Floriculture: Designing &

Merchandising 4th Edition Dr. Charles

P. Griner
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FLORICULTURE
Designing & Merchandising
FOURTH EDITION

Charles Griner

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

 Floriculture: Designing & Merchandising,
Fourth Edition
Charles Griner
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Cover Image: shutterstock.com/image-photo
/closeup-dahlia-blossom-4402318
Interior design images:shutterstock.com/image
-photo/pink-lilium-bouquet-75363994
shutterstock.com/image-photo/artificial-flowers
-bouquet-wedding-image-95851819
shutterstock.com/image-photo/blue-flowers-on
-white-background-30834439
shutterstock.com/image-photo/bouquet
-flowers-167128271
shutterstock.com/image-photo/bouquet-flowers
-copy-space-blank-greetings-394999423
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-flowers-banner-web-design-451255561
shutterstock.com/image-photo/flowers-pattern
-pink-orange-lilies-isolated-108553361
shutterstock.com/image-photo/lilac-flowers
-bunch-over-white-wooden-278801207
shutterstock.com/image-photo/pink-flowers
-vase-96876382
shutterstock.com/image-photo/sunflowers-on
-gray-stone-background-copy-397642510
shutterstock.com/image-vector/flower-icon
-set-321078362
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CONTENTS

Preface ix Résumé 10
Acknowledgments xv Letter of Recommendation 16
Follow-Up Call or Email 16
The Interview 17
SECTION 1 After the Interview 17
An Introduction Summary 18
to the Floriculture Review Questions 18
Student Activities 18
Industry 3
UNIT 2 l The History of Floral Design 19
UNIT 1 l Exploring Careers in the Retail Introduction 20
Flower Business 4 Classical Period 20
Introduction 5 Egyptian Period (2800–28 bc) 20
Types of Flower Shops 5 Greek Period (600–46 bc) 20
Full-Service Shop 5 Roman Period (28 bc–ad 325) 21
Specialty Shop 5 Byzantine Period (ad 320–600) 21
Carriage Trade Shop 5 European Periods of Floral Design 22
Stem Shop 5 Middle Ages (ad 476–1400) 22
Studio Operation 5 Renaissance (ad 1400–1600) 22
Franchise Shop 5 Baroque Period (ad 1600–1775) 23
Mass-Market Shop 6 Dutch-Flemish Period (ad 1600–1750) 23
Wholesale Florist 6 French Period (ad 1600–1814) 23
Job Opportunities in the Retail Flower Shop 6 English-Georgian Period (ad 1714–1760) 24
Managerial and Supervisory: Victorian Period (ad 1820–1901) 24
Owner or Manager 6 American Periods of Floral Design 24
Technical: Designer 7 Early American Period (ad 1620–1720) 24
Technical: Designer’s Assistant 7 Colonial Williamsburg Period
Service Worker: Salesperson 8 (ad 1714–1780) 25
Service Worker: Office Worker 8 American Federal Period (ad 1780–1820) 25
Service Worker: Delivery Person 8 Twentieth-Century American Flower
Training for a Job in the Retail Flower Shop 9 Arrangements 25
Locating Job Opportunities 9 Oriental Flower Arranging 25
Employability Portfolio 10 Summary 26
Letter of Introduction 10 Review Questions 26
Table of Contents 10 Student Activities 27
Letter of Application 10
Job Application Form 10

iii
 Loss of Food 49
SECTION 2 Disease 49
Getting Started: Ethylene Gas 49
The Basics of Water Quality 51
Design 29 Conditioning Flowers 51
Antitranspirants 55
Summary 55
UNIT 3 l Principles of Design 30 Review Questions 56
Introduction 31 Student Activities 56
Design Principles 31
Balance 31 UNIT 6 l Mechanics and Supplies
Proportion and Scale 32 Used in Floral Design 57
Focal Point 33 Introduction 58
Emphasis 34 Containers 58
Rhythm 34 Texture 58
Harmony 35 Shape 58
Unity 35 Size 58
Design Elements 35 Color 59
Line 35 Floral Foam 59
Form 37 Adhesive Materials 60
Texture 37 Cutting Tools 61
Color 37 Picks 62
General Guidelines 42 Summary 66
Summary 42 Review Questions 66
Review Questions 42 Student Activities 66
Student activities 43
UNIT 7 l Selecting Wire and Wiring
UNIT 4 l Selection of Cut Flowers
Flowers 67
and Greens 44
Introduction 68
Introduction 45 Selecting Wires 68
Flower and Foliage Classification 45 Sizes and Uses of Wire 68
Line Flowers 45 Methods of Wiring Flowers 69
Mass Flowers 46 Floral Taping 73
Filler Flowers 46 Summary 74
Form Flowers 46 Review Questions 74
Summary 46 Student Activities 75
Review Questions 47
Student Activities 47 UNIT 8 l Selecting Ribbons and
UNIT 5 l Conditioning and Storing Cut Tying Bows 76
Introduction 77
Flowers and Greens 48
Selecting Ribbons 77
Introduction 49 Ribbon Sizes 78
Common Reasons for Early Flower Tying a Bow 79
Deterioration 49 Summary 84
Low Water Absorption 49
Loss of Water 49

iv CONTENTS
Review Questions 85 The Isosceles Triangle 137
Student Activities 85 Centerpiece Designs 139
The Asymmetrical Triangle 141
The Scalene Triangle 143
SECTION 3 The Right Triangle 144
Basic Summary 146
Arrangements 87 Review Questions 146
Student Activities 147

UNIT 13 l Line Arrangements 148

UNIT 9 l Boutonnieres and Corsages 88 Introduction 149
Introduction 89 Inverted-T Arrangement 149
Boutonnieres 89 L-Pattern Arrangement 151
Corsages 91 The Vertical Arrangement 153
Corsage Design 92 Crescent Arrangements 155
Net Tufts 100 The Hogarth Curve Arrangement 157
Football Mum Corsages 103 Contemporary Freestyle Arrangements 160
Designing Corsages Using Floral Adhesive Summary 165
and Hot Glue 105 Review Questions 165
Summary 107 Student Activities 165
Review Questions 107
Student Activities 108
SECTION 4
UNIT 10 l Bud Vases 109 Specialty
Introduction 110 Arrangements 167
Selecting Flowers For Bud Vases 110
Foliage for Bud Vases 110
Accessories 111
Designing Bud Vases 111 UNIT 14 l Constructing Wreaths 168
Summary 116 Introduction 169
Review Questions 116 Evergreen Wreath 172
Student Activities 116 Permanent Evergreen Wreaths 178
Eucalyptus Wreath 179
UNIT 11 l Circular Arrangements 117 Summary 180
Introduction 118 Review Questions 180
The Circular Mound Design 118 Student Activities 180
The Conical Design 122
The Oval Arrangement 126 UNIT 15 l Holiday Arrangements 181
The Fan Arrangement 130 Introduction 182
Summary 133 Valentine’s Day 182
Review Questions 133 Easter 186
Student Activities 133 Mother’s Day 189
High School Proms 189
UNIT 12 l Triangular Arrangements 134 Thanksgiving 191
Introduction 135 Christmas 193
The Equilateral Triangle 135 Topiaries 196

CONTENTS v
Minor Holidays 197 UNIT 18 l Drying Flowers 238
Holiday Balloons 198 Introduction 239
Equipment 198 Hanging Method 239
Inflating Balloons 199 Desiccant-Drying 239
Summary 200 Fine Sand and Borax 240
Review Questions 201 Cornmeal and Borax 240
Student Activities 201 Kitty Litter 240
Silica Gel 240
UNIT 16 l Wedding Flowers 202 Microwave Drying 240
Introduction 203 Glycerin 242
Bridal Consultations 203 Bleaching and Dyeing 243
The Wedding Order Form 203 Summary 243
Bridal and Attendant Bouquets 206 Review Questions 243
Arm Bouquets 206 Student Activities 244
Hand-Tied Bouquets 209
Colonial Nosegay in a Bouquet Holder 212 UNIT 19 l Arranging Permanent
Cascading Bouquets 215 Flowers 245
Corsages and Boutonnieres 219
Introduction 246
Ceremonial Decorations 219
Silk Flowers 246
The Entry and Vestibule 219
Paper Flowers 247
Aisles and Pews 219
Dried and Preserved Flowers 247
The Altar 220
Freeze-Dried Flowers 247
Reception Decorations 222
Identifying Dried and Preserved Flowers 247
Serving Tables 222
Mechanics For Permanent Flowers 247
The Cake Table 223
Contemporary Arrangements 250
Groom’s Cake Table 223
Summary 252
Punch and Champagne Tables 224
Review Questions 252
Additional Reception Hall
Student Activities 253
Decorations 224
Rehearsal Dinner 225
Delivery of the Wedding Flowers 225
SECTION 5
Summary 226
Review Questions 226 Indoor Plants 255
Student Activities 226

UNIT 17 l Sympathy Flowers 227

Introduction 228
UNIT 20 l Selecting Indoor Plants 256
Basic Sympathy Designs 228
Introduction 257
Casket Sprays 228
Plant Names 257
Sprays 228
Light Requirements 257
Wreaths 232
Watering 258
Baskets 235
Fertilization 259
Other Floral Designs 235
Permanent or Temporary Plants 259
Summary 236
Identifying Potted Plants 260
Review Questions 237
Summary 260
Student Activities 237

vi CONTENTS
Review Questions 260 Sending Flowers by Wire 285
Student Activities 261 Benefits of a Wire Service 285
Using a Wire Service 286
UNIT 21 l Decorating Potted Plants 262 Selling Over the Internet 286
Introduction 263 Summary 287
Poly Foil 263 Review Questions 287
Preformed Pot Covers 266 Student Activities 287
Jardinieres 268
Decorating Dish Gardens 269 UNIT 24 l Displays 289
Care of Potted Plants in the Shop 270 Introduction 290
Light 270 Primary Purposes of Displays 290
Watering 270 Attract Attention 290
Temperatures 271 Arouse Interest 290
Summary 271 Create Desire 290
Review Questions 271 Initiate Buying 291
Student Activities 271 Secondary Purposes 291
Artistic Display 291
Categories of Display 292
SECTION 6 Theme Displays 292
Business Operations Product-Oriented Displays 292
Designing Display Arrangements 293
and Professional Repetition Arrangement 293
Development 273 Step Arrangement 293
Zigzag Arrangement 294
UNIT 22 l Pricing Strategies 274 Pyramid Arrangement 294
Introduction 275 Radiation Arrangement 295
Determining the Unit Summary 295
Cost of Goods 275 Review Questions 295
Standard Ratio Markup Pricing 276 Student Activities 296
Retail Cost of Goods Plus Labor 277
Divisional Percentage Pricing Method 277 UNIT 25 l Delivery 297
Leader Pricing 278 Introduction 298
Summary 278 The Delivery Person 298
Review Questions 278 Training 298
Student Activities 279 The Delivery Vehicle 299
Delivery Categories and Charges 299
UNIT 23 l Selling in the Flower Shop 280 Processing an Order for Delivery 300
Introduction 281 Loading the Delivery Vehicle 300
Characteristics of a Professional Salesperson 281 Making the Delivery 301
A Friendly, Helpful Attitude 281 Delivery Pools 301
Thorough Product Knowledge 281 Summary 301
Effective Selling Skills 282 Review Questions 302
Selling by Telephone 284 Student Activities 302
The Telephone Sales Presentation 284

CONTENTS vii
UNIT 26 l Professional Organizations 303 APPENDIX A l Cut Flowers 309
Introduction 304
Trade Organizations 304
APPENDIX B l Cut Foliages 321
SAF (Society of American Florists) 304 APPENDIX C l Dried Materials 328
AAF (American Academy of
Floriculture) 305 APPENDIX D l Foliage Houseplants 333
AIFD (American Institute
of Floral Designers) 305 APPENDIX E l Permanent Flowering
AFMC (American Floral Marketing Potted Plants 343
Council) 305
PFCI (Professional Floral
APPENDIX F l Temporary Flowering
Communicators–International) 305 Potted Plants 347
Allied Florists’ Associations 305
APPENDIX G l Flower Arrangement
State Florist Associations 305
Wholesalers’ Open Houses
Rating Scale 351
and Design Schools 305 APPENDIX H l Supervised Agricultural
Trade Publications 306
Experience 353
Student Organizations 306
Certification Programs 306 APPENDIX I l Floral Design-Related
Summary 308 Websites 365
Review Questions 308
Student Activities 308
Glossary/Glosario 366
Index 380

viii CONTENTS
PREFACE
F
loriculture Designing & Merchandising was written
to introduce students to the career possibilities
in the floral industry and to provide basic
instruction in the techniques of floral design and
merchandising. This new fourth edition expertly
blends basic techniques with current trends to offer a
fresh perspective as students build their skills.
Everyone can be taught to make beautiful
floral arrangements, and this book was written
to accomplish that goal. By following the step-
by-step procedures outlined in this book, you
will be able to make lovely arrangements, which
hopefully will spark your creativity in designing
floral arrangements and your interest in pursuing a
career in the floral industry. Learning is a lifetime
process. Should you choose a career in this area,
there will always be workshops and design schools
to challenge you to expand your knowledge and
creative talents.
The designs pictured throughout the book
are simple and easy to follow. As you build the
arrangements, please keep in mind that there are many
different ways to make the same floral arrangement.
Different designers have their own unique styles.
Learn as many of these as you can.
The flowers used in the illustrations are the most
inexpensive flowers that are readily available anywhere
in the country. Feel free to substitute flowers and add
your own creativity to each of the designs.
The information in this book can be reinforced
and expanded on by your instructor and guest
speakers. Put forth a dedicated effort, and challenge
yourself to expand your knowledge and express
your creativity. Remember that flower arranging
is a skill that you can learn, but it will take hard
work and lots of practice to become accomplished
at that skill.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
■ New section on handheld bouquets for proms—
featuring vibrant photos of handheld bouquets,
this section illustrates the handheld bouquet as an
accessory for this event and offers ideas on how
to arrange.
■ Expanded chapter on wedding flowers—new
designs utilizing a variety of flowers and foliage
for bouquets, table adornments, and reception
decorations offer you a fresh look at different de-
sign ideas for weddings.
■ A summary concludes each chapter—each chapter
includes closing thoughts to help summarize key
concepts presented in the chapter and provide
overall context for how those concepts are
applied in the floral industry.
■ New designs based on basic techniques—step-by-
step “Procedures” were meticulously reviewed
and revised as needed to reflect the variety of
flowers and foliage utilized in the industry so that
you can practice and become comfortable with
these materials.
■ Exploring your creativity—this all-new feature
highlights alternate arrangements utilizing
different flowers or foliage for some of the step-
by-step “Procedures” introduced in the book.
This feature is designed to spark your creativity
and encourage you to experiment with different
design ideas.
■ All new design and full-color photos—this edition
is rich in hundreds of vibrant new photos illus-
trating mechanics, techniques, skills, and stunning
flowers, plants, and foliage, all captured in a fresh,
modern design.
ix
 UNIT 16

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION

Wedding Flowers

Objective and Competencies

to Develop
Each chapter opens with a goal
and a list of competencies to
develop based on the chapter
content. These help you focus on
the concepts and skills required to
U NI T 1 successfully complete the lesson.

OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW

Careers in the
To design decorations for a wedding and reception. arm bouquet
cascading bouquet colonial nosegay
handheld bouquet or dripless candles
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP
clutch bouquet
After completing this unit, you should be able to:

ower Business Complete a wedding order form.

●●

●● Design a bridal bouquet.

●● Design a bouquet for the bride’s attendants.
●● Identify the areas decorated for a wedding.
●● Identify decorations used for the reception
and rehearsal dinner.

Terms to Know
A list of terms in each chapter highlights the terms
presented in the chapter and those that you should be
202 able to define, in context, upon completion of the lesson.

TERMS TO KNOW
carriage trade shop résumé
designer salesperson
designer’s assistant specialty shop
employability portfolio stem shop
franchise studio operation
iness. full-service shop wholesale florist
ower mass-market shop work sample

e retail

x
Tools and Materials
Chapters (as applicable) include a list of basic tools and
materials identified or utilized in the chapter. OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW
To receive a shipment of flowers and treat them in a manner antitranspirants photosynthesis
that extends the keeping quality of the flowers. bactericide respiration
botrytis stomata
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP conditioning flowers succulent
ethylene gas total dissolved solids
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
floral preservative transpiration
●● Identify the causes of premature flower deterioration.
hydration xylem
●● Identify the steps in handling a shipment of flowers.
pH
●● Demonstrate proper stem treatment.
●● Describe the benefits of floral preservatives.
TOOLS AND MATERIALS
●● Identify storing requirements of flowers and greens.
●● Assorted flowers as they are received from
●● Identify how flowers should be handled in the home.
wholesaler
●● Flower containers
●● Floral preservative
●● Floral knife

48

Introduction
An introduction to each chapter
INTRODUCTION sets up and explains the importance
of the knowledge and skills
W EDDINGS ARE ONE of the most interesting and challenging segments of the florist business. In the past, tradition
has dictated the planning of flowers and the ceremony. Tradition is still important, but modern brides are planning
weddings that reflect their individuality and taste. Generally, couples are older and more educated when they decide to get
presented in the chapter.
married, and have more definite ideas about what they want in their wedding. The retail florist must recognize the needs
of the couple to plan flowers that reflect their individuality. ✽

BRIDAL CONSULTATIONS Before discussing details for the wedding flowers,

the florist must have an idea of what the bride can
The florist may have a number of consultations afford. Encourage the bride to set a budget prior
with the bride. The first interview is usually the to the consultation, or ask probing questions that
most important. This consultation should be will help you determine the needs of the bride. The
conducted at least six months prior to the wedding, following are suggested as probing questions. When
with a follow-up meeting closer to the wedding asked tactfully, these questions assist the florist in
date. These consultations are normally handled by suggesting flowers for the wedding.
the head designer or the owner-manager of the
shop. ■● What type of bridal gown will be worn?
Creating the proper setting for the consultation ■● What type of wedding is being planned?
is important. An area should be set aside where ■● How large will the wedding be?
the bride and the florist may meet undisturbed ■● Will the wedding be formal or informal?
EASTER hydrangeas, but the Easter lily is the most popular
(FIGURE 16-1). The area should be located away from ■● Where will the service take place and at what
potted plant during this season.
the flow of traffic and the ring of telephones, and time of the day?is a religious holiday that occurs between
Easter Accessories for Easter include Easter baskets,
should contain a table with seating for three or ■● Will theearly
ceremony
Marchfollow
and latereligious
April. Itcustoms?
is also the beginning the Easter bunny, colored eggs, chicks, and ducks.
more people. Often the bride is accompanied by her ■● of the
Where and how spring
largeseason. Forreception
will the this reason,be?spring flowers, Frequently used colors include bright shades of
mother and/or the groom. Items such as selection ■● Who will be paying for the flowers? popular cut flowers
such as tulips and daffodils, are purple, green, yellow, and pink.
guides, wedding forms, examples of ribbons, and and potted plants. Customers also enjoy potted
Answers to these questions help establish the size
photograph albums of wedding work designed by and budget for the wedding. This is a sensitive area
the shop should be present. and one that the florist must approach tactfully. After
Procedures
The florist must learn as much about the wedding obtaining answers to these questions,
PROCEDURE the florist
Constructing will Arrangement
an Easter
plans as possible. This information will be helpful in be better equipped to make suggestions relative to
In chapters
planning theexplaining
wedding flowershow to
and decorations. flower choices and other possible decorations. Materials
Tools and
build specific floral arrangements In this unit, we are not able You to will need the following tools and materials to complete this procedure:
become
knowledgeable about every aspect of a Aparticular
low container that
●●
Stems of small purple
●●
Covered wire or ●●

step-by-step “Procedures” combine wedding, so we concentrate on those coordinates

areas that with the chrysanthemums string
color of the flowers
would be most helpful to the beginning designer. Pittosporum ●●
Floral knife ●●

straightforward instruction ●●
⅓ block of floral foam ●●
Small Easter and/
Floral tape or spring accessories,
with demonstrative photos and THE WEDDING ORDER FORM
●●

●●
3 stems of lilies such as butterfly
illustrations to walk you through the A wedding order form is most helpful in planning
the floral decorations for a wedding (FIGURE 16-2).
creation of your own arrangement. It lists the majority of items needed for a wedding.
A list, with an accompanying photo, 1 Prepare
These forms, which
wholesale floral the
thebe
can container.
container.
suppliers,
Placefrom
purchased floralmost
assist in organizing the
foam into the container with 1 or 2 inches showing above the rim of

of tools and materials required for wedding order. The form has space for notes on Group three stems of lilies together to form a tight cluster.

the procedure is also

FIGURE 16-1 l A bridal included
consultation area. for
2
the style and types of flowers used for each part of the Wire them together just below the cluster of flowers. Press
wedding.When completed, it can serve as a contract the stems deeply into the center of the floral foam, as shown.
ease of reference. UNIT 16 WEDDING FLOWERS 203

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION xi

186 SECTION 4 SPECIALTY ARRANGEMENTS

Stunning Imagery
Hundreds of vibrant photos and illustrations accompany the text
and facilitate learning by providing an authentic and visually
appealing introduction to the tools, materials, and techniques of
floral design.

A B

SUMMARY

Most retail flower shops are small businesses, so jobs
within the shop are not usually limited to one area.An
employee may be asked to perform a variety of tasks.
A career in the retail flower business is an excel-
lent choice for those individuals who enjoy work-
ing around flowers and plants. Work in a retail florist
is highly seasonal, with flowers in especially great
demand on holidays. Employees are expected to
work long hours during these times. Because most
weddings take place on weekends, employees may be
asked to work longer hours during these events also.
Even though flower shop employees are often re-
quired to work long hours, most florists love their work
and receive great personal satisfaction from their job.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is it important that the delivery person
for a flower shop be well groomed and well
mannered?
2. What is the difference between a full-service
florist and a mass-market florist?
3. How can the national or state FFA association
help you train for a job in the retail flower shop?
4. Why is a friendly service attitude an important
attribute of a salesperson?
C D
5. How can designers gain more experience in
floral design and learn the latest techniques? FIGURE 15-2 A through D l A variety of prom nosegays.
Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett; Courtesy of Ronnie Barrett
6. List five items that should be included on
the résumé.
7. List five dos and five don’ts of interviewing. 190 SECTION 4 SPECIALTY ARRANGEMENTS

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1. Visit a flower shop and question the employees
about their jobs.
2. Ask your teacher to invite the owner-manager
or designer from a local flower shop to talk to
the class about careers in the retail florist industry.
5. Prepare an employability portfolio for a
specific job.
6. Make a list of possible questions that might be
asked on an interview.
7. Role-play a job interview situation, with one

Summary, Review Questions and Student Activities

3. Select one job opportunity and make a list
of the duties performed on that job and the
requirements for employment in that area.
4. Write about a situation where you used
flowers or saw flowers being used. How did
they make you feel?
student playing the role of the interviewer and
one the role of the job applicant.
8. Ask your teacher to assist you in planning a
supervised agriculture experience program.
See Appendix I for ideas. A Summary, along with end-of-chapter questions and activities

18 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY provide a method of evaluating your knowledge of the information
presented in the chapter.

Visual appendices are included to help you identify cut flowers,

cut foliages, potted plants, and dried materials of the floral
industry. Additional Appendices also contain other pertinent
information as you further explore the floral industry.

© Bayanova Svetlana/Shutterstock.com.
© LaNKS/Shutterstock.com.

Aster Bells of Ireland

Callistephus chinensis Molucella laevis
Family: Compositae Family: Labiatae
Use: Mass Use: Line
Color: Blue, lavender, pink, white Color: Green
Available: Summer, autumn Available: Winter, spring, summer
Packaged: Bunch (10 stems) Packaged: Bunch (10 stems)
Vase Life: 5 to 10 days Vase Life: 7 to 10 days
© Melica/Shutterstock.com.

Baby’s Breath Blue Hydrangea

Gypsophila species Hydrangea macroehylla
Family: Caryophyllaceae Family: Hydrangeaceae
Use: Filler Use: form, mass
Color: White Color: Blue, pink
Available: Year-round Available: Year-round
Packaged: Bunch (number of stems varies) Packaged: Individual
Vase Life: 7 to 10 days Vase Life: 4 to 10 days

310 APPENDIX A CUT FLOWERS

xii FEATURES OF THIS EDITION

EXTENSIVE TEACHING/LEARNING
PACKAGE
This package was developed to achieve two goals:
1. To provide students with an engaging
experience as they embark on the learning
pathway through their floriculture course
2. To assist instructors in planning and
implementing their instructional program
for the most efficient use of time and other
resources
COMPANION SITE
NEW! The Companion site to accompany
Floriculture: Designing & Merchandising, 4th
Edition, features tools to support learning and
facilitate teaching:
■ Answers to Review Questions, appearing at the end
of each chapter, allow teachers to track and validate
student learning.
■ Lesson Plans provide an outline of the key topics
in each chapter and correlate to the accompany-
ing PowerPoint® presentations.
■ PowerPoint presentations align with the Lesson
Plans and include photos and illustrations to
visually reinforce the key points in each chapter.
■ Testing powered by Cognero, a flexible online
system, provides chapter-by-chapter quizzes and
enables teachers to:
■ Author, edit, and manage test bank content
from multiple sources
■ Create multiple test versions in an instant
■ Deliver tests from teacher- or school-specific
learning management systems (LMSs) or class-
rooms
■ Image Gallery offers full-color photos and illustra-
tions from the text to enable teachers to further
enhance classroom presentations.
For these instructor-specific resources, please visit
CengageBrain.com at http://login.cengage.com,
and follow the prompts for obtaining access to this
secure site.
MINDTAP FOR FLORICULTURE:
DESIGNING & MERCHANDISING, 4E
NEW! The MindTap for Floriculture: Designing &
Merchandising, 4th Edition features an integrated
course offering a complete digital experience for
the student and teacher. This MindTap is highly
customizable and combines assignments, step-by-step
videos, interactivities, and auto-graded quizzing along
with the enhanced ebook to enable students to directly
analyze and apply what they are learning, and allow
teachers to measure skills and outcomes with ease.
■ A guide: Relevant interactivities combined with
prescribed readings, featured multimedia, and
quizzing to evaluate progress, will guide students
from basic knowledge and comprehension to
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■ Promote better outcomes: Through relevant and
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FEATURES OF THIS EDITION xiii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
D
r. Charles P. Griner received an associate’s
degree in science from Abraham Baldwin
Agricultural College. At the University of
Georgia, he earned a bachelor of science degree in
agriculture, a master’s degree in education, and an
education specialist degree. Dr. Griner received a
doctorate of education from Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University.
Dr. Griner began his teaching career at Webster
County High School, where he remained for two
years. He then moved to Douglas County High
School and taught for four years before joining the
faculty at the University of Georgia. He remained
at UGA until moving to Virginia Tech to pursue his
doctorate. Upon the completion of his doctorate,
he returned to the University of Georgia for one
year and then made his final move back to Colquitt
County. Dr. Griner taught agricultural education at
Colquitt County High School for over twenty years.
Over the course of his career, Dr. Griner
guided numerous students toward success in the
agricultural industry, including 180 Georgia FFA
State degree recipients, thirty-four American FFA
Degree recipients, nine State FFA officers, six State
Proficiency winners, fifteen District Public Speaking
winners, four National Chapter Bronze Awards,
thirteen National Chapter Silver Awards, and nine
xiv
National Chapter Gold Awards. As the horticulture
instructor at Colquitt County High School, Dr.
Griner coached two state winning teams, one
National Gold Emblem team, three State Floral
Design Contest winners, and twelve District Land
Judging winners.
Because of his strong beliefs in sharing the
benefits of his experience and knowledge to further
agricultural education, Dr. Griner has supervised
and mentored several student teachers, served on
three state curriculum committees, and served two
terms as district director of the Georgia Vocational
Agriculture Teachers Association. Additionally, Dr.
Griner has taught many statewide staff development
workshops in landscaping, greenhouse management,
and floral design.
Due to his outstanding service Dr. Griner was
awarded the honorary Georgia State FFA degree,
the honorary American FFA degree, the National
Vocational Agriculture Teachers Association Teacher
of Teachers Award, and the Abraham Baldwin
Agricultural College Alumni’s Outstanding Educator
Award. Dr. Griner was chosen as the Colquitt
County High School Teacher of the Year and the
National Association of Agricultural Educators
awarded him the Southern Region Lifetime Service
Award in 2003.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

S
everal individuals have assisted in completing Moultrie, Georgia, for their assistance in this fourth
this edition of Floriculture: Designing and revision.
Merchandising. Foremost of these is my wife, I am thankful to Adrienne Smith, Horticulture
Brenda, who has spent many hours doing a variety Instructor at Colquitt County High School, Moultrie,
of tasks. This revision would not be possible without Georgia, and several FFA members for staging a FFA
her assistance and encouragement. floral design competition for a photo shoot for this
Special appreciation and thanks is given to revision.
Ronnie Barrett, Flowers by Barrett, Moultrie, Thanks to Jill Stringfellow, Jill Stringfellow
Georgia, and his staff, Theresa Clayton, Robin Ward, Photography, Moultrie, Georgia, for her
and Charlotte Young, who were always extremely photoshopping skills.
helpful. Ronnie spent hours of his time with me, I would like to thank the team at Cengage,
discussing the current trends in the floral industry. especially Jennifer Starr for her help on a variety
He shared his wisdom of the floral world and many of tasks and her encouragement, which ensured the
of his personal photographs of arrangements and completion of this edition. Also, thank you to Betsy
displays of different holidays and seasonal events. Hough and Manoj Kumar for their guidance during
Special thanks go to Jimmy Singletary, Singletary’s the production process.
Flowers & Gifts,Thomasville, Georgia, for his advice A special thank you to the following reviewers
and critique of photographs of floral designs. who spent hours of their time and shared their
I am grateful to Marie and Brett Johnson, Marie’s thoughts and comments regarding the new edition:
Flower and Gift Shoppe, Moultrie, Georgia. They
Kendall Green
were always helpful in answering questions regarding
Agriculture Teacher
arrangements or trends.
Patterson High School
Thank you to Jim Womack, owner of Tri-State
Patterson, CA
Wholesale Florist, Albany, Georgia, and to Scott
Hogan and the remainder of the staff for their always Nan Hamilton
friendly assistance in whatever the task at hand, Agriscience Teacher
whether it was using their inventory for a photo Northern Burlington Country
shoot or ensuring the order was filled for corsages, Regional High School
arrangements, or other items for this revision. Columbus, NJ
Also, thank you to Megan Hinson, Tammy
Cassie J. Miles
Johnson, and the remainder of the staff of Hornbuckle
Agriculture Department Head
Wholesale Florist, Omega, Georgia, for their always
Plant City High School
friendly and helpful assistance no matter the task in
Plant City, FL
completing this fourth revision.
Thank you to Susan Mullis, The Flower Gallery,
Valdosta, Georgia, and Bobbie Harris,Artistic Flowers,

xv
2
 SECTION 1
An Introduction
to the Floriculture
Industry
1 l Exploring Careers in the Retail Flower Business
2 l The History of Floral Design

3
 UNIT 1

Exploring Careers in the

Retail Flower Business

OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW

To explore careers in the retail flower business. carriage trade shop résumé
designer salesperson
designer’s assistant specialty shop
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP
employability portfolio stem shop
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
franchise studio operation
●● Identify the jobs available in the retail flower business. full-service shop wholesale florist
●● Describe the duties of various jobs in the retail flower mass-market shop work sample
business.
●● Identify two types of florists.
●● Describe the training requirements for a job in the retail
flower shop.
●● Prepare an employability portfolio.
●● Identify dos and don’ts for a job interview.

4
INTRODUCTION

W ELCOME TO THE EXCITING world of floral design. Whether you are interested in a career in the floral industry or want
to learn to make floral arrangements for your own enjoyment, you are going to be challenged and rewarded by the activ-
ities included in this book. You will also develop a greater appreciation for the artistry and creativity that go into a floral design.
As you read this book, you will realize that America is becoming more conscious of flowers. Think of all the places or oc-
casions you have seen flowers used: weddings, hospitals, parties, receptions, homes, banquets, funerals, and many others.
During happy and sad times, Americans express their feelings with flowers.
The retail florist industry has been promoting the use of flowers, not just on special occasions but also for regular pur-
chase for the home. Flowers add a feeling of warmth and welcome unlike that of any other room accessory.
If you have abilities as a creative designer, you may want to consider floristry as a career. To the person who enjoys work-
ing with flowers, this career is appealing and rewarding. Not only will you be selling flowers, but you will also be selling the
feelings that go with flowers. Ask a young lady how she felt when she received her first bouquet of roses. Flowers have a
message—whether it be love, excitement, or sympathy—and a florist shares in the emotional response created by the flowers.
If you like working with flowers but are not a talented designer, you may want to consider a job in the florist industry
other than designing. ✽

TYPES OF FLOWER SHOPS
Different types of shops serve different groups of the
population. A florist shop should tailor its services to
the needs and desires of the clientele in its area. The
different types of flower shops and a brief explanation
of each are listed below.
Full-Service Shop
A full-service shop is the traditional retail shop
offering a wide variety of services and products.
Products available at a full-service shop include fresh
flowers, blooming plants, balloons, novelty giftware,
and silk and dried arrangements. Such a shop also
offers regular and special delivery, setups for special
events, charge accounts, and wire service.
Specialty Shop
A specialty shop targets a particular need in the
market by specializing in one segment of the
industry. A shop may specialize in weddings, potted
plants, or some other area. Specialty shops are often
located adjacent to another business that services the
same need in a different area. For example, a specialty
wedding shop might locate next to a bridal shop.
Carriage Trade Shop
A carriage trade shop caters to an elite clientele, such
as wealthy private-party accounts and corporate
accounts. It may offer the same services as a full-
service florist, but caters to the special tastes of its
clients.The prices of goods are higher, corresponding
to the elite services, product lines, and designs
offered. It is important for the carriage trade shop to
understand the lifestyles of its clients.
Stem Shop
Stem shops are cash-and-carry operations that offer
a wide variety of flowers by the stem or bunch.They
do not usually offer design services or delivery. Such
shops are usually located in high-traffic areas in larger
cities, either inside a building or on the street.
Studio Operation
A studio operation concentrates on specialty and
party work for an exclusive client base. The studio
may operate out of a warehouse without a storefront
because most sales are made by appointment at the
customer’s home or business.
Franchise Shop
A franchise is usually purchased from a parent
company and operated according to that company’s
rules and regulations. The prospective owner
purchases or builds a shop. Sometimes the products
for resale must be bought from the parent company.
The price of a franchise is usually high, and the owner
may have to pay a percentage of gross sales to the
parent company. In spite of its higher cost, a franchise
provides the business with instant recognition.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 5


FIGURE 1-1 l A wholesale florist employee is pulling an
order of flowers for a retail florist.
Mass-Market Shop
A mass-market shop is located in a general
merchandise chain store or grocery store. These
shops usually offer fresh arrangements, potted plants,
balloons, and cut flowers by the stem or bunch. Mass-
market shops are cash-and-carry operations and do
not offer delivery service.
Wholesale Florist
The wholesale florist is an important link between
the grower and the retail florist. The wholesaler
purchases flowers from all around the world and
supplies them to the local retail shops. FIGURE 1-1
shows a wholesale florist employee filling an order for
a retail florist. In addition to cut flowers and greens,
the wholesaler supplies plants, giftware, and related
supplies, such as ribbon, wires, and accessories.
JOB OPPORTUNITIES IN THE RETAIL
FLOWER SHOP
Retail flower shops are present in nearly all towns
of any size throughout the United States. Most of
these are individually owned or family-operated
shops employing fewer than ten people (FIGURE 1-2).
An employee in one of these shops may be asked to
perform numerous and varied duties.
6 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
FIGURE 1-2 l Most flower shops in the United States are
small shops with fewer than ten employees.
© Gandy Photographers
In large shops with many employees, an individual
is hired to perform a specific job. These shops may
be individually owned or may be part of a chain of
retail shops in which each store has its own manager.
Whether a small or large retail flower shop,
work in a flower shop is highly seasonal. Holidays,
weddings, and funerals are times when flowers are in
great demand. Employees may be expected to work
long hours during these times.
Job opportunities in the retail flower shop may
be divided into three areas, as listed in FIGURE 1-3.
Managerial and Supervisory:
Owner or Manager
Whether you own or manage a flower shop, your
responsibilities are similar. These include hiring,
training, and supervising designers, salespersons,
and delivery persons. Other responsibilities include
1. Managerial and supervisory
A. Flower shop owner
B. Flower shop manager
2. Technical
A. Designer
B. Designer’s assistant
3. Service workers
A. Salesperson
B. Office worker
C. Delivery person
FIGURE 1-3 l Jobs in retail flower shops.
FIGURE 1-4 l Retail flower shop owner-manager.

planning work schedules, ordering supplies and

flowers, coordinating sales promotion and advertising,
and supervising or keeping shop records. Pricing
products or training others to do so is another duty of
the owner-manager (FIGURE 1-4).
Because of the nature of their duties, owner-
managers must have a good business background.
In most small flower shops, the owner-manager also
works as a designer and/or salesperson. Often the
owner-manager may not handle routine sales, but
is responsible for planning and pricing weddings,
receptions, and large parties.
FIGURE 1-5 l Floral designer.
determines the level of customer satisfaction, and a
happy customer means repeat business.
Technical: Designer’s Assistant
The designer’s assistant is a person training to
become a designer (FIGURE 1-6). Designer’s assistants
work with a designer and thereby are able to observe
the construction of a variety of floral designs. They

Technical: Designer
The floral designer arranges flowers and plant material
in an artistic manner and so must have an understanding
of the principles of design. Designers must also have
extensive knowledge of flowers and their care, as well
as of the supplies used in a flower shop. They must be
able to construct arrangements for the home, hospital,
funeral parlor, and various special occasions.
Most shops usually designate one person as
the head designer, often the manager or owner
(FIGURE 1-5). In very large shops, someone else
may be assigned this task. The head designer assigns
specific work to the other designers and is usually
responsible for making sales that involve special
work, such as a wedding or large party.
In many shops, the head designer orders flowers and
supplies. This is a difficult job because the buyer must
predict in advance the quantity of materials that will be
needed. If the shop runs out of flowers, it costs the shop
in lost sales. If too many are ordered, they go to waste.
Designers hold an important position in the
flower shop. The quality of their workmanship FIGURE 1-6 l Designer’s assistant.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 7

usually coordinate the designer’s orders, keeping
adequate materials on hand. The assistant may
prepare containers, select and wire flowers, and
construct bows for arrangements. After the designer
has completed an arrangement, the assistant fills out
a card or delivery tag, places it on the arrangement,
and prepares the product for delivery.
As assistants gain experience, they will be
allowed to make bud vases, corsages, and smaller
arrangements. The difficulty of the orders given to
the assistant will increase as the assistant receives
further training and experience. The assistant may
become a designer after one to two years.
Service Worker: Salesperson
The salesperson possesses skills in the art of selling.
The first encounter a customer has in a flower shop
is often with a salesperson (FIGURE 1-7). For this
reason, the salesperson’s job is vital. Having the best
designs in town is of little good if the salespeople
are turning away customers. Customer satisfaction
that leads to repeat flower buyers is necessary for a
successful flower business.
In very large flower shops, salespeople may be
assigned to either telephone sales or direct customer
sales. However, in most shops, the salespeople
perform both services. For this reason, they must
have versatile and effective selling skills.
It is not realistic to think you can walk into a
flower shop and instantly become a salesperson.
Selling requires training and daily preparation.
Salespeople must have a thorough knowledge of
flowers, flower care, and floral designs. They must be
able to offer customers appropriate suggestions.
FIGURE 1-7 l Salesperson.
© Syda Productions/Shutterstock.com.
8 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
In addition to having a good sales presentation,
the salesperson should have a friendly attitude.
Attitude communicates to the customer how you
feel about yourself, the company you represent, and
the customer. Remember, you are not only selling
flowers; you are selling yourself as well.
Service Worker: Office Worker
In most small flower shops, the owner-manager also
completes the duties of an office worker. Larger
shops usually have a designated office worker who
keeps the flower shop records and sends out the
monthly statements.
Service Worker: Delivery Person
Most retail flower shops are full-service florists,
offering delivery services. Delivery is a convenience
to the customer and makes it possible for the customer
to shop by telephone. This service distinguishes full-
service florists from mass-market florists, such as
those in grocery stores.
Delivery personnel should always be well
groomed and well mannered (FIGURE 1‑8). They
come into contact with many people while making
deliveries. The image that they present reflects on
FIGURE 1-8 l Delivery person.
© Stephen Coburn/Shutterstock.com.
the shop. For this reason, it is important that they
make a good impression.
Duties performed by delivery personnel may
include packaging orders and loading flowers into the
delivery truck. These employees should be familiar
with the delivery area so that they can make deliveries
quickly and efficiently. Delivery personnel should be
capable of repairing damaged arrangements so that
flowers do not have to be returned to the flower
shop, causing delays in delivery. In most small flower
shops, delivery personnel are asked to perform other
tasks in their spare time.

TRAINING FOR A JOB IN THE RETAIL

FLOWER SHOP
Most employees of retail flower shops receive their
training on the job. Many of these begin as a salesperson
or designer’s assistant and work their way up to
designer, head designer, or owner-manager. Trainees
in a flower shop usually attend many of the designer
schools and workshops provided by their state florist
association or other groups. Even skilled designers
participate in these workshops to sharpen their skills
and keep abreast of the latest design techniques.
FIGURE 1-9 l Many designers, such as this one, began
The greatest prerequisites to a career in the retail
their career in a high school horticulture class.
flower shop business are some artistic ability and
a love for working with flowers. A good business
want to wait until you graduate and then seek full-time
background is also helpful. If you possess these
employment? Examine the employment opportunities
characteristics, you can begin preparing right now in
in your area. If you live in a small town with a limited
the floral design class offered in your school. Many
number of florists, you may have to move to a larger
designers today began their career in a high school
town, where employment opportunities are greater.
floral design class and then receive additional training
on the job (FIGURE 1-9). Many state FFA (Future
Farmers of America) associations offer flower shows
LOCATING JOB OPPORTUNITIES
and competitions in flower arranging. Participating Once you have established your goal, you need to
in these will help you gain experience and further find a florist with a job opening. There are many
develop your flower-arranging skills. You may also ways to identify openings and employers. Your
want to enroll in some business classes offered in agricultural education instructor is a great place to
your high school. start. Share your goals with your instructor. Many
A number of floral design schools are located floral design teachers know the florists in the area
throughout the nation. If you are interested in and may know of employment opportunities.
receiving further training at one of these, talk to your Go to your local state employment office. Many
instructor about schools in your area. Should you companies rely on them for all of their personnel
decide to attend, examine the school, its curriculum, resources.
and instructors very carefully. You may want to check with private employment
If you have decided to pursue a career in the floral firms. They make their money by charging for their
industry, then set some goals for yourself. Do you want services, usually a percentage of the annual salary.
to work part time while you are still in school, or do you Sometimes the company pays, and sometimes you pay.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 9

 Go online to find a list of the florists in your area,
on websites such as Monster.com and Indeed.com.
Then prepare for a personal visit to the shops to
inquire about job possibilities. The remainder of this
unit will help you prepare to make these inquiries.
EMPLOYABILITY PORTFOLIO
A popular trend for people seeking employment
is the development of an employability portfolio,
a collection of documents that shows you have
knowledge, mastery, and job readiness in a particular
occupational area.This portfolio gives your potential
employer immediate proof of your qualifications.
The employability portfolio should include, but
not be limited to, the following:
■■ Letter of introduction
■■ Table of contents
■■ Letter of application
■■ Completed job application form
■■ Résumé
■■ Letter of recommendation
■■ Work samples
Letter of Introduction
The letter of introduction introduces the reviewer
to the portfolio (FIGURE 1-10) and should be both
personal and informative. Tell about yourself. List
your personal and career goals and how you plan
to reach those goals. Write about your strengths and
weaknesses. Describe some of your achievements
and how your work has improved.
Table of Contents
After completing all the sections of your employability
portfolio, develop a table of contents to assist
reviewers in locating different portfolio sections.
Letter of Application
A letter of application is written to fit a specific job
with a specific employer. It states your skills and
abilities as they apply to a particular job. It should be
sent as a part of your portfolio, or if you choose not
to complete a portfolio, it should be sent with your
résumé. Your letter of application expresses your
interest in both the job and the company.
Keep the letter brief and to the point. Sell the
employer on the idea of granting you a job interview.
Express your reason for contacting the company, and
10 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
expound on your qualifications for the job. At the
closing of your letter, state a time that you will call to
schedule an appointment to discuss your qualifications.
See FIGURE 1-11 for an example of a letter of application.
Job Application Form
The job application may be a general job application
(see FIGURE 1-12) or an actual application from industry.
If you have not included one in your portfolio, you
may be asked to complete a job application before
your interview or on arriving for the interview.
Although most companies have their own version of
an application, they ask basically the same questions.
Come prepared to answer the questions on the
application. Have a record of former employers, their
addresses, and the dates you were employed. Include
summer work and volunteer work if you have not
been previously employed at a regular job. Also, be
prepared to give reasons for leaving the employment.
Fill out the job application form legibly and
neatly. Print your responses on the application. Fill
in every blank. If a question does not apply to you,
write in N/A for “not applicable.”
The job application form gives the potential
employer a first impression of you. Make certain that
it is a good one. A neat and complete job application
form shows that you know how to follow directions
and that you are thorough.
Résumé
When applying for a job, you will need a résumé, and
it should be a part of your employability portfolio. A
résumé is a list of your experiences relating to the kind
of job you are seeking (FIGURE 1-13). There are many
styles or forms of résumés.The Internet has a number
of sites dedicated to résumé writing, and computer
programs are available at many stores that sell software
programs. These programs are available to help you
create a résumé that will attract employers’ attention.
Most résumés are done in an outline form, but
remember to keep your résumé short and simple. A
résumé is not an autobiography; it is a sales brochure.
You are selling yourself and your ability to do the
job. As a general rule, include only those items that
demonstrate your ability to do the work. If a résumé
is too long, too wordy, or too disorganized, it often
gets thrown in the wastebasket. The best résumés are
usually only one page in length.
 Lindsay Kilgore
2222 South Main Street
Anytown, US 00000

June 20, 2018

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN:

This letter is to introduce myself and to tell you a little about my career
goals. I have always loved flowers and plants. My career goal is to
work in the floriculture industry and I am particularly interested in the
floral design area.

Lindsay Kilgore As I was growing up, my parents were very interested in flower
gardening and I have inherited their love of flowers. They grew flowers
and always had a fresh bouquet of flowers in our home during the
growing season. They also shared their flowers with friends and
neighbors. This love of flowers is why I enrolled in a floral design class
Strong Creative Design
Communication Oriented at my high school as well as other floriculture related classes.

My employment at Walmart Garden Center further enhanced my

interest in flowers and potted plants. Caring for these plants on a
daily basis stimulated my interest in a career in the floriculture area. I
enjoyed the floral design class in high school. During my employment at
Walmart, I practiced making floral arrangements at home with flowers
from my parents’ garden. I enjoyed sharing them with family and
friends as well as making arrangements for church. I feel I have some
talent in this area. This is why I am pursuing a job in floral design.

Sincerely,

Contact Me
Lindsay Kilgore
2222 South Main Street
Anytown, US 00000

(229) 999-0000

ljk43@gmail.com

FIGURE 1-10 l Sample letter of introduction.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 11

 Lindsay Kilgore
2222 South Main Street
Anytown, US 00000

July 15, 2018

Mrs. Brooke Sassy

Owner
Sunny Side Florist
Anytown, US 31768

Dear Mrs. Sassy:

Lindsay Kilgore Today when I visited your shop, John, one of your salespersons, told
me about the opening your florist has for a designer’s assistant. He
gave me your name so that I could write to you directly.

I have been enrolled in the Environmental Horticulture program at

Colquitt County High School for the past two years. One of those years
Strong Creative Design
Communication Oriented has been in Floral Design Class and I have decided to pursue a career
in this area. I am particularly interested in working at your shop because
Samantha, one of your designers talked to our class this past semester
and demonstrated how to do several designs. I was most impressed with
her work and her friendly attitude. I have some work experience as a
sales associate in the garden center of the local Walmart.

Mrs. Sassy, I ask that you review my enclosed employability portfolio

and consider me for employment for the designer’s assistant opening
at Sunny Side Florist. My work ethic, knowledge and experience will
be an asset to your shop. I sincerely hope you will consider me for
employment. I will be in contact with you on May 22nd to confirm
receipt of my cover letter and resume, and to schedule a convenient
time for an interview should my work experience and skills be suitable
for the position. Thank you for your time and consideration, and I look
forward to hearing from you.
Contact Me
Sincerely,
2222 South Main Street
Anytown, US 00000

(229) 999-0000
Li d
Lindsay Kil
Kilgore
Enclosure

ljk43@gmail.com

FIGURE 1-11 l Sample letter of application.

12 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY

FIGURE 1-12 l Sample application for employment.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 13

FIGURE 1-12 l (continued)

14 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY

 Lindsay Kilgore

OBJECTIVE
Seeking an entry-level position in Floral Industry

EDUCATION
Strong Creative Design
Communication Oriented Colquitt County High School, Anytown, US
• Floral Design Program
• Expected Date of Graduation, May 30, 2018
• Relevant Courses: Floral Design, Greenhouse Production

SKILLS
Floral Design
• Know procedures for conditioning cut flowers and greens.
• Construct boutonnieres and corsages.
• Construct basic floral arrangements.
Floriculture
• Can identify 35 different plants sold in floral shops.
• Can advise customers on plant care.

EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITES

Contact Me
• Vice-President, Colquitt County FFA Association
• First place, state FFA floral design contest
2222 South Main Street • Future Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA)
Anytown, US 00000

(229) 999-0000

REFERENCES
ljk43@gmail.com Available upon request

FIGURE 1-13 l Sample résumé.

UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS 15

 There is no official format for writing a résumé.
You may use the following outline as a guide in
completing your résumé. Alter, expand, or modify it
to suit your wishes.
Heading
Give the employer your name and where you can be
reached. Make sure to include your name, address,
phone number with area code, and email, in a place
that is clearly visible on the résumé.
Job Objective
State what kind of job you are seeking. Keep this to
one short sentence. If you have no experience, state
that you are “Seeking an entry-level position as a
designer’s assistant.”
Education
On one line, give the date you will be graduating, the
type of diploma you will be receiving, the school’s
name, and the city-state address. Under the name of
your school, list a few of the courses you have taken
that would help you qualify for the job.
Skills and Abilities
This area may or may not be a part of your résumé.
If you do not have any work experience, then listing
any skills or abilities that would qualify you for the
job will be helpful. List any workshops, trade shows,
seminars, or self-study courses that you have taken.
Work Experience
If you have work experience—full time, part time,
volunteer, or charitable—put it in your résumé. List your
most recent job first. On one line, list the date you left
that job or write “Present” if you are still employed, your
job title, the name of the company, and the company’s
address. Directly under that line, briefly describe the
duties you performed while you were in this job.
Extracurricular Activities
Extracurricular activities show leadership capabilities,
team spirit, interest, and experiences that you have
had. If you do not have work experience, these can
be particularly important.
References
References are people who can give information
about you, your attitudes, and your abilities. Try to
16 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
select people who know you from different activities.
Be sure to ask the individuals for their permission
to use them as references. For each reference, you
will need the person’s name, job title, organization,
address, and telephone number.
The notation “References available on request”
is often included on the résumé instead of listing
individual references. However, you always need to
have the list available in case it is requested.
If you are using a word processor on your
computer to type your résumé, choose a font that
is easy to read. Use only standard abbreviations, and
spell out any acronyms. For example, instead of using
FCCLA, spell it out: Future Career and Community
Leaders of America.
Letter of Recommendation
Your employability portfolio should contain one or
more letters of recommendation. At least one letter
should be from a credible source that has knowledge
of your specific skills. Other letters of recommendation
may be from other sources, to represent your character
traits and other personal or academic accomplishments.
Work Sample
Your work sample should showcase your best work.
Take pictures of your work, and add a caption
describing the work sample, steps taken to complete
the work sample, skills demonstrated by your work
sample, and what you learned or how you could
improve the work sample.
FOLLOW-UP CALL OR EMAIL
The follow-up call or an email to the shop owner
is most important. Shop owner-managers receive
many inquiries about the availability of jobs, and
they are probably not going to call you. They figure
that if you really want to work for them, you will do
more than send them a copy of your employability
portfolio or résumé.
Practice what you are going to say before you
call. Be friendly and speak clearly. Do not be put
off if the manager says there is no opening at the
present time. Ask if he or she can meet with you and
discuss your qualifications for future job openings.
Sometimes shop owners will create a position if the
right person comes along.
THE INTERVIEW
The interview is an opportunity for you to meet
with a representative of the florist to which you
have applied. It is a chance for you to sell yourself.
If you are going to do well on the interview, you
must show the interviewer that you are capable of
doing the job or learning it quickly and that you
are reliable and do not need constant supervision.
Interviewers also look for workers with a good
attitude, who can work well with other people in
the shop.
Interviews at most flower shops are usually very
informal, but they can also be scary. Prepare ahead of
time so that you do well on the interview. Make a
list of potential questions the interviewer might ask.
Here are some suggestions; you can search online for
additional suggested questions:
■■ Tell me about yourself.
■■ Tell me about your education.
■■ Tell me about your previous jobs.
■■ What are your goals?
■■ Why do you want this job?
■■ What are your strengths?
■■ What are your weaknesses?
■■ How would you (or someone else) describe your
personality?
■■ With so many applicants, why should I hire you?
■■ What do you plan to be doing in five years?
Ten years?
■■ Do you plan to continue your education?
■■ Why did you leave your previous job?
■■ Why would you like to work here?
■■ What did you like and dislike about your last job?
■■ Can you work well under pressure?
■■ How long will you stay with us?
■■ Do you have any questions?
Seek the advice of others who have been on
interviews to help you compile your list of questions.
Then practice your answers. Ask a friend to play the
role of manager. Practice until you are relaxed and
confident with your answers. Now you are ready for
your interview. The following dos and don’ts will
help you make a good impression.
Do
■■ Be clean and neatly dressed. Appropriate dress is
the same as that worn on the job.
UNIT 1 EXPLORING CAREERS IN THE RETAIL FLOWER BUSINESS
■■ Learn all that you can about the florist and the
job for which you are applying.
■■ Be prepared to talk about yourself—your accom-
plishments, skills, and abilities.
■■ Arrive a few minutes early.
■■ Be alert and enthusiastic.
■■ Be friendly.
■■ Maintain good eye contact.
■■ Speak clearly and in a pleasant voice.
■■ Answer questions as completely and truthfully as
possible.
■■ Maintain good posture.
■■ Ask questions about the job.
Don’t
■■ Be late.
■■ Chew gum, smoke, or eat candy.
■■ Slouch or slump when sitting.
■■ Bring a friend with you to the interview.
■■ Be dishonest when answering questions.
■■ Ask about salary and benefits. Wait for the man-
ager to bring up the issue of wages.
Interviewing for a job with a floral shop can
be different from interviewing for most other jobs.
You may be asked to demonstrate certain skills such
as making a corsage or an arrangement. This can
be scary, but it also gives you the opportunity to
showcase what you can do.
When the interview is about over, offer a closing
statement. Summarize your strengths, and ask for the
job. Many people interview and never ask for the job.
Also ask when you might expect to hear from
the interviewer. Regardless of the outcome, smile
and thank the manager for talking with you. Give
a firm handshake. Ask when you might call and
inquire about the decision.
AFTER THE INTERVIEW
It is good manners to send a typed follow-up letter or an
email after the interview. These could make you stand
out from the competition, and it keeps your name alive
in the manager’s mind. It also tells the manager that you
really want the job. Write the letter or email as soon as
you get home from the interview. If you have not heard
from the manager in a few days, call or email to inquire
about the position. If he or she has not made a decision,
this lets the manager know that you are still interested
17
 SUMMARY
Most retail flower shops are small businesses, so jobs
within the shop are not usually limited to one area.An
employee may be asked to perform a variety of tasks.
A career in the retail flower business is an excel-
lent choice for those individuals who enjoy work-
ing around flowers and plants. Work in a retail florist
is highly seasonal, with flowers in especially great
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why is it important that the delivery person
for a flower shop be well groomed and well
mannered?
2. What is the difference between a full-service
florist and a mass-market florist?
3. How can the national or state FFA association
help you train for a job in the retail flower shop?
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Visit a flower shop and question the employees
about their jobs.
2. Ask your teacher to invite the owner-manager
or designer from a local flower shop to talk to
the class about careers in the retail florist industry.
3. Select one job opportunity and make a list
of the duties performed on that job and the
requirements for employment in that area.
4. Write about a situation where you used
flowers or saw flowers being used. How did
they make you feel?
18 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
demand on holidays. Employees are expected to
work long hours during these times. Because most
weddings take place on weekends, employees may be
asked to work longer hours during these events also.
Even though flower shop employees are often re-
quired to work long hours, most florists love their work
and receive great personal satisfaction from their job.
4. Why is a friendly service attitude an important
attribute of a salesperson?
5. How can designers gain more experience in
floral design and learn the latest techniques?
6. List five items that should be included on
the résumé.
7. List five dos and five don’ts of interviewing.
5. Prepare an employability portfolio for a
specific job.
6. Make a list of possible questions that might be
asked on an interview.
7. Role-play a job interview situation, with one
student playing the role of the interviewer and
one the role of the job applicant.
8. Ask your teacher to assist you in planning a
supervised agriculture experience program.
See Appendix I for ideas.
 UNIT 2

The History of Floral

Design

OBJECTIVE TERMS TO KNOW

To relate how designs from historical periods influence American federal period Gothic period
contemporary designs. Baroque period Greek period
Byzantine period line arrangement
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP chaplets line-mass style
Colonial Williamsburg period Louis XVI period
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
cornucopia mass designs
●● Identify the origins of many of the floral designs that are
Dutch-Flemish period Middle Ages
popular today.
Early American period nosegay
●● Identify the characteristics of mass, line-mass, and line
Egyptian period occidental style
designs.
Empire period oriental style
English-Georgian period Renaissance period
faience Roman period
French Baroque period tussie-mussie
French Rococo period Victorian period

19
INTRODUCTION

F LOWER ARRANGEMENT IS CONSIDERED an art. How do we arrange flowers so that they become a work of art?
In Unit 3, we will learn that design principles guide us in creating arrangements that are works of art. What are these
principles, and where did they originate? They are fundamental truths proved by master artists over the centuries. To
understand the principles of design and their origin, we need to look at the history of the art of flower arranging.
A knowledge of the floral arts of earlier cultures is important to better understand the flower arrangement styles used today.
In addition, designers are sometimes required to create flower arrangements that depict a specific period or style of design. For
example, a customer with a Victorian home would want arrangements that complement the Victorian period in history.
A study of the history of floral design reveals that two different concepts of floral design developed independently of
each other. Our sources of inspiration have been the occidental style, which evolved in Egypt and was further developed
by the Europeans, and the oriental style, which began in China and was later developed by the Japanese. ✽

CLASSICAL PERIOD The Egyptians liked to wear wreaths of flowers,

The remains of many ancient cultures provide us
with ample proof that people have always appreciated
the beauty of flowers. They show that flowers were
a source of inspiration for decorating the home or
were presented as offerings.
Egyptian Period (2800–28 bc)
Ample evidence exists to show that the ancient
Egyptians decorated with cut flowers placed in vases.
The usual Egyptian container was a basin or a wide-
mouth bowl that tapered to a narrow base. Such
bowls of gold, silver, pottery, and faience (ware made
of finely ground silicate) were fitted with devices for
holding flowers and fruit.
Floral arrangements of the Egyptian period were
simplistic, repetitious, and highly stylized. Flowers
were set in regimented rows around the edge of
the vase, an ample 2 inches above the rim. These
blossoms were flanked by leaves or buds on slightly
lower stems. There was no bunching or overlapping
of material.
Faience bowls for flowers had holes around the rim
through which flowers were inserted. Blossoms in tall
spout vases came straight from the opening with no
stems visible.
The primary colors of red, yellow, and blue, as
well as other vibrant color combinations, were used
predominately in floral designs. Because the lotus,
or water lily, was the flower of the goddess Isis, and
therefore considered sacred, it was used often. Bowls
of fruits and flowers were also used but always in
orderly sequence of color and shape.
as well as flower collars, and made chaplets for their
hair. They liked to carry bouquets of flowers made
of lotuses, with buds and blossoms of other flowers
threaded into them.
Clarity and simplicity were characteristic of
Egyptian floral designs. The Egyptians did not
care for confusion or complexity. Two artistic
functions prevailed in these designs: repetition and
alternation—one flower around the rim of a vase
and alternation of color, blue followed by green,
then by blue again.
Greek Period (600–46 bc)
The ancient Greeks were so dedicated to beauty
that their art heritage has lived through the ages and
influences today’s art. However, the Greeks did not
arrange their flowers in vases or bouquets. FIGURE 2-1
has been reproduced from a very rare Grecian example
of decorated terracotta showing plant material in vases.
Yet flowers are lacking here as in all examples from
the Greek period. The leafy branches are probably of
olive, for this is part of a bridal scene, and the olive
was associated with weddings.
Flowers were commonly scattered on the ground
during festivals and used to make garlands worn
around the neck and wreaths or chaplets worn on
the head. Because the wreath was the symbol of
allegiance and dedication, it was awarded in honor
to athletes, poets, civic leaders, soldiers, and heroes.
Funeral graves were decorated with garlands of
flowers, as were banquet tables. Wreaths were so
much a part of the Greek way of life that books were

20 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY

FIGURE 2-1 l The Greeks placed branches of foliage into
vases but did not include flowers.
written to describe the appropriate flowers, forms,
and etiquette for wearing them.
Greek designs expressed grace and simplicity.
Color was not important. Instead, the flowers,
fragrance, and symbolism associated with each
flower were of foremost importance. Flowers were
often symbolic of a god or hero.
The cornucopia, or horn of plenty, was first
introduced by the Greeks (FIGURE 2-2). Originally,
it was placed in an upright position, whereas today
it is laid on its side, with contents overflowing and
spilling out. As the symbol for abundance, we often
associate it with our Thanksgiving celebrations.
Roman Period (28 bc–ad 325)
The Romans contributed little that was new in the
use of flowers but continued the customs of the
Greeks.Wealth and power, however, led the Romans
to greater luxury in the use of flowers, and they were
used in abundance at religious rites and banquets. At
banquets, roses were strewn on the floor to a depth
of two feet, and flowers “rained” from the ceiling.
The fragrance of so many flowers was said to be
suffocating. So customary was the use of roses at the
evening meal that it was called “the hour of the rose.”
FIGURE 2-2 l The cornucopia.
© IngridHS/Shutterstock.com.
One custom that appears in the Roman period is
the use of scarves for carrying flowers. Flowers were
carried on a scarf and offered at an altar as a part of
Roman religious ceremonies. The use of wreaths and
garlands was continued from the Greeks. However,
the Roman wreaths and garlands were heavy and
elaborate. Wreaths, like high crowns, came to a point
over the forehead. Garlands were even more elaborate,
being wide in the center and tapering toward the ends.
There is evidence that the Romans actually
arranged flowers in baskets.These baskets were high at
the back and flattened in front.The flowers were placed
low between feathery branches so that the flowers
were clearly visible. This required adequate spacing of
the branches. The flowers used in these arrangements
were highly fragrant and bright in color.
Byzantine Period (ad 320–600)
In the fourth century, Byzantium was chosen by the
first Christian emperor, Constantine, as the Eastern
capital of the Roman Empire. Soon afterward, the
Western Roman Empire was overrun by barbaric
UNIT 2 THE HISTORY OF FLORAL DESIGN 21
tribes and entered that period of turmoil that we
call the Dark Ages. Byzantium was able to protect
itself from foreign conquest until 1453, when it was
captured by the Ottoman Empire of the Turks.
In the Byzantine period, Greek and Roman
flower usage styles were continued, but the garland
was constructed differently. The background was of
foliage into which tiny flowers were set in arching
lines, to give a twisted effect.
Byzantine flower compositions were distinguished
by height and symmetry. Containers were filled with
foliage to resemble symmetrical, conical trees. These
were decorated at regular intervals with clusters of
flowers or fruit (FIGURE 2-3).
FIGURE 2-3 l This conical tree design was inspired by
the conical designs of the Byzantine period.
22 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
EUROPEAN PERIODS
OF FLORAL DESIGN
Several important periods of floral history have
influenced European floral art. As you study these
periods, you will begin to see floral styles that have
influenced the styles popular today.
Middle Ages (ad 476–1400)
The centuries between the fall of Rome in 476 and
the dawn of the Renaissance in the fifteenth century
are called the Middle Ages.These were years of unrest
and confusion in Europe. Order and security were
slow to emerge.
We know little of the uses of flowers in Europe
from the seventh century to the thirteenth. Monks
grew herbs for medicine, and fruits and vegetables
for eating. Flower gardening as such did not exist.
We know, however, that monks were familiar with
many wildflowers, for glimpses of them appear in
the manuscripts on which they worked.
During the later part of the Middle Ages, known
as the Gothic period, flowers began to take a more
important role in daily life. Borders of manuscripts,
as well as altar pictures and their frames, blossomed
with painted plants and flowers.
Renaissance (ad 1400–1600)
The Renaissance period saw a rebirth of many
interests, particularly in the arts. The Renaissance
began in Italy but quickly spread to all of Europe.
The Renaissance style was greatly influenced by the
Byzantine, Greek, and Roman periods. Flowers in
vases are often shown in paintings from this period,
as great emphasis was placed on flower symbolism.
Characteristic floral arrangements of the
Renaissance were flowers arranged in vases so that
only the blossoms were visible. Stems were covered,
creating a massed, symmetrically stiff arrangement.
Even though the flowers were compactly arranged,
each flower stood out because of the variety of
bright colors and kinds of flowers that were used.
The Renaissance was given to pageants and
festivals, and artists were commissioned to design
floral pieces for them. Fruits, blossoms, and leaves
were woven into garlands to decorate walls and
vaulted ceilings. Petals were piled into baskets to
strew on floors and streets or to float down from
balconies into rooms below.
 Many traditional floral designs created today are
styled from the Renaissance arrangements, such as
the Christmas wreath of fruit, cones, and flowers.
Baroque Period (ad 1600–1775)
The baroque style, like that of the Renaissance,
originated in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe.
In the works of Michelangelo and Tintoretto, we
see examples of this new style emerging. By 1650,
baroque arrangements could be seen in paintings
and tapestries of the period.
Early in the Baroque period, arrangements were
typically massed and overflowing. They were often
created as symmetrical, oval-shaped designs. Later
in the period, asymmetrical curves in the shape of
an S or a crescent became popular. The S curve
(FIGURE 2-4) was created by an English painter
named William Hogarth. The Hogarthian curve is
still quite popular in modern floral designs.
Dutch-Flemish Period (ad 1600–1750)
We also gain insight into the baroque style of
arrangement through flower paintings by the
FIGURE 2-4 l The “S” curve became popular during the
Baroque period.
© 7th Son Studio/Shutterstock.com.
Dutch and Flemish artists. Traditional baroque styles
were refined as they created floral designs for their
paintings. These arrangements were not as loose and
open as those in the contemporary baroque style, but
they were better proportioned and more compact.
A major distinguishing characteristic of the Dutch-
Flemish period is the great variety of flowers within
one bouquet.
It is important to understand that many of these
early artists never actually arranged the flower
bouquets or painted their pictures using an actual
arrangement. This explains why short-stemmed
flowers are often positioned high and flowers from
all seasons are placed side by side.
French Period (ad 1600–1814)
The French styles for decorating changed often
during this period of history. Four basic periods are
discussed here.
The first of these is called the French Baroque
Period. This period occurred during the seventeenth
century during the reign of King Louis XIV. The
French Baroque style was directly influenced by
traditional baroque art. However, certain features
made it purely French in origin. The court society
during the reign of Louis XIV had become idle
and effeminate, with extravagant tastes for luxury.
Feminine appeal became an important characteristic
of the floral designs of this period in France. The
emphasis in flower arrangements was on refinement
and elegance as compared to the flamboyance of the
Dutch-Flemish period.
The second artistic period in France is known as
the French Rococo period. This style began in France
but quickly spread throughout Europe and the
European colonies. This change in style occurred
during the reign of King Louis XV. The informal
designs of the French Baroque gave way to the more
formal, feminine designs that are characteristic of the
French Rococo period. These floral arrangements
were predominantly asymmetrical and curvilinear in
form, with the crescent (C curve) used more often
than the Hogarthian curve (S curve).
Flowers used in Rococo designs were delicate
and airy. The predominant colors were subtle rather
than contrasting.
The third artistic period in France is referred to
as Louis XVI period (late eighteenth century). This
UNIT 2 THE HISTORY OF FLORAL DESIGN 23
period, which showed a continued movement to
femininity in design styles, was brought about by
Queen Marie Antoinette, who favored delicate, cool
colors highlighted with gold.
The fourth artistic period in France was called
the Empire period (1804–1814). Following the
French Revolution in 1789, a new artistic movement
evolved across Europe known as the Classical Revival
period or Neoclassical period.
Nowhere else in the Western world were
neoclassical styles as they were during the rule of
Napoleon Bonaparte in France. Under the guidance
of two of his architects, the Empire design style was
created. These were masculine designs characterized
by militaristic themes. Femininity was dropped from
French design. Empire arrangements were massive
in size and weight. They were more compact than
those of earlier French periods, with simple lines
in a triangular shape and strong color contrasts. A
typical Empire design would be arranged in a heavy
urn containing an abundance of large, richly colored
flowers.
English-Georgian Period (ad 1714–1760)
The English-Georgian period in England was named
after the three English rulers, Kings George I, II,
and III, who ruled England during the Baroque
period. Most English-Georgian arrangements were
formal and symmetrical, often tightly arranged with
great varieties of flowers. During this period, floral
designs were significantly influenced by the Chinese
arts because of active trading between Europe and
the Orient. The Chinese style was incorporated
into Georgian arrangements by the creation of
symmetrical forms, usually triangular-shaped floral
designs.
During the later years of the Georgian period,
floral designs moved away from formality and
symmetry. The fragrance of flowers became
important because it was believed that their perfume
would rid the air of diseases. Because of this belief,
the English created the nosegay, a small handheld
bouquet to carry the sweet scents. Nosegays also
helped mask the smells of body odors in a society
where bathing often was not believed to be healthy.
These small, handheld bouquets are often called
tussie-mussies, sometimes spelled “tuzzy-muzzy.”
The word tuzzy refers to the old English word for
24 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY
a knot of flowers. These bouquets were first used
solely for fragrance but soon became a fashion
trend. Women of the Georgian period wore flowers
in their hair, around their necks, and on their gowns.
Victorian Period (ad 1820–1901)
Flowers were considered fashionable during the
Victorian period, named after Queen Victoria of
England. However, floral designs during this era
were generally poorly proportioned. Large masses
of flowers were placed tightly into a container to
create a compact arrangement. A typical flower
arrangement would have an asymmetrical balance
and a massed, tightly compact effect. No definite
style of arrangement was prevalent. Designs were
often a blending of the art of previous periods. So
many different colors and flowers were used that the
arrangement appeared unplanned.
The nosegay, introduced during the English-
Georgian period, was very popular. These bouquets
were used as air fresheners, and the flowers conveyed
special sentiment as well.
Toward the end of the Victorian period, attempts
were made to establish rules for floral arranging.
The art of flower arranging was taught by skilled
designers. Hence, flower arranging became a
professional art.
AMERICAN PERIODS
OF FLORAL DESIGN
The early settlers in America brought with them a
European heritage of floral design. As the settlements
became established and trade began to take place, the
arts began to emerge.
Early American Period (ad 1620–1720)
During the Early American period, the early settlers
brought the styles of the Renaissance with them to
America, but life was hard in the new colonies and
they had little time to devote to art and flowering
arranging. The colonists were gardeners, but their
attention was focused on providing plants and herbs
for food and medicine.
As the early settlements became established, the
colonists placed wildflowers, grains, and grasses into
everyday jars, simple pottery, and pewter and copper
kettles and pans.
Colonial Williamsburg Period (ad 1714–1780)
By the time Williamsburg became the capital of the
Virginia colonies, active trading was taking place
with England, Europe, and Asia. The artistic styles
from these areas were adapted into the New World
art. The typical floral arrangement of the Colonial
Williamsburg period was a massed, rounded, or fan-
shaped bouquet that was casual and open in style.The
arrangements were constructed so that the flowers
were lightly arranged at the top while flowers with
greater visual weight were placed above the rim of
the container.

American Federal Period (ad 1780–1820) FIGURE 2-5 l European design was generally a large,
The American Federal period was equivalent to the round, or oval mass of flowers.
English-Georgian period in England. This period
was greatly influenced by the neoclassic and Empire
designs that evolved in Europe at that time. The
colonies had just received their independence from
England, and the American people wanted to break
away from the traditions of England.
The arrangements from this period were often
pyramidal or fan-shaped, influenced by the French
design style. The floral designs were little different
from those found in the neoclassic movement and
gradually gave way to the ornate and stuffy design of
the Victorian period.

Twentieth-Century American Flower

Arrangements
The artistic styles of American flower arrangements
changed little during the early part of the twentieth
century. The Victorian era was coming to a close by
the end of World War I. Flower arrangement styles
were copies of preceding periods or blends of several
design styles. The corsage became popular in the
1920s, to be worn for special occasions. This custom
has survived to the present time.
Major changes were brought about in American
floral art at the end of World War II. This occurred
because of a renewed interest in Japanese culture.
While continental Europe continued the tradition
of the loosely arranged mass designs (FIGURE 2-5),
American flower arrangements incorporated the
line-mass style (FIGURE 2-6). The line-mass designs
combined both oriental and European ideas.
American floral designs used more materials than
the oriental design, but far fewer than the European,
FIGURE 2-6 l A line-mass design combines oriental and
European ideas.
and were often built around a linear pattern, further
showing the oriental influence.
ORIENTAL FLOWER ARRANGING
The oriental style of flower arranging actually began
in India where Buddhist priests scattered branches
and stems on altars or placed them in pottery urns
as decorations. The practice was quickly picked up
and modified by the Chinese priests during the first
century ad. They arranged the flowers in massive
bronze ceremonial vessels, and because they felt it

UNIT 2 THE HISTORY OF FLORAL DESIGN 25

improper to place flowers carelessly on the altar, they
created symbolic arrangements. Chinese arrangements
Heaven
were usually large and symmetrical, with only one or
two types of foliage and flowers placed around a central
branch or main axis. Bright colors contrasting with Man

the color of the urn were favored. The flowers of the

lightest colors were used at the outer portions of the
design, whereas darker ones were kept nearest the base.
Around the sixth century ad, the Japanese adopted
Earth
many aspects of the Chinese culture, including that
of floral arrangement. A Japanese Buddhist priest
named Ikenobo refined that art and ritual, and his
instruction was sought by other Buddhist priests. He
is credited with having begun the first school of floral
art in Japan, which bears his name—Ikenobo. This
school still exists. The name was later changed to FIGURE 2-7 l Oriental design is characterized by minimum
Ikebana, which means “giving life to flowers.” Many use of plant materials, and each placement has meaning.
other schools of Japanese floral design have evolved
from this original one, but the basic principles can be has meaning, as does the angle of placement
traced back to the teachings of the Ikenobo school. (FIGURE 2-7). This type of design came to be known
The Japanese designs are characterized by as line arrangement. If you have an interest in this style
minimum use of plant material and the careful of design, ask your instructors whether they have any
placement of branches and flowers. Each placement books on Ikebana, or check with your local library.

SUMMARY

The history of floral design reveals that two different con- and the oriental style, which began in China and was
cepts of floral design developed independently of each further developed by the Japanese. A look at these two
other. These were the occidental style, which evolved styles reveals that American floral design evolved from a
in Egypt and was further developed by the Europeans; blending of these two different styles of design.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain how the oriental and European floral 2. Why is it important for floral designers to have
design styles have influenced the types of knowledge of the history of floral design?
flower shop arrangements sold today.

26 SECTION 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY

 STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Go online to look for examples of
arrangements that identify with the various
floral design periods.
2. Select pictures of period arrangements
from websites or from interior and home
furnishings magazines. Make a posterboard
display of the arrangements, identifying the
artistic period.
3. Divide into small groups. Each group should
choose an artistic period and prepare an oral
presentation on that period, with emphasis on
floral arrangements of the period.
UNIT 2 THE HISTORY OF FLORAL DESIGN 27
28
 SECTION 2
Getting Started:
The Basics of Design
3 l Principles of Design
4 l Selection of Cut Flowers and Greens
5 l Conditioning and Storing Cut Flowers and Greens
6 l Mechanics and Supplies Used in Floral Design
7 l Selecting Wire and Wiring Flowers
8 l Selecting Ribbons and Tying Bows

29
 UNIT 3

Principles of Design

focal point rhythm

OBJECTIVE form scale
To use principles and elements of design to critique floral designs. harmony secondary color
intermediate color shade
COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP line split-complementary
monochromatic color color harmony
After completing this unit, you should be able to: harmony tertiary color
●● List and define the principles and elements of design. polychromatic color texture
●● Identify the basic designs used in flower arranging. harmony tint
●● Identify the basic color schemes used in floral design. primary color tone
●● Determine combinations for various color schemes, using principles of design transition
the color wheel. progression triadic color harmony
●● Critique an arrangement, using a rating scale based on the proportion unity
principles of design. radiation value
repetition

TERMS TO KNOW
TOOLS AND MATERIALS
analogous harmony color wheel
balance complementary color ●● A selection of flowers differing in color and texture
chroma harmony ●● Floral arrangements
color emphasis ●● Floral design magazines and/or floral design–
color harmony facing related websites
30
INTRODUCTION

I F YOU WERE GIVEN a dozen roses or carnations in a gift box, you would probably place them casually in a vase. Grouped
together this way, they are beautiful because individual flowers are beautiful. However, this casual placement of flowers
is not an arrangement. These same flowers placed in a vase in a planned pattern take on a greater beauty: the flower ar-
rangement then becomes a work of art.
We arrange flowers so that they become a work of art by using certain guidelines called principles of design. These
are basic laws, fundamental truths, or methods of operation that have been tested and proved by master artists for many
centuries. Good flower arrangements are judged by these principles, which are tools that will guide you in planning and
evaluating your arrangements.
Although these interrelated principles have been developed over many years and are used as guidelines in all types of
designs, artists individualize their application. Such variations depend on many factors. For example, the choice to employ
one principle may affect the way several other principles are expressed in the arrangement. ✽

DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The design principles presented in this unit are
balance, proportion and scale, focal point, emphasis,
rhythm, harmony, and unity.

Balance
Balance refers to the stability of an arrangement.
When all of the design elements are composed so
that the arrangement appears secure and stable, then
balance has been achieved.
Balance must be both visual and actual. Visual
balance refers to the way an arrangement appears to the
eye, and is achieved by the proper use of color and the
placement of plant materials according to size.
Visual weight refers to how heavy an object
appears in the arrangement. Flowers of dark colors
appear to be heavier than flowers of lighter colors,
even if they are the same size. Likewise, flowers
or objects of coarse texture appear heavier than
similarly sized objects of smooth texture. Because
darker colored and coarsely textured flowers appear
to be heavy, they must be placed near the base of the
arrangement. Lighter, smoother ones are placed near
the edges. This helps give the arrangement visual
balance.
Actual balance or mechanical balance is achieved
by the proper placement of flowers so that there is
an equal amount of weight on both sides of a central
axis in the arrangement. If mechanical balance is not
achieved, the arrangement may topple.
Two kinds of balance, symmetrical and
asymmetrical, are commonly used (FIGURE 3-1).
Symmetrical Asymmetrical
FIGURE 3-1 l Balance.
Symmetrical or formal balance is characterized by
equal visual weight on each side of an imaginary,
central, vertical line.This equal visual weight does not
have to be expressed in identical materials, but the
materials are usually very similar. Many traditional
styles of arrangements are based on this type of
balance.
Arrangements that are symmetrically balanced
give a feeling of dignity and formality.They are poised
rather than moving, and passive rather than active.
Symmetrical arrangements should be displayed
against a symmetrical background and accessories
displayed in a symmetrical way. Arrangements placed
before the altar in a church or on the head table at
a banquet hall are usually symmetrically balanced.
Asymmetrical, or informal, arrangements have
equal visual weight on both sides of a central axis,

UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 31

Another random document with
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Then he turned to Dormer, hunted a moment among the papers on
the table, and spoke:
“Look here, Dormer, about this affair of yours?”
It took all Dormer’s training to keep his mouth shut. He saw more
clearly than ever how Colonel Birchin and all like him and all he
represented, were divesting themselves of any connection with what
looked like a nasty, awkward, tedious and probably discreditable
business. But he had not grasped it.
“They’ve found Andrews—this—er—gunner, who will be able to give
you information. And—look here, Dormer—this affair must be
cleared up, do you understand? Andrews is in hospital. You can go
by car to Boulogne, but we expect you to get it done this time. Corps
are most annoyed. There’s been a nice how-d-y-do with the French.”
Dormer swallowed twice and only said:
“Really, sir.”
“Yes. Car starts at seven.”
Accordingly at seven, the big Vauxhall moved off from that little
group of huts, in the meadow that was so regularly bombed every
night. Dormer, sitting next to Major Stevenage, did not mind. As well
Boulogne as anywhere, while this was going on. All the roads were
full of transport, all the railways one long procession of troop and
supply trains. It was about as possible to hide it all from the
Germans, as to conceal London on a Bank Holiday. In fact it was
rather like that. The population was about the same, if the area were
rather larger, the effect of the crowd, the surly good humour, the air
of eating one’s dinner out of one’s hand was the same.
There was very little sign of any consciousness of the shadow that
hung over it all. Hospital trains and ambulances abounded, going in
the opposite direction, but no one noticed them, so far as Dormer
could see. The type of man who now came up to fight his country’s
battles was little changed. The old regular was hardly to be found.
The brisk volunteer was almost gone. Instead there had arisen a
generation that had grown used to the War, had had it on their minds
so long, had been threatened with it so often that it had lost all
sharpness of appeal to their intellects.
Right back to St. Omer the crowd stretched. Beyond that it became
more specialized. Air Force. Hospitals. Training grounds. Then,
across high windy downs, nothing, twenty miles of nothing, until a
long hill and the sea.
Up there on those downs where there was no one, never had been
anybody ever since they were pushed up from the bed of some
antediluvian ocean, and covered with short turf, Dormer had one of
his rare respites from the War. Briefer perhaps, but more complete
than that which he experienced on his rare leaves, he felt for a while
the emancipation from his unwilling thraldom. It was the speed of the
car that probably induced the feeling. Anyhow, on the level road that
runs from Boulogne to Étaples—the ETAPPS of the Army in France
—he lost it. Here there was no escaping the everlasting khaki and
transport, that State of War into which he had been induced, and out
of which he could see no very great possibility of ever emerging. He
had no warning of what was to come, and was already well among
the hospitals and dumps that extended for miles beside the railway,
when a military policeman held up a warning hand.
“What’s the matter, Corporal?”
“I should not go into Etapps this morning, if I were you, sir.”
“Why not?”
The man shifted his glance. He did not like the job evidently.
“Funny goings-on, there, sir.”
“Goings-on, what does that mean?”
Dormer was capable of quite a good rasp of the throat, when
required. He had learned it as a Corporal.
“The men are out of ’and, sir!”
“Are they? The A.P.M. will see to that, I suppose.”
“Very good, sir.”
“Drive on!”
Dormer didn’t like it, to tell the truth. But he was so used to bluffing
things he didn’t like, and his own feelings, and other people’s
awkwardness, that he could not do otherwise than go on. Also he
didn’t realize what was on foot. A certain amount of daily work was
being done in among the dumps and sidings where the population
was of all sorts of non-combatant, Labour Corps units, medical
formations, railway people, and others. But from the rise by the
Reinforcement Officers’ hut, he began to see. The whole of the great
infantry camp on the sandhill—and it was very full, he had heard
people say that there were a hundred thousand men there—seemed
to have emptied itself into the little town. Here they sauntered and
talked, eddying a little round the station and some of the larger
estaminets, in motion like an ant-hill, in sound like a hive of bees.
The car was soon reduced to a walking pace, there were no police to
be seen, and once entered there was no hope of backing out of that
crowd, and no use in appearing to stop in it.
“Go slow,” Dormer ordered, glancing out of the corner of his eye at
the wooden face of the chauffeur. Nothing to be seen. Either the man
didn’t like it, or didn’t feel the necessary initiative to join in it, or
perhaps considered himself too superior to these foot-sloggers to
wish to be associated with them. Most probably he hadn’t digested
the fact that this mob, through which he drove his officer, was Mutiny,
the break-up of ordered force, and military cohesion. It might even
be the end of the War and victory for the Germans. All this was
apparent enough in a moment to Dormer, who was careful to look
straight again to his front, unwinking and mute, until, with a beating
heart, he saw that they were clear of the jam in the Market Place,
and well down the little street that led to the bridge across which
were the farther hospitals, and various sundry Base Offices, in the
former of which he was to find Andrews. Now, therefore, he did
permit himself to light a cigarette. But not a word did he say to his
chauffeur. Now that it was behind him he had the detachment to
reflect that it was a good-humoured crowd. He had heard a gibe or
so that might have been meant for him or no, but in the main, not
being hustled, all those tens of thousands that had broken camp,
chased the police off the streets, and committed what depredations
he did not know, were peaceful enough, much too numerous and
leaderless to make any cohesive threat to an isolated officer, not of
their own unit, and therefore not an object of any special hatred, any
more than of any special devotion, just a member of another class in
the hierarchy, uninteresting to simple minds, in which he caused no
immediate commotion.
Here, on the road that ran through the woods to Paris Plage, there
were little knots of men, strolling or lying on the grass. They became
fewer and fewer. By the time he arrived at the palace, mobilized as a
hospital, for which he was bound, there remained no sign of the
tumult. Here, as on the other flank, by the Boulogne road, Medical
and Base Units functioned unmoved. But the news had been brought
by Supply and Signal services and the effect of it was most curious.
Dormer had to pass through the official routine, had to be
announced, had to have search made for young Andrews, and finally
was conducted to a bed in Ward C., on which was indicated Captain
Andrews, R.G.A. Dormer of course wanted to begin at once upon his
mission, but the other, a curly-haired boy, whose tan had given place
to a patchy white under loss of blood from a nasty shrapnel wound in
the leg, that kept on turning septic, had to be “scraped” or “looked
at,” each of these meaning the operation table, and was only now
gradually healing, would not let him.
Once away from the theatre and the knife, Andrews, like any other
healthy youngster, soon accumulated any amount of animal spirit,
lying there in bed, adored by the nursing sisters, admired by the men
orderlies. He was not going to listen to Dormer’s serious questions.
He began:
“Cheerio! Sit on the next bed, there’s no corpse in it, they’ve just
taken it away. Anyhow, it isn’t catching. Have a cigarette, do for
God’s sake. They keep on giving me the darned things, and they all
end in smoke!”
“Sorry you got knocked out.”
“Only fair. Knocked out heaps of Fritzes. I gave ’em what for, and
they gave me some back. I say, have you just come from the town?”
“I have just motored through.”
“Is it true that our chaps have broke loose?”
“There’s a certain amount of disorder, but no violence that I could
see.”
Dormer was conscious of heads being popped up in all the
surrounding beds. So that was how it took them! Of course, they
were bored stiff.
“How topping. Is it true that they’ve killed all the red-caps?”
“I didn’t see any signs of it.”
“Cleared up the remains had they? Picked the bones, or fallen in
proper burying parties.”
“I don’t think there was anything of that sort.”
“Oh, come now, first we heard they had set on a police-corporal that
had shot a Jock.”
“What did he do that for?”
“Dunno. It isn’t the close season for Jocks, anyhow. Then it was ten
police-corporals. The last rumour was that they’d stoned the A.P.M.
to death——”
And so it went on. Lunch-time came. A Doctor Major, impressed by
Dormer’s credentials, invited him into the Mess, and asked a lot of
questions about the front, the offensive, and the state of Étaples.
Dormer always liked those medical messes. It seemed so much
more worth while to mend up people’s limbs, rather than to smash
them to bits. The Doctors had their professional “side” no doubt, but
they had a right to it.
After lunch Dormer made his way back to Ward C. He was met by a
hush, and by a little procession. The Sergeant-major came first and
after him bearers with a stretcher covered by the Union Jack. The
hush in the ward was ominous. They were all so close to what had
happened. It was not like the open field where the casualty is a
casualty and the living man a different thing. Here the dead were
only different in degree, not in kind. They were worse “cases”—the
worst, that was all. So there were no high spirits after lunch. They
had gibed about Death in the morning, but Death had come and they
had ceased to gibe. In the silence, Dormer felt awkward, did not
know how to begin. When he had made up his mind that he must, he
looked up and found Andrews was asleep. So the day wore on to
tea-time, and after tea he was not wanted in the ward, and was
wanted in the Mess. He himself was not hurrying to return to any
regularly bombed hut near Poperinghe. The Commanding Officer
was even more emphatic. Étaples was not safe. Dormer let it go at
that, and got a good game of bridge.
In the morning he found young Andrews as young as ever and got
down to his job at once:
“Do you remember joining 469 T.M.B.?”
“Yes, sh’d think I do.”
“Do you remember the man you had as servant while you were with
them?”
“I do. Topping feller. Gad, I was sorry when I had to leave him
behind. Of course, I dropped him when I went to hospital. Never was
so done!”
At last!
“You couldn’t give me his name and number, I suppose?”
“I must have got a note of it somewhere. I say, what’s all this about?
Do you want to get hold of him?”
“I do. He’s wanted, over a question of damage in billets. They’ve
sent me to find him out.”
“Then I’m damned if I’ll tell you. Because he was a topping chap!”
rejoined Andrews, laughing.
“You’d better tell me, I think. The matter has gone rather high up,
and it might be awkward if I had to report that the information was
refused.”
“Lord, you aren’t going to make a Court of Inquiry affair of it, are
you?”
“It may come to that, and they’ve got hold of your name.”
“Gee whizz! I don’t like landing the chap. I may not have got any
particulars of him, now, my things have been so messed about.”
“Well, look and see!”
“All right.”
Andrews fumbled out from the night-table beside his bed, the usual
bedside collection. Letters in female handwriting, some young, some
old—from one or more sweethearts and a mother, thought Dormer.
Paper-covered novels. The sort (English) that didn’t make you think.
The sort (French) that make you feel, if you were clever at the
language. Cigarettes, bills. One or two letters from brother officers.
“Blast. It’s in my Field Note Book, in my valise, in store here. I shall
have to send to have it got out. Wait half a mo’ and I’ll get an
orderly.”
As they waited, he went on:
“What’s he wanted for? Some dam’ Frenchman going to crime him
for stealing hop-poles?”
“Something of that sort. You wouldn’t remember it, it happened
before you joined the Battery.”
“Then it jolly well wasn’t my man Watson. He’d only just come up
from Base!”
“Come, the man was of middle size and ordinary to look at, and had
been servant to an officer of the name of Fairfield, who was killed!”
“Oh, that chap. I know who you mean now. I don’t call him my
servant. I only had him for a day or two. His name was Smith, as far
as I can recollect. We were in the line, and I never got his number.
He disappeared, may have been wounded, or gone sick of course,
we were strafed to Hell, as usual. I should have got rid of him in any
case. He was a grouser!”
“Didn’t like the War?”
“I should say not.”
Hopeless, of course. When Andrews saw Dormer rise and close his
notebook, he apologized:
“Beastly sorry. Afraid I’m no good.”
“That’s all right. I don’t want to find the fellow, personally. It’s simply
my job.”
“Fair wear and tear, so to speak?”
“Yes. Good morning.”
“Don’t go—I say, don’t. You’re just getting interesting!” Heads
popped up in the surrounding beds. “Do tell us what it’s all about.”
“Merely a matter of damage in billets as I said.”
“Go on. There’s always damage in billets. You must ha’ done heaps,
haven’t you? I have. There’s something more in it than that.”
“Well, there is. Perhaps it will be a lesson to you not to go too far
with other people’s property.”
“I say, don’t get stuffy. What did the feller do?”
“He broke into a shrine.”
“I say, that’s a bit thick.”
“It was!”
“What did he do it for? Firewood?”
“No. He wanted to shelter a couple of mules!”
“Good man. Don’t blame him!”
“No!”
“But they can’t crime him for a thing like that?”
“They will if they can catch him.”
“Go on!”
“It didn’t stop at that.” Once more it seemed to Dormer that a good
lesson might do no harm to the light-headed youth that Andrews
represented, and several of whom were listening, anxiously from that
corner of the ward.
“Did G.H.Q. take it up?”
“Yes. They had to. The Mayor of the village came to make an official
inquiry and the Battery made fun of him.”
“Lumme! I bet they did!”
“They should not have done so. That made the French authorities
take it up. Goodness knows where it will end!”
“End in our fighting the French,” said some one.
Dormer felt that it was high time to put his foot down. “You may be
privileged to talk like that while you’re in hospital. But I don’t
recommend you to do so outside. You ought to have the sense to
know that we don’t want to fight anyone, we most certainly don’t
want to fight some one else after Germans. In any case, we don’t
want to do the fighting in England!”
There was a dead silence after he had spoken, and he rose, feeling
that he had impressed them. He stumped out of the ward without
another word, went to the Mess, rang and demanded his car. The
Orderly Officer would have liked to detain him, insisted on the
possible state of Étaples, but he would not hear of it. In those few
hours he had had enough and more than enough of the Base—the
place where people talked while others Did—the place where the
pulse of the War beat so feebly. He felt he would go mad if he stayed
there, without sufficient occupation for his mind. His car appeared
and he soon left the palace and the birchwoods and was rattling over
the bridge into Étaples. “Now for it!” he thought. But no policeman
warned him off this time. He soon saw why. The streets had resumed
their normal appearance. He might have known. That fancy of his,
about the Headless Man, came back to him with its true meaning.
What could they do, all those “Other Ranks,” as they were
designated? Just meander about, fight the police, perhaps. But they
had no organization, no means of rationing or transport. Of course,
they had had to go back to their respective camps with their tails
between their legs in order to get fed.
There was nothing to show for the whole business but a few panes
of broken glass and some splintered palings. By the time he got to
St. Omer and stopped for lunch, no one seemed to have heard of it.
By tea-time, he was back at Divisional H.Q. And none too soon. A
fresh attack was to be made the following day. He went straight up to
the canal bank, where Kavanagh was as busy as ever, and dropped
into his work where he had left it. There was just the same thing to
do, only more of it. A desperate race against time was going on. It
was evident enough that this most enormously costly of all
offensives must get through before November finally rendered
fighting impossible. There was still some faint chance of a week or
two of fair weather in October. Fresh Corps were massed and flung
into the struggle. Engineers, Labour Corps, anyone who could throw
a bomb or fire a rifle must do so. What had been roads of stone
pavé, had been so blown about with shell-fire that they were a
honeycomb of gaping holes, repaired with planks. More and more
searching were the barrages, denser the air fighting. Progress there
undoubtedly was, but progress enough?
Through the sleepless nights and desperate days that followed,
Dormer’s feelings toward Kavanagh were considerably modified. The
fellow still talked, but Dormer was less sorry to hear him. He even
recited, and Dormer got into the way of listening. They were now in
an “Elephant” hut. No dug-out was possible in that sector, where
eighteen inches below the surface you came to water. No tent could
be set, even had they wished for one. Their frail house was covered
with sandbags, of a sufficient thickness to keep off shrapnel, and
presumably they were too insignificant to be the object of a direct hit,
but in order to leave nothing to chance they had had the place
covered with camouflage netting. Outside lay mile after mile of
water-logged runnels that had been trenches, on the smashed and
slippery parapets of which one staggered to some bit of roadway that
was kept in repair at gigantic cost in lives and materials, guided by
the lines of wire that either side had put up with such difficulty, and
which were all now entirely useless, a mere hindrance to free
movement. But they were “in” for a long spell, and could not get
away—did not want to, they were less bombed here than farther
back. Rations reached them, that was as much as they had time to
care about. Otherwise, the night was well filled for the one with
counting off the parties that filed past into this or that attack, for the
other in picking up those signal lines that had been smashed by
shell-fire during the day, and replacing them.
As that endless procession went past him once more, Dormer felt
that he now knew of what its component parts were thinking.
Australians, Canadians, Welsh, Scotch, Irish, English, they were
thinking of nothing in particular. Like the mules that went with them,
they went on because they couldn’t stop. Food and sleep each day
was the goal. To stop would mean less food and sleep, mules and
men knew that much, without use of the reasoning faculty. It had
become an instinct. All the brilliant casuistry that had induced men to
enlist was forgotten, useless, superseded. Even English soldiers
were conscripts now, the War had won, had overcome any and every
rival consideration, had made itself paramount, had become the end
and the means as well.
A man like Dormer, accustomed to an ordered and reasoned
existence, who could have explained his every act up to August,
1914, by some good and solid reason, was as helpless as any. Stop
the War? You wanted to go back half a century and alter all the
political and business cliques in which it had been hatching. To alter
those you wanted to be able to alter the whole structure of society in
European countries, which kept those cliques in power, was obliged
to have recourse to them, to get itself governed and financed. To do
that you wanted to change Human Nature. Here Dormer’s
imagination stopped dead. He was no revolutionary. No one was
farther than he from being one. He only hated Waste. He had been
brought up and trained to business, in an atmosphere of methodical
neatness, of carefully foreseen and forestalled risks. Rather than
have recourse to revolution he would go on fighting the Bosche. It
was so much more real.
Somewhere about the point at which he reached this conclusion, he
heard, among the noise of the sporadic bombardment, Kavanagh’s
voice:
“‘Now that we’ve pledged each eye of blue
And every maiden fair and true,
And our green Island Home, to you
The Ocean’s wave adorning,
Let’s give one hip, hip, hip hurrah!
And drink e’en to the coming day,
When squadron, square,
We’ll all be there,
To meet the French in the morning!’
That’s the stuff to give the troops, Dormer!”
But Dormer, although cheered, was not going to admit it. “You’d
better go and sing it to the Seventy-Worst. They go in at dawn!”
“Good luck to them. Listen to this:
“‘May his bright laurels never fade
Who leads our fighting Fifth Brigade,
These lads so true in heart and blade,
And famed for danger scorning;
So join me in one hip hurrah!
And drink e’en to the coming day,
When squadron, square,
We’ll all be there,
To meet the French in the morning!’
How’s that for local colour. Is there a Fifth Brigade in to-morrow’s
show? They’d like that.”
“I bet they wouldn’t. Anyhow, it’s silly to repeat things against the
French.”
“Man, it’s a hundred years old.”
“Like my uncle’s brandy.”
“You and your uncle!”
“I had an uncle once who had some brandy. It was called ‘Napoleon,’
and was supposed to date from 1815. When he opened it, it was
gone!”
“There you are. That’s your materialism. But you can sing a song a
hundred years old and find it’s not gone!”
“It’s not a bad song. Only silly!”
“Well, try something older:
“‘We be
Soldiers three,
Lately come from the Low-Countree,
Pardonnez moi, je vous en prie;
We be
Soldiers three.’
That’s nearer three hundred years old. That’s what fellows used to
sing coming back from Ypres in those days!”
“You talk as if we’d always been in and out of that mangey hole.”
They both leaned on their elbows and gazed out of the tiny aperture,
under the sacking, away over the sea-like ridges of pulverized mud,
into the autumn evening. Between the rain-clouds, torn and
shredded as if by the shell-fire, watery gleams were pouring, as
though the heavens were wounded and bled. They spilled all over
the jagged stonework of that little old medieval walled town, compact
within its ramparts, for the third time in its history garrisoned by an
English army. Kavanagh told him of it, but Dormer remained
unimpressed. The history of the world that mattered began after the
battle of Waterloo, with Commerce and Banking, Railway and
Telegraph, the Education and Ballot Acts. Previous events were all
very well, as scenery for Shakespeare’s plays or Wagner’s Operas.
But otherwise, negligible. Yet the interlude did him good. He felt he
had brought Kavanagh up short, in an argument, and he went to his
night’s work with a lighter heart, and a strengthened confidence in
himself.
Of course, a few weeks later, the offensive was over, with the results
he had foreseen, and with another result he was also not alone in
foreseeing. Once back in rest, near Watten, he heard people talking
in this strain, in G. office:
“I suppose, sir, we shall go on fighting next year?”
“Um—I suppose we shall. But perhaps some arrangement may be
come to, first. There’s been a good deal of talk about Peace!”
That was the mood of Divisional Head-quarters. A growing
scepticism as to the continuance of the War. At the moment, Dormer
missed the motive at the back of it. Away from H.Q. while the
Division was in action, he had lost a good deal of ominous news.
The talk about the transference of German Divisions from one front
to another was old talk. He had heard it for years. He did not at the
moment grasp that it had now a new significance. Then something
happened that put everything else out of his head. He was not
feeling too well, though he had nothing to complain of worse than the
usual effects of damp and loss of sleep. Colonel Birchin had got
himself transferred to a better appointment, and his place was taken
by a much younger officer, glad to take it as a “step” up from a
dangerous and difficult staff-captaincy. They had been out at rest
less than a week and Dormer had assumed as a matter of course
that he would be put in charge of organized sports for the winter, as
usual. But he was only just becoming sensible of the change that
had come over H.Q. Colonel Birchin used to have a certain pre-War
regular soldier’s stiffness and want of imagination (which Dormer
had privately deplored), but he had kept the Q. office well in hand.
This new man, Vinyolles, very amicable and pleasant, and much
nearer to Dormer’s new army view of the War (he was in fact
younger than Dormer, and than most of the clerical N.C.O.’s in the
office), had nothing like the standoff power of his predecessor. Also,
the office, like everything else, had grown, half a dozen odd-job
officers were now attached, and without wearing red, sat and worked
with Dormer. So that when Dormer went to show his Football
Competition Time Table and his schedule for use of the Boxing
Stadium, he found that he had to explain how these things were
usually done. Colonel Vinyolles had no idea. Dormer ought to have
been warned. But his head was not working at its very best. He had
a temperature, he thought, and wanted to go and lie down at his
billet for a bit and take some aconite, a remedy he had carried with
him throughout the War. Colonel Vinyolles was quite nice about the
Sports, and just as Dormer was turning to go, said to him:
“Perhaps you can help me in this matter. I see your name occurs in
the correspondence!”
Of course, he might have known. It was the familiar dossier, as the
French called it, the sheaf of papers, clipped together, at the bottom
the original blue Questionnaire form that old Jerome Vanderlynden
had signed. At the top a fresh layer of official correspondence,
“Passed to you please, for necessary action.” “This does not appear
to concern this office.” “Kindly refer to A.Q.M.G.’s minute dated July
1916.” And so on. Dormer knew quite a lot of it by heart and the
remainder he could have “reconstructed” with no difficulty. The only
fresh thing that had happened was a minute from the new chief of
the French Mission enclosing a cutting from a newspaper—a French
newspaper of all conceivable rags—from which it appeared that
some deputy or other had “interpellated” a minister about the matter,
asked a question in the “House” would be the English of it, Dormer
supposed.
“What am I to tell the Mission?” Colonel Vinyolles was asking.
Dormer was not a violent man by habit, but he felt that he was
getting to his limit with this affair. He thought a moment, wanting to
say: “Tell them to go to the Devil!” but held it in reserve, and
substituted: “Tell them the matter has attention!”
“Thanks very much!”
Dormer went and rested.
The following day he felt no better and did not do much. He had the
Sports well in hand, and there was no movement of troops. The day
following that he felt queerer than ever, and jibbed at his breakfast.
He went along to see the D.A.D.M.S., always a friend of his, who put
a thermometer under his tongue, looked at it, shook it, looked at
Dormer, gave him an aspirin, and advised him to go and lie down for
a bit. On his way to his billet Dormer put his head into Q. office to tell
the Sergeant-major where he was to be found if wanted. He was
called by Colonel Vinyolles from the farther room. It was again full of
people he considered (as rank counted for less than experience) to
be his juniors. He could see something was “up.” They were all
highly amused except Vinyolles.
“I say, Dormer, I consider you let me down on this.”
“What’s the trouble?”
“Trouble! I’ve got a nice chit back, in reply to my saying ‘the matter
has attention.’ They say that any further delay is ‘inadmissible’ and
that they will be obliged to carry the matter higher.”
“Let ’em!”
“Oh, that won’t do at all. The General has seen this, and he wants to
know what you mean by it.”
“He ought to know by this time!”
“Captain Dormer!”
Of course he was wrong, but he felt rotten. It wasn’t Vinyolles’ fault.
He pulled himself together.
“Sorry, sir. I mean that the case has been going on for nearly two
years, and has certainly not been neglected. I think every one who
counts is familiar with it.”
He meant it for a snub for some of those chaps who were sitting
there grinning. He saw his mistake in a moment. Vinyolles was as
new as any of them, and naturally replied: “I’m afraid I have no
knowledge of it. Perhaps you will enlighten me?”
“It must have been June, 1916, when we first received the claim. The
late A.P.M., Major Stevenage, took it up as a matter of discipline, but
on investigation considered that it was rather a case for
compensation, as damage in billets. The French Mission insisted
that an arrest must be made, and I have made every possible effort
to trace the soldier responsible. But formations change so quickly,
during offensives especially, that it is impossible.”
“I see. What exactly did he do, to cause such a rumpus?”
At the prospect of having to retell the whole story, Dormer got an
impression that something was after him, exactly like the feeling of
trying to get cover in a barrage, and wondering which moment would
be the last. He put his hand to his head and found some one had
pushed a chair against his knees. He sat down vaguely conscious of
the D.A.D.M.S. standing near by.
“An officer of 469 T.M.B. was wounded and his servant was given
two mules, sick or wounded, to lead. He got to the billet mentioned
and seems to have taken a dislike to the horse-lines. He found one
of those little memorial chapels that you often see, in the corner of
the pasture, and knocked in the front of it to shelter the beasts. The
farmer didn’t like it and sent for the Mayor to make a procès-verbal.
By the time the Mayor got there, the Battery was on the move again.
It was about the time of one of those awkward little shows the
Bosche put up to contain us during Verdun. The Battery had been
badly knocked about, and the men were excited and made some
sort of a scene! The Mayor told his Deputy and his Deputy told some
one at French G.H.Q. It all keeps going round in my head. I don’t
want to find the chap who did it. He’s no worse than you or I. He was
just making the best of the War, and I don’t blame him. I blame it.
You might as well crime the whole British Army.”
What had he said? He fancied he had given the facts concisely, but
was not sure of himself, his head felt so funny, and he was aware
that people—he could no longer be sure who they were—Q. office
seemed crowded—were tittering!—Some one else was talking now,
but he was not interested. He rested his head on his hand and heard
Vinyolles: “Well, Dormer, you go along to your billet, and we’ll see
what can be done!”
He got up and walked out. The D.A.D.M.S. was at his elbow, saying
to him:
“Get into this ambulance, I’ll run you across!” but he never got to his
billet. He got into a train. He did not take much notice, but refused
the stuff they wanted him to eat. After that he must have gone to
sleep, but woke up, under a starlit sky, with an unmistakable smell of
the sea. They were lifting him under a canvas roof. Now, from the
motion, he perceived he was at sea, but it did not seem greatly to
matter. He was out of it, he had cut the whole disgusting show. He
had done his bit, now let some one else take a turn.

Dormer had not been home on leave since early spring, and the
leave that he got for convalescence gave him not only some idea of
the vast changes going on in England, while he, in France, had been
engaged in the same old War, but a notion of changes that had gone
on in that old War without his having perceived them. He was let
loose from Hospital just before Christmas, at that unfortunate period
when the public at home were still feeling the reaction from the Bell-
ringing of Cambrai, were just learning the lengths to which the
collapse of Russia had gone and were to be confronted with the
probable repercussion of that collapse upon the prospects of the
campaign in the West. There was no escaping these conclusions
because his own home circumstances had so changed as to throw
him back completely on himself. His father having died while he was
in France, his mother had taken a post under one of the semi-official
War organizations that abounded. The old home in which he had
grown up had been dispersed, and he found his only near relative in
his native town was his sister, a teacher by profession, who had
moved the remnants of the old furniture and his and her own small
belongings to a new house in one of the high, healthy suburbs that
surrounded the old town. She was, however, busy all day, and he fell
into the habit, so natural to anyone who has lived in a Mess for
years, of dropping in at one of the better-class bars, before lunch, for
an apéritif, and a glance at the papers. Here he would also pickup
some one for a round of golf, which would keep him employed until
tea-time, for he could not rid himself of the War-time habit of looking
upon each day as something to be got through somehow, in the
hopes that the morrow might be better.
These ante-prandial excursions were by far the closest contact he
had had with anything like a normal, representative selection of his
fellow-countrymen, since they and he had become so vitally altered
from the easy-going, sport-loving England of pre-War, and he had to
readjust his conception considerably. He soon grasped that there
was a lot of money being made, and a lot of khaki being worn as a
cover for that process. There was plenty of energy, a good deal of
fairly stubborn intention to go on and win, but a clear enough
understanding that the War was not going to be won in the trenches.
And when he had got over some little spite at this, his level habit of
mind obliged him to confess that there was a good deal in it. There
were many signs that those who held that view were right.
Sipping his drink, smoking and keeping his nose carefully in his
newspaper, in those bars lighted by electric light, in the middle of the
dark Christmas days, he listened and reflected. The offensives he
had seen? How had they all ended? How did he say himself they
always must end? Exactly as these chaps had made up their minds!
Would he not see if there did not remain some relative who could get
him one of these jobs at home, connected with supplying some one
else with munitions? No, he would not. He understood and agreed
with the point of view, but some very old loyalty in him would keep
him in France, close up to the guns, that was the place for him. He
had no illusions as to that to which he was returning. He knew that
he had never been appointed to Divisional Staff, had merely been
attached. There was no “establishment” for him, and directly he had
been sent down as sick, his place had been filled, some one else
was doing “head housemaid” as he had been called, to young
Vinyolles, and he, Dormer, would go shortly to the depôt of his
regiment, from thence to reinforcement camp, and thus would be
posted to any odd battalion that happened to want him. The prospect
did not worry him so much as might have been supposed. He felt
himself pretty adept at wangling his way along, and scrounging what
he wanted, having had a fine first-hand experience of how the
machinery worked. He did not want to go into the next offensive, it
was true, but neither did he want the sort of job he had had, and
even less did he want to be at Base, or in England. Boredom he
feared almost as much as physical danger. Accustomed to having
his day well filled, if he must go to War he wanted to be doing
something, not nothing, which was apparently a soldier’s usual
occupation. But he did not feel his participation in the next offensive
very imminent. He had heard them all talking about “Not fighting any
more,” and now here was Russia out of it and America not yet in,
and Peace might be patched up.
The most striking thing therefore that he learned was this new idea
of the Bosche taking the initiative, and attacking again. A new army
officer, his knowledge of the Western Front dated from Loos, and
was of allied offensives only. He had never seen the earlier battles of
Ypres, the retreat from Mons was just so much history to him. When
he heard heated arguments as to which particular point the Bosche
would select for their offensive, in France, or (so nervous were these
people at home) in England even, he was astonished, and then
incredulous. The level balance of his mind saved him. He had no
superfluous imagination. He had never seen a German offensive,
didn’t want to, and therefore didn’t think he would. As usual, the bar-
parlour oracles knew all about it, gave chapter and verse, could tick
off on their fingers how many German Divisions could be spared
from the Eastern Front. He had heard it all before. He remembered
how nearly the cavalry got through after Vimy, how Moorslede Ridge
was to give us command of the country up to Courtrai, how Palestine
or Mespot were to open an offensive right in the Bosche rear, not to
mention all the things these Russians had always been said to be
going to do. This might be another of what the French so well called
“Canards”—Wild Ducks. He would wait and see.
He was impressed in a different way by the accounts that now began
to filter through, of what had been happening in Russia. Officers
shot, and regiments giving their own views on the campaign. That
was what happened when the Headless Man got loose! No doubt the
Russians, from all he had heard, had suffered most, so far as
individual human suffering went. And then, Russians were, to him,
one of these over-brainy people. Had anyone acquainted with his
ruminations taxed him to say if English people were under-brainy, he
would have said no, not necessarily, but brainy in a different way.
Left to himself he felt that all the opinions he had ever formed of the
Russians were justified. Look at their Music. Some of it was pretty
good, he admitted, but it was—awkward—beyond the reach of
amateurs, in the main. This appeared to him, quite sincerely, to be a