can be screwed into a socket mounted on a
control panel or electrical distribution center. The fuse link is enclosed in an insulated
housing of porcelain or glass. The construction is arranged so the fuse link is visible
through a window of mica or glass.
Figure 33: shows a typical plug-type fuse
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Figure above view A, shows a good plug-type fuse. Notice the construction and the fuse
link. In figure above, view B, the same type of fuse is shown after the fuse link has
melted. Notice the window showing the indication of this open fuse. The plug-type fuse
is used primarily in low-voltage, low-current circuits. The operating range is usually up to
150 volts and from 0.5 ampere to 30 amperes. This type of fuse is found in older circuit
protection devices and is rapidly being replaced by the circuit breaker.
5.3.7. Cartridge fuse

The cartridge fuse operates exactly like the plug-type fuse. In the cartridge fuse, the
fuse link is enclosed in a tube of insulating material with metal ferrules at each end (for
contact with the fuse holder). Some common insulating materials are glass, bake lite, or
a fiber tube filled with insulating powder.
A figure show shows a glass-tube fuse. In figure above, view A, notice the fuse link and
the metal ferrules. Figure below, view B, shows a glass-tube fuse that is open. The
open fuse link could appear either of the ways shown in figure below, view B
Figure 34: Cartridge fuses are available in a variety of physical sizes
Cartridge fuses are available in a variety of physical sizes and are used in many
different circuit applications. They can be rated at voltages up to 10,000 volts and have
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current ratings of from 1/500 (.002) ampere to 800 amperes. Cartridge fuses may also
be used to protect against excessive heat and open at temperatures of from 165° F to
410°F (74°C to 210°C).
5.4. Fuse ratings

You can determine the physical size and type of a fuse by looking at it, but you must
know other things about a fuse to use it properly. Fuses are rated by current, voltage,
and time-delay characteristics to aid in the proper use of the fuse. To select the proper
fuse, you must understand the meaning of each of the fuse ratings.
5.4.1. Current rating

The current rating of a fuse is a value expressed in amperes that represents the current
the fuse will allow without opening. The current rating of a fuse is always indicated on
the fuse. To select the proper fuse, you must know the normal operating current of the
circuit. If you wish to protect the circuit from overloads (excessive current), select a fuse
rated at 125 percent of the normal circuit current. In other words, if a circuit has a
normal current of 10 amperes, a 12.5-ampere fuse will provide overload protection. If
you wish to protect against direct shorts only, select a fuse rated at 150 percent of the
normal circuit current. In the case of a circuit with 10 amperes of current, a 15 ampere
fuse will protect against direct shorts, but will not be adequate protection against
excessive current.
5.4.2. Voltage rating

The voltage rating of a fuse is NOT an indication of the voltage the fuse is designed to
withstand while carrying current. The voltage rating indicates the ability of the fuse to
quickly extinguish the arc after the fuse element melts and the maximum voltage the
open fuse will block. In other words, once the fuse has opened any voltage less than the
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voltage rating of the fuse will not be able to "jump" the gap of the fuse. Because of the
way the voltage rating is used, it is a maximum voltage value. You must always select a
fuse with a voltage rating equal to or higher than the voltage in the circuit you wish to
protect.
5.4.3. Time delay rating

There are many kinds of electrical and electronic circuits that require protection. In
some of these circuits, it is important to protect against temporary or transient current
increases. Sometimes the device being protected is very sensitive to current and cannot
withstand an increase in current. In these cases, a fuse must open very quickly if the
current increases. Some other circuits and devices have a large current for short
periods and a normal (smaller) current most of the time.
An electric motor, for instance, will draw a large current when the motor starts, but
normal operating current for the motor will be much smaller. A fuse used to protect a
motor would have to allow for this large temporary current, but would open if the large
current were to continue. Fuses are time delay rated to indicate the relationship
between the current through the fuse and the time it takes for the fuse to open.
5.5. The three time delay ratings are delay, standard, and fast.
Delay: A delay, or slow-blowing, fuse has a built-in delay that is activated when the
current through the fuse is greater than the current rating of the fuse. This fuse will allow
temporary increases in current (surge) without opening. Some delay fuses have two
elements; this allows a very long time delay. If the overcurrent condition continues, a
delay fuse will open, but it will take longer to open than a standard or a fast fuse. Delay
fuses are used for circuits with high surge or starting currents, such as motors,
solenoids, and transformers.
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5.5.1. Standard: Standard fuses have no built –in time delay
Also, the Standard fuses have no built-in time delay. Also, they are not designed to be
very fast acting. Standard fuses are sometimes used to protect against direct shorts
only. They may be wired in series with a delay fuse to provide faster direct short
protection. For example, in a circuit with a 1-ampere delay fuse, a 5-ampere standard
fuse may be used in addition to the delay fuse to provide faster protection against a
direct short. A standard fuse can be used in any circuit where surge currents are not
expected and a very fast opening of the fuse is not needed. A standard fuse opens
faster than a delay fuse, but slower than a fast rated fuse. Standard fuses can be used
for automobiles, lighting circuits, or electrical power circuits.
5.5.2. Fast: Fast fuses are designed to open very quickly when the current
through the fuse exceeds the current rating of the fuse.
Fast fuses are used to protect devices that are very sensitive to increased current. A
fast fuse will open faster than a delay or standard fuse. Fast fuses can be used to
protect delicate instruments or semiconductor devices. Figure below will help you
understand the differences between delay, standard, and fast fuses. Figure below
shows that, if a 1-ampere rated fuse had 2 amperes of current through it, (200% of the
rated value), a fast fuse would open in about .7 second, a standard rated fuse would
open in about 1.5 seconds, and a delay rated fuse would open in about 10 seconds.
Notice that in each of the fuses, the time required to open the fuse decreases as the
rated current increases.
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5.6. Identification of fuses
Fuses have identifications printed on them. The printing on the fuse will identify the
physical size, the type of fuse, and the fuse ratings. There are four different systems
used to identify fuses.
The systems are the:
 Old military designation,

 The new military designation
 The old commercial designation, and
 The new commercial designation.
All four systems are presented here, so you will be able to identify a fuse no matter
which designation is printed on the fuse. You may have to replace an open fuse that is
identified by one system with a good fuse that is identified by another system. The
designation systems are fairly simple to understand and cross-reference once you are
familiar with them.
5.6.1. Old military designation

Figure below shows a fuse with the old military designation. The tables in the lower part
of the figure show the voltage and current codes used in this system. The upper portion
of the figure is the explanation of the old military designation. The numbers and letters
in parentheses are the coding for the fuse shown in figure below.
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Figure 35: fuse with the old military designation
The old military designation always starts with "F," which stands for fuse. Next, the set
of numbers (02) indicates the style. Style means the construction and dimensions (size)
of the fuse. Following the style is a letter that represents the voltage rating of the fuse
(G). The voltage code table in figure above shows each voltage rating letter and its
meaning in volts. In the example shown, the voltage ratings is G, 2-11 which means the
fuse should be used in a circuit where the voltage is 250 volts or less.
The "R" indicates the decimal point. In the example shown, the current rating is 1R00 or
1.00 ampere. Some other examples of the current rating are shown in the current code
table of figure above. The final letter in the old military designation (A) indicates the time
delay rating of the fuse. While the old military designation is still found on some fuses,
the voltage and current ratings must be "translated," since they use letters to represent
numerical values. The military developed the new military designations to make fuse
identification easier.
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5.6.2. New military designation
Figure below is an example of a fuse coded in the new military designation. The
fuse identified in the example in figure below is the same type as the fuse used
as an example in figure below.
Figure 36: fuse coded in the new military designation
5.7. Checking and replacement of fuses

A fuse, if properly used, should not open unless something is wrong in the circuit
the fuse is protecting. When a fuse is found to be open, you must determine the
reason the fuse is open. Replacing the fuse is not enough. Before you look for
the cause of an open fuse, you must be able to determine if the fuse is open.
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5.7.1. Checking for an open
Fuse: There are several ways of checking for an open fuse. Some fuses and fuse
holders have indicators built in to help you find an open fuse; also, a multi meter can be
used to check fuses. The simplest way:
 To check glass-bodied fuses, and the method you should use first,
 Visual inspection.
5.7.2. Visual Inspection:

An open glass-bodied fuse can usually be found by visual inspection. If the fuse
element is not complete, or if the element has been melted onto the glass tube, the fuse
is open. It is not always possible to tell if a fuse is open by visual inspection. Fuses with
low current ratings have elements that are so small; it is sometimes not possible to
know if the fuse link is complete simply by looking at it. If the fuse is not glass-bodied, it
will not be possible to check the fuse visually. Also, sometimes a fuse will look good, but
will, in fact, be open.
Therefore, while it is sometimes possible to know if a fuse is open by visual inspection,

it is not possible to be sure a fuse is good just by looking at it. Fuse Indicators some
fuses and fuse holders have built-in indicators to show when a fuse is open. Examples
of these open-fuse indicators are shown in figure below.
Figure below, view a, shows a cartridge-type fuse with an open-fuse indicator. The
indicator is spring loaded and held by the fuse link. If the fuse link opens, the spring
forces the indicator out. Some manufacturers color the indicator so it is easier to see in
the open-fuse position.
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Figure 37: Fuse Visual inspections
5.7.3. Checking Fuses with a Meter

The only sure method of determining if a fuse is open is to use a meter. An ohmmeter
can be used to check for an open fuse by removing the fuse from the circuit and
checking for continuity through the fuse (0 ohms). If the fuse is not removed from the
circuit, and the fuse is open, the ohmmeter may measure the circuit resistance. This
resistance reading might lead you to think the fuse is good. You must be careful when
you use an ohmmeter to check fuses with small current ratings (such as 1/32 ampere or
less), because the current from the ohmmeter may be larger than the current rating of
the fuse.
For most practical uses, a small current capacity fuse can be checked out of the circuit
through the use of a resistor. The ohmic value of the resistor is first measured and then
placed in series with the fuse.
The continuity reading on the ohmmeter should be of the same value, or close to it, as
the original value of the resistor. This method provides protection for the fuse by
dropping the voltage across the resistor. This in turn decreases the power in the form of
heat at the fuse. Remember, it is heat which melts the fuse element.
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5.7.4. A voltmeter can also be used to check for an open fuse.
The measurement is taken between each end of the fuse and the common or ground
side of the line. If voltage is present on both sides of the fuse (from the voltage source
and to the load), the fuse is not open.
Another method commonly used, is to measure across the fuse with the voltmeter.
If NO voltage is indicated on the meter, the fuse is good, (not open). Remember there is
no voltage drop across a straight piece of wire. Some plug-type fuse holders have test
points built in to allow you to check the voltage.
To check for voltage on a clip-type fuse holder, check each of the clips. The advantage
of using a voltmeter to check for an open fuse is that the circuit does not have to be DE
energized and the fuse does not have to be removed.
5.8. Warning personnel may be exposed to hazardous voltage

Safety Precautions When Checking a Fuse Since a fuse has current through it, you
must be very careful when checking for an open fuse to avoid being shocked or
damaging the circuit.
The following safety precautions will protect you and the equipment you are using.
 Turn the power off and discharge the circuit before removing a fuse.
 Use a fuse puller (an insulated tool) when you remove a fuse from a
Clip-type fuse holder.
 When you check a fuse with a voltmeter, be careful to avoid shocks and
short circuits.
 When you use an ohmmeter to check fuses with low current ratings, be
careful to avoid opening the fuse by excessive current from the ohmmeter.
You have just checked a 1/500-ampere fuse with an ohmmeter and find it is open.
Checking the replacement fuse shows the replacement fuse is open also.
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5.8.1. Safety Precautions When Replacing Fuses
The following safety precautions will prevent injury to personnel and damage to
equipment. These are the MINIMUM safety precautions for replacing fuses.
 Be sure the power is off in the circuit and the circuit is discharged before
replacing a fuse.
 Use an identical replacement fuse if possible.
 Remove any corrosion from the fuse holder before replacing the fuse.
 Be certain the fuse properly fits the fuse holder.
5.8.2. Replacement of fuses:

After an open fuse is found and the trouble that caused the fuse to open has been
corrected, the fuse must be replaced. Before you replace the fuse, you must be certain
the replacement fuse is the proper type and fits correctly.
5.8.3. Proper Type of Replacement Fuse

To be certain a fuse is the proper type; check the technical manual for the equipment.
The parts list will show you the proper fuse identification for a replacement fuse. Obtain
the exact fuse specified, if possible, and check the identification number of the
replacement fuse against the parts list.
If you cannot obtain a direct replacement, use the following guidelines:
 Never use a fuse with a higher current rating, a lower voltage rating, or
a slower time delay rating than the specified fuse.
 The best substitution fuse is a fuse with the same current and time
delay ratings and a higher voltage rating.
 If a lower current rating or a faster time delay rating is used, the fuse
may open under normal circuit conditions.
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 Substitute fuses must have the same style (physical dimensions) as
the specified fuse.
5.8.4. Proper Fit of Replacement Fuses

When you have obtained a proper replacement fuse, you must make certain it will fit
correctly in the fuse holder.
 If the fuse holder is corroded, the fuse will not fit properly. In addition, the
corrosion can cause increased resistance or heating. Clean corroded
terminals with fine sandpaper so that all corrosion is removed.
 Do NOT lubricate the terminals.
 If the terminals are badly pitted, replace the fuse holder.
 Be certain the replacement fuse holder is the correct size and type by
checking the parts list in the technical manual for the equipment.
 After you check for and correct any corrosion problems, be certain the
fuse fits tightly in the fuse holder.
 When you insert the fuse in the cap of a plug-type fuse holder, the fuse
should fit tightly.
 A small amount of pressure should be needed to insert the fuse and cap
into the fuse holder body.
 In clip-type fuse holders, the clips can be easily bent out of shape.
This causes an incorrect fit, which in time could cause an equipment malfunction above
shows examples of correct and incorrect fuse contacts for clip-type fuse holders used
with knife blade and ferrule cartridge fuses. The clips shown in the left picture of each
row have the correct contact. The three pictures on the right of each row show incorrect
contact.
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Figure 38: Preventive maintenance of fuses
Preventive maintenance of fuses consists of checking for the following conditions and
correcting any discrepancies.
5.9. Improper fuse

 Check the fuse installed against that recommended in the technical manual
for the equipment. If an incorrect fuse is installed, replace it with the correct
fuse.
 Corrosion. Check for corrosion on the fuse holder terminals or the fuse
itself. If corrosion is present, remove it with fine sandpaper.
 Improper fit. Check for contact between the fuse and fuse holder. If a piece
of paper will fit between the fuse and the clips on a clip-type fuse holder,
there is improper contact. If the fuse is not held in the cap of a plug-type
fuse holder, the contacts are too loose.
 Open fuses. Check fuses for opens. If any fuse is open, repair the trouble
that caused the open fuse and replace the fuse.
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Figure 39: indicator of open or good fuse wire
5.10. Characteristics of a good fuse wire

A good fuse wire should possess the following characteristics
a) Low resistivity
b) Low melting point
C) Low conductivity of the metal vapors formed, when the fuse is blown off.
5.11. Advantages of HRC Fuse

1. They require maintenance
2. They are reliable
3. They operate at high speed.
4. They have consistent performance
5. They clear both low and high fault current with equal efficiency.
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
Test I: Say True or False. (2-points each)

1. A fuse is an electrical device used to protect the circuit from overvoltage
2. Cartridge fuses are used to protect branch circuit where higher amps or volt
ratings are required.
3. The plug-type fuse is used primarily in low-voltage, low-current circuits.
4. The voltage rating of a fuse is NOT an indication of the voltage the fuse is
designed to withstand while carrying current.
Test II Short Answer Questions

5. List the four different systems used to identify fuses. (4-points)
6. How can you check for open Fuse? (4-points)
7. Write the characteristics of a good fuse wire. (4-points)
Note: Satisfactory rating – 20 points Unsatisfactory - below 20-points

Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
5.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6._____________________________________________________________
7______________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -6 Relay
Information sheet -6# Relay

6.1. A Relay
Is an electro-mechanical or solid-state device, used to control a device or a circuit
electrically by applying a control signal to its coil. It is also known by the names
auxiliary, miniature or control relay.
Figure 40: Relay and Its representation symbol
The relay is an automatic protective and switching device which is capable of sensing
abnormal conditions in electrical circuits. These are operated to open or close the load
contacts in response to one or more electrical quantities like voltage and
current. Relays are used in a wide variety of applications like electric power systems,
home appliances, automobiles, industrial equipment‘s, digital computers, etc.
Relays are classified into several types based on their functionality and application they
are implemented for. These classifications include electromagnetic, solid state, high
voltage, thermal relays, and so on. Therefore, this document is intended to describe
about a few basic types of relays that are popularly used in typical load-control
applications.
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Overload relay is a piece of equipment that detects the current flowing condition of load
installation and breaks the power immediately when an error occurs. The relays used in
contactors are thermal overload type and electrical type.
Thermal Overload Relay uses the internal Bimetal element that detects heat occurrence
due to the excess current, a method that uses bulge characteristic to open circuit and
an Electronic Motor Protection Relay which electrifies the excess current.
6.2. Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A
relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in
mainly three ways. They are:
 Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make

contact. It closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the
circuit when the relay is inactive.
 Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break
contact. This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated,
the circuit disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit
connects.
 Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts – This type of
contacts are used to control two types of circuits. They are used to
control a NO contact and also a NC contact with a common terminal.
According to their type they are called by the names break before
make and make before break contacts. Relays can be used to control
several circuits by just one signal. A relay switches one or more poles,
each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.
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6.3. Relays are also named with designations like
 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) – The SPST relay has a total of four
terminals. Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The
other two terminals are needed for the coil to be connected.
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) – The SPDT relay has a total of five
terminals. Out of these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also
included which connects to either of two others.
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) – The DPST relay has a total of six
terminals. These terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act
as two SPST‘s which are actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two
of them are coil terminals.
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) – The DPDT relay is the biggest of all. It
has mainly eight relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be
change over terminals. They are designed to act as two SPDT relays
which are actuated by a single coil.
6.4. Relay Basics

The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 – pin relay shown below.
There are two colours shown. The green colour represents the control circuit and the
red colour represents the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control
circuit. A switch is connected to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the
control circuit. Now let us take the different steps that occour in a relay
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.
Figure 41: Relay operation
6.5. Energized Relay (ON)
As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3
causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the
pins 2 and 4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part
of the load circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus,
when the electrical relay in energized the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.
Figure 42: Energized Relay (ON) and De-Energized Relay (OFF)
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As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the relay switch opens and thus
the open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes
de-energized and thus in off position.
In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a

magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a
closed circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic force
and thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain open.
6.5. Operation of electromechanical relays
Fig: 43 Operation of electromechanical relays

Electromechanical relays transfer signals between its contact through a mechanical
motion. It consists of two sections: the first is the electromagnet section and the other is
the armature and mechanical contacts section. The electromagnet section consists of a
set of coil wound over a magnetic core.
When an input voltage (almost equal to the rated voltage of the coil) is applied to the
coil, it gets magnetized and attracts the armature. The mechanical contacts are
attached to the armature. Hence, when the armature is pulled towards the
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electromagnet, the contact closes. When the input voltage applied to the coil is
removed, the armature is brought back to its original position by the spring release.
6.6. Overload relays

Overload relays are used for the protection of electric motors from overloads and phase
losses. They can be either electronic or thermal type. The electronic overload relays use
electronic circuits and CTs for sensing current flow to the motor whereas thermal type
have bimetallic strips within, that deforms when the current flow through them exceeds
the preset limits.
Figure 43: Relay Coil
6.7. Earth leakage relay

An Earth leakage or earth fault relay (ELR) is used to protect a device or a circuit
from earth faults and human being from electric shocks. It senses the current leakage to
the earth and helps safely isolating the circuit or device. Their contacts are connected to
the trip circuit of a circuit breaker. The ELR activates the trip circuit as soon as the
leakage current goes over the preset value and opens the circuit breaker.
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Figure 44: Earth leakage or earth fault relay (ELR)
Apart from the above classifications, relays are also classified based on the type of
operating voltage to be supplied to the coil as DC and AC relays, classified based on
construction as sealed, hinged, plunger relays etc.
6.8. Use of relays in a circuit

How to use relays in a circuit?
As stated in the principle of operation, relays have two sections: one is the coil and
the other is the contact section. It can be controlled by applying a voltage across its coil.
Let‘s make a circuit that can be used to switch a lamp whenever something comes
close to it. Here we use a proximity sensor to sense the objects close by. Whenever
something comes close to the sensor, it closes the circuit, allowing current flow to the
coil. The operating voltage of its coil is 24VDC which is same as that of the proximity
sensor and that of the lamp is 230VAC.
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Figure 45: use relays in a circuit
In the above circuit, whenever some object is brought close to the sensor, 24VDC from
the source is applied across the relay coil. A current flows through the coil, it is
magnetized and the contacts are closed. Therefore, the lamp glows. When the object
moves away from the proximity sensor, it stops conducting and the coil is
demagnetized, and the contacts fall back to its original position. Current flow to the lamp
is interrupted and the lamp stops glowing.
Application
Relays have a wide range of applications starting from washing machines at homes to
the telecommunication systems at the International space station, they can be found
everywhere. The following are a few key applications:
 They are used in electronic circuits and home appliances for isolating low
voltage or DC circuits from high voltage AC circuits.
 They are the backbone of industrial process automation systems. They are
used in combination with PLCs for process control. They are one of the key
components in an automation cabinet.
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 Used for signaling and control in railway networks.
 In motor control circuits for motor switching, protection as well as control.
 In substations and power distribution centers for sensing various faults and
operating the circuit breaker.
 A relay circuit is used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role
in providing safety critical logic.
 Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the
delay open and delay close of contacts.
 Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage
signals. Similarly they are used to control high current circuits with the help of
low current signals.
 They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during
transmission and reception can be detected and isolated.
6.8.1.`Relay selection considerations

The following factors must be considered while selecting a relay for any application.
 Nominal voltage: The voltage at which the coil is designed to operate.

 Rated power: The power consumed by the coil at normal room temperature.
 Contact rating: The current carrying capacity and voltage rating of their
contacts
 Contact mechanism: The number of contacts required and the contact
configuration (NO/NC/changeover).
 Environmental protection: the degree of sealing required, meaning,
whether the external casing of relay is necessary or not?
 Insulation resistance: Insulation resistance between any two sets of
contacts and that between the contacts and the coil.
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6.8.2. Relay Selection
You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are
 Protection – Different protections like contact protection and coil protection must
be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using
inductors. Coil protection helps in reducing surge voltage produced during
switching.
 Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
 Switching time – Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
 Ratings – There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings vary
from a few amperes to about 3000 amperes. In case of voltage ratings, they vary
from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are also high voltage relays of about
15,000 Volts.
 Type of contact used – Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
 Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
January-2021
Figure 46: particular relay
6.9. An over current Relay

What is an overcurrent Relay?
An overcurrent relay is an electrical protection device designed to cut off the power
supply to a circuit, appliance, or machine in the event of an overload or failure. These
devices typically consist of a manual circuit breaker or contactor and a current
sensing relay which interlocks with it. Should the appliance or circuit be damaged or
overloaded, it will begin to draw current in excess of its normal operating parameters.
This causes the current sensing relay to trip the circuit breaker or deactivate the
contactor and cut the power supply. As many machines draw very high current when
starting up, most overcurrent relays have a built in ―lag‖ feature to accommodate a high
current draw for a preset period before activating.
6.9.1. Overcurrent Relay Purpose and Ratings

A relay that operates or picks up when its current exceeds a predetermined
value (setting value) is called Overcurrent Relay.
Overcurrent protection protects electrical power systems against excessive

currents which are caused by short circuits, ground faults, etc. Overcurrent
January-2021
relays can be used to protect practically any power system elements, i.e.
transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors.
For feeder protection, there would be more than one overcurrent relay to protect
different sections of the feeder. These overcurrent relays need to coordinate with each
other such that the relay nearest fault operates first.
Use time, current and a combination of both time and current are three ways to
discriminate adjacent overcurrent relays.
6.10. Over Current Relay gives protection against
Overcurrent includes short-circuit protection, and short circuits can be:
 Phase faults
 Earth faults
 Winding faults
6.10.1. Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current
hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits.
Primary requirement of Overcurrent protection: The protection should not operate for
starting currents, permissible overcurrent, and current surges. To achieve this,
the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays).
6.11. Purpose of overcurrent Protection
These are the most important purposes of overcurrent relay:
 Detect abnormal conditions
 Isolate faulty part of the system
 Speed Fast operation to minimize damage and danger
 Discrimination Isolate only the faulty section
 Dependability / reliability
 Security / stability
 Cost of protection / against cost of potential hazards
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6.12. Overcurrent Relay Ratings
In order for an overcurrent protective device to operate properly, overcurrent
protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage,
ampere and interrupting rating. Current limiting can be considered as another
overcurrent protective device rating, although not all overcurrent protective devices
are required to have this characteristic
6.12.1. Voltage Rating:

The voltage rating of the overcurrent protective device must be at least equal to or
greater than the circuit voltage. The overcurrent protective device rating can be higher
than the system voltage but never lower.
6.12.2. Ampere Rating:
The ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device normally should not exceed the
current carrying capacity of the conductors As a general rule, the ampere rating of a
overcurrent protecting device is selected at 125% of the continuous load current.
6.13. Difference between Overcurrent and Overload protection

Overcurrent protection protects against excessive currents or currents beyond the
acceptable current ratings, which are resulting from short circuits, ground faults and
overload conditions.
The overcurrent protection is a bigger concept So that the overload protection can be
considered as a subset of overcurrent protection. The overcurrent relay can be used
as overload (thermal) protection when protects the resistive loads, etc., however, for
motor loads, the overcurrent relay cannot serve as overload protection Overload
relays usually have a longer time setting than the overcurrent relays.
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6.14. Types of Overcurrent Relay
These are the types of overcurrent relay:
1. Instantaneous Overcurrent (Define Current) Relay
2. Define Time Overcurrent Relay
3. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (IDMT Relay)
 Moderately Inverse
 Very Inverse Time
 Extremely Inverse
6.15. Directional Overcurrent Relays

When the power system is not radial (source on one side of the line), an overcurrent
relay may not be able to provide adequate protection. This type of relay operates in on
direction of current flow and blocks in the opposite direction. Three conditions must be
satisfied for its operation: current magnitude, time delay and directionality. The
directionality of current flow can be identified using voltage as a reference of direction.
6.16. Application of Overcurrent Relay

6.16.1. Motor Protection:
 Used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motor.
 Inverse time and instantaneous overcurrent phase and ground
 Overcurrent relays used for motors above 1000 kW.
6.16.2. Transformer Protection:

 Used only when the cost of overcurrent relays are not justified.
 Extensively also at power-transformer locations for external-fault
back-up protection.
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6.16.3. Line Protection:
 On some sub transmission lines where the cost of distance relaying
cannot be justified.
 Primary ground-fault protection on most transmission lines where
distance relays are used for phase faults.
 For ground back-up protection on most lines having pilot relaying for
primary protection.
6.16.4. Distribution Protection:

Overcurrent relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the
following reasons:
 It is basically simple and inexpensive.

 Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT
supply is required.
 It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against inter-
phase faults and .
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Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
1. A Relay is an electro-mechanical device, used to control a device or a circuit
mechanically by applying a control signal to its coil
2. Relays have the exact working of a switch.
3. The basics for all the relays are the same.
4. Overload relays are used for the protection of electric motors from overloads and
phase losses

6. Write the factors must be considered while selecting a relay for any
application(4-points)
7. Write the application area of Overcurrent Relay? (4-points)
8. Write the four names of Relays designations. (4-points)
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
5.______________________________________________________________
6________________________________________________________________
7._____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
8.____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -7 Arrange and terminate Earthling.
Information Sheet -7# Arrange and terminate Earthling.

7.1. Introduction
Definition: ―A system of earthing in which the parts of an electrical installation required
to be earthed in accordance with this Standard are connected together to form an
equipotential bonded network and this network is connected to both the neutral
conductor of the supply system and the general mass of earth. (AS/NZS3000:2018
Clause 1.4.83 )‖
Most of the power authorities in the developed country have accepted two types of
Earthing Systems:
 The MEN (Multiple Earthed Neutral)
 The CMEN (Common Multiple Earth System)
The low-voltage and high-voltage earth systems are kept separate in the MEN
system. A low-resistance path is created for the earth fault currents by the distribution
of neutral conductor. Its ‗potential rise‘ is kept in control by connecting it to earth at a
few locations all through its length. Source: (AS/NZS3000 (also known as Australian/New Zealand
wiring rules) has defined the MEN system as follows)
7.2. Multiple Earthed Neutral (MEN) System - means a system of earthing in which
the earthing conductor within an electrical installation is connected to the neutral as
well as to an earthing electrode.
a. Terminate Earthling to comply with the MEN (multiple earth neutral)

system requirements.
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7.3. Single earth neutral and multi earthed neutral
 In Distribution System three Phase load is unbalance and nonlinear so. The
Neutral plays an important role in Distribution system.
 Generally, distribution networks are operated in an unbalanced configuration and
also service to consumers. This causes current flowing through neutral conductor
and voltage dropping on neutral wire. The unbalance load and excessive current
in neutral wire is one of the issues in three phase four-wire distribution systems
that causes voltage drop through neutral wire and makes tribulations for
costumers. The existence of Neutral earth Voltage makes unbalance in three
phase voltages for three phase customers and reduction of phase to neutral
voltage for single phase customers.
7.4. Multi- grounded

Three-phase four-wire service is widely adopted in modern power distribution systems
due to having lower installation costs and higher sensitivity of fault protection than three-
phase three-wire service. The neutrals play an important role in power quality and
safety problems..
 It allow an uncontrolled amount of electric current to flow over the earth
unrestrained, posing the potential of harm to the public and to animals causing
electric shocks and is presumed responsible for undetected electrocutions.
 The protective grounding used in low voltage,600-volt and below, applications
will be described and used to explain the hazards involved with the present day
multi grounded neutral distribution System. This will allow the reader to see the
parallels between the safe low voltage distribution system and the dangerous
medium voltage multi grounded neutral distribution system.
 The reasons for the development of the three phase, four-wire, multi-grounded
systems involve a combination of safety and economic considerations. The
three-phase, four-wire multi-grounded design has been successfully used for
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many years and is well documented in the standards including the National
Electrical Code (NEC).
 It is Crucial decisions to adopt Multi Grounded Neutral System ―save money‖ by
the adoption of the multi grounded neutral electrical distribution system in the
cost of the public‘s safety.
7.3.1. Multi Grounded Neutral system (MEN)
Figure 47: Multi Grounded Neutral system (MEN)
Fig shows the multi-grounded neutral systems commonly used by the electric utilities.
The neutral grounding reactor is used by some utilities to reduce the available ground
fault current while at the same time still maintaining an effectively grounded system.
 The multiple earthed neutral (MEN) system of earthing is one in which the low
voltage neutral conductor is used as the low resistance return path for fault
currents and where its potential rise is kept low by having it connected to earth at
a number of locations along its length.
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 The neutral conductor is connected to earth at the
Distribution transformer
 At each consumer‘s installation and
 At specified poles or underground pillars.
 The resistance between the neutral conductor of the distribution system
and the earth must not exceed 10 ohms at any location.
7.3.2. A. Multiple Grounding:

The neutral of a solidly grounded neutral system shall be permitted to be grounded at
more than one point.
B. Multi-grounded Neutral Conductor: Ground each transformer, Ground at 400 m
intervals or less, Ground shielded cables where exposed to personnel contact.
Single grounded neutral
Figure 48: single grounded neutral
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 Fig Show Single Grounded Neutral Which is different from Multi Grounded
System .Figure shows the neutral also connected to earth, but the neutral
conductor is extended along with the phase conductors. The configuration
shown in figure allows electrical loads, transformers to be placed between
any of the three phase conductors, phase-to-phase and/or phase-to-
neutral.
 This connection, phase to neutral will force electric current to flow over the
neutral back to the transformer. So far, this electrical connection is
acceptable, as long as the neutral is insulated or treated as being
potentially energized, but modifications will be made in the future that will
negate safety for the public and animals.
 The ground connection would typically be located in the distribution
substation. This may appear insignificant, but the differences are
significant
7.3.3. Advantages of multiple ground neutral system
Advantage of multiple grounded
1. Optimize the Size of Surge Arrestor:

 Surge arresters are applied to a power system based on the line-to-
ground voltage under normal condition and abnormal conditions..
 Application of surge arresters on a power system is dependent on the
effectiveness of the system grounding.
 The over voltage condition that can occur during a ground fault can be
minimized by keeping the zero sequence impedance low.
 Therefore, optimization in sizing the surge arresters on the system is
dependent on the system grounding.
 An effectively grounded power system allows the use of a lower rated
surge arrester. The lower rated surge arrester provides better surge
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protection at a lower cost. An effectively grounded system can only be
accomplished using a properly sized, multi-grounded system neutral.
 With Single Grounded Neutral System require the use of full line-to-line
voltage rated arresters. This increases the cost of the surge arresters
while at the same time reduces the protection provided by the surge
arrester. In addition, if the fourth wire neutral is not multi grounded, it
would be good practice to place surge arresters at appropriate locations
on that conductor.
2. The zero sequence impedance is lower for a multi grounded system than the single
Point grounded neutral system.
3. Freezing and arctic conditions have an adverse impact on the zero sequence
impedance.
A multi-grounded system neutral will still lower the zero sequence impedance
over a single point ground. In fact, without the multi-grounded system, it is
more probable that insufficient fault current will flow to properly operate the
ground fault protection.
4. Cost of Equipment for the multi-grounded system is lower.
5. Safety Concerns on Cable Shields.
 Medium voltage and high voltage cables typically have cable shields (NEC
requirement above 5 kV) that need to be grounded. There are several reasons
for this shield:
 To confine electric fields within the cable
 To obtain uniform radial distribution of the electric field
 To protect against induced voltages
 To reduce the hazard of shock If the shield is not grounded, the shock
hazard can be increased. With the shield grounded at one point,
induced voltage on the shield can be significant and create a shock
hazard. Therefore, it is common practice to apply multiple grounds on
the shield to keep the voltage limited to 25 volts.
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 This practice of multi grounding cable shields includes the grounding of
concentric neutrals on power cables thereby extending the need for multi
grounding of neutrals on the power system.
7.3.4. Disadvantages of multiple neutral grounding:

Less Electrical Safety in Public and Private Property
 With a multi grounded neutral distribution system it is necessary to have
an electrical connection to earth at least 4 times per mile to keep the
voltage on the multi grounded neutral from exceeding approximately 25
volts making it safe for the linemen should they come into contact with the
neutral and the earth.
 As per NESC Rule 096 C in the section with the multi grounded neutral
conductor connected to earth at least 4 times per mile and at each
transformer and lightning arrester there are now multiple paths over and
through the earth that the hazardous electric current can flow over
continuously, uncontrolled.
 The path that this current flow takes through the earth cannot be
determined. We cannot put an isotope on each electron and trace its path
as it flows uncontrolled through the earth. It is irresponsible to permit stray
uncontrolled electric current to flow into and over private property.
 The National Electrical Code (NEC) requires the neutral in the service
disconnect and over current panel board to be connected to the earth
also. Now the secondary neutral is connected to earth a second time. A
parallel connection of the neutral to earth now exists permitting hazardous
electric current to flow continuously uncontrolled over the earth.
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7.5. Earth Fault Protection Relay setting is complicated
Advantages of single grounded neutral system
 More Reliable and Safe System.
 Protection Relay Setting is more easy in Single Grounded Neutral:
 Protective relays need to sense abnormal conditions, especially those
involving a ground fault. The single point grounded system, with or without a
neutral conductor, current flowing into the ground should be considered
abnormal (excluding normal charging current). For sensing of ground faults
are:
Figure 49: Earth Fault Protection Relay setting
 A current transformer in the location where the neutral is grounded can be

used to sense the ground fault (zero sequence) current.
 A zero sequence CT enclosing the three phase and neutral conductors.
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 Four CT residue circuit (Three CT residual with neutral CT cancellation).
 Protecting against ground faults on a multi-grounded neutral system is more
difficult than the single point grounded system since both neutral and ground fault
currents must be considered.
 Neutral current and likewise ground fault current can flow in both the neutral and
the ground. So, We have must calculate both current as the amount of neutral
current which may flow in the circuit, and the ground fault setting must be above
this neutral current. This is self-explanatory from Fig.
7.5.1. Sensing of Ground Fault current:

While the sensing of the ground fault current in the single point grounded
system is less complex than the multi grounded system, the amount of
ground fault current on the single-point grounded system may be greatly
limited due to the fact that all ground fault current must return through the
earth. This is especially true where the earth resistivity is high, the soil is
frozen or the soil is extremely dry.
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7.6. Methods of Earth Resistance Testing
Can we use a Megger or Multimeter for earth resistivity Testing?
 We cannot use megger or multimeter for earth resistivity testing
7.6.1. Insulation Tester (Megger):
 Insulation testers are designed to measure at the opposite end of the
resistance by inserting high DC Voltage.
 Insulation testers use high test voltages in the kilovolt range. The area
between electrode and ground is charged with high DC Voltage and we
do not want grounds that measure in megohms.
 Ground testers use Low Voltage for testing for operator safety, to low
voltages
Multimeter:
 However, a Multimeter or continuity test can use very low Voltage between an
installed electrode and a reference ground, which is assumed to have
negligible.
 Low voltage DC can produce a resistance reading between ground and an
earth electrode but it is not an accurate measurement.
 Multimeter measurement may not be reliable, since reading can be influenced

by
 Soil transients,
 The electrical noise that is generated by utility ground currents
trying to get back to the transformer, as well as other sources.
Can earth resistance reduce by pouring water around test earth probe?
 By pouring water is near test probe reduce contact resistance of between
probe and ground at some extent.
January-2021
 If there is sufficient contact between probe and ground then pouring water
near test probe is never decrease earth resistance of the system.
 Earth resistance is the resistance of the ground electrode that is being
measured, not that of the test probe. The Test probe is a tool to use
measurement of earth resistance.
 If the test setup has adequate spacing, the probes will be far enough away
outside of the electrical field of the test ground so that watering them has no
influence on the test result.
7.6.2. Test methods for measuring earth resistance
There are six basic test methods to measure earth resistance
a. Four Point Method (Wenner Method)
b. Three-terminal Method (Fall-of-potential Method / 68.1 % Method))
c. Two-point Method (Dead Earth Method)
d. Clamp-on test method
e. Slope Method
f. Star-Delta Method
7.7. Four point method (wenner method)
 This method is the most commonly used for measuring soil resistivity,
Required Equipment’s:
 Earth Tester (4 Terminal)
 4 No‘s of Electrodes (Spike)
 4 No‘s of Insulated Wires
 Hammer
 Measuring Tap
7.7.1. Connections:
First, isolate the grounding electrode under measurement by disconnecting it
from the rest of the system.
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 Earth tester set has four terminals, two current terminals marked C1 and
C2 and two potential terminals marked P1 and P2.
 P1 = Green lead, C1 = Black lead, P2 = Yellow lead, C2 = Red lead
 In this method, four small-sized electrodes are driven into the soil at
the same depth and equal distance from one another in a straight line.
 The distance between earth electrodes should be at least 20 times
greater than the electrode depth in ground.
 Example, if the depth of each earth electrode is 1 foot then the distance
between electrodes is greater than 20 feet.
 The earth electrode under measurement is connected to C1 Terminal of
Earth Tester.
 Drive another potential Earth terminal (P1) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from
some distance at C1 Earth Electrode and connect to P1 Terminal of Earth
Tester by insulted wire.
 Drive another potential Earth terminal (P2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from
some distance at P1 Earth Electrode and connect to P2 Terminal of Earth
Tester by insulted wire.
 Drive another Current Electrode (C2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches from some
distance at P2 Earth Electrode and connect to C2 Terminal of Earth Tester
by insulted wire.
 Connect the ground tester as shown in the picture.
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Figure 50: Four point Earth resistance Testing Method
7.7.2. Testing Procedure:

 Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual
value of the ground Resistance of the electrode under test.
 Record the reading on the Field Sheet at the appropriate location. If
the reading is not stable or displays an error indication, double check
the connections. For some meters, the RANGE and TEST CURRENT
settings may be changed until a combination that provides a stable
reading without error indications is reached.
 The Earthing Tester has basically Constant Current generator which
injects current into the earth between the two current terminals C1 (E)
and C2 (H).
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 The potential probes P1 & P2 detect the voltage ΔV (a function of the
resistance) due to the current injected in the earth by the current
terminals C1 & C2.
 The test set measures both the current and the voltage and internally calculates
and then displays the resistance. R=V/I
 If this ground electrode is in parallel or series with other ground rods, the
resistance value is the total value of all resistances.
 Ground resistance measurements are often corrupted by the existence of ground
currents and their harmonics. To prevent this it is advisable to use Automatic
Frequency Control (AFC) System. This automatically selects the testing
frequency with the least amount of noise enabling you to get a clear reading.
 Repeat above steps by increasing spacing between each electrode at equal
distance and measure earth resistance value.
 Average the all readings
 An effective way of decreasing the electrode resistance to ground is by pouring
water around it. The addition of moisture is insignificant for the reading; it will only
achieve a better electrical connection and will not influence the overall results.
Also a longer probe or multiple probes (within a short distance) may help.
Application:
 It is advisable for Medium or Large electrode System.
 It is use for Multiple Depth Testing
Advantage:
 This is most accurate Method.
 It is Quick, easy method.
 Extremely reliable conforms to IEEE 81;
Disadvantage:
 There need to turn off the equipment power or disconnect the earth electrode.
 One major drawback to this method is that it requires a large distance for
measurement.
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 This distance can range up to 2,000 feet or more for ground systems covering
a large area or of very low resistance.
 Time consuming and labor intensive
7.7.3. Three point (fall-of potential) Method

 The Fall-of-Potential method or Three-Terminal method is the most
common way to measure earth electrode system resistance, but it
requires special procedures when used to measure large electrode
systems
 There are three basic fall-of-potential test method.
 Full fall-of-Potential: A number of tests are made at different spaces of
Potential Probe ―P‖ and the resistance curve is plotted.
 Simplified Fall-of-Potential: Three measurements are made at defined
distance of Potential Probe ‖P‖ and mathematical calculations are used to
determine the resistance.
 8% Rule: A single measurement is made with Potential Probe ―P‖ at a
distance 61.8% (62%) of the distance between the electrode under test
and ―C‖.
7.7.3.1. Required Equipment:
 Earth Tester (4 Terminal or 3 Terminal)
 4 No‘s of Electrodes (Spike)
 Hammer
 Measuring Tap
7.7.3.2. Connections:
First, isolate the grounding electrode under measurement by disconnecting it
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7.7.3.3. For Small System:
 For 4 Terminal Earth Tester Short Current Terminal (C1) and Potential
Terminal (P1) together with a short jumper on the earth tester and connect
it to earthing electrode under test.
 For 3 Terminal Earth Tester Connect current terminal (C1) to the earth
electrode under measurement.
 Drive another Current Electrode (C2) into the earth 100 to 200 feet at
depth of 6 to 12 inches from the center of the electrode and connect
to C2 Terminal of earth tester.
 Drive another potential terminal (P2) at depth of 6 to 12 inches into the
earth midway between the Current Electrode (C1) and Current
Electrode (C2) and connect to Earth Tester on P2
7.7.3.4. For Large System
 Place the current electrode (C2) 400 to 600 feet from the measuring
Earth Current Electrode (C1)
 Place the potential electrode (P1)8% of the distance from the Earth
Current Electrode (C1)
 Measure the resistance
 Move the current electrode (C2) farther 50 to 100 Feet away from its
present position.
 Place the potential electrode (P2) 61.8% of the distance from the Earth
Current Electrode (C1).
 Spike length in the earth should not be more than 1/20th distance
between two spikes.
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Figure 51: Three point method by four and three terminal and Earth tester
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7.8. Testing Procedure:
 Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value
of the ground electrode under test.
 Move the potential electrode 10 feet farther away from the electrode and
make a second Measurement.
 Move the potential probe 10 feet closer to the electrode and make a third
measurement.
 If the three measurements agree with each other within a few percent of
their average, then the average of the three measurements may be used
as the electrode resistance.
 If the three measurements disagree by more than a few percent from their
average, then additional measurement procedures are required.
 The electrode center location seldom is known. In this case, at least three
sets of measurements are made, each with the current probe a different
distance from the electrode, preferably in different directions.
 When space is not available and it prevent measurements in different
directions, suitable measurements can be made by moving the current
probe in a line away from or closer to the electrode.
 For example, the measurement may be made with the current probe
located 200, 300 and 400 feet along a line from the electrode.
 Each set of measurements involves placing the current probe and then
moving the potential probe in 10 feet increments toward or away from the
electrode.
 The starting point is not critical but should be 20 to 30 feet from the
electrode connection point, in which case the potential probe is moved in
10 feet increments toward the current probe, or 20 to 30 feet from the
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current probe, in which case the potential probe is moved in 10 feet
increments back toward the electrode.
 The spacing between successive potential probe locations is not
particularly critical, and does not have to be 10 feet, as long as the
measurements are taken at equal intervals along a line between the
electrode connection and the current probe.
 Larger spacing means quicker measurements with fewer data points.
Smaller spacing means more data points with slower measurements.
 Once all measurements have been made, the data is plotted with the
distance from the electrode on the horizontal scale and the measured
resistance on the vertical scale.
 Importance of Position of Current Electrode (C2):
7.8.3. Fall-of-Potential measurements are based on the distance of the current

and potential probes from the center of the electrode under test.
 For highest degree of accuracy, it is necessary that the probe is placed
outside the sphere of influence of the ground electrode under test and
the auxiliary earth.
 If we Place Current Electrode (C2) too near to Earth Electrode (C1)
then the sphere of influence, the effective areas of resistance will
overlap and invalidate measurements taken.
 For the accurate results and to ensure that the ground stakes are
outside the spheres of influence.
 Reposition the inner Potation Electrode (P1) 1meter in either direction
and take a fresh measurement. If there is a significant change in the
reading (30 %), we need to increase the distance between the ground
rod under test, the inner stake (probe) and the outer stake (auxiliary
ground) until the measured values remain fairly constant when
repositioning the inner stake (probe).
January-2021
7.8.4. The best distance for the current probe is at least 10 to 20 times the largest
dimension of the electrode.
 Because measurement results are often distorted by underground
pieces of metal, underground aquifers, etc. so measurements are done
by changing axis of earth spike by 90 degrees, by changing the depth
and distance several times, these results can be a suitable ground
resistance system.
 The table is a guide for appropriately setting the probe (inner stake)
and auxiliary ground (outer stake).
Table 4: Distance of Probe from inner stake and outer stake to Depth of the ground
Distance of Probe
Distance to the Distance to the
Depth of the ground electrode
inner stake outer stake
2m 15 m 25 m
3m 20 m 30 m
6m 25 m 40 m
10 m 30 m 50
7.8.4.1. Application:
 It is advisable for High Electrical Load.
 It is suitable for small and medium electrodes system (1 or 2 rods/plates). .
 It is useful for homogeneous Soil
7.8.4.2. Advantage:
 The three-point method is the most reliable test method;
January-2021
 This test is the most suitable test for large grounding systems.
 Three-terminal is the quicker and simpler, with one less lead to string
Spacing For Current Probe
7.8.4.3. Disadvantage:
 Individual ground electrodes must be disconnected from the system to be

measured.
 It is extremely time consuming and labor intensive.
 There are situations where disconnection is not possible.
 Knowledge of location of center probe is necessary
 Time consuming and labor intensive Ineffective if the electrical center is

unknown.
 If less measurements are being made then less accurate than full Fall of
Potential 61.8% Rule.
 It is proven that the actual electrode resistance is measured when the

potential probe is located 61.8% of the distance between the center of the
electrode and the current probe. For example, if the current probe is located
400 feet from the electrode center, then the resistance can be measured with
the potential probe located 61.8% x 400 = 247 feet from the electrode center.
 The 61.8% measurement point assumes the current and potential probes are
located in a straight line and the soil is homogeneous (same type of soil
surrounding the electrode area and to a depth equal to 10 times the largest
electrode dimension).
 The 61.8% measurement point still provides suitable accuracy for most
measurements.
 Suppose, the distance of Current Spike from Earth Electrode D = 60 ft, Then,
distance of Potential Spike would be 62 % of D = 0.62D i.e. 0.62 x 60 ft = 37ft.
January-2021
Application:
 It is suitable for small and medium electrodes system.
 It is useful for homogeneous Soil
Advantage:
 Simplest to carry out.
 Required minimum calculation;
 Fewest number of test probe moves.
Disadvantage:
 Soil must be homogeneous.
 Less accurate
 Susceptible for non-homogeneous soil
7.9. Clamp-on test method

 For the clamp-on method to be effective there must be a complete
grounding circuit in place. The tester measures the complete resistance
path (loop) that the signal is taking. All elements of the loop are measured in
series.
 The Induced Frequency testing or commonly called the ―Clamp-On‖ test is
one of the newest test methods for measuring the resistance-to-ground of a
grounding system or electrode.
 This is Convenient, Quick ,easy and safe Method
 It does Not Require Disconnecting Equipment
7.9.1. Required equipment:
 Clamp-on Ground Resistance Meter.

January-2021
Connections setup:
Figure 52: connection setup using clamp resistance method

 Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual
value of earthing resistance of the ground electrode under test.
 The clamp-on methodology is based on Ohm‘s Law (R=V/I).
 The source coil inside the clamp of the earth tester inducing the
voltage. This voltage is inductively applied to a complete circuit .The
resulting current flow in the earthing circuit due to the induced voltage
is measured by the current coil installed in the same clamp of the earth
tester.
 The resistance of the circuit can then be calculated by taking the ratio
of the induced voltage and the circulated current in the earthing circuit.
January-2021
 It has to be ensured that the earthing system under test is included in
the current circulation loop. The clamp-on earth tester measures the
resistance of the path traversed by the induced current.
 All elements of the loop are measured in series. This method assumes
that only the resistance of the earthing system under test contributes
significantly.
 A low return path is required for readings. A high resistance return path
will yield high readings.
Advantage
 There is no need to turn off the equipment power or disconnect the earth rod.
 Not disconnecting the connections between the earthed body and the metal
work of the electrical Earthing Point.
 Not dangerous to human life because no any DC current injected in Probe.
Disadvantages:
 If the frequency of AC current injected into the earth by the tester is the same
as that of disturbance current in the earth then accuracy of the readings are
seriously affected.
 The mutual inductance between the voltage and current loops of the clamp
tester may affect accuracy of the readings.
 The clamp-on method is only effective in situations with multiple earthing
electrodes are in parallel and a closed circuit is available for the current
circulation.
 It cannot be used on isolated grounds, as there is no return path.
 Measurement of low earth resistance (0.5Ω) is difficult with this method.
 This method id effective only in situations with multiple grounds in parallel.
 This method cannot be used on isolated grounds and not applicable for
installation checks or commissioning new sites.
January-2021
 This method cannot be used if an alternate lower resistance return exists not
involving the soil, such as with cellular towers or substations.

7.10. Star Delta Method
 If the testing area is so limited that a required spacing cannot be found then it
may be necessary to use the Star-Delta Method. Named for the configuration
of the test probes and lines of measurement (a graphic of it resembles the
familiar symbols for ―delta‖ and ―star‖ windings).
 This method saves space by employing a tight configuration of three probes
around the test ground

 Hammer
7.10.2. Connections:
 The ground electrode under test (E) is connecting to C1 Terminal of Tester.
 Three Potential and current probes (P2, P3 and P4) are placed equidistant
from ―E‖ with a 120º angle between them. Separation of potential and current
circuits is abandoned, and a series of two-point measurements made
between all pairs of probes, and probes to the ground under test.
January-2021
Figure 53: star delta testing method

 Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value of
earthing resistance of the ground electrode under test.
Application:
 Ground systems located in congested urban areas or rocky area where probe
positioning is difficult
 Where required probe positioning is difficult
Advantage:
 Knowledge of electrical center not necessary
Disadvantage:
 Number of calculations required
 Long distances to test probes is still required;
7.11. Slope Method

 If soil is non-homogeneous. Soil Slope Method is useful for earth resistance
measurement.
January-2021
 Hammer
 Measuring Tap
7.11.2. Connections:
 First, isolate the grounding electrode under measurement by disconnecting it
 The earth electrode under measurement (E) is connected to C1 Terminal of
Earth Tester.
 E is either one of many paralleled rods forming the complex earth system.
 Insert the current probe C2 at a distance (D) from E (distance D is normally 2
to 3 times the maximum dimension of the system).
 Insert potential probes P1,P2 and P3 at distances equal to 20% of D, 40% of
D and 60% D.
Figure 54 Slop methods for earth Resistance testing
Press START and read out the resistance value. This is the actual value of earthing
resistance of the ground electrode under test.
January-2021
Self-check -10
Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) The low-voltage and high-voltage earth systems are kept separate in the MEN
system.
2) In Distribution System three Phase load is unbalance and nonlinear so. The Neutral
plays an important role in Distribution system.
3) It is crucial decisions to adopt Multi Grounded Neutral System to ―save money.
4) The multiple earthed neutral (MEN) system of earthing is one in which the low
voltage neutral conductor is used as the low resistance return path for fault currents

5. What are the advantages of multiple ground neutral system?(6-points)
6. List the six basic test methods to measure earth resistance.(6-points)
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
5.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6._____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -8 Selecting Protective devices.
Information Sheet -8# Selecting Protective devices.

8.1. Electrical Protective Device
A device used to protect equipment, machinery, components and devices, in electrical
and electronic circuit, against short circuit, over current and earth fault, is called as
protective devices
8.2. Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment

against
 Short Circuit
 abnormal variations in the supply voltage
 Overloading of equipment
 To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment,
falling which the operator may get a severe shock.
8.3. Types of Protective Device
8.3.1. Different types of the protective device that are commonly used in electrical
circuit
 Fuse Wire or Fuse
 .MCB – Miniature circuit breaker
 ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
 ELCB & MCB
 Earthing or Grounding
January-2021
8.4. How to Choose the Right Circuit Protection Devices
When speaking about the protection of electrical installation, the most often meant is the
overcurrent protection. This is the protection that must be activated in case of
exceedingly high currents in an installation (the currents whose value is higher than
expected). It can be achieved using safety fuses, or (automatic) circuit breakers; there
are two other names: LS and MCB switches. The task of that protection is to switch out
faulty circuits, and thereby protect the loads that are connected to those circuits, thus
preventing the consequences (in the first place thermal overloading of conductors, and
fire risk). In new buildings are in dwelling electrical installations almost exclusively used
circuit breakers owing to their numerous advantages:
The most important aspect of selecting circuit protection devices for electrical
installation, motor control and equipment (Appliances) is a complete understanding of
the system to be protected. Because the circuit protection design is usually one of the
last considerations, and time is always at a premium, this aspect of electrical system
design is usually rushed.
8.4.1. Mechanical Products, a manufacturer of thermal circuit protection devices,

recommends an easy seven-step process for effectively selecting your overcurrent
protection solution.
1. Determine what is to be protected and why. I.e.-device, component(s),

circuit(s).
2. Determine how damaging over currents and natural inrush currents and
surges can be developed in those items listed above.
3. Determine where a current interruption device should be placed. Depending on

placement, you will need to consider the type and size of automotive wire and
cable and electrical connector.
January-2021
4. Calculate the magnitude and duration of the potential fault currents of Step 2
as they relate to those items listed in Step 1. Determine maximum voltage
requirements of the protective devices you will use. It is also important to
consider what kind of environmental elements the circuit protection device will
be exposed to.
Figure 55: Types of Circuit Protection Devices
If your circuit protection device is going to be subject to harsh environmental

elements, you might want to consider weather-proof or marine rated components.
January-2021
5. List the supplementary requirements for the protective device. What will it be
connected to? I.e. auxiliary switch for an alarm circuit, lighted actuation,
environmental considerations, electrical trip, relay trip, etc.
6. Determine the regulatory requirements. Depending on your application, you might

be required to use circuit breakers, and other circuit protection devices
7. Choose a circuit protection device that meets the requirements of your

application.
8.4.1.1. In order to avoid nuisance trips attributable to start-up inrush and

harmless surges with power systems, it is necessary to provide a margin of tolerance
between the steady state current of the circuit and the rating of the protector.
In general, the recommended margin for fuses is 25%; for circuit protectors, 15 to 20%.
Additionally, there is a trip window or tolerance on the calibration of the protection
device.
8.4.1.1. For precise circuit breakers, this tolerance is between 25% and 35%. This
means that a circuit breaker will hold 100% and will trip between 100% and 125% to
135% within the hour. Based on this common industry specification as an example, a 10
amp rated protector can be expected to hold 10 amps or 100%. It can also be expected
to trip at 12.5 or 13.5 amps within an hour. The expected trip point is governed by the
Maximuim Ultimate Trip (MUT) specification. In this example, the Maximum Ultimate
Trip is 125% to 135%, depending on the circuit breaker's specifications.
8.4.2. How to Select Proper Type of Miniature Circuit Breakers MCBs

8.4.2.1. Selecting protective devices
The type of protective device chosen will depend on a number of factors, including:
January-2021
 the nature or type of load
 the prospective fault current P1 at that point of the installation
 any existing equipment
 the user of the installation, as a C
There is a limit to the maximum current that an overcurrent protective device (fuse or
circuit breaker) can interrupt. This is called the rated short-circuit capacity or
breaking capacity. BS 7671 and IEC 60364 requires the prospective fault current
under both short-circuit and earth-fault conditions to be determined at every relevant
point of the complete installation.
This means that at every point where switchgear is installed, the maximum fault
current must be determined to ensure that the switchgear is adequately rated to
interrupt the fault currents.
Circuit breakers have two short-circuit capacity ratings.

 Ics = is the value of fault current up to which the device can operate safely
and remain suitable and serviceable after the fault.
 Icn = is the value above which the device would not be able to interrupt
faults safely. This could lead to the danger of explosion during faults of
this magnitude or, even worse, the contacts welding and not interrupting
the fault.
Any faults that occur between these two ratings will be interrupted safely but the
device will probably require replacement.
January-2021
Table 5: Type of load and its Suitable type of device
Type of load Suitable type of device

Resistive ,such as heating elements, Type B circuit breakers gGBS88 devices
incandescent, lighting, etc.
Inductive ,such as discharge lighting, Type C circuit breakers gMBS88 devices
small motors or ELV lighting transformers
High inductive or surging , such as Type D circuit breakers
welding equipment, X-ray machines,
large motors without soft starting
When choosing the breaking characteristics, usually are available B, C and (sometimes)
also D – complying with the IEC 60898 standard. For a residential installation the most
often used is B characteristic. However, if loads with high starting current are to be
connected to that installation, (e.g. angle grinders), C characteristics should be used,
because it is more resistant to undesired switching offs at the start.
8.4.5. Different types of protection devices

The different types of circuit protection devices examples include the following.
 Fuse and Circuit Breaker
 Poly Switch
 RCCB
 Metal Oxide Varistor
 Inrush Current Limiter
 Gas Discharge Tube
 Spark Gap
 Lightning Arrester
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. When protection of electrical installation, the most often meant is the overcurrent
protection.
2. The most important aspect of selecting circuit protection devices for electrical
installation is a complete understanding of the system to be protected.
3. For a residential installation the most often used is B type ckb characteristic.
4. Resistive, such as heating elements, incandescent, lighting, Type B circuit breakers
gGBS88 devices used.
5. What is the purpose of Protective devices? (5-points)

6. Write the factor on w/c the type of protective device depends. (5-points)
7. Different types of circuit protection devices. (5-points)
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
4.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5._____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -9 For switching and tripping currents.
Information Sheet -9# Circuit breaker releases / Tripping units

9.1. For switching and tripping currents.
The main objective of circuit breaker tripping units and protective functions in general
is to detect faults and to selectively isolate faulted parts of the system. It must also
permit short clearance times to limit the fault power and the effect of arcing faults
The Basics of Circuit Breaker Tripping Units (Siemens molded case circuit breaker
'Sentron' Series; 400 Amp Frame - 400 Amp Trip)
The protective function of the circuit breaker in the power distribution system is
determined by the selection of the appropriate release. Releases can be divided into:
 Thermal-magnetic tripping units – TMTU, also called electromechanical

releases and
 Electronic tripping units – ETU
9.2. Thermal-magnetic tripping units

The thermomagnetic trip unit consists of two parts:
The thermal trip unit – Made up by a bimetal thermal device which actuates the
opening of a circuit breaker with a delay depending on the overcurrent value. This trip
unit is intended for the protection against overloads. The magnetic trip unit – Made up
by an electromagnetic device, with fixed (fixed instantaneous trip) or adjustable
(adjustable instantaneous trip) threshold, which actuates the instantaneous trip of the
circuit breaker on a pre-determined overcurrent value (multiple of the In) with
a constant trip time (about some tens of milliseconds). This trip unit is intended for the
protection against short circuit.
January-2021
9.3. Electronic tripping units
The electronic trip units instead use a microprocessor to process the current
signal and operate the circuit breaker opening in case of fault. In addition to
this, electronic tripping units offer more tripping criteria which are not feasible with
electromechanical releases.
9.4. By digital processing of the signal, they provide the following protection
functions:
1. Long time-delay trip function (ANSI code: 51, AC time overcurrent relay);
2. Short time-delay trip function (ANSI code: 51, AC time overcurrent relay);
3. Instantaneous trip function (ANSI code: 50, instantaneous overcurrent
relay);
4. Ground-fault trip function (ANSI code: 51 N, AC time earth fault overcurrent
relay).
9.5. Circuit tripping

OK, so the circuit breaker tripped. You go to the basement and locate the electrical
panel, reset the circuit breaker and "pop", it trips again, or it trips again when you go
back upstairs and turn back on what you were using when it tripped in the first place. At
this point you need to stop and identify the root cause of the problem making the circuit
breaker trip.
How to Reset a Circuit Breaker!
If a circuit is overloaded or it shorts, the breaker will trip and cut off electricity to prevent
fire and/or electrocution. Follow these steps to turn the power back on.
January-2021
9.5.1. Instructions
1. Turn off the light switches and unplug appliances in the room that has lost
power.
2. Find your circuit breaker box and open the cover.
3. Locate the tripped breaker. Circuit breakers are small, usually horizontal
switches labeled by the areas of the house they serve (for example,
"kitchen," "bathroom" and so on). The tripped circuit breaker will be in the
"off" position or in a middle position between "on" and "off."
4. Reset the breaker by moving it to the full "off" position and then back to
"on." That may clear an overload and return power to the room. If the
breaker re-trips, you may have too many lamps and appliances plugged
into the circuit; a damaged cord or plug; a short circuit in a receptacle,
switch or fixture; or faulty wiring.
5. Identify and correct the malfunction before resetting the breaker.
6. If you DO want to use a number of appliances in a certain area of your
home and don‘t have enough power Expert Electric would be happy to run
additional circuits to the area requiring more electrical power.
9.5.2. Breaker and fuse

Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power to a
circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels. For example, if
your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should "trip", protecting the
wiring in the walls from melting. Fuses contain a narrow strip of
metal which is designed to melt (safely) when the current exceeds
the rated value, thereby interrupting the power to the circuit. A fuse
can only trip once, and then it must be replaced.
Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices. They usually consist of one spring
loaded contact which is latched into position against another contact. When the current
January-2021
flow through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip heats up and bends
to trip the circuit. By bending it "trips" the latch, and the spring pulls the contacts apart.
Breakers can be reset a finite number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown when
the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which damages the contacts. Thus,
breakers should not be used in place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
purpose
A dangerous situation may occur if a cable carries more current than it's rated for. Large
cables, with less resistance, can carry more current than smaller cables, which have
more resistance. It's like a garden hose, the larger the diameter the more water it can
carry. The smaller the diameter the less water it can carry. When a circuit is overloaded
the conductors will start to produce heat which in turn can melt the insulation covering
and cause an electrical fire. Rather than installing larger fuses and circuit breakers, do it
the right way by breaking up reducing the number of outlets on overloaded circuits.
The big advantage of circuit breakers is that they can be reset where fuses have only
one life. To reset a circuit breaker first turn it all the way off and then you can switch it
back to the on position. When a fuse blows you have to replace it. It's a good idea if
your home has a fuse box to keep 1 or 2 spares of each size fuse right beside the fuse
panel so that you can find them easily when needed. It is highly recommended that you
replace your old fuse panel with a circuit breaker panel.
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) Circuit breaker tripping units and protective functions in general is to detect
faults and to selectively isolate faulted parts of the system.
2) The thermal trip unit intended for the protection against overloads.
3) If a circuit is overloaded or it shorts, the breaker will trip and cut off electricity to
prevent fire
4) Circuit breaker must also permit short clearance times to limit the fault power.
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -10 Short ckt protection
Information Sheet -10# Short ckt protection

10.1. Short ckt protection
Definition: A short circuit is when there is a low resistance connection between two
conductors that are supplying electrical power to a circuit. This would generate an
excess of voltage streaming and cause excessive flow of current in the power source.
The electricity will flow through a ‗short‘ route and cause a short circuit.
It is a direct contact between two points of different electric potential. The short circuit
protection system is broken down into the following systems −
10.1.1. Alternating Current System
 Phase to Ground contact
 Phase to Neutral contact
 Phase to Phase contact
 Contact between windings of an electrical machine in a phase
10.1.2. Direct Current System
 Pole to Ground contact
 Contact between two poles
There can be numerous causes resulting in the above type of contacts including
damage to the insulation of conductors, loose, broken or stripped wires and cables,
and deposition of conducting materials such as dust, moisture, etc.
January-2021
10.2. Types of Electrical Short Circuit
10.1.1. Normal Short Circuit
This is when a hot wire carrying current touches a neutral wire. When that happens, the
resistance will go down instantly and a large volume of current will flow through an
unexpected pathway.
10.1.2. Ground Fault Short Circuit
Ground fault short circuit occurs when the hot wire carrying current comes into contact
with some grounded portion of the system. It can be a grounded metal wall box, bare
ground wire or a grounded portion of an appliance.
10.2. Main Causes of Electrical Short Circuit

10.2.1. Faulty Circuit Wire Insulation
If the insulation is damaged or old, it may allow the hot wires to touch with neutral. This
will cause a short circuit. Age of the wire, nails or screws can damage the insulation and
allow short circuit. There is a risk of pests of gnawing the insulation and exposing the
wire conductors too.
10.2.2. Loose Wire Connections
If there are any loose wire connections or attachments, it will allow the live and neutral
wires to touch. If you see faulty wire connections, do not try to fix it on your own and call
a professional immediately.
January-2021
10.2.3. Faulty Appliance Wiring
If you plug an appliance into a wall socket, its wiring essentially becomes an extension
of the circuit. Therefore, if there are any problems in the appliance wiring, it will become
circuit problems. Short circuits can occur in the power cords, plugs or inside the
appliance. Make sure you get short circuit protection for all the appliance
10.3. Prevention method of Electrical Short Circuit

10.3.1. Monitor Outlets & Appliances
Every outlet has a network of wires connected to it. If there are any faulty wires,
loose box connections or if the outlet is over 15-25 years old, it may lead to a
short circuit. Look out for possible signs that indicate faulty outlets, which include:
 Burn marks on the outlet or a burning smell

 Sparks emitting from the outlet
 Buzzing sound from the outlet
Similarly, check the appliances and their wiring too. Faulty appliance wiring or
cracks in the appliance can cause a short circuit. Repair such appliances or
replace them altogether.
10.3.2. Use Less Electricity during Storms
A short circuit caused by a lightning strike can be extremely dangerous as the

sheer amount of electricity can lead to damage. Reduce the electrical usage
during a storm as it can help prevent short circuits and lessen the damage in
case of a power surge.
January-2021
10.3.3. Get a Yearly Electrical Inspection
Call a certified professional and get an electrical inspection done at least once a
year. They can identify critical issues and resolve them before they can get
dangerous because they know how to fix a short circuit.
10.3.4. Install Devices that Prevent Short Circuit
 Circuit Breakers or Fuses: A circuit breaker is a switching device in a circuit that

interrupts an abnormal flow of current. It uses an internal system of springs or
compressed air to sense any changes in the current flow. It will ‗break‘ the
circuit open and cut the flow of current. A fuse is a device that provides
overcurrent protection. It has a metal strip or wire that melts when a large
amount of current flows through it. This interrupts the circuit.
 Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs): GFCI works by comparing the
amount of current flowing in and out of a circuit. If there is a ground fault or
imbalance between the currents flowing in and out, the GFCI will shut off
electrical power.
 Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs): An AFCI breaks the circuit when it
detects an electric arc in the circuit. It helps in preventing electrical fires
10.4. Earth fault current is always less than phase fault current in magnitude.
Therefore, relay connected for earth fault protection is different from those for phase to
phase fault protection
January-2021
Table 6: Various types of lines Faults
No Type of Fault Operation of Relay

1 Phase to ground fault(Earth fault) Earth Fault Relay
2 Phase to Phase Fault Not with ground Related phase over current relays
3 Double phase to ground fault Related phase overcurrent relays and
Earth Fault relays
January-2021
Self-check -13
Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
1) Normal Short Circuit this is when a hot wire carrying current touches a phase
wire
2) Ground Fault Short Circuit occurs when the hot wire carrying current comes into
contact with some phase line portion of the system.
3) If the insulation is damaged or old, it may allow the hot wires to touch with
neutral.
4) If there are any loose wire connections or attachments, it will allow the live and
neutral wires to touch.
5) A circuit breaker is a switching device in a circuit that interrupts an abnormal flow of
curren
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -11 Select Residual current devices
Information Sheet -11# Select Residual current devices

11.1. Residual current devices
RCD is Modern alternatives (better) to Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers and fuses
in the Consumer Unit. RCDs are tripped if they detect a small current imbalance
between the Live and Neutral wires above the trip value - this is typically 30mA.
RCDs can be wired to protect a single or a number of circuits - the advantage of

protecting individual circuits is that if one circuit trips, it will not shut down the
whole house, just the protected circuit.
11.2. RCDs are available in at least 4 basic configurations

1. As hard wired in units, where both the inputs and outputs are wired into
the unit - ideal for a workshop etc where all the sockets within can be
protected. Each individual circuit taken from the RCD is protected by a
MCB of an appropriate value.
January-2021
Figure 56: RCD
2. As protected outlets - normally a protected socket can be fitted as a direct

replacement for a standard, no protected outlet socket.
Figure 57: protected socket
3. As a plug-in unit which can convert any socket into to a protected circuit -
this gives good flexibility as, for example, a lawn mower or a hedge
trimmer can be plugged in at different times. However, as the individual
appliance could still be plugged into an unprotected socket, you need to
remember to fit the
January-2021
Figure 58: As a plug-in unit which can convert any socket into to a protected circuit
4. As a plug for wiring on to the lead of an individual appliance, this does

make it less flexible than the plug-in unit above but it does ensure that the
piece of equipment is always protected. One very usefully use to to fit it to
the end of an extension cable, then whatever you plug into the extension
lead is protected.
Figure 59: a plug for wiring on to the lead of an individual appliance
January-2021
11.3. Residual Current Breaker with Overload protection (RCBO)
A RCBOs combines the functions of a MCB and a RCD in one unit. They are
used to protect a particular circuit, instead of having a single RCD for the whole
building. Generally these are used more often in commercial building than
domestic ones.
Figure 60: Residual Current Breaker with Overload protection (RCBO)
11.3.1. Typical RCB circuit
 The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a common
transformer core.
 On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the load
and return back through the neutral coil. Both the phase and the neutral coils
January-2021
are wound in such a way that they will produce an opposing magnetic flux. With
the same current passing through both coils, their magnetic effect will cancel
out under a healthy circuit condition.
 In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit, or
anywhere between the load circuit and the output connection of the RCB circuit,
the current returning through the neutral coil has been reduced. Then the
magnetic flux inside the transformer core is not balanced anymore. The total
sum of the opposing magnetic flux is no longer zero. This net remaining flux is
what we call a residual flux.
 The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core crosses path
with the winding of the search coil. This action produces an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) across the search coil. An electromotive force is actually an alternating
voltage. The induced voltage across the search coil produces a current inside
the wiring of the trip circuit. It is this current that operates the trip coil of the
circuit breaker. Since the trip current is driven by the residual magnetic flux (the
resulting flux, the net effect between both fluxes) between the phase and the
neutral coils, it is called the residual current devise.
 With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled system
is called residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) or residual current devise
(RCD). The incoming current has to pass through the circuit breaker first before
going to the phase coil. The return neutral path passes through the second
circuit breaker pole. During tripping when a fault is detected, both the phase
and neutral connection is isolated.
o RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating
current, noted IΔn. Preferred values have been defined by the
IEC, thus making it possible to divide RCDs into three groups
according to their IΔn value.
o High sensitivity (HS): 6- 10- 30 mA (for direct-contact / life injury
protection)
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o Standard IEC 60755 (General requirements for residual current
operated protective devices) defines three types of RCD
depending on the characteristics of the fault current.
 Type AC: RCD for which tripping is ensured for residual sinusoidal
alternating currents
11.3.2. Sensitivity of RCB:
 Medium sensitivity (MS): 100- 300- 500- 1000 mA (for fire protection)
 Low sensitivity (LS): 3- 10- 30 A (typically for protection of machine)
11.3.3. Types of RCB:
11.3.3.1. Type A: RCD for which tripping is ensured

For residual sinusoidal alternating currents for residual pulsating direct currents
For residual pulsating direct currents superimposed by a smooth direct current of 0.006
RCD will trip. A RCD can operate with or without phase-angle control, independent of
the polarity.
11.3.3.2. Type B: RCD for which tripping is ensured

 as for type A
 for residual sinusoidal currents up to 1000 Hz
 for residual sinusoidal currents superposed by a pure direct current
 for pulsating direct currents superposed by a pure direct current
 for residual currents which may result from rectifying circuits
 three pulse star connection or six pulse bridge connection
 two pulse bridge connection line-to-line with or without phase-
angle monitoring, independently of the polarity
 There are two groups of devices:
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11.3.3.3. Break time of RCB:
1. G (general use) for instantaneous RCDs (i.e. without a time delay)
 Minimum break time: immediate
 Maximum break time: 200 ms for 1x IΔn, 150 ms for 2x IΔn, and 40 ms for 5xIΔn
2. S (selective) or T (time delayed) for RCDs with a short time delay (typically used in
circuits containing surge suppressors)
 Minimum break time: 130 ms for 1x IΔn, 60 ms for 2x IΔn, and 50 ms for 5x
IΔn
 Maximum break time: 500 ms for 1x IΔn, 200 ms for 2x IΔn, and 150 ms for
5x IΔn
Note: 1.G=general use,

S = selective
January-2021
Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) RCDs are tripped if they detect a small current imbalance between the Live and
Neutral wires above the trip value - this is typically 30mA .
2) Sensitivity of RCB Medium sensitivity (MS): 100- 300- 500- 1000 mA (for fire
protection)
3) During tripping when a fault is detected, both the phase and neutral connection is
isolated.
4) RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating current, noted IΔn.
Note: Satisfactory rating –8 points Unsatisfactory - below 8 points
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -12 Select Switch gear/control gear.
Information Sheet -12# Select Switch gear/control gear

12.1. Switchgear
Definition: The apparatus used for controlling, regulating and switching on or off
the electrical circuit in the electrical power system is known as switch gear. The
switches, fuses, circuit breaker, isolator, relays, current and potential
transformer, indicating instrument, lightning arresters and control panels are
examples of the switchgear devices. The switchgear system is directly linked to
the supply system. It is placed in both the high and low voltage side of the power
transformer. It is used for de-energizing the equipment for testing and
maintenance and for clearing the fault.
When the fault occurs in the power system, heavy current flow through
equipment due to which the equipment get damaged, and the service also get
interrupted. So to protect the lines, generators, transformers and other electrical
equipment from damage automatic protective devices or switchgear devices are
required.
The automatic protective switchgear mainly consists of the relay and circuit
breaker. When the fault occurs in any section of the system, the relay of that
section comes into operation and closes the trip circuit of the breaker which
disconnects the faulty section. The healthy section continues supplying loads as
usual, and thus there is no damage to equipment and no complete interruption of
supply.
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Switchgear is commonly found throughout electric utility transmission and
distribution systems as well as in medium to large sized commercial or industrial
facilities. Standards for electrical switchgear are defined by IEEE in North
America and by IEC in Europe and other parts of the world.
Figure 61: Unit Substation
12.2. Types of Switchgear

The switchgear is mainly classified into two types, the outdoors type and the indoor
type. For voltage above 66kV, the output switchgear is used. Because for the high
voltage, the building work will unnecessarily increase the installation cost owing to large
spacing between the conductor and large size of insulators.
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Below the 66kv there is no difficulty in providing the building work for the switchgear at a
reasonable cost. The indoor type switchgear is of metal clad type and is compact.
Because of the compactness, the safety clearance for operation is also reduced and
thus reduced the area required.
12.3. Low Voltage Switchgear

Low voltage switchgear (LV switchgear) refers to electrical switchgear that is rated up to
1000V, with common voltage ratings including 208V, 240V, 480V, and 600V. Used
across industrial and commercial utilization, low voltage switchgear uses fuses, circuit
breakers, bus bars, transformers, and other components to protect circuits, deliver
electricity, and allow for safe maintenance. Low voltage switchgear is a very effective
and generally used method of electrical system control and distribution, as it can handle
short circuits for the long term.
12.4. Essential features of switchgears are:

(I) Complete reliability
With the continued trend of interconnection and the increasing capacity of
generating stations, the need for reliable switchgear has become of paramount
importance. This is not surprising because switchgear is added to the power system to
improve the reliability. When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the
switchgear must operate to isolate the faulty section from the remainder circuit.
(II) Absolutely certain discrimination
When fault occurs on any section of the power system, the switchgear must be able to
discriminate between the faulty section and the healthy section. It should isolate the
faulty section from the system without affecting the healthy section. This will ensure
continuity of supply.
(iii) Quick operation.
When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear must operate quickly
so that no damage is done to generators, transformers and other equipment by the
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short-circuit currents. If fault is not cleared by switchgear quickly, it is likely to spread
into healthy parts, thus endangering complete shutdown of the system
(iv) Provision for manual control

Switchgear must have provision for manual control. In case the electrical (or electronics)
control fails, the necessary operation can be carried out through manual control.
(v) Provision for instruments

There must be provision for instruments which may be required. These may be in the
form of ammeter or voltmeter on the unit itself or the necessary current and voltage
transformers for connecting to the main switchboard or a separate instrument panel
12.5. Switchgear Equipment
Switchgear covers a wide range of equipment concerned with switching and interrupting
currents
12.6. Under both normal and abnormal conditions:

It includes switches, fuses, circuit breakers, relays and other equipment. A brief
account of these devices is given below. However, the reader may find the detailed
discussion on them in the subsequent chapters.
12.6.1. Switches
A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient
way. It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault
currents. When the contacts of a switch are opened, an*arc is produced in the air
between the contacts. This is particularly true for circuits of high voltage and large
current capacity.
The switches may be classified into:
 Air switches
 Isolator or disconnecting switch.
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 Oil switches. The contacts of the former are opened in air and that of the
latter are opened in oil.
12.6.1.1. Air-break switch.

It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load.
In order to quench the arc that occurs on opening such a switch, special arcing
horns are provided. Arcing horns are pieces of metals between which arc is formed
during opening operation. As the switch opens, these horns are spread farther and
farther apart. Consequently, the arc is lengthened, cooled and interrupted. Air-break
switches are generally used outdoor for circuits of medium capacity such as lines
supplying an industrial load from a main transmission line or feeder.
12.6.1.2. Isolator or disconnecting switch.

It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load
Its main purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended
to be opened while current is flowing in the line. Such switches are generally used on
both sides of circuit breakers in order that repairs and replacement of circuit breakers
can be made without any danger. They should never be opened until the circuit breaker
in the same circuit has been opened and should always be closed before the circuit
breaker is closed.
12.6.1.3. Oil switches.

As the name implies, the contacts of such switches are opened under oil, usually
transformer oil. The effect of oil is to cool and quench the arc that tends to form when
the circuit is opened. These switches are used for circuits of high voltage and
large current carrying capacities.
12.6.2. Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows
through it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to
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be protected. Under normal operating conditions, the fuse element operates at a
temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal load current without
overheating. When a short circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse
element increases beyond its rated capacity and blown the fuse. This raises the
temperature and the fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit
protected by it.
12.7. Low-voltage switchgear carries the following ratings:
 Maximum voltage (Typically up to 635V)

 Power frequency (Typically 50Hz and 60Hz)
 Insulation level (Typically 2.2kV)
 Continuous current (Typically up to 10,000A)
 Short-circuit withstand current (Typically up to 200kA)
 Short-time withstand current (Typically up to 100kA, 30 cycles)
12.8. The most common uses for low voltage switchgear includes
 Motors
 Feeder Lines
 Textile and Railways Control Panels
 MCC and PCC panels
 Variable Frequency Panels
 Solar & Wind Panels
 Low-voltage Switchgear features
 Insulation level (Typically 8 kV)
 Short-circuit withstand current (Typically up to 150 kA)
 Rated Service Breaking Capacity I cs = 100% or 75% X % I cu
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January-2021
Figure 62: common low voltage switchgear
12.9. Service conditions
 Ambient air temperature: -30℃~+50℃ and the average temperature

should not exceed +50℃ in 24h
 Indoor altitude above sea level: Maximum installation altitude:

2000mRelative humidity should not exceed 50% at max temperature
+50℃.
 Higher relative humidity is allowed at lower temperature. Ex. 90% at

+20℃. But in view of the temperature change, it is possible that moderate
dews will produce casually.
 Installation gradient not exceed 5°
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 The equipment shall be installed in a place where there is no violent
vibration and impact, and the place where the electrical components are
not corroded.
 Any specific requirement, consult with manufacture
Figure 63: air break
Figure 64: Isolator and oil switches
12.10. The difference between switchboards and switchgear
Low-voltage metal-enclosed switchgear and low-voltage switchboards are products

used to safely distribute power throughout a facility. Both assemblies utilize free-
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standing enclosures that house circuit breakers, bus bar and power cables. Both
products may contain meters, relays, potential transducers, current transducers and
transfer schemes for redundant power. However, that is where the similarities end.
Switchboards are typically constructed with a dead-front, open-chassis design with

few or no internal barriers between the cables, circuit breakers and bus bar. When
the switchboard dead-front is removed, all bus bar, cables and terminations are
exposed.
Switchboards are tested per the UL 891 Switchboards standard and are normally
composed of fixed-mounted molded case circuit breakers which comply with the UL
489 MCCB standard. Switchboards tend to be front-accessible which means the
incoming and outgoing cable terminations can be accessed from the front so the
assembly can be mounted against a wall. These differences result in a smaller
footprint than a similar switchgear assembly that contains the same number of circuit
breakers. (UL=Under-writer laboratory) Switchboards also tend to be less expensive
than switchgear. For example, fixed-mounted MCCBs are less expensive than draw-
out power circuit breakers. However, MCCBs are not designed to be serviced and if
the breakers are fix-mounted, the switchboard must be de-energized in order to
replace them. Switchgear, on the other hand, contains draw-out power circuit
breakers which can be removed from the equipment while it is energized and are
designed to be fully serviceable.
Switchboards only have a 3 cycle short-time current withstand rating, versus a 30

cycle rating for switchgear. This is due to the fact that MCCBs also only have a 3
cycle short-time current withstand rating. This means that achieving selective
coordination is more difficult since short-time delays cannot be programmed in to
provide time for circuit breakers farther downstream to clear faults. Certain arc-flash
safety technologies are also not available in switchboards. Such technologies
available only in low-voltage switchgear include Arc Quenching technology and arc-
resistant construction.
January-2021
In facilities that consume large amounts of power and facilities that require reliable
power, switchgear and switchboards both play important roles. The switchgear may
provide primary low-voltage power distribution and protection, often residing at the
service entrance or on the secondary of a transformer substation, feeding power to
various switchboards and low-voltage MCCs located throughout the facility which in
turn feed smaller branch circuits such as lighting, HVAC and process-specific loads.
Figure 65: Draw out low Voltage switch gear
January-2021
Self-check -15
Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) Switch gear is an Apparatus used for controlling, regulating and switching on or off
the electrical circuit in the electrical power system.
2) The automatic protective switchgear mainly consists of the relay and circuit breaker
3) Low voltage switchgear (LV switchgear) refers to electrical switchgear that is rated
up to 1000V,
4) Switchboards also tend to be very expensive than switchgear.
5) Switchgear must have provision for manual control.
6) If fault is not cleared by switchgear quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts of
the system.

1. Write the Essential features of switch gears.(4-points)
2. List some ratings of Low-voltage switch gear.(4-points)
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
6.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7._____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -13 Arrange Switch boards to accommodate
control and protective devices
13.1. The basics of low voltage switchboards

Definition: The national electric code (NEC) define a switch board as a large single l,
frame or assembly of panels on witch are mounted, on the face, back or both, switches,
over current and other protective devices, buses, and usually instrument, switchboards
are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to
be installed in cabinets.
13.2. Switchboard construction

13.2.1. Frame
There are multiple elements that make up a switchboard. Included in the list of elements
are a frame, buses, overcurrent protective devices, service metering, and outer
covers.
Figure 66: Switchboard construction
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The frame of the switchboard houses and supports the other components. The
standard Siemens switchboard frame is 90 inches high and 32 or 38 inches wide. An
optional height of 70 inches with widths of 32, 38, or 46 inches is also available.
Siemens switchboards have a depth measurement ranging from 20 to 58

inches.
13.3. Bus
A bus is a conductor or set of conductors that serves as a common connection for two
or more circuits. The bus bars shall be located so as to be free from physical damage
and shall be held firmly in place.
13.3.1. Rear Connected Switchboards

Siemens Rear Connected (RCS) switchboards feature individually mounted branch
and feeder devices. Because of this method of mounting, access to outgoing cable
terminations must be from the rear of the switchboard.
Bus bar extensions from the feeder devices are run back to the rear of the unit for
easy access. The front and rear of all sections align.
January-2021
RCS switchboards accommodate systems up to 6000 amperes, 600 volts maximum in
any three-phase three-wire or three-phase four-wire configuration. The main bus can
be specified for 600 to 6000 ampere rating.
Figure 67: Rear Connected Switchboard
RCS Switchboards use WL insulated case (UL 489) or LV power (UL 1 066) circuit
breakers with draw out mountings and continuous current ratings from 400 to 5000 A
for main and branch devices.
13.4. Integrated Power System (IPS) Switchboards

The modular design of Siemens Integrated Power System (IPS) switchboard
allows the customer to integrate electrical distribution equipment, power
monitoring, and environmental controls that typically mount in multiple enclosures
into one switchboard line-up.
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Customers have the freedom to configure an arrangement that best fits their
individual needs. Optional factory installed interconnection wiring is available to
further reduce installation time.
IPS switchboards are built to UL 891 and NEMA PB-2 standards. IPS sections
have a standard height of 90 inches. Optional 70 inch high sections are available.
The minimum depth of IPS sections is 1 3.75 inches. Optional depths of 20, 28,
and 38 inches are available and these optional depths may be required depending
upon the components installed.
IPS switchboards consist of one service section and one or more distribution
sections that are cable connected. However, IPS switchboards are also available
with through bus and pull sections.
IPS switchboards accommodate systems up to 4000 amps, 600 VAC maximum in

1 -phase, 3-wire; 3-phase, 3-wire; and 3-phase, 4 -wire configurations.
13.5. Switchboard and switch gear functions & differences
The switchboard and switchgear are two important systems that control how power is
delivered to electrical circuits. The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
However, it is important to note that they perform different functions and usually
designed to work together in series so as to provide the maximum coordination and
protection.
Since the two have different functions and capabilities, they are suited for different types
of installations or at different stages of an electrical network. Whether to use switchgear,
a switchboard, or both, depends largely on the design and requirements of the power
system. To understand where each fits, we will have a look at their functions and
differences.
January-2021
13.5.1. Switchboards
A switchboard is a distribution board (DB) that receives a large amount of power and
dispatches it in small packets to various electrical equipment.
It has power-controlling devices such as breakers, switches along with protection
devices such as fuses, etc.
Switchboards in general are divided into the following four classes:
 Direct-control panel-type
 Remote mechanical-control panel-type
 Direct-control truck-type
 Electrical-operated
13.5.1.1. Direct-control panel-type switchboards

With the direct-control panel-type, switches, rheostats, bus bars, meters, and other
apparatus are mounted on the board or near the board and the switches and rheostats
are operated directly by operating handles if they are mounted on the back of the board.
For both AC and DC, voltages are limited to 600 V or lower, but with oil circuit breakers,
they may operate up to 2500 V. Such panels are not recommended for capacities of
more than 3000 kVA.
13.5.1.2. Remote mechanical-control panel-type switchboards

Remote mechanical-control panel-type boards are the AC switchboards with the bus
bars and connections removed from the panels and mounted separately away from the
load. The oil circuit breakers are operated by levers and rods. This type of board is
designed for a heavier duty than the direct-control type switchboards and is used up to
25 000 kVA.
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13.5.1.3. Direct-control truck-type switchboards
Direct-control truck-type switchboards are used for 15 000 V or lower and consist of
equipment enclosed in steel compartments completely assembled. The high-voltage
parts are enclosed and the equipment is interlocked to prevent any operational
mistakes. This type of a switchboard is designed for low- and medium-capacity plants
and for auxiliary power in large generating stations.
13.5.1.4. Electrically operated switchboards

Electrically operated switchboards employ solenoid or motor-operated circuit breakers.
Rheostats, etc. are controlled by small switches mounted on panels. Electrically

operated switchboards make it possible to locate high-voltage and other equipment
independent of the location of the switchboard.
Switchboards should be erected at least 1-2 m (3-4 ft) from the walls. Switchboard
frames and structures should be grounded. For low-potential equipment, the conductors
on the rear of the switchboard are usually made of a flat copper strip known as a copper
bus bar. Aluminum bus bars are also used due to its low cost. Switchboards must be
individually adapted for each specific electrical equipment/system.
13.6. The switchgear
The switchgear refers to the collection of the switching devices required for a low,
medium or high voltage electrical circuit. It consists of switching and protection devices
such as fuses, circuit breakers, isolators, disconnect switches, relays and other devices
that control the flow of electricity.
These devices are used to switch the electric power on and off for transformers, motors,
generators, transmission lines, and power networks in homes, commercial, industrial,
transmission and distribution systems.
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13.6.1. The switchgear consists of two main components:
 Power switching/conducting component such as a circuit breaker, fuse, or

lightning arrester that can disconnect the flow of power when there is a
fault.
 Power control components such as protective relays, control panels,
current transformers and other devices to monitor, protect and control the
power conduction components and the electrical equipment.
The switchgears are used at various points of an installation. In the industrial setup, the
switchgear controls the power to the manufacturing processes while at the utilities, the
switchgear is used to run the electric grid. In commercial buildings, it is used to supply
and control power to the loads while providing protection to the loads and the
installation.
The switchgear permits the switching on and off of the generators, electrical equipment,
transmission, distributors and other circuits during the normal operating conditions.
However, under fault conditions, the switchgear is designed to detect the faults and
interrupt the flow of electricity to the affected section, thus disconnecting and isolating it
from the healthy circuit.
For efficient operation, the switchgear should be quick in operation and have an option
of manual control to be used when the automatic feature is not working.
The switchgears are required at all switching points of an electrical network. The ratings
of the devices at each stage depend on the voltage levels at that point. Other than in
distribution and transmission networks, the switchgears are used in residential,
commercial, industrial circuits. The switchgears are classified according to the voltage
levels involved in the circuit of application.
The three classes are:
 High voltage Switchgear
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 Medium voltage Switchgear
 Low voltage Switchgear
Figure 68: Medium voltage switchgear
Due to the dangerous voltages and currents that the switchgear elements carry, the
access must be restricted in one form or another based on the type of the facility. The
switchgears are either outdoor or indoor. A fence with warning signs are used to restrict
access to outdoor substations, while metal enclosures and cabinets are used in
commercial and industrial buildings to prevent the technical as well as public from
coming into contact with the live elements and parts.
13.7. The electric switchboard
The switchboard refers to a large single panel, assembly of panels, a structural frame or
assembly of structural frames, on which buses, switches, and protective and other
control devices may be mounted. The mounting may be done on the face, the back
side, or both.
January-2021
The electrical distribution equipment is designed to redirect and control the flow of
electricity from one or multiple sources, to several different sections or loads. A
switchboard can therefore be used to distribute power to individual loads, control
equipment, transformers, panel boards etc.
The main role of the switchboard is to allow the incoming electric power to be divided
into smaller independent circuits according to their current requirements. The circuit
breakers as well as over current protection devices for each of the sections are selected
according to the load current.
Once the currents are divided, they are then distributed according to the load i.e.
lighting loads, sockets etc. Some switchboards such as those used in residential
apartments have an option of metering to see the amount of power used by individual
circuits.
Figure 69: Distribution switchboard
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13.8. Major components of a Switchboard
 Panels or frames: to hold devices such as switches, circuitry indicates and

other devices that allow the delivery of power and controlling of the
circuits.
 Controls and monitoring devices: To connect and control single or multiple

power sources to and from the switchboard.
These may include
 Frequency gauges,
 Synchro-scopes and
 Other instruments to measure the frequency and
 Synchronization of the power generators.
 Bus bars: To carry and distribute the incoming power from source to different
sections of the installation through the switchboard and control devices.
13.9. Differences between switchgears and switchboards
The main difference is the voltage that they are designed to handle. The
switchboards are generally for voltages less than 600 volts, while the switchgear
systems are designed for higher voltages reaching up to 350 KV.
There are major differences in the hardware and design of the two systems. For
example, due to the functions and high power handling capacity in switchgears,
they use devices such as high power rated circuit breakers. Further, these circuit
breakers as well as other devices can be replaced or withdrawn when the system
is still operating. The switchgear devices are mechanisms that enable the
connection and disconnection of the electrical power to other circuits and loads.
This comprises of devices such as fuses, the circuit breakers and relays.
January-2021
The switchboard consists of mechanisms such as those in the switchgear
system. However, the switchboard refers to a panel, structural frame or assembly
of either, on which buses, instruments and mechanisms such as the protective
devices and switches may be mounted.
The switchgears have robust constructions, are more flexible and reliable.
However, they are more expensive than the switchboards.
January-2021
Self-check -16
Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) The switchboard and switchgear are two important systems that control how power
is delivered to electrical circuits.
2) Switchgear and switch board two have the some functions and capabilities.
3) Integrated Power System switchboards consist of one service section and one or
more distribution sections that are cable connected.
4) Remote mechanical-control panel-type boards are the AC switchboards with the bus
bars and connections removed from the panels and mounted separately away from
the load
5) The main role of the switchboard is to allow the incoming electric power to be
divided into smaller independent circuits according to their current requirements.

1. List the classification of Switchboards.(2.5 points )
2. List the two main components the switchgear. (2.5 points )
Note: Satisfactory rating – 15points Unsatisfactory - below 15-points
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
6.______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7._____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -14 Ground (earthling)
Information Sheet -14# Ground (earthling)

14.1. Earthing system
Earthing of electrical installations is primarily concerned with ensuring safety. In a
building, the connection of all metal parts of the building and all exposed
conductive parts of electrical equipment to an earth electrode prevents the
appearance of dangerously high voltages between any two simultaneously
accessible metal parts.
Or earthing means connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-
current carrying parts of electrical apparatus such as metallic frame work,
metallic covering of cables, metal covers of switches, metal casing of portable
apparatus, frame of every generator and motor etc. to the general mass of earth
in such a manner that at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy
takes place without danger.
In an electric installation, if a metallic part of an electric appliance comes in direct
contact with a live wire (that may be due to failure of insulation or otherwise) the
metal being a good conductor of electricity is charged and static charge will
accumulate on it. Now if any person comes in contact with the charged metallic
part, he/she will get a sever shock. But if the metallic parts of the appliances are
earthed, the charge will be transferred to the earth immediately as the metallic
part comes in contact with a bare or live or break down occurs. As the discharge
takes place to earth, the impedance of path of the current being lows, a large
amount of current flows to earth. As a result sufficient value of current flows
through the earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB), so that it disconnects the
appliance from the supply. Thus earthing of metallic parts of electrical equipment
and appliances provide safety.
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14.2. A protective earth (PE)
Connection ensures that all exposed conductive surfaces are at the
same electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical
shock if a person touches a device in which an insulation fault has occurred. It
also ensures that in the case of an insulation fault, a high fault current flows,
which will trigger an over current protection device (fuse, MCB) that disconnects
the power supply.
Electricity supply systems can be classified as follows depending on the type of
earthing
arrangements.
14.3. IEC omenclature

The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply
equipment
(generator or transformer) TN-S, TN-C-S, TT, TN-C, and IT.
T :direct connection of a point with earth (French: terre ) or T = Earth (from the
French word Terre)
I :no point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high
impedance
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical
device being supplied :
T :direct connection with earth, independent of any other earth connection in the
supply system
N : connection to earth via the supply network.
N = Neutral
S = Separate
C = Combined
I = Isolated
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14.3.1. TN network:
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected
with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical
device is connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer.
Figure 70: TN system
 The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer is
called protective earth PE
 The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-phase system, or that
carries the return current in a single-phase system is called neutral N.

14.3.2. Three variants of TN systems are distinguished

TN-S : protective earth (PE) and neutral (N) are separate conductors that
are only connected near the power source or transformer to consuming
device, which are not connected at any point after the building distribution
point.
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Figure 71: TN-S system
14.3.3. TN-C Combined

PE and N conductor all the way from the transformer to the consuming device fulfills the
functions of both a PE and an N conductor.
Fig: 72 TN-C system
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14.3.4. TN-C-S Earthing system
combined PEN conductor from transformer to building distribution point, but separate
PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring and flexible power cords.
Figure 72: TN-C-S systems
14.3.5. TT network
In a TT earthing system, the protective earth connection of the consumer is provided
by a local connection to earth, independent of any earth connection at the generator. In
such a system which relies on a good conductive mass of earth for any earth-fault
current to flow to its source, a residual current device (RCD) is provided to give the
consumer further protection against dangerous earth-leakage currents which might
arise in the installation should a fault to earth occur.
Figure 73: TT system
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14.3.6. IT network
In an IT network, the distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has only
a high impedance connection. For safety reasons this network is not accepted.
Figure 74: IT systems
14.3.7. Properties
 TN networks save the cost of a low-impedance earth connection at the site of
each consumer. Such a connection (a buried metal structure) is required to
provide protective earth in IT and TT systems.
 TN-C networks save the cost of an additional conductor needed for separate N
and PE connections. However to mitigate the risk of broken neutrals, special
cable types and lots of connections to earth are needed.
 TT networks require RCD protection and often an expensive time delay type is
needed to provide discrimination with an RCD downstream.
Metal work which has nothing to do with electrical installation but which could become
live in the event of a fault to earth is known as extraneous conductive parts. This
includes hot and cold water pipes, radiators, structural steel work and metallic
ducting used for ventilation. Two types of bonding conductors are used for
connecting these parts.
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These are:
a. Main bonding conductors: these are used to bond together metallic services at
their
point of entry into a building.
b. Supplementary bonding conductors: these are used to bond together metallic

pipes and the like within the installation.
These bonding conductors are also taken to the installation‘s main earth terminal.
Thus all metal work in a building is at earth potential. This electrical connection
which puts various conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts and
extraneous conductive parts at a reasonably equal potential is called
equipotential bonding.
Earthing is provided
 To maintain the potential of any part of a system at a definite value with

respect to earth.
 To allow current to flow to earth in the event of fault, so that protective
devices will
operate to isolate the faulty circuit.
 To make sure that in the event of fault, apparatus normally ‗dead‘ cannot
reach a
dangerous potential with respect to earth.
There are a number of methods used to achieve the earthing of an
installation.
 Connection to the metal sheath and armouring of a supply authority‘s
underground supply cable.
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 Connections to the continuous earth wire (CEW) provided by a supply
authority
where the distribution of energy is by overhead lines.
 Connection to an earth electrode sunk in the ground for the purpose.
Connection to an earth electrode sunk in the ground is the most common
means of earthing.
14.4. Earth electrode types
Because of its high conductivity and resistance to corrosion, copper is the most
commonly used material for earth electrodes.
Acceptable electrodes are rods, pipes, tape, wires, plates and structural
steelwork buried or driven into the ground. The pipes of other services such as
gas and water must not be used as earth electrodes although they must be
bonded to earth.
 Pipe: This is made of cast-iron pipe 2m long and buried in a coke-filled pit.
 Plate: This electrode is normally a cast-iron plate electrode buried vertically with
the center about 1m below the surface; copper plates may also be used. Plate
electrodes provide a large surface area and are used mainly where the ground is
shallow (where the resistivity is low near the surface but increases rapidly with
depth).
 Strip: these are usually copper strip. They are most useful in shallow soil
overlying rock.
 Rod: Rod electrodes are very economical and require no excavation for their
installation. Because buried length is more important than diameter, the small
diameter copper rod has many advantages. If we were to place an electrode in
earth and then measure the resistance between the electrode and points at
increasing larger distance from it, we could notice that the resistance increases
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with distance until a point is reached (usually between 2.5m and 3m) beyond
which no increase in resistance was seen.
Figure 75: Relationship b/n earth electrode resistance and distance
The value of this electrode resistance will depend on the length and cross-sectional
area of the electrode and the type of the soil.
14.5. Soil resistance Test

Soil resistivity testing is the process of measuring a volume of soil to determine the
conductivity of the soil. The resulting soil resistivity is expressed in ohm-meter or ohm
centimeter.
The soil resistivity at the location of the earth electrode needs to be investigated. The
resistivity of soils varies with
 The depth from the surface,

 The type and concentration of soluble chemicals in the soil,
 The moisture content, and
 The soil temperature.
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In other words, the soil resistivity is dependent on the electrolyte in the soil. The
presence of
surface water does not necessarily indicate low resistivity.
Table 7: Type of Soil resistivity
Type of Soil Resistivity in

Ohms
Garden Soil 5 - 50
Clay 10 -100
Sand 250 - 500
Rock 1000 - 10,000
Figure 76: Wenner Soil Resistivity Testing and Earth electrode installation
14.6. Selection does not depend on safety criteria.

The three systems are equivalent in terms of protection of persons if all installation and
operating rules are correctly followed. The selection criteria for the best system(s)
depend on the regulatory requirements, the required continuity of service, operating
conditions and the types of network and loads.
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14.6.1. Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are
equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently,
selection does not depend on safety criteria. It is by combining all requirements in terms
of regulations, continuity of service, operating conditions and the types of network and
loads that it is possible to determine the best system(s). Selection is determined by the
following factors: Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose
certain types of SEA Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private
MV/LV transformer (MV subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a
separate-winding transformer). If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the
SEA is taken following discussions with the network designer (design office, contractor).
The discussions must cover: First of all, the operating requirements (the required level
of continuity of service) and the operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical
personnel or not, in-house personnel or outsourced, etc.).
Table 8: Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems
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 When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to
the level of operating characteristics (continuity of service that is
mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.)
Whatever the SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with
the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break up the
network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement
the system advised above for each type of application.
 The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an
earthed neutral. These risks are high for regions with frequent thunder
storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is
selected to ensure a higher level of continuity of service, the system
designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a second fault.
 Risk of RCD nuisance tripping
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 Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it
can be easily identified.
 Risks of phase-to-earth faults affecting equip potentiality.
 Insulation is uncertain due to humidity and conducting dust. The TN
system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the
case of an internal fault. What is more, when generator sets supply safety
equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
 The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the
risk of damaging or accelerating the ageing of motor windings, or of
destroying magnetic circuits.
 To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly
advised, whatever the SEA, to separate these loads from the rest of the
installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
 When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that
the insulation resistance will fall rapidly. The TT system with RCDs is the
best means to avoid problems.
 The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for
bonding of exposed conductive parts) that must be countered. Whatever
the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a
local neutral connection.
 Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid
operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first fault (TT) or a double fault
(IT). With a double break in the control circuit?
 Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value
of the zero- phase impedance (at least 4 to 5 times the direct impedance).
This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
 The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C
system is forbidden.
 Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to Δn y 500 mA.
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 An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system.
Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of modifications on the
existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be
modified).
 Possible without highly competent maintenance personnel.
 This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety.
The absence of preventive measures in the TN system means highly
qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
 The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss
of equip-potentiality for exposed conductive parts. A TT system or a
TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT
system may be used in very specific cases.
 This solution avoids nuisance tripping for unexpected earth leakage
A very effective method of obtaining a low resistance earth connection is to bury

a conductor in the form of a closed loop in the soil at the bottom of the excavation
for building foundations. The resistance R of such an electrode (in homogeneous
soil) is given (approximately) in ohms by: R = 2ρ/ L
where:
L = length of the buried conductor in metres
ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-metre
14.7. Installation and measurements of earth electrodes

The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on
two factors:
a. Installation method
b. Type of soil.
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14.7.1. Installation methods
Three common types of installation will be discussed:
14.7.2. Buried ring

This solution is strongly recommended, particularly in the case of a new building. The
electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the
foundations. It is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil
(and not placed in the gravel or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for concrete).
At least four (widely-spaced) vertically arranged conductors from the electrode should
be provided for the installation connections and, where possible, any reinforcing rods in
concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an

excavation for foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core or
aggregate base for the concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising
conductors to the ground to floor should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall
of the premises to a depth of at least 1 meter. As a general rule, all vertical connections
from an electrode to above-ground level should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage
(600-1000 V).
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The conductors may be:
14.7.3. Earthing rods

Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving
(i.e. reducing the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
The rods may be: Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are
generally 1 or 2 meters long and provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to
reach considerable depths, if necessary (for instance, the water-table level in areas of
high soil resistivity) Galvanized steel pipe u 25 mm diameter or rod u 15 mm diameter,
u 2 meters long in each case.
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between them
should exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod,
divided by the number of rods in question. The approximate resistance R obtained is:
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2005
where
L = the length of the rod in meters
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ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-meters (see ―Influence of the type of soil‖ below)
n = the number of rods
14.7.4. Vertical plates

Rectangular plates, each side of which must be u 0.5 meters, are commonly used as
earth electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the center of the plate is at
least 1 meter below the surface of the soil.
14.7.5. Vertical plates

Rectangular plates, each side of which must be u 0.5 meters, are commonly used as
earth electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the center of the plate is at
least 1 meter below the surface of the soil.
The plates may be:
 Copper of 2 mm thickness
 Galvanized (1) steel of 3 mm thickness
The resistance R in ohms is given (approximately), b
L = the perimeter of the plate in meters

ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-meters (see ―Influence of the type of soil‖ below)
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity
value to be applied for the design of an earth electrode system
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Table 9: Types of soil and mean value of resistive
Table 10: Types of soil average value of resistive
14.8. Measurement and constancy of the resistance between an earth electrode

and the earth
The resistance of the electrode/earth interface rarely remains constant among the
principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
 Humidity of the soil: The seasonal changes in the moisture content of the
soil can be significant at depths of up to 2 meters. At a depth of 1 meter the
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resistivity and therefore the resistance can vary by a ratio of 1 to 3 between a
wet winter and a dry summer in temperate regions
 Frost: Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of
magnitude. This is one reason for recommending the installation of deep
electrodes, in particular in cold climates
 Ageing: The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some
extent for various reasons, for example: Chemical reactions (in acidic or
alkaline soils) Galvanic: due to stray DC currents in the earth, for example
from electric railways, etc. or due to dissimilar metals forming primary cells.
Different soils acting on sections of the same conductor can also form catholic
and anodic areas with consequent loss of surface metal from the latter areas.
Unfortunately, the most favorable conditions for low earth-electrode
resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are also those in which galvanic currents
can most easily flow.
 Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to
oxidation. Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and
wrapping with a suitable greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive
measure.
14.9. Measurement of the earth-electrode resistance

There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so that
it can be tested. There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode
to be isolated from the installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can
be carried out. To make such tests, two auxiliary electrodes are required, each
consisting of a vertically driven rod.
Where galvanized conducting materials are used for earth electrodes, sacrificial catholic
protection anodes may be necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes where
the soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes (in a porous sack filled
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with a suitable ―soil‖) are available for direct connection to the electrodes. In such
circumstances, a specialist should be consulted.
14.10. Requirements of Earth electrodes

A wide variety of types of earth electrode
Lists of the types recognized earth rods, earth plates and underground structural metal
work. The soil resistivity of the ground is probably the single most important factor in the
determination of the type of earth electrode. Rods can only be as effective as the
contact they make with the surrounding material.
Thus, they should be driven into virgin ground, not disturbed (backfilled) ground. Where
it is necessary to drive two or more rods and connect them together to achieve a
satisfactory result, the separation between rods should be at least equal to their
combined driven depth to obtain maximum advantage from each rod. In some locations
low soil resistivity is found to be concentrated in the topsoil layer, beneath which there
may be rock or other impervious strata which prevents the deep driving of rods, or a
deep layer of high resistivity. Only a test or known information about the ground can
reveal this kind of information. In such circumstances, the installation of copper earth
tapes, or pipes or plates, would be most likely to provide a satisfactory earth electrode
resistance value. Whatever form an earth electrode takes, the possibility of soil drying
and freezing, and of corrosion, must be taken into account.
Preferably, testing of an earth electrode should be carried out under the least favorable
conditions, i.e. after prolonged dry weather
14.11. Earthing conductors

Earthing conductors as a protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal of
an installation to an earth electrode or other means of earthing must be adequately
sized particularly where buried partly in the ground, and be of suitable material and
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adequately protected against corrosion and mechanical damage. The size of an
earthing conductor is arrived at in basically the same way as for a circuit protective
conductor; Country regulation must be applied to any buried earthing conductor. For a
TN-C-S (PME) supply, it should be no smaller than the main bonding conductors.
14.11.1. Sizing of circuit protective conductors

There are several factors which may influence or determine the size required for a
circuit protective conductor. A minimum cross-sectional area of 2.5 mm2 copper is
required for any separate circuit protective conductor, i.e. one which is not part of a
cable or formed by a wiring enclosure or contained in such an enclosure.
An example would be a bare or insulated copper conductor clipped to a surface, run on

a cable tray or fixed to the outside of a wiring enclosure. Such a circuit protective
conductor must also be suitably protected if it is liable to suffer mechanical damage or
chemical deterioration or be damaged by electro dynamic effects produced by passing
earth fault current through it. If mechanical protection is not provided the minimum size
is 4 mm2 copper or equivalent.
Two methods provided for sizing protective conductors including earthing conductors.
The easier method is to determine the protective conductor size but this may produce a
larger size than is strictly necessary, since it employs a simple relationship to the cross-
sectional area of the phase conductor(s). The second method involves a formula
calculation.
The formula is commonly referred to as the ‗adiabatic equation‘ and is the same as that
used for short-circuit current calculations. It assumes that no heat is dissipated from the
protective conductor during an earth fault and therefore errs on the safe side.
Even so, application of the formula will in many instances result in a protective
conductor having a smaller cross-sectional area (csa) than that of the live conductors of
the associated circuit. This is quite acceptable. The cross-sectional area, where
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calculated, shall be not less than the value determined by the following formula or shall
be obtained by reference to.
where:
S is the nominal cross-sectional area of the conductor in mm2. I is the value in amperes
(rms. for a.c.) of fault current for a fault of negligible impedance, which can flow through
the associated protective device, due account being taken of the current limiting effect
of the circuit impedances and the limiting capability (I2 t) of that protective device.
Account shall be taken of the effect, on the resistance of circuit conductors, of their
temperature rise as a result of over current. ―t ” is the operating time of the
disconnecting device in seconds corresponding to the fault current I amperes. k is a
factor taking account of the resistivity, temperature coefficient and heat capacity of the
conductor material, and the appropriate initial and final temperatures.
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Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements
(SEA)TT, TN and IT are equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly
followed.
2. Earthing means connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-current
carrying parts of electrical apparatus

1. Write the factors affecting this resistance electrode? (4-points)
2. On what factors the quality of an earth electrode resistance as low as
possible depends essentially: (4-points)
3. The soil resistivity at the location of the earth electrode needs to be
investigated. The resistivity of soils varies with: (4-points)
4. Write the types of Earth electrode (4-points)


Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
3_____________________________________________________________________
4_____________________________________________________________________
5_____________________________________________________________________
6_____________________________________________________________________
_____________
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Information Sheet -15 Insulators
Information Sheet -15# Insulators

15.1. Insulators
Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of
current to the earth from its supporting points. The insulator plays a vital role in electrical
system. Electrical Insulator is a very high resistive path through which practically no
current can flow. In transmission and distribution system, the overhead conductors are
generally supported by supporting towers or poles. The towers and poles both are
properly grounded. So there must be insulator between tower or pole body and current
carrying conductors to prevent the flow of current from conductor to earth through the
grounded supporting towers or poles. Properties of Insulating Material. The materials
generally used for insulating purpose is called insulating material. There are two types
of insulating Materials:
 Insulating Materials used in electric cable and

 Insulating materials used in power transmission and distribution.
15.1.1. The insulating material used in electric cable must possess the following
15.1.1.1. Properties.
 High resistivity
 High flexibility
 Non-in flammability
 High resistivity to moisture, acid or alkalis qualities.
So the type of insulating materials used depends up on the service for which the
cable required. There are various types of insulating materials used in cables.
These are:
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15.2. Rubber
 Rubber may be natural or synthetic.
 Its dielectric strength is 30KV/mm
 Pure rubber cannot be used as insulating material
 It absorbs moisture readily
 Softens when heated to a temperature of 60⁰c to 70⁰c
 Swells under the action of mineral oils
 Ages when exposed to light.
15.3. PVC
 Polyvinyl chloride is a manmade thermoplastic material
 It is tough, incombustible and chemically unreactive.
 It is now the most usual low voltage cable insulation.
 It does not deteriorate with age and does not need to be renewed.
 Its chief drawback is that it softens at a temperature above 80⁰c.
15.4. Vulcanized Indian Rubber
• It is prepared by mixing Indian rubber with minerals such as sulphur, zinc,

red lead, etc.
• The copper conductors used in this cables are tinned to protect them from
corrosive action of rubber or copper.
• Drawbacks:
 It absorbs water, which reduces its insulation properties
 Becomes brittle with age.
15.5. Impregnated paper
• It is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric strength (30KV/mm), and
high insulation resistivity (10Mohm-cm).
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• Impregnated paper insulated cable on its own would be too fragile to be used
unprotected, and a lead sheath is applied over the insulation.
• Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large power in transmission and
distribution and particularly for distribution at low voltage in congested areas.
15.6. Insulating materials used in power transmission and distribution

For successful utilization, this material should have some specific properties as
listed below-
 It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors.

 It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in
High Voltage system.
 It must possess high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the
earth. 4. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
 It should not be porous
 There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the
moisture or gases can enter in it.
 There physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by changing
temperature.
15.7. Types of Insulators

The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable extent upon
the proper selection of insulation. There are several types of insulators but the most
commonly used are pin type, strain insulator, shackle insulator and suspension type.
 Pin type insulator

 Suspension type insulator
 Strain insulator
 Shackle insulator
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15.7.1. Pin type insulator-
As the name suggests, the pin insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There
is a groove on the top of the insulator to hold the conductor. The conductor passes
through groove and is bound by the same material as the conductor.
Figure 77: Pin type insulators
Pin type insulator are used for transmission and distribution of electrical power at
voltage up to 33kv.Beyond operating voltage of 33kv, the pin type insulator become too
bulky and hence uneconomical.
15.7.2. Suspension type insulator-

The cost of pin type insulator increases if the voltage capacity will increase.
Therefore, this insulator is not economical preferred beyond 33kv. For high
voltage (>33kv), it is usual practice to use suspension type insulators.
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Figure 78: Suspension type insulator
A number of porcelain discs are connected in series to form this insulator. Each unit
disc is designed for low voltage. Say 11kv. The number of discs in series will vary with
vary in working voltage. If the voltage is 33 KV then three discs is required in series. If
the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string.
Advantage-
 Suspension type insulator is cheaper than pin type insulator for voltage beyond
33kv.
 If anyone disc is damaged, the whole string does not became useless because
the damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one..
 Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be
connected in series.
15.7.3. Strain insulator-
In high voltage line, strain insulator is used. For low voltage transmission line, strain
insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators. The disc of strain insulator is
used in the vertical plane.
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Figure 79: Strain insulators
15.7.4. Shackle insulator-

In early days, the shackle insulator was used as strain insulator. But now days, in low
voltage line they are also used. This type of insulator is either in a horizontal position or
in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or the cross arm.
Shackle insulator fixed to the pole.
Figure 80: Shackle insulators
15.7.5. Disc Insulator

The disc insulators provide a cost-effective solution for medium & low polluted
environments and these are designed with high-grade raw materials. These insulators
are well-known in the broad market because they are mostly used in transmission &
distribution lines. The applications of these insulators include transmission lines,
industrial & commercial because they have high efficient features like less corrosion,
robust design; it supports conductors, used for insulation in cables and electrical wiring
January-2021
and maintains high voltage within high loads. What is Disc Insulator? And types & Its
applications?
Figure 81: Disc Insulator
15.8 Other Types of Insulators

The other types of insulators include the following.
15.8.1. Polymer Insulator

These insulators are composed of fiberglass rod and enclosed with polymer
weather sheds. These are low in weight compare with porcelain type while giving
better power. These insulators are designed with PTFE, silicon rubber, EPDM
and EPM.
Figure 82: Polymer Insulator
15.8.2. Glass Insulator

Glass insulators started being used in the 18th century for telegraph and telephone
lines, which were then, replaced by ceramic and porcelain types in the 19th century. To
January-2021
overcome this, toughened glass types were introduced, which became popular due to
their longer lifespan.
Figure 83: Glass Insulator
15.8.3. Strain Insulator
Figure 84: string insulator
When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is

referred as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in
transmission line, the line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A
strain insulator must have considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary
electrical insulating properties.
January-2021
Table 11: Rated System Voltage number of disc insulator used in strain type tension
insulator string and disc insulator used in suspension insulator string.
Number of disc insulator Number of disc insulator

Rated System Voltage used in strain type tension used in suspension
insulator string insulator string
33KV 3 3
66KV 5 4
132KV 9 8
220KV 15 14
15.8.4. Glass insulators
Figure 85: glass insulator
15.8.5. Porcelain insulators
Figure 86: Porcelain insulators
January-2021
Self-check -18
Written test
Self-check -18 # Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1) Write the Properties of insulating material used in electric cable?
2) Write the types of insulators most commonly used.
3) Suspension type insulator is cheaper than pin type insulator for voltage beyond
33kv.
4) The shackle insulator was used as strain insulator.
5) The insulator plays a simple role in electrical system.
6) Electrical Insulator is a very low resistive path through which practically no current
can flow

7. Write the Properties of insulating material used in electric cable?
8. Write the types of insulators most commonly used.
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
7______________________________________________________________
8
_____________________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -16 Connectors
Information Sheet -16 # Connectors

16.1 Types of Electrical Power connectors
Because electrical power sources can range in size from small batteries to large power
grids, the electrical power connectors that allow the transmission of electricity vary in form.
Depending on the electrical current carried and the purpose of the application, one of
several power connector types may be appropriate. To better understand which
connector is best-suited for a particular purpose, it‘s helpful to examine how electrical
power connectors are classified and the capabilities of each variant.
Generally, electrical power connectors are classified according to how much voltage
they carry. There are three categories of electrical connectors:
 Light-duty,
 Medium-duty, and
 Heavy-duty.
16.2 A light-duty electrical power connector can carry up to 250 volts (V) of a
low current.
However, if contact resistance doesn‘t stay low and stable, the ability of the device to
transmit current may be compromised. Additionally, it‘s important to minimize the
presence of external contaminants on connector contacts (such as dirt, dust, and water)
because the component is prone to oxidation and contaminants can catalyze the
process. Power connectors found in cars, radio and communication devices, and those
intended for basic instruments are all classified as light-duty power connectors
January-2021
16.3. A medium-duty power connector carries a higher-level electrical current at
up to1000V.
Unlike low-duty connectors, medium-duty variants can suffer from electrical wear if the
contact material isn‘t carefully monitored to prevent involuntary welding and erosion.
Thus, proper material selection is critical in ensuring the device‘s integrity. Medium-duty
can be found in an array of domestic and industrial applications.
16.4. Heavy-duty connectors carry high-level currents in the range of hundreds

of kilovolts (kV).
Because of the large load they can carry, heavy-duty connectors are effective in large-
scale power distribution applications, as well as power management and protection
systems, such as circuit breakers.
16.5. Electrical Power Connector Types

In addition to the three general categories of power connectors, there are
numerous different types of power connectors that fall under each heading. Some of
these variants include:
16.5.1. AC Connectors
AC power connector types are mainly used to connect equipment to a wall outlet in
order to power the device. Of the types of AC connectors, power plugs are for standard
size devices while industrial AC power plugs are large electrical wire connectors for
larger industrial applications.
16.5.2.. DC Connectors
Unlike Ac connectors, Dc connectors are not standardized. A DC plug, a variant of a DC

connector, primarily supplies smaller electronic devices with power. Because there are
different standards of DC plugs, it‘s important not to accidentally use incompatible
variants.
January-2021
16.6. Wire Connectors
The purpose of a wire connector is to bring two or more wires together at a common
point of Connection. Lugs, crimps, set screws, and split-bolt types are all examples of
this variant.
16.6.1. Connectors
Figure 87: Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (a) Spade lug. (b)
Alligator clip. (c) Double banana-pin plug. (d) Terminal strip.
16.6.2. Blade Connectors
Blade connectors feature a one-wire connection—the blade connector is inserted into a

blade receptacle and when the blade connector‘s wire makes contact with the receptor‘s
wire a connection is made.
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Figure 88: (continued): Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (e) RCA-type
plug for audio cables. (f) Phone plug. (g) F-type plug for cable TV. (h) Multiple-pin
connector plug. (i) Spring-loaded metal hook as grabber for temporary connection in
testing circuits
16.6.3. Plug and socket connectors

There are currently 15 types of domestic electrical outlet plugs in use worldwide consist
of a male and female component which fit together snugly. A plug, the male component,
is comprised of many pins and prongs, which when inserted into the female socket,
securely latch on to corresponding contacts.
Table 12:Different Types of socket
Specification Type
 Type A
 mainly used in the USA, Canada, Mexico & Japan
 2 pins
 not grounded
 15 A
 almost always 100 – 127 V
 socket compatible with plug type A
January-2021
 Type B
• mainly used in the USA, Canada & Mexico
• 3 pins
• grounded
• 15 A
• almost always 100 – 127 V
• socket compatible with plug types A & B
 Type C
• commonly used in Europe, South America
& Asia
• 2 pins
• not grounded
• 2.5 A, 10 A & 16 A
• almost always 220 – 240 V
• socket compatible with plug type C

 Type E
 primarily used
in France, Belgium, Poland, Slovakia & Czechia
 2 pins
 grounded
 16 A
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C, E
January-2021

 Type F
 used almost everywhere in Europe & Russia, except for
the UK & Ireland
 2 pins
 grounded
 16 A
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C, E & F

 Type G
 mainly used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta,
Malaysia & Singapore
 3 pins
 grounded
 13 A 
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug type G
January-2021
 Type H
 used exclusively in Israel, the West Bank &
the Gaza Strip
 3 pins
 grounded
 16 A

 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C & H
(partial and unsafe compatibility with E & F)
 Type I
 mainly used in Australia, New Zealand,
China & Argentina
 2 or 3 pins
 2 pins: not grounded / 3 pins: grounded
 10 A 
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug type I
 Type J
 used almost exclusively in Switzerland &
Liechtenstein
 3 pins
 grounded

 10 A
 220 – 240 V
January-2021
 socket compatible with plug types C & J
 Type K
 used almost exclusively in Denmark & Greenland
 3 pins
 grounded
 16 A
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C & K (partial
and unsafe compatibility with E & F)
 Type L
 used almost exclusively in Italy & Chile
 3 pins
 grounded
 10 A & 16 A
 220 – 240 V
 10 A socket compatible with plug types C & L (10
A version)
 16 A socket compatible with plug type L (16 A
version)
January-2021
 Type M
 mainly used in South Africa
 3 pins
 grounded
 15 A
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug type
 Type N
 used in Brazil and South Africa
 3 pins
 grounded
 10 A, 16 A & 20 A
 100 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C & N
January-2021
 Type O
 used exclusively in Thailand
 3 pins
 grounded
 16 A
 220 – 240 V
 socket compatible with plug types C & O (partial
and unsafe compatibility with E & F)
16.7. Insulation-Piercing Connectors

Insulation piercing connectors are useful because they don‘t require uncovered wires.
Instead, a fully covered wire is inserted into the connector, and a small device inside the
opening removes the wire‘s covering as the wire slides into place. This insulated
piercing connector is suitable for all types of LV ABC conductors. This connector has
been designed for service connections in LV ABC lines. Ease of installation has been
combined with excellent mechanical, electrical and environmental characteristics to
provide a connector capable of terminating Aluminum or Copper stranded conductors.
Mechanical tests on connector
 Mechanical test on cables

 Voltage test under water (6 kV for 1 min)
 Electrical ageing test
 Environmental test (climatic and corrosion)
 Range taking - Equipped with shear head to ensure a reliable tightening torque
 Accepts copper conductor - Operating temperature -55°C to +55°C
 Waterproof - Installation temperature -20°C to +55°C
January-2021
 Captive end flexible end caps - Can be installed on energized main if tap is not
under load
 All the components are un-loos able It is not recommended to re-use IPC when
removed.
Sources: (https://www.connectronicscorp.com/what-types-of-high-voltage-connectors-are-there)
16.8. Common Types of Electrical Connectors

Electrical connectors are critical components in countless electronic devices because
they both enable and protect the transmission of an electrical signal. From connecting
key computer elements to joining wires in the cars we drive, the roles they play are vast
and the applications they service diverse. Despite their simple design, connectors often
perform in complex electrical systems. As a result, connectors must be durable and
reliable while remaining easy to assemble and use. Though not all electrical connectors
are designed to withstand use in extreme environments, the extensive array of
connector specifications ensures that an appropriate variant can be found for a given
device.
16.8.1. Common Electrical Connectors

8P8C Connector
D-Subminiature Connectors
DC Connectors
USB Connectors
January-2021
16.8.2. Power fitting connector for LV and MV
Figure 89: Power fitting connector
Figure 90: Porcelain bushing for SF6 Switch and Condenser Bushing sets
Figure 91: Porcelain bushing for Capacitors and porcelain bushings for LV and MV
Transformer
January-2021

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

1. AC power connector types are mainly used to connect equipment to a wall outlet in
order to power the device

2. Heavy-duty connectors carry high-level currents in the range of hundreds of kilovolts
(kV).
3. A medium-duty power connector carries a higher-level electrical current at up
to1000V.
4. A plug, the male component, is comprised of many pins and prongs, which when
inserted into the female socket, securely latch on to corresponding contacts.
5. List the three categories of electrical connectors.
6. List four mechanical tests on connector insulation-piercing connectors
7. Write the types of Common Electrical Connectors

Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
5______________________________________________________________
6
7_____________________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -17 Junction cover
Information Sheet -17# Junction cover

17.1. Junction Boxes
Junction boxes are metal or plastic enclosures used as housings for wiring connections.
The connections within are called branch circuits and usually represent the end of a
conduit run. Junction boxes make wire access easy, since all one must do is remove
the covering to make alterations, repairs, or additions to a conduit. Junction boxes also
protect wiring from the elements or environment, which can sometimes be corrosive or
otherwise harmful to wiring material. Finally, junction boxes protect wiring from
unwanted tampering, whether malicious or unintentional.
17.2. Junction Box Basics
Essentially, a junction box houses wire connections in order to split off power from a
single source to multiple outlets. For instance, a junction box might contain one wire
power source that is connected through multiple wires to power several different lights.
Junction boxes are usually between 2 ½ to 3 ½ inches long and made of metal or hard
plastic. The functional difference between plastic and metal depends whether or not the
junction box is supposed to support any weight. Some metal junction boxes can support
light fixtures; plastic junction boxes cannot withstand this weight. Additional differences
include installation, in that plastic junction boxes are typically quicker and easier to
install than metal ones. However, a standard junction box designed to simple cover wire
splices can be either metal or plastic.
January-2021
17.2.1. Wire slices in junction boxes
All wire splices must be contained within a junction box for a building to meet electric
code, although sometimes splices are missed and may present hazards as a result. Any
exposed wiring can be dangerous, but exposed wire splices are especially prone to
accident because they can be tripped over, expel sparks or misrepresent themselves be
misperceived as playthings by children or pets. Junction boxes are helpful for wire
splices because they also allow one to easily locate the wire splice area.
17.2.2. How to Install an Electrical Junction Box
Figure 92: Electrical Junction Box
The National Electrical Code (NEC) dictates that no wiring splices are allowed outside of
an approved enclosure. Any standard outlet, switch box, or light fixture box can serve as
an approved enclosure, but where a wiring splice needs to occur in other locations
along the circuit, the approved enclosure is usually a junction box. A junction box is
simply a standard electrical box that is mounted securely to house framing or another
January-2021
structure, containing the connection (splice) of two or more circuit cables. The cables
are secured to the box with cable clamps (or conduit connectors, if the circuit
includes conduit), and the box must have a removable cover to create a complete
enclosure. Junction box covers must remain accessible; they cannot be covered with
drywall or other surface material.
Figure 93: junction boxes and Distribution board
January-2021
Junction boxes are most often used where an electrical circuit branches off in two or
more directions from a location where an outlet or fixture is not practical. It is also a
common solution when an electrical circuit is being extended.
17.2.3. Tip
Make sure to buy a junction box appropriate for your installation. Outdoor locations, for
example, require a weatherproof junction box with gaskets to prevent moisture intrusion.
And make sure the junction box is large enough for the number of wiring connections
you will be making. For example, the smallest 2 x 4 x 1 1/2-inch deep box can
comfortably splice only two cables (four or five conducting wires), while the largest 4 x 4
x 2 1/8-inch-deep boxes can handle as many as four to six cables (up to 18 individual
conducting wires).
17.2.4. Equipment / Tools Materials
 Non-contact voltage tester

 Screwdriver
 Hammer (for a metal box)
 Pliers (as needed for a metal box)
 Drill-driver and screwdriver tip
 Wire strippers (as needed)
 Code-approved electrical box with cover
 Cable clamps (as needed for a metal box)
 Wood screws
 Wire connectors
January-2021
17.3. Instructions
17.3.1. Shut off the Power and Test the Wires
Turn off the power to the circuit you'll be working on by switching off the appropriate
circuit breaker in your home's service panel (circuit breaker box). Test all of the wires
you'll be working on with a non-contact voltage tester. The test should confirm that no
voltage is present in any of the wires.
17.3.2. Remove a Knockout (Metal Box Only)
If you're using a metal box, remove a knockout on the box for each cable that will enter
the box. Use a screwdriver and hammer to break out each knockout (metal disc), then
twist off the metal knockout disk with pliers.
17.3.3. Clamp Each Cable
Install a cable clamp for each cable, as needed. Standard plastic electrical boxes do not
have knockouts and contain internal cable clamps. Metal boxes usually have internal
clamps; if yours does not, install a locknut-type clamp for each cable. Insert the
threaded end of the clamp through a knockout hole and secure the clamp inside the box
with the ring-shaped nut. Tighten the nut with pliers.
17.3.4. Mount the Box
Separate the circuit wires at the existing splice and loosen the cables as needed to
make room for the new junction box. Anchor the box to the framing (or other support
structure) with screws driven through the factory-made holes in the back or side of the
box, as applicable.
17.3.5. Secure the Cables
Feed the cables through the clamps and into the box. The cable sheathing (outer jacket)
should extend 1/4 to 1/2 inch into the box beyond the clamp, and the individual
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conducting wires should extend about 6 inches into the box. If necessary, trim the wires
as needed and strip 3/4 inch of insulation from the end of each wire, using wire
strippers.
Secure the cables by tightening the screws on the clamps, being careful not to
overtighten and damage the cables. Plastic boxes usually have spring-tabs for clamps
and do not require tightening.
 Note: The ends of the individual wires should be clean, straight, and
undamaged, with no more than 3/4 of exposed wire beyond the insulation.
Trim any damaged wires and/or strip insulation as needed, using wire
strippers.
17.3.6. Join the Wires
Join the wires together with approved wire connectors, following the manufacturer's
instructions:
Join the bare copper (or green insulated) ground wires together first. If the box is metal,
add a pigtail—a 6-inch length of the same type of ground wire—to the ground wire
connection, then connect the loose end of the pigtail to the ground screw on the box.
Special green wire nut connectors are generally used to join the grounding wires
together.
Join the white (neutral) wires together, then join the black (hot) wires together, using a
wire nut or other approved connector for each wire pair. If there are red (hot) wires, join
them together, as well. Confirm that all wires are secure by gently tugging on each wire.
17.3.7. Finish the Job
Carefully fold the wires into the box. Install the box cover, securing it with two screws.
Code requires that the cover must be a solid "blank" without holes. Restore power to the
circuit by switching on the circuit breaker
January-2021
Self-check -20
Written test
Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….


1) Junction boxes are metal or plastic enclosures used as housings
for wiring connections.
2) A junction box houses wire connections in order to split off power from a single
source to multiple outlets.
3) All wire splices must be contained within a junction box for a building to
meet electric code.
4) A junction box is simply a standard electrical box that is mounted securely to
house.
5) A weatherproof junction box with gaskets to prevent moisture intrusion.
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -18 For coordination and discrimination for
overload and short circuit protection.
18.1. Protection discrimination And Protection coordination/selectivity

Protection discrimination is an essential element that must be taken into account
starting at the design stage of a low voltage installation to ensure the highest
level of availability for users. Discrimination is important in all installations for the
comfort of users; however it is fundamental in installations requiring a high level
of service continuity, e.g.
18.2. Industrial manufacturing processes.

18.2.1. Industrial installations without discrimination run a series of risks of
varying importance including:
 Production deadline overruns
 Interruption in manufacturing, entailing:
 Production or finished-product losses
 Risk of damage to production machines in continuous processes
 Restarting of machines, one by one, following a general power outage
 Shutdown of vital safety equipment such as lubrification pumps, smokfans,
etc
18.3. Discrimination
Discrimination, also called selectivity, is the coordination of automatic protection
devices in such a manner that a fault appearing at a given point in a network is
cleared by the protection device installed immediately upstream of the fault, and by
that device alone.
 Total discrimination: Discrimination is said to be total if, for all fault current
values, from overloads up to the non-resistive short-circuit current, circuit breaker
D2 opens and D1 remains closed.
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 Partial discrimination: Discrimination is partial if the above condition is not
respected up to the full short-circuit current, but only to a lesser value termed the
selectivity limit current (Is)
 No discrimination: In the event of a fault, both circuit breakers D1 and D2 open.
18.4. Total discrimination as standard with Master pact NT/NW circuit breakers
Thanks to their highly innovative design and the exceptional performance of their
control units, the Master pact NT and NW circuit breakers offer total
discrimination with downstream Compact NSX devices up to 630 A as standard
18.5. Natural discrimination with Compact NSX circuit breakers

Due to the Roto-active breaking technique employed by the Compact NSX, the
combined use of Schneider Electric circuit breakers provides an exceptional level
of protection discrimination. This is the result of the implementation and
optimization of three different techniques: current discrimination time
discrimination energy discrimination.
18.6. Protection discrimination

18.6.1. How to use the discrimination tables
 For discrimination between 2 distribution circuit breakers
Combinations providing full discrimination are indicated by the symbol T. If
discrimination is partial, the table indicates the maximum fault current value for
which discrimination is ensured. For fault currents above this value, the 2 circuit
breakers trip simultaneously.
18.7. Protection discrimination with fuses principle

18.7.1. Schneider Electric offers a coordinated protection system:
In an electrical installation, protection fuses are never used alone and must
always be integrated in a system comprising circuit breakers. Coordination is
required between:
January-2021
 Upstream and downstream fuses
 Upstream circuit breakers and downstream fuses
 Upstream fuses and downstream circuit breakers.
Selective coordination is an electrical system design practice that improves reliability.

The methodology increases uptime by limiting power outages to the branch of an
electrical system where a problem occurs without knocking out other areas of the
system. When a fault happens, the closest overcurrent protective device opens either a
breaker or a fuse, ensuring that any faults don‘t cascade upstream.
Breaker coordination refers to the use of breakers specifically—including the latest

electronic trip breakers—to isolate electrical problems, stop nuisance tripping and avoid
system-wide blackouts. In addition to limiting an outage to the shorted or overloaded
branch circuit, breaker coordination makes it easier for electricians to investigate causes
of faults, identify underrated or overloaded equipment, and make corrections. Power
can typically be restored faster than when upstream breakers are tripped, especially if a
panel board has been taken down.
January-2021
18.8. Protection Coordination
18.8.1. Protection Coordination of Circuit Breakers
Figure 94: Protection coordination/ Selectivity
Protection coordination studies are becoming more prevalent and often are
requirements before connecting and energizing a grid connected PV system. Therefore,
it is important that circuit breaker and other protective device coordination is achieved
before installing the system, as this can cause unwanted issues for the network and the
customer. It is achieved by selecting and installing OCPD to handle a wide range of
overcurrent, from maximum fault current to overload.
Sizing circuit breakers according to system current and voltage specifications should not
be the only criteria considered when selecting the protective devices. Although
January-2021
important, it is also crucial for system functionality to ensure that the chosen breakers
discriminate with one another and those that already exist.
Coordination (selectivity) depends on the operating specifications of two or more

protective devices such that the downstream device shall operate for a given fault
current whilst the protection device upstream does not. As per the AS/NZS 3000:2018
standard, selectivity is a mandatory requirement in all electrical systems so that
nuisance tripping of the protective devices can be minimized.
Protection coordination is important for the protection of the load and system
components. It ensures that the downtime on the healthy circuits in a given system can
be reduced and minimized. (In AS/NZS 3000:2018, clause 2.5.7.2.1)
18.9. Importance/relevance
Figure below is taken from AS/NZS 3008:2018 and can be used to explain the
importance of coordination protective devices (PD), such as circuit breakers. If there is a
fault downstream of PD 2 (as shown in Figure 1), it is important that the closest device
to this fault trips first, as to avoid nuisance tripping on healthy parts in a circuit. If PD 1
and 2 were not successfully coordinated, and PD 1 tripped before PD 2, then the entire
circuit downstream of this would be de-energized. This is referred to as nuisance
tripping, as the circuit containing PD 3 has been de-energized, even though the fault is
downstream of the circuit with PD 2.
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Figure 95: Circuit schematic from AS/NZS 3000:2018
(Source: https://www.gses.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Figure-1-01-3-300x274.png)
18.11. Circuit Breakers- Discrimination and its Techniques

A circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and
automatically for control and protection of electrical power circuit.
The primary purpose of a circuit breaker is to protect the system from the damage in
series connected equipment & to minimize the area of damage and to minimum
duration of power loss. However the first consideration in the discrimination is the
correct circuit sizing breaker of main and branch breaker.
Discrimination is the coordination between the operating characteristics of circuit
breakers placed in series. When the fault occurs in system only the circuit breaker
placed immediately upstream of the fault will trip.
18.12. Discrimination as per IEC 60947-2 can be defined as follows:

 The total discrimination: This is a type of current based discrimination
where in there are two circuit breakers in series, the circuit breaker on the
load side effects the protection without causing the upstream circuit breaker
to operate/trip
January-2021
 Partial Discrimination: This is a type of current based discrimination where
in there are two circuit breakers in series, the circuit breaker on the load
side effects the protection up to a defined level of overcurrent, without
causing the upstream circuit breaker to operate/trip.
18.12.1. Principles of discriminative tipping (selectivity)
Discrimination may be total or partial, and based on the principles of current levels, or
time-delays, or a combination of both. A more recent development is based on the logic
techniques Discrimination is achieved by automatic protective devices if a fault
condition, occurring at any point in the installation, is cleared by the protective device
located immediately Upstream of the fault, while all other protective devices remain
unaffected.
Protection against overload:

discrimination based on current levels
This method is realized by setting successive tripping thresholds at stepped levels, from
downstream relays (lower settings) towards the source (higher settings). Discrimination
is total or partial, depending on particular conditions, as noted above.
 Protection against low level short-circuit currents: discrimination based on
stepped time delays
This method is implemented by adjusting the time-delayed tripping units, such
that downstream circuit breakers have the shortest operating times, with
progressively longer delays towards the source.
18.12.2. Current-level discrimination - principle

Current-level discrimination is achieved with stepped current-level settings of the
instantaneous magnetic-trip elements. Current-level discrimination is achieved
with circuit breakers, preferably current limiting, and stepped current-level
settings of the instantaneous magnetic-trip elements.
The downstream circuit-breaker is not a current-limiter device
January-2021
Total discrimination in this situation is practically impossible because
Isc A ≈ Isc B, so that both circuit-breakers will generally trip simultaneously. In
this case discrimination is partial, and limited to the Im of the upstream circuit-breaker.
The downstream circuit-breaker is a current-limiting device. Improvement in
discriminative tripping can be obtained by using a current limiter for circuit-
breaker B. For a short-circuit downstream of B, the limited level of peak current
IB would operate the (suitably adjusted) magnetic trip unit of B, but would be
insufficient to cause circuit-breaker A to trip.
18.13. Time-based discrimination – principle

18.13.1. This technique requires:
The introduction of time-delays into the tripping mechanisms of circuit breakers
Circuit Breakers with adequate thermal and mechanical withstand capabilities at the
high current levels and time delays considered. Two circuit-breakers A and B in series
(i.e. carrying the same current) are discriminative if the current-breaking period of
downstream circuit-breaker B is less than the non-tripping time of circuit-breaker A C&S
offers total discrimination up to fault level of 50kA. For total discrimination, the
customers can select Winmaster2 Air Circuit Breakers (ACBs) & Winbreak2 Molded Case
Circuit Breakers (MCCBs). Customers can refer selection of upstream and down-
steam breaker details (kA, Rating & AF) from the selection tables provided by C&S
Electric.
18.13.2. Achieving discrimination
There are two main forms to consider when understanding discrimination: time
discrimination and current discrimination.
18.13.3. Time discrimination
Works on adjustable time delay settings incorporated into the circuit breakers. These
settings are adjusted in the upstream devices so that a given current value will trip the
January-2021
device after the delay. When using this method, the circuit breakers must be able to
withstand the thermal and electro dynamic effects of the fault current during the delay
period.
18.13.4. Current discrimination can also be divided into two types:
 Overload discrimination and

 Short circuit discrimination
18.13.4.1. Overload discrimination is undertaken by selecting an upstream device

with a higher current rating and instantaneous pickup level than the next downstream
device.
18.13.4.2. Short circuit discrimination is based on the principle that if a fault is close
to the main source of supply, the prospective fault current will be higher. Therefore,
discrimination can be achieved by setting a circuit breaker to a limit that does not cause
unnecessary trips.
18.14. Short circuit and protection coordination: essentials of power protection
Protective devices in an electrical system offer great security to the power scheme,
regardless of size and complexity, but that means conducting short circuit and
protection coordination studies are necessary to stabilize the system. This includes
making changes like adding loads, reconfiguring the design, or expanding the system.
Ensuring that an electrical system service is uninterrupted and efficient is a priority in

designing and maintaining it. Since short circuits cannot be eliminated, exhaustively
conducting studies and making the necessary coordination by a qualified engineer is
always a welcome practice.
In this article, you‘ll find out more about protection coordination studies and how it can
help decrease short circuit conditions.
January-2021
18.14.1. States of the short circuit
A power system has five operating states: normal, alert, emergency, in extremis, and
restorative. Generally, a system can experience a violation of constraints, and instability
in the transmission and generation, which can trigger the scheme to shift from a normal
state to a faulted state. The occurrence of a short circuit indicates an abnormal
condition in which the current goes beyond permissible limits several times.
The National Electrical Code defines a short-circuit current as a type of overcurrent that
results from a negligible impedance fault between live conductors that have different
potential while in a normal operating condition.
An instantaneous short-circuits current has two components: the steady-state AC

component and transient DC component. While the AC component is symmetrical, the
DC component declines exponentially, dependent on the ratio between system
reactance and resistance (system X/R ratio).
The short-circuit current is dependent on the voltage source and phase angle of the
fault, which consequently determines the degree of asymmetry of the fault current.
18.14.2. Overcurrent protection
Overcurrent protection refers to the primary measures used against excessive currents
due to a system fault. When a sudden and substantial increase in current happens,
overcurrent protection is a simple and inexpensive way of safeguarding the continuity of
service for industrial systems and electrical power distribution. Overcurrent protection is
designed for intolerable conditions such as short-circuits. It can also be put in place as a
backup for power transformers or transmission lines, should there be a need to protect
specified components in the primary protection scheme.
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18.14.3. Overcurrent protective devices
An overcurrent protective device or OCPD is set up to guard against conditions wherein

the current exceeds the rating of the equipment or conductor, such as in a short circuit.
These devices could be:
18.14.4. Overcurrent relay.
This is an auxiliary device connected to a switch or circuit breaker that operates when
the current flowing through the circuit surpasses a preset threshold. It initiates a trip
condition that activates the circuit breaker.
18.14.5. Benefits of protection coordination studies
 Reduce system downtime and avoid interruption of service

 Prevent damage to equipment or the occurrence of any failure
 Identify weak points in the system and correct any under-protected
segments
 Isolate faulty circuits and ensure that no loss of power to the rest of the
system happens
 Reinforce the safety of the personnel
18.14.6. Selective coordination
The NEC requires careful coordination, which is the isolation of an overcurrent incident by
activating the nearest upstream OCPD in the distribution system. It is done to restrict outages to
the equipment or circuit affected. It is achieved by selecting and installing OCPD to handle a
wide range of overcurrent, from maximum fault current to overload. Selective coordination is
necessary for systems where reliability is essential. Some examples include emergency
systems, multiple elevator circuits, critical-operation power systems, legally sanctioned standby
systems, data systems, and more. Conducting a coordination study necessitates various pieces
of information to ensure the output will be as reliable as possible. These data include a one-line
diagram of the electrical power system or the affected portion. A short-circuit study should also
be completed and time-current curves.
January-2021
Self-check -21
Written test
Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….


1. Protection discrimination is an essential element that must be taken into account
starting at the design stage of a low voltage installation

2. Selective coordination is an electrical system design practice that improves
reliability.
3. Protection coordination studies are becoming more prevalent and often are
requirements before connecting and energizing a grid connected PV system.
4. . It is achieved by selecting and installing OCPD to handle a wide range of
overcurrent, from maximum fault current to overload.
5. A circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and
automatically for control and protection of electrical power circuit
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
Information Sheet -19 Arranging various types of circuit breakers.
Information Sheet -19# arranging various types of circuit breakers

19.1. Arranging Types of Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are essentially switches installed inside a breaker box that protect your
home‘s electrical components from overheating or catching fire. When an electrical
short or overload occurs, a circuit breaker mitigates the problem by interrupting the flow
of electricity. There are three basic circuit breaker varieties: standard breakers (which
include both single-pole and double-pole circuit breakers), ground fault circuit interrupter
circuit breakers (GFCIs) and arc fault circuit interrupter circuit breakers (AFCIs).
Caution
Installing or replacing a circuit breaker is a job for a licensed electrician and may require
a permit. Failure to take proper precautions and observe electrical codes when working
with electrical components can result in fires, serious electrical shock or death. An
electrician can best determine the circuit breaker type required for your home.
19.2. Single-Pole Circuit Breakers

Single-pole circuit breakers are the type most often found in homes today. They're
named single-pole because they're designed to monitor the current of a single wire and
trip in the event of a short or electrical overload. Single-pole breakers are intended to
accommodate between 15 and 30 amps and deliver 120 volts to the circuit.
19.3. Double-Pole Circuit Breakers

Double-pole circuit breakers monitor the flow of electricity through two wires
simultaneously. They're easily recognized as a single breaker with two interlinked, side-
by-side switches. This type of breaker will trip if one or both of the wires short out or
become overloaded. Double-pole circuit breakers deliver either 240 volts or 120/240
volts to an electrical circuit and can accommodate anywhere from 15 amps to 200
January-2021
amps. Circuits that supply power to appliances require a substantial amount of energy,
such as washing machines and dryers, demand double-pole breakers.
19.4. GFCI Circuit Breakers

GFCI circuit breakers are designed to protect against a line-to-ground fault. This is
when a dangerous electrical path occurs between a grounded element and an electrical
current. GFCI breakers also offer protection against an electrical short or overloaded
current. These breakers are required by some electrical codes for areas in the home
that can become wet such as bathrooms, laundry rooms and outdoor areas.
19.5. AFCI Circuit Breakers

AFCI circuit breakers are designed to trip when arcing is detected within electrical
wiring. This occurs when an electrical cord becomes damaged or its coating becomes
too thin and it presents a serious risk of a fire. Standard single-pole and double-pole
circuit breakers won't always detect electrical arcs because they're only tripped by
excessive heat. AFCI circuit breakers are required as part of electrical code on newer
houses.
Figure 96: AFCI Circuit Breakers
January-2021
The circuit breaker is mainly categorized into two types. They are the AC circuit breakers
and the DC circuit breakers.
19.6. AC Circuit Breaker
The AC circuit breaker is sub-classified into two types, i.e., the low voltage circuit
breaker and the high voltage circuit breaker. The circuit breaker whose value lies below
the 1000V is known as the low voltage circuit breaker, and above 1000V it is known as
a high voltage circuit breaker. The high voltage circuit breaker is further classified into
two main categories; they are the oil circuit breakers and the oil-less circuit breaker.
19.7. Oil Circuit Breaker
The oil circuit breaker uses oil for an arc extinction. It is further sub-categorized into bulk
oil type and the minimum oil type circuit breaker.
Figure 97: oil circuit breakers
19.7.1. Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker
The bulk oil circuit breaker uses transformer oil as an arc extinction medium of the
circuit breaker. The oil also acts as an insulator between the two conducting parts of the
circuit breaker. The rating range of oil circuit breaker lies from 25MVA at 2.5KV to 5000
MVA at 230KV.
January-2021
19.7.2. Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
In the minimum oil circuit breaker, the oil is used for arc extinction by blast action. The
main function of the oil in the minimum oil circuit breaker is to interrupt the arc
formation, and it is not used for insulating the live parts of the earth.
The oil impulse circuit breaker is the other type of minimum oil circuit breaker. This
circuit breaker used oil jet, which is produced by the piston pump for extinguishing the
arc. The jet of the oil is placed between the gaps formed by the contacts of the circuit
breaker. The four main types of oil circuit breaker are the air circuit breaker, air blast
circuit breaker, Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker and the vacuum circuit breaker.
19.8. Air Circuit Breaker

In air circuit breaker the arc is initiated and extinct in the static air in which the arc
moves. Such types of breaker are used in the range of low voltage up to 15KV, and the
rupturing capacity of the breaker is 500 MVA.The classification of the air break circuit
breaker depends on the types of air breaking methods. The types of the air break circuit
breaker are shown below.
January-2021
Figure 98: Air Circuit Breaker
In the plain air break circuit breaker, the contacts are made in the shapes of the horns.
The magnetic blow type breaker uses magnetic field as an arc interruption medium and
in the arc-chute circuit breaker low and medium voltage circuit are used for arc
interruption.
19.9. Air Blast Circuit Breaker
The air blast circuit breaker uses a blast of air to blow out the arc. In an air blast circuit
breaker, compressed air is stored in the form of the tank and release through the
nozzles to produce a high-velocity jet, which is used to extinguish the arc. Such type of
circuit breaker is used for indoor services which have a medium high voltage field. The
air blast circuit breaker is used for the low voltage up to of 15 kV and rupturing
January-2021
capacities of 2500 MVA. Such types of breakers are also used in outdoor switchyards
for 220 kV lines. The types of the air blast circuit breaker are shown below.
Figure 99: Air blast Circuit Breaker
In axial blast circuit breaker, the air flows longitudinally in the direction of the arc while in
the cross blast circuit breaker the air flows at the right angle of the arc.
19.10. Sulfur Hexa Fluoride Circuit Breaker
The sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses SF6 gas for extinguishing the arc. The
SF6 gas has great arc extinguishing property, and it is also superior as compared to
other arc quenching media such as the oil or air.
January-2021
19.11. Vacuum Circuit Breaker
In such type of circuit breaker the contacts of the circuit are placed in the permanently
sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc is quenched when the contacts are separated in the
high vacuum. Such type of circuit breaker is less bulky, cheaper in cost, negligible
maintenance and has a long life
19.12. HVDC Circuit Breaker
The breaker which is used for the interruption of the high voltage direct current is known
as the HVDC circuit breaker. The voltage breaking capacity of the HVDC circuit breaker
is nearly 33KV, and for the current, it is 2KA. The main problem of the HVDC circuit
breaker is that the DC is unidirectional and hence there is no zero point in the DC
system. The fault current in the HVDC circuit breaker should be reduced to zero by
using some external methods. The arc quenching medium of the air break circuit
breaker is either oil or air blast.
January-2021
Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….


1. Single-pole circuit breakers are the type most often found in homes today.
2. Double-pole circuit breakers monitor the flow of electricity through two wires
simultaneously.
3. GFCI circuit breakers are designed to protect against a line-to-ground fault.
4. The oil circuit breaker uses oil for an arc extinction
5. The air blast circuit breaker uses a blast of air to blow out the arc
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
January-2021
L G#51 LO #3 Document electrical installation circuits, control and
protection arrangements
Instruction sheet
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 Obtaining and selecting Evidence from manufacturer‘s electrical equipment.

 Selecting document of Electrical installation.
 Overload current or fault currents in an electrical installation.
 Obtains and selects Evidence from manufacturer‘s electrical equipment.
 Selects document of Electrical installation.
 Overload current or fault currents in an electrical installation.
12. Read the information written in the ―Information Sheets‖. Try to understand what are being
discussed. Ask your trainer for assistance if you have hard time understanding them.
14. Ask from your trainer the key to correction (key answers) or you can request your trainer
to correct your work. (You are to get the key answer only after you finished answering the
Self-checks).
16. Perform ―the Learning activity performance test‖ which is placed following ―Operation
sheets‖ ,
18. If your performance is unsatisfactory, see your trainer for further instructions or go back to
―Operation sheets‖.
January-2021
Obtaining and selecting Evidence from manufacturer’s
electrical equipment complies with safety.
Information Sheet -1# Obtaining and selecting Evidence from

manufacturer’s electrical equipment complies with safety.
1.1. The basics safety from manufacturers view

 Electrical Safety Equipment
 Electrical Safety Regulations
 Electrical Safety in the Workplace
 Electrical Safety Tips
In this guide, we will examine the hazards of electricity in factories and other industrial
environments. We will also provide guidance and discuss recommended methods for
managing those risks and protecting the health and safety of employees, contractors
and visitors alike.
Almost every workplace or factory features electrical items of some kind. If poorly
maintained, installation or machinery can cause serious accidents. The risks increase
the larger and more powerful the equipment, making electrical safety measures even
more important.
To comply with workplace safety requirements, all circuits and wiring must be properly
and fully inspected on a regular basis. This is perhaps the single most effective way to
protect employees from shocks.
January-2021
Electrical Safety
Electrical safety is a system of standards and measures which protect against
electricity. They are designed to protect from electric shocks, arcing and common
electrical hazards.
1.2. Electrical Safety Equipment
Electrical equipment should be in proper working order, fully grounded, and ideally
double-insulated, if this is a possibility. The following products, protective equipment
and electrical safety devices are widely used by industrial firms to protect their
employees from electrocution and related risks.
1.3.Electrical Safety Mats

Also known as insulation mats or switchboard matting, these mats provide some degree
of protection from high voltage discharges. They are made from insulated rubber and
should be placed near potentially dangerous machinery and live switchboards
Figure 100: Electrical Safety Mats
January-2021
1.4.Electrical Safety Toolkits
Toolkits are used by qualified professionals for testing and repair purposes. Tools that
are insulated and have a VDE approval are ideal for use with electricity as they have
been specifically designed to protect against the risk of an electrical shock.
1.4.1.Portable Appliance Testers (PAT)

Portable appliance tester kits are used by electricians and trained workers to verify the
safety and working order of portable appliances. They can be particularly prone to wear
to regular testing is essential
Figure 101: Tester kits
1.4.2.Insulation Testing
Insulation testers are handheld devices used to monitor the electrical flow within cables,
motors, switches and generators. The electricity that escapes from insulated cables can
feed back, interfering with equipment.
Figure 102: Insulation tester
January-2021
1.4.3.Voltage Indication and Testing
Voltage indicators are standard electrician safety equipment. These handheld devices
provide a quick and reliable indication of live currents in particular circuits.
Figure 103: Voltage indicator
1.4.4.Lockout Kits
Also known as lock-offs, lockout kits are sets of tools used to cut off electrical currents
and ensure the safe isolation of devices that require repair or close checking.
Figure 104: Lockout kits
1.4.5.Earth or Ground Testing Blocks

Also known as earth terminals or ground terminal blocks, earth blocks are used to safely
ground cables and electrical wires to protect from electrical discharge or magnetic
fields. Typically, they are screwed or clamped into place.
January-2021
Figure 105: Ground Testing Blocks
1.4.6. Residual current devices (RCDs) Testing

Residual current devices (RCDs) automatically switch off electricity in the event of faults
such as exposed wires, earthing failures or overheating. They are designed to protect
individuals and can save lives. Alternative names include residual circuit breakers
(RCCBs) in the UK and ground fault circuit interrupters in the United States
Figure 106: RCD
1.5.Electrical Safety Signs and Posters
Posters provide a convenient way to promote safety and raise awareness of electrical
safety practices. They should be displayed in common areas such as canteens and
break rooms, as well as near hazardous areas such as electrical rooms and
substations.
Safety signs provide immediate visual signals of potential electrical hazards. Their
effectiveness will be complemented by staff training. You should also provide
updated safety handbooks as reference material for trained employees and on-site
electrician.
January-2021
Figure 107: Safety signs
1.6. Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment is essential in a wide variety of industries. Appropriate
PPE should be worn by electricians and those carrying out electrical work. The
particular items required will depend largely on the hazard and the task in question.
However, typical PPE for electricians may include safety glasses, safety
boots, flame-resistant clothing, and insulating work gloves.
Figure 108: PPE
1.7. Electrical Safety Regulations
Employers are responsible for ensuring the safety of electrical equipment under the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. These obligations extend to members of the
public who visit or pass the premises. Employers must take ‗all reasonable and
practicable steps to prevent danger from electrical systems‘. Meanwhile, the Electrical
Equipment (Safety) Regulations 2016 impose a range of responsibilities on
manufacturers and distributors. Electrical Safety First, formerly known as the Electrical
Safety Council, is an active campaigning charity which works to improve regulations
and education.
January-2021
1.8. Electrical Safety in the Workplace
Employers should have a comprehensive electrical safety policy in place. Safety

training should also be completed in order to ensure that employees are aware of the
potential risks they may encounter in their day-to-day roles.
Regular visits by official electrical inspectors from the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE) are a must. They will check the safety of on-site equipment and provide advice
on good working practice.
A key requirement for employers is to make sure possible electrical hazards in the
workplace are frequently assessed and all equipment is safe and fit for purpose. They
are required to keep a register documenting these inspections. When issues are
identified, suitable repair work should be promptly completed.
Inspection and testing should be carried out by a ‗skilled person or persons,

competent in such work‘. Normally this 'competent person' implies a qualified and
experienced electrical engineer, accredited by a recognized trade body and familiar
with applicable codes of practice.
1.9. Key potential risks include:
 Isolators and fuse box cases: these should be kept closed and locked
whenever possible
 Cables, sockets, plugs and power cords: these must be properly insulated
and have sufficient capacity for their use
 Fuses and circuit-breakers: these must be properly matched to the circuit in
which they are installed
 Machines and appliances: these must have an off switch that is easy to find
and immediately accessible in case of emergency
January-2021
 Overhead power lines: these should only ever be approached by qualified
professionals. Overhead lines are extremely dangerous without the proper
precautions
Ask employees to examine electrical equipment before use, looking for damage
to plugs or adapters, loose cables and connectors, bare wiring, and similar
issues. This is particularly vital for portable equipment which carries a higher risk
of incurring damage. Any issues should be immediately reported, with faulty
equipment removed for repair or replacement. Repair work must only be carried
out by trained individuals. An employer failing to meet their legal obligations puts
both employees and the business at risk. Faulty electrical equipment is a major
cause of fire and if your insurer decides proper electrical safety precautions were
not taken, they may refuse to pay out.
1.10. Electrical Safety Tips

Table 13: The key principles of electrical safety at work are
Respect live electricity. Touching a live circuit could have fatal

consequences
Conduct regular inspections of equipment. Any electrical equipment
should be routinely assessed. Is it still safe to use? Is the cabling
properly sealed and insulated? Does it need repair or replacement?
Ensure correct training. Everyone who uses electrical equipment in
the course of their job should be confident in how to use it safely.
Nobody should conduct any kind of repairs on electrical equipment
without sufficient skills and training
Do not overload sockets and extension cables as this can cause fires
Switch off equipment after use and before cleaning or adjusting it in

any way
January-2021
Check for hidden cables in walls before drilling or inserting nails
Stop using faulty equipment immediately and have it checked by

qualified personnel
Make sure all equipment in use is suitable for its purpose. Ensure
that it remains so via regular electrical safety checks and
maintenance
Although the amount and strength of electrical equipment in use varies according to
industry, these principles are fundamental and apply more or less equally to hospitals,
factories, offices and warehouses.
Measuring
Live voltages and current in today's high-energy environments can result in a severe
hazard to equipment and users if proper precautions are not applied. Given the risk of
transients, surges, and old-fashioned human error, it always pays to follow safe work
practices and use test instruments rated for the voltage or current you're measuring.
Whenever possible, work on de-energized circuits and follow proper lockout/tag out
procedures. If you have to work on live circuits, following the steps below will improve
your measurement practices and help to reduce any hazard.
Prep work
 Assess the environment before taking the measurement.
 Do not work alone in hazardous areas.
 Wear the appropriate personal protective equipment as determined by

NFPA 70E.
 Make sure your test instrument is rated for the measurement environment.
January-2021
 Be familiar with and know how to use your equipment prior to any
hazardous measurement.
Best practices
 Make sure that your meter, and especially your test leads and probes, are
in proper working order.
 Measure at the lowest energy point.
 Hang the test instrument or place it on a shelf in front of you, if available.

This allows you to concentrate on where your hands are placed and keep
your eyes on where you are probing.
 For single phase, connect neutral first, hot second.
 Use the three-point test method discussed below.
 Use test probes with a minimum amount of exposed metal, such as .12-
inch (4-mm) metal tip probes.
January-2021
Self- check -1 Written test
Self- check -1# written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
1. To comply with workplace safety requirements, all circuits and wiring must be
properly and fully inspected on a regular basis.
2. Electrical safety is a system of standards and measures which protect against
electricity
3. Electrical equipment should be in proper working order, fully grounded, and ideally
double-insulated.
4. Residual current devices (RCDs) automatically switch off electricity in the event of
faults.
5. Personal protective equipment is essential in a wide variety of industries.
6. Inspection and testing should be carried out by a ‗skilled person

7. Write five Key potential risks
List he basics safety from manufacturers view.
8. List typical PPE for electricians
9. Best practices in safety

Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Test II
7.____________________________________________________________
8.___________________________________________________________
9.____________________________________________________________
10.____________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -2 Selecting document of Electrical installation
Information Sheet -2# Selecting document of Electrical installation

2.1. Introduction
Technical documentation belongs to key aspects of the production process. Is the
carrier of information, which constitutes the basis for technological processes in
manufacturing, construction, wiring of electrical appliances etc?
The purpose of this module is to master an independent reading of technical

documentation which reflects developments in the electrical industries. The material is
also aimed at the correct treatment (management) of technical documentation. Without
this ability it is not possible to properly install wiring and ensure the quality of each step
of the manufacturing process.
The submitted guide has an indicative nature and it primarily outlines the main areas
which the teachers and learners have to focus on. Its use requires the utilisation of other
supportive resources (scientific literature, internet sources) for fixing the subject,
depending on national and local circumstances and needs. The document contains links
to other websites with educational content, from which teachers and learners shall
continue to draw. It also foresees the use of own resources and educational content of
educational institute/provider.
2.2. Technical documentation

It is necessary to follow certain rules when working with the technical documentation -
for example, marking and numbering of the document, document archiving etc. The
technical documentation is the property of the company/enterprise and it is necessary to
handle it accordingly.
January-2021
The working method with the documentation depends on what kind of documentation is
involved. Firstly, the technical documentation must include a clear specification (label)
of the product, part or semi-product. The specification can be:
 full
 name
 dimension data
 material identification (numerical, alpha-numerical, verbal)
 identification of a document which supplement the requirements on the
product, its part or semi-product
 simplified
We do not understand "drawings" or "scheme" only under the technical documentation.
Technical data can also be found in the commercial documentation (advertising
materials, catalogues) or in the service documentation (user manuals, service manuals).
2.3. Types of technical documentation

Types of technical documentation in electro-industry can by divided according to:
1) Purpose of its use
a) production:
 Construction: e. g. drawings, calculations, test results, technical
reports, material certificates, certificates of overtaken components1 etc.
 Technological: e. g. manufacturing drawings of parts adapted for a
specific manufacturing technology, material and semi-products
specifications, technological processes etc.
 operational: e. g. instructions for operation and maintenance, spare
parts list, quality certificates, special documentation for special
technical devices (classification, elements list, revisions plan, revisions
book) etc.
b) commercial
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c) patent
2.4. Processing method

a) Traditional means of drawing: drawing by hand using the drawing tools
and drawing paper
b) Modern computer - technology (the result is printed on the printer or plotter),
e. g.:
 CAD – Computer Aided Design, e. g. AutoCAD, AutoDesk, Inventor
 CAPP – Computer Aided Process Planning
2.5. Way of drawing (in electrical engineering):

a) single-pole - several conductors of the same function (single line), several
identical components (single mark)
b) several poles - a separate line/mark for separate conductors/components
c) undistributed - marks for all elements of the functional units are drawn
together,
E.g. wired/interconnect drawing - with regards to the spatial arrangement of
appliances
d) distributed - marks of all elements of the functional units are drawn separately
E.g. line drawing - different parts of the circuit comprise a straight line
(unfolded drawing)
e) loop - the various components form a loop (distributed/undistributed drawing)
In this material, we will focus on two types of technical documentation: electrical
schemes and commercial documentation. Electrical schemes are divided according
to the provided information2:
a) overall information on the electrical appliance, its functioning, connection etc.:
January-2021
 overview: the main parts of the device, their purpose and connections
(Fig. 1):
 overview schemes of transmission
 overview schemes of equipment
 block: simplified representation of parts of electrical equipment using
symbols for block diagrams (Fig. 2)
 teaching: highlighting the objective pursued
 functional: expresses the sequence of processes
 wiring scheme of external circuits
 distribution frame scheme
b) scheme for the development of other documents, in the manufacture and
operation of the device:
 situation: the spatial distribution of the parts of the device (e. g. network
situation scheme)
 topographic drawing: shapes of the power lines routes or arrangement of
electrical appliance parts
 signal diagram: graphical presentation of variables, e. g. regulatory system
by branches and nodes
 modulation diagram: frequency bands with a multiple modulation
 diagram of availability: the order and time intervals of consecutive
operations of the functional units of the device
 table of connections: interconnected terminals
 signal box diagram (dog chart)
2.6. Technical documentation management

The technical documentation is part of the company's property. Management (or
the administration) of the technical documentation now increasingly depends on
the use of modern technologies. The reason and purpose of the use of tools
which are computer-assisted is the fact that these systems allow, for example:
January-2021
 develop a product
 manufacture a product
 modify product
 direct connection to the production cycle
 the direct connection and communication between the different departments
 within the company but also with suppliers/customers by using the cloud
 monitor product life
One of the trends that meet this requirement is the PLM (Product Lifecycle). PLM
manages the life cycle of the product from planning to its disposal.
Solutions (tools) based on PLM are several:

 systems connected to CAD or directly built on CAD, e. g.:
 LSD2000 (Czech software) for development of technical documentation in
the area of electrical engineering and electronics
 ExpressSCH for schemes development and ExpressPCB for development
of printed circuit boards development
 EAGLE for sche
 mes and printed circuit boards development
 OrCAD
 systems not based on CAD
The technical documentation must be archived and registered in accordance with the
agreed rules. Each document has a designated validity, the author, owner, manager
must be known and it must contain additional information:
a) Identifier
b) Designation, title or document name
c) Date of completion, issue
d) Place of archiving
January-2021
e) The type (assembly drawings, wiring diagrams, management ...) and size (A4,
A3 ...)
f) Status of changes - preliminary edition, final, designation according to the last
changes, discarded
g) Other information, e. g. acknowledgment and approval of inspection bodies,
certificates, belonging to the set of documentation, author, language, etc.
h) Information on users - the number and location of distributed copies.
Original drawings are not stocked. Copies of all formats are made according to STN 01
3111 for A4 format. Copies may be stocked: free, direct binding to files or to bond with a
strip.
2.7. Technical standardization:

Technical standardization is a process the purpose of which is to provide solutions that
are economical, effective and designed to ensure the quality of the processes and
products. On Technical Requirements for Products and on Conformity Assessment and
on amendments to certain laws: "Technical Standard contains rules, guidelines,
characteristics and results of operations aimed at achieving the most suitable
arrangement in the area and in general and repeated use." The technical standards are
based on validated and conventional results of science, as well as practice. The result is
a generalization of standardization of species and types of products (products, parts,
assemblies, as well as services), their properties and parameters, e. g
a) Materials and their properties

b) Calculations
c) Production processes.
2.8. Types of standards

We distinguish:
a) Basic norms: basic standards related to terminology, conventions, metrology,
signs and symbols;
January-2021
b) Product standards or standards for services: minimum defined parameters
that have the products/services comply with (health, safety or the
environment, necessary documentation to the products etc.);
c) Standards for analysis and methods: the properties are measured towards
these standards;
d) Organisational standards: they describe the functioning of the company/firm/
organization, relationships and activities (e. g. the processes of quality
assurance, logistics, management, organisation of production etc.);
e) According to the territorial validity:
a) International standards by the International Organisation for
Standardisation, available to the public,
b) European standards adopted by European standardisation body, available to
the public,
c) Slovak technical standards, publicly available,
f) Foreign standards adopted by a foreign national standardisation body and made
available to the public.
2.9. Technical regulation

Technical regulation is generally binding regulation which contains.
a) Technical specifications;
b) Other requirements;
c) Rules regarding the services;
d) Regulation prohibiting the manufacture, import, retail or use of a product or
prohibiting the provision or use of a service, or establishment of a service
provider. Technical specifications' states product characteristics such as size,
labelling, packaging, quality standards, compliance assessment procedures etc.
This term also includes the methods and processes of production. Other
requirements' include requirements such as conditions for use, reuse or
January-2021
recycling. These conditions affect the composition or character of the product or
its sale.
e)
2.10.Symbols And Marks
In principle, the technical drawing in electrical installation or electro technics
follows the same rules as in metal industry. At this point we recommend drawing
from the learning material "Reading Technical Documentation - Metal." Of course,
given the diversity of usage of electrical schemes, there are differences. For
example, drawing electrician scheme does not include in the label information on
material.
2.10.1. Signs
Signs and connections used in the electrical system are set out in the standard
STN IEC 60617
We distinguish the standardised signs:
a) general (basic) – common for a group of components with the same function
b) complementary – they specify the meaning of general signs
These signs can be mutually combined to clarify the meaning.
Lines
Electrical schemes usually use one line thickness. Exceptions represent, for example,
the main or power circuits, which are plotted with a thick line. It is recommended unified
line thickness when using CAD systems.
Signal
Placing the signal signs in the electrical documentation respects:
a) functional layout: signal flow and functions regardless of the actual location of
elements
b) topographical layout: respects the deployment of elements
January-2021
A symbol for the direction of the signal flow in electrical installation or electro
technical drawings is defined by norms from left to right. It is possible to group the
conductors in the overview and surveillance and circuit schemes by their functions or
more parallel conductors. Group of conductors can be thus replaced by a beam. The
beam is labelled with the number and the slash or a thick line.
10.4. Sequence of conductors is labelled by a dot
Figure 109: Sequence of conductors – labelled by letters.
Figure below shows different ways of connections and turns. Turning and
crossing of joints are drawn:
- a conductive connection: in the shape of a "T"

- non-conductive connection: cruciform3
January-2021
Figure 110: Connecting, turning
Supplementary mark is used for boards that represent information bus
Figure 111: Information bus
2.10.7. Labelling the components
Components are labelled by alphabetical letters
January-2021
Self-check -24
Written test

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….
1. The technical documentation must be archived and registered in accordance with
the agreed rules.

2. The technical documentation is part of the company's property.
3. The working method with the documentation depends on what kind of
documentation is involved.
4. Technical documentation belongs to key aspects of the production process.
5. Technical Standard contains rules, guidelines, characteristics and results of
operations aimed at achieving the most suitable arrangement in the area
6. Write the Technical regulation. .(4-points)
7. What specification required in technical documentation.(4-points)
8. List the purpose of Technical standardization in documentation.(2-
points)


Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
Rating: ____________
Test II
6_____________________________________________________________________
7_____________________________________________________________________
8_____________________________________________________________________
January-2021
Information Sheet -3 Overload current or fault currents in an electrical
installation.
Information Sheet -3# Overload current or fault currents in an

electrical installation
3.1. Overload or Short Circuit Protection
3.1.1. How to Protect your Design against Both Dangers
Short circuits and overloads put different demands on circuit breakers. It is imperative
that engineers know how to protect their designs against both dangers.
Circuit breakers are used in a variety of ways. They are mounted in panel boards to
protect branch circuit wiring and they are built into equipment to protect it. With this
range of applications, it's not surprising that a circuit breaker must provide both short
circuit and overload protection.
Interrupting a short circuit that is limited by the resistance of the wiring is a very severe
test of a circuit breaker, and if the interrupting capacity of the breaker is not adequate,
the device can literally explode. Overload currents that reach 2 to 5 times the normal
rating of the breaker are handled differently, and very often the circuit breaker must
carry the current for an appreciable time without tripping. This white paper will give
pointers on how to determine the main job a breaker must do and how to make an
appropriate selection.
Protection against shorts and overloads is the largest concern when choosing a circuit
breaker. Branch circuits fed from a 480V main need protection against short circuit
currents measured in tens of thousands of amperes. For that reason, panel boards are
equipped with circuit breakers for branch circuit protection that are listed under UL 489 -
"Standard for Molded-Case Circuit Breakers and Circuit Breaker Enclosures" - and are
rated to interrupt fault currents from 5000 to 50,000 amperes or higher.
January-2021
A circuit breaker installed inside a piece of equipment is generally there to protect the
equipment itself, and the applicable standard should be UL 1077 - "Standard for
Supplementary Protectors for Use in Electrical Equipment". In UL terms, UL 1077
compliant devices are called "supplementary protectors," and are labeled as
"recognized components" (not "listed"). They are often called "circuit breakers for
equipment" (CBEs). While U 489 breaker and UL 1077 devices protect against both
shorts and overloads, the UL 1077 devices tend to concentrate more on overloads -
largely because they are always downstream of a UL 489 breaker.
The other (generally much higher) interrupting rating specifies the maximum current that
the breaker can interrupt safely (i.e. without starting a fire) but may be rendered
inoperable ("not fit for further use" or not "recalibrated after testing"). Under EN 60934
this is the PC1 rating, while under UL 1077 it is the SC 1 value. Some manufacturers
publish both ratings, but many do not.
3.2. Protection against Overloads
Overloads can be short-term or long-term. The protective device chosen must not trip
on momentary or short-term overcurrent events that are normal for the piece of
equipment it is protecting. Electronic devices, for example, may create inrush currents
as their internal power supply and filter circuits start. These inrush currents typically last
only a fraction of a second, and seldom cause a problem. Another class of short-term
overcurrent‘s is a motor starting surge. Most motors, especially those that start under
load, draw several times their normal current when starting. Other overcurrent may last
even longer, and still be part of normal operation. A piece of motor-driven equipment,
for example, may draw 50% more than normal current for several minutes at a time and
the breaker should not trip under these conditions. If the overload lasts longer than
normal, the breaker should open to prevent overheating and damage. What gives the
breaker the ability to discriminate between normal and damaging over currents is the
delay curve.
January-2021
3.3. Delay Curves
Fig : 99 Delay curve
There are four choices of delay curves in circuit breakers:
 Thermal,
 Thermal-magnetic,
 Hydraulic-magnetic and
 Magnetic
Each has a different trip profile in relation to a time and current, and each has distinct
mechanical characteristics.
3.3.1.Thermal breakers:
Incorporate a heat-responsive bimetal strip or disk. This type of technology has a

slower characteristic curve that discriminates between safe temporary surges and
prolonged overloads. There are some thermal circuit breakers with hot-wire elements,
which provide faster switching.
3.3.2.Thermal-magnetic breakers
Combine the benefits of a thermal and magnetic circuit breaker: they have a thermal
delay that avoids nuisance tripping caused by normal inrush current, and a magnetic
solenoid for fast response at higher currents (Figure 2). Both standard thermal and
January-2021
magnetic circuit breakers are sensitive to ambient temperature. However, they can be
selected to operate properly in a wide temperature range.
3.3.4.A magnetic circuit breaker
A magnetic circuit breaker can be combined with a hydraulic delay to make it tolerant of
current surges. These hydraulic magnetic breakers are similar to the thermal-magnetic
in that they have a two-step response curve - they provide a delay on normal over
currents, but trip quickly on short circuits. Many hydraulic-magnetic circuit breakers are
available in a selection of delay curves to fit particular applications. Hydraulic-magnetic
circuit breakers are not affected by ambient temperature, but they tend to be sensitive to
position. These breakers should be mounted in a vertical plane to prevent gravity from
influencing the movement of the solenoid. If mounted in a different position, derating
may be needed.
3.3.5. Short Circuit Breaker protection
A short circuit is when there is a low resistance connection between two conductors that
are supplying electrical power to a circuit. This would generate an excess of voltage
streaming and cause excessive flow of current in the power source. The electricity will
flow through a ‗short‘ route and cause a short circuit.
3.4.1. Types of Electrical Short Circuit
3.4.1.1. Normal Short Circuit
This is when a hot wire carrying current touches a neutral wire. When that happens, the
resistance will go down instantly and a large volume of current will flow through an
unexpected pathway.
January-2021
3.4.1.2. Ground Fault Short Circuit
Ground fault short circuit occurs when the hot wire carrying current comes into contact
with some grounded portion of the system. It can be a grounded metal wall box, bare
ground wire or a grounded portion of an appliance
3.5. Main Causes of Electrical Short Circuit
 Faulty Circuit Wire Insulation
 If the insulation is damaged or old, it may allow the hot wires to touch
with neutral. This will cause a short circuit.
 Age of the wire, nails or screws can damage the insulation and allow
short circuit. There is a risk of pests of gnawing the insulation and
exposing the wire conductors too.
 Loose Wire Connections
 If there are any loose wire connections or attachments, it will allow the
live and neutral wires to touch. If you see faulty wire connections, do
not try to fix it on your own and call a professional immediately.
 Faulty Appliance Wiring
 If you plug an appliance into a wall socket, its wiring essentially

becomes an extension of the circuit. Therefore, if there are any
problems in the appliance wiring, it will become circuit problems.
 Short circuits can occur in the power cords, plugs or inside the
appliance. Make sure you get short circuit protection for all the
appliances.
January-2021
3.6. Prevention method of Electrical Short Circuit
 Monitor Outlets & Appliances
 Every outlet has a network of wires connected to it. If there are any faulty
wires, loose box connections or if the outlet is over 15-25 years old, it may
lead to a short circuit. Look out for possible signs that indicate faulty
outlets, which include:
 Burn marks on the outlet or a burning smell

 Sparks emitting from the outlet
 Buzzing sound from the outlet
Similarly, check the appliances and their wiring too. Faulty appliance wiring or cracks
in the appliance can cause a short circuit. Repair such appliances or replace them
altogether.
 Use Less Electricity During Storms
 A short circuit caused by a lightning strike can be extremely dangerous as

the sheer amount of electricity can lead to damage. Reduce the electrical
usage during a storm as it can help prevent short circuits and lessen the
damage in case of a power surge.
 Get a Yearly Electrical Inspection
 Call a certified professional and get an electrical inspection done at least

once a year. They can identify critical issues and resolve them before they
can get dangerous because they know how to fix a short circuit.
January-2021
3.6. Install Devices that Prevent Short Circuit
 Circuit Breakers or Fuses: A circuit breaker is a switching device in a circuit

that interrupts an abnormal flow of current. It uses an internal system of
springs or compressed air to sense any changes in the current flow. It will
‗break‘ the circuit open and cut the flow of current. A fuse is a device that
provides overcurrent protection. It has a metal strip or wire that melts
when a large amount of current flows through it. This interrupts the circuit.
 Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs): GFCI works by comparing the
amount of current flowing in and out of a circuit. If there is a ground fault or
imbalance between the currents flowing in and out, the GFCI will shut off
electrical power.
 Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs): An AFCI breaks the circuit when it
detects an electric arc in the circuit. It helps in preventing electrical fire.
January-2021
Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

Short circuits and overloads put different demands on circuit breakers.

1. Circuit breakers are mounted in panel boards to protect branch circuit wiring and
they are built into equipment to protect it.
2. Thermal breakers incorporate a heat-responsive bimetal strip or disk.
3. Thermal magnetic breakers combine the benefits of a thermal and magnetic
circuit breaker
4. A magnetic circuit breaker can be combined with a hydraulic delay to make it
tolerant of current surges.
5. Hydraulic-magnetic circuit breakers are not affected by ambient temperature,
6. A short circuit is when there is a low resistance connection between two
conductors that are supplying electrical power to a circuit.
7. Ground fault short circuit occurs when the hot wire carrying current comes into
contact with some grounded portion of the system.
8. If there are any loose wire connections or attachments, it will allow the live and
neutral wires to touch.
9. Use Less Electricity during Storms is for protection.
10. Short circuits and overloads put different demands on circuit breakers
January-2021
Score = ___________
Answer Sheet
Rating: ____________
Name: _________________________ Date: ______________
January-2021
REFERANCE:
 -Selection of external Short Circuit Protection Device (SCPD) - Electrical Installation
Guide (electrical-installation.org)
 -Overload or Short Circuit Protection? How to Protect Your Design Against Both
Dangers | E-T-A (e-t-a.com)
 Initial testing of an installation
 https://www.electrical.installation.org/enwiki/quqlity_andsafety_of_anelectrical_installatio
n#intial_testing_of_an_ installation
 -(PDF) Ch 16 Introduction to Switchgear | Andebo Hillary - Academia.edu
 TYPES OF OVERCURRENT AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES IN AC SYSTEMS
(enrgtech.co.uk)
 Consulting - Specifying Engineer | Understanding overcurrent protection (csemag.com)
 What is an Overcurrent Protection Device? - Definition from Safeopedia
 What is Electrical Safety? - Definition from Safeopedia
 Difference Between Isolator and Circuit Breaker - Circuit Globe
 Circuit Breaker & Fuse Electrician | Resetting Circuit Breakers (expertelectric.ca)
 Difference between Overcurrent, Overload and Overvoltage (electricaltechnology.org)
 What to Do with Electrical Overload & Circuit Breakers Switching Off? – Be Renovative –
helping to make house or apartment renovation simple, practical and fun
 Difference Between Short Circuit & Overload (with Comparison Chart) - Circuit Globe
 Electrical Circuit Overload Problems and Prevention (thespruce.com)
 Single Earthed Neutral and Multi Earthed Neutral. | Electrical Notes & Articles
(wordpress.com)
 AUS/NZ 3000:2007
 Electrical Wiring Practice by: Keith Pethebridge and Ian Neeson
 BS 7671
 Electrical Calculation | Electrical Notes & Articles (wordpress.com)
 Chapter 7. Preparation of Plans and Cost Estimates and Tender Documents (fao.org)
 tender-document-part2.pdf (sanparks.org)
 Basic Electrical Switch, Definition, Uses, and Applications (thomasnet.com)
 Low-voltage switchgear fundamentals | Eaton (b-line.com)
 Electrical Connector Types: A List of the Different Types of Power Connectors
(thomasnet.com)
 Electrical Standoff Insulators (thomasnet.com)
 http://people.tuke.sk/stanislav.ilenin/eis/Technicka%20dokumentacia%20v%20elektrotec
hnike.pdf
January-2021
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my appreciation and extend thanks to the TVET instructors and
experts of regional TVET bureau, TVET College, and Federal Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Agency (FTVETA) who donated their time and expertise to the
revision of this Out Come Based Curriculum for the TVET Program On-Site Building
Electrical Installation Level-IV and made the development of this learning module with
required standards and quality possible.
THE TRAINER WHO DEVELOPED THIS MUDULE
Name Profession Mob. no Region College

No
1 Samuel kidane Electrical or 0909210525 SNNPR Arba minch poly Technic

Construction college and Satelite institute
technology
management(Msc)
Checked by: --------------------------------------------------------------
This Out Come Based Curriculum was developed on January, 2021

G.C at Adama
January-2021
ANSWER SHEET OF ALL CONTENTS OF THE UC-11
Self-check -1. Answer

1.
 Secondary sub-panels,
 Alarm and signal circuits,
 Electrical power plant control systems,
 Elevators,
2. Accomplishment of electrical system improvements in accordance with
 Established
 Codes
 Laws and
 Ordinances.

1.
 Inadequate:
 Presence of Unauthorized Personnel:
 Using Poor or Old Wiring:
 Not Informing the Electrical Inspector:
 Ignoring the Quality of Materials:
January-2021
2.
 The design has been done according to the latest edition of the appropriate
wiring rules
 The initial checking of conformity of the electrical installation with the standard
and regulation has been achieved
 Ensure that you hire only the licensed electricians to install, repair and dismantle
the job site wiring.

1.
 Ambient temperature
 Maximum allowable conductor temperature
 Conductor material insulation material
2.
 Make a site visit
 Follow the guideline regulation from JKR
 Identifies the user load requirement
 Calculate the maximum demand and total connected load
 Determine the equipment
 Submit plants, drawings and specifications
3. True 4. True 5. True
January-2021
January-2021
LO #2- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits, control and protection
Self -check -4 Answer for Information sheet: # 1
Answer for Information sheet #1
Self-check -4
1.
A. Electrical Energy Source AC and DC
B. Electrical conductors
C. Electrical Load
D. Electrical Switches
2. -Is the application and removal of power?
Say True or False

3. True
4. True
Self -check -5 Answer for information sheet#2
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5.D
Short Answer:
1.
 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST)
2. DPDT- switch consists of six terminals, two of which are independent input
terminals. Each of the poles can complete two different circuits.
January-2021
Say True or False
3. True 4. True
Short Answer:
1.
1- Oil circuit breakers (OCBs).
2- SF6 circuit breakers.
3- Vacuum circuit break.
4- Air-blast circuit breaker
3.
 RCD—Residual Current Device
 RCBO—Residual Current Breaker with Overcurrent
 ELCB—Earth leakage circuit breaker.
4. It indicates the instantaneous tripping current, that is the minimum value of

current that causes the circuit-breaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in
less than 100 ms):
Say True or False
5. False
6. False
7. True
Say True or False

1. False 2.True 3.True 4.True
Answer sheet
January-2021
5.
 Old military designation,
 The new military designation
 The old commercial designation, and
 The new commercial designation
6.
 Visual Inspection
 Checking Fuses with a Meter
7.
 Low resistivity
 Low melting point
 Low conductivity of the metal vapors formed, when the fuse is blown off.
Say true or false

1. False 2. True 3.True 4.True
Short Answer:
Answer of self-check -9
5.
 Nominal voltage
 Rated power
 Contact rating
 Contact mechanism
 Environmental protection
 Insulation resistance
6.
 Motor Protection
January-2021
 Transformer Protection
 Line Protection
8. .
 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST)
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)
Say true or false

1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE
Short Answer:
Answer of self-check -10
Answer
5.
 Optimize the Size of Surge Arrestor:
 The zero sequence impedance is lower for a multi grounded system
than the single
 Freezing and arctic conditions have an adverse impact on the zero
sequence impedance.
 Cost of Equipment for the multi-grounded system is lower.
 Safety Concerns on Cable Shields.
6. .
a. Four Point Method (Wenner Method)
b. Three-terminal Method (Fall-of-potential Method / 68.1 % Method))
c. Two-point Method (Dead Earth Method)
d. Clamp-on test method
e. Slope Method
f. Star-Delta Method
January-2021
Say true or false

Answer of question
1.
 Short Circuit
 abnormal variations in the supply voltage
 Overloading of equipment
 To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment
2.
 the nature or type of load
 the prospective fault current P1 at that point of the installation
 any existing equipment
 the user of the installation, as a C
3.
 Fuse
 Circuit Breaker
 Poly Switch
 RCCB
 Metal Oxide Varistor
 Inrush Current Limiter
 Gas Discharge Tube
 Spark Gap
January-2021
Say true or false

Self -check -13. Answer for information sheet#10
Say true or false
1. FALSE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5.TRUE
Say true or false

Say true or false
1. TRUE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4.FALSE 5.TRUE 6.TRUE
Short answer question

7. Complete reliability
Absolutely certain discrimination
Quick operation
Provision for manual control
Provision for instruments
8.

 Insulation level (Typically 2.2kV)
January-2021
Say true or false

2. TRUE 2. FALSE 3. TRUE 4.FALSE 5.TRUE
Short answer
1.
 Direct-control panel-type
 Remote mechanical-control panel-type
 Direct-control truck-type
 Electrical-operated
2.
 Power switching component. (e.g. circuit breaker, fuse, or lightning
arrester)
 Power control components. (Protective relays, control panels, current
transformers)

Say true or false
2. TRUE 2. TRUE
Short answer/Question
3.
Humidity of the soil
Frost
Ageing
January-2021
Oxidation
Measurement of the earth-electrode
4.
 Type of soil.
5.
 The depth from the surface,
 The type and concentration of soluble chemicals in the soil
 . The moisture content, and
 . The soil temperature.
6.
 Pipe
 Plate
 Rod
 Strip

Say true or false
2. TRUE 2. TRUE 3.TRUE 4.TRUE 5. FALSE 6.FALSE
1
 High resistivity
 High flexibility
 Non-in flammability
 High resistivity to moisture, acid or alkalis qualities.
2.
 Pin type insulator
 Suspension type insulator
 Strain insulator
January-2021
 Shackle insulator

Say true or false
2. TRUE 2. TRUE 3.TRUE 4.TRUE
5.
 Light-duty,
 Medium-duty, and
 Heavy-duty.
6.
 Mechanical test on cables

 Voltage test under water (6 kV for 1 min)
 Electrical ageing test
 Environmental test (climatic and corrosion
7.
 8P8C Connector
 D-Subminiature Connectors
 DC Connectors
 USB Connectors

Say true or false
January-2021
2. TRUE 2. TRUE 3.TRUE 4.TRUE 5.TRUE
6.
Shut off the Power and Test the Wires
Remove a Knockout (Metal Box Only

Say true or false
2. TRUE 2. TRUE 3.TRUE 4.TRUE 5.TRUE

-Say true or false
1. TRUE 2 TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE
Self -check -23. Answer for learning guide-#2. Answer for information sheet#20
-Say true or false
1. TRUE 2 TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6.TRUE
Answer sheet/ Question
7
 Isolators and fuse box cases.
 Cables, sockets, plugs and power cords
January-2021
 Fuses and circuit-breakers
 Machines and appliances
 Overhead power lines
8.
 Electrical Safety Equipment
 Electrical Safety Regulations
 Electrical Safety in the Workplace
 Electrical Safety Tips
9.
Safety glasses
Safety boots
Flame resistant clothing
Insulating work gloves
10.
 Measure at the lowest energy point
 For single phase, connect neutral first, hot second.
 . Use the three-point test method discussed below.
 Use test probes with a minimum amount of exposed metal
LEARNING GUIDE #3 INFORMATION SHEET’S ALL SELF-CHECK ANSWERS
Self -check -24. Answer for learning guide-#3 information sheet#1

-Say true or false
January-2021
1. TRUE 2 TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6.TRUE
-Say true or false
1. TRUE 2 TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE
6.
a) Technical specifications;
b) Other requirements;
c) Rules regarding the services;
d) Regulation prohibiting the manufacture
7.
 name
 dimension data
 material identification (numerical, alpha-numerical, verbal)
 identification of a document which supplement the requirements on the
product
8.
 economical,
 effective and
January-2021
 designed to ensure the quality of the processes and products

-Say true or false
1. TRUE 2 TRUE 3. TRUE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE 6.TRUE.

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January-2021

M12-Arranging Circuits, Controlling and Protecting

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M12-Arranging Circuits, Controlling and Protecting

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ON-SITE BUILDING ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION L -IV

Based on October, 2018, Version 2 Occupational standards (OS)

Module Title: Arranging Circuits, Controlling and

LO #1- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits, control and protection 1

Information Sheet -1 # Determine extent and nature of the electrical installation .. 2

Self –Check-1 written test........................................................................................... 12

Self-check -2# written test ....................................................................................... 19

Information Sheet -3 # Determining load requirement for individual current-using

Self-Check -3 # Written Test ....................................................................................... 44

LO #2- Prepare to arrange electrical installations circuits, control and protection

Information Sheet -1 # Arranging Circuits, control and protective devices to

Self-check -4# Written test ......................................................................................... 51

Self-check -5# Written test ......................................................................................... 64

Information Sheet -3# Switch (on/off) and push button ........................................... 65

Self-check -6# written test ........................................................................................ 71

Information Sheet -4# Circuit breaker ....................................................................... 72

Information Sheet -5# Fuse ...................................................................................... 100

Self-check -8# written test ...................................................................................... 118

Information sheet -6# Relay ..................................................................................... 119

Self-check -9# written test ................................................................................... 134

Information Sheet -7# Arrange and terminate Earthling. ..................................... 135

Self-check -10# Written test ..................................................................................... 162

Information Sheet -8# Selecting Protective devices. ............................................. 163

Self-check -11# Written test ..................................................................................... 169

Self-check -12# Written test ..................................................................................... 174

Information Sheet -10# Short ckt protection ........................................................... 175

Self-check -13# Written test ..................................................................................... 180

Information Sheet -11# Select Residual current devices ....................................... 181

Self-check -14# Written test ..................................................................................... 188

Information Sheet -12# Select Switch gear/control gear ....................................... 189

Self-check -15# Written test ..................................................................................... 200

Information Sheet -13................................................................................................ 201

Information Sheet -14# Ground (earthling) ............................................................. 213

Self-check -17# Written test ..................................................................................... 235

Information Sheet -15# Insulators ........................................................................... 236

Self-check -18 # Written test .................................................................................... 245

Information Sheet -16 # Connectors ........................................................................ 246

Self-check -19# Written test ..................................................................................... 258

Information Sheet -17# Junction cover ................................................................... 259

Self-check -20# Written test ..................................................................................... 265

Self-check -21# Written test ..................................................................................... 277

Self-check -22# Written test ..................................................................................... 285

LO #3 Document electrical installation circuits, control and protection

Information Sheet -1# Obtaining and selecting Evidence from manufacturer’s

Self- check -1# written test ....................................................................................... 297

Information Sheet -2 ................................................................................................. 298

Selecting document of Electrical installation ......................................................... 298

Self-check -24# Written test ..................................................................................... 308

Information Sheet -3# Overload current or fault currents in an electrical

Self-check -24# Written test ..................................................................................... 316

REFERANCE: ............................................................................................................. 318

Information Sheet -1 # Determine extent and nature of the electrical

The work often includes the:

The work may also include:

 The review and inspection of work accomplished by private contractors

Supervision is exercised over a small group of unskilled workers engaged in

 Assists in implementing programs for the electrical installation,

1.2 Minimum Requirements

1.3. Essential job functions

The following are considered to be essential to the successful performance of this

 The electrical equipment comply with relevant product standards

 The initial checking of conformity of the electrical installation with the

 The periodic checking of the installation recommended is respected.

1.5. Initial testing of an installation

Name: ___________ Date: _