THE CRADLE HIGH SCHOOL BENIN

WEEK ONE

YEAR 9

GEOGRAPHY

CHINA; DEVELOPMENT

Objectives;

-Define development

-List the two aspects of development

-State the location of China Development in China [ location of China)

Development is a process that creates growth, brings in progress and positive

change. Development is a healthy sign. Since China began to open up and
reform its economy in 1978, GDP growth has averaged over 9 percent a year,
and more than 800 million people have lifted themselves out of poverty. There
have also been significant improvements in access to health, education, and
other services over the same period.

China is now an upper-middle-income country. Although China has eradicated

extreme poverty, a significant number of people remain vulnerable, with
incomes below a threshold more typically used to define poverty in upper-mid-
dle income countries.

China’s high growth based on investment, low-cost manufacturing and exports

has largely reached its limits and has led to economic, social, and environmental
imbalances. Reducing these imbalances requires shifts in the structure of the
economy from manufacturing to high value services, from investment to
consumption, and from high to low carbon intensity.

Over the past few years, growth has moderated in the face of structural
constraints, including declining labor force growth, diminishing returns to
investment, and slowing productivity growth. The challenge going forward is to
find new drivers of growth while addressing the social and environmental
legacies of China’s previous development path.

Aspects of development: The two aspects of development are :

- Economic growth or increase in people's income

- Social progress includes literacy, health and the provision of public services.

China has experienced significant economic development and growth over the
past few decades. This development has been characterized by rapid
industrialization, urbanization, and an expansion of its infrastructure. China has
become the world's second-largest economy and a major player in global trade
and technology.

Key factors contributing to China's development include its market reforms

initiated in the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping, which shifted the country from
a centrally planned economy to a socialist market economy. This change
encouraged foreign investment and trade, leading to increased exports and
economic growth. China's manufacturing sector has played a crucial role in its
development, becoming the "world's factory" with a vast production capacity in
various industries.

The country has also made significant investments in research and

development, leading to advancements in technology and innovation. However,
China's development has come with challenges, such as income inequality,
environmental pollution, and human rights concerns. The government has
implemented various policies to address these issues while maintaining its
economic momentum. As of my last knowledge update in September 2021,
China's development continued to be a dynamic and evolving process, and it is
advisable to consult more recent sources for the latest developments and
trends.

LOCATION OF CHINA
 Where is China Located?

The given China location map shows that China is located in the eastern part of
Asia. China map also shows that the huge territory of People's Republic of China
or simply China shares its international boundaries with several countries
including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan to the
west; India, Nepal, and Bhutan to the southwest; Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam
to the south; North Korea to the southeast, Mongolia to the north; Russia to the
northeast and northwest respectively. Besides, the water that lie in the eastern
side are Yellow sea and East China sea.
 China is the most populous country of the world and third largest country in
terms of area. China constituted of 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and
four directly administered municipalities. Besides, country has two autonomous
special administrative regions (SARs) i.e. Hong Kong and Macau.

The government type of China is Communist. But in the recent years, the several
liberal policies sometimes keep it in between the Communist and Socialist State.
China is one among the five permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council. Besides, it is also a member of the WTO, BRIC, APEC, Shanghai
Cooperation Organization, and G-20. Above all, China is a recognized nuclear
weapons State, which has the world's largest standing army along with the
second- largest defense budget.

The geographic area of the huge country is quite diverse, ranging from forest,
steppe grassland, to deserts (the Gobi and Taklamakan). Besides, the terrain in
the west is rugged and elevated; the Himalayas and the Tian Shan mountain
ranges make China's natural boundaries with India, Nepal and Central Asia.

Immediately after adopting the market-based economic policy in the year 1978,
China has become one of the world's fastest growing economy. At present,
China's economy stands second only after USA in terms of Purchasing Power
Parity as well as GDP. Moreover, China is very rich in terms of economic
resources and agricultural produce.
 WEEK TWO AND THREE

Development; China

Key Aspects to development in China

Factors Explaining the Rapid Economic Growth in China

China’s rapid path to economic development is well documented and even

though growth rates appear to be slowing, there is no doubt as to the pivotal
role China’s economy is playing in the global economy.

China initially pursued an export-oriented path to industrialization – similar to

the Asian Tigers before them – but has begun to diversify into other sectors of
the economy in the last ten years. It has done this with an unwavering
determination to accelerate growth rates and expand its economic reach. As
geographers, we need to understand the factors responsible for China’s
economic success.

Labor supply
There is a plentiful supply of workers in China with a steady stream of rural-
urban migrants in search of work. This is due to the mechanization of
agriculture leading to unemployment and under-employment in rural areas and
concurrent growth in industrial work in urban areas. It is estimated that 500,000
million people will leave the Chinese countryside in search of work over the
next two decades. Voluntary migration of the rural population has been
accompanied by aggressive re-planning schemes in which rural villages are
demolished and new manufacturing settlements built at rapid pace for former
agricultural families to move in to.

Wages and unemployment

The unemployment rate has fallen in recent years to just over 4%, but high rates
in the past drove down wages. If workers demand higher wages, there are many
more who will take the jobs available. Wages in other East Asian countries earn
up to 10 times more than Chinese workers. This has increased profit margins
and attracted inward FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) as American, European
and Japanese companies open factories under license in China.

Female participation in the workforce

China’s workforce is characterized by a higher than average female

participation in manufacturing industry. Western cultural analyses of gender
divisions in the workforce have little relevance in Chinese economic growth.
This, along with the One-Child Policy which has meant women were involved in
child-raising for a much shorter period than in many other countries, has made
a much larger workforce available.

Political system

The non-democratic and authoritarian political regime in China has meant that
it has been possible to embrace western-style free market economics while
maintaining control over the political system. In many ways, the planned
economy of China (where the state controls economic activity rather than
private business) has accelerated economic growth because the government has
controlled all decision-making. Since Mao in 1953, the government has followed
a series of five years Plans (or Guidelines, as they are now called, to reflect
China’s transition towards a ‘socialist market economy’) which have enabled the
government to enact any reforms it feels is necessary. The country is now in its
12th Five Year Plan (2011-2016) and policies include spending 2.2% of GDP on
R&D (Research and Development) and moving coastal regions from being ‘the
world’s factory’ to being hubs of R&D, top-end specialist manufacturing and
services.

Strong leadership

Chinese politicians are said to feel a greater responsibility to the nation than to
themselves. Strong leadership from the head of state has been a major factor
contributing to economic success.

Free market economics

China first began moving away from a centrally planned economy towards a
market-oriented system in 1978. Deng Xiaoping was Mao’s successor and he
sought to bring an end to China’s relative economic isolation.

Export-led growth

This is the strategy which China initially pursued. The strategy is beginning to
become phased out in favor of Import Substitution Industrialization by which
consumer products imported for China’s growing middle-class are increasingly
being made in China, such as cars, domestic white goods and house- and office-
furniture.

Special Economic Zones and FDI

Foreign investment was encouraged in the initial phase of economic growth.

They tended to locate in one of 6 SEZs (Special Economic Zones) or 14 Open
Cities in which a relaxation of regulation and government control created a
more attractive business environment. These are designated zones where TNCs
(Trans National Corporations) are offered incentives such as reduced tax rates to
set up manufacturing operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC, EUPA, which
manufactures coffee machines in Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000
workers.

Private enterprise

For many years all manufacturing in China was state owned and operated. This
has gradually been relaxed as the economy has been restructured and now up
to 50% of businesses are privately owned.

Energy supply

Since the 1990s China has been developing its energy base, with new
hydroelectric and nuclear power plants. China is also embarking upon a massive
coal-fired power-station opening program based on its own substantial coal
reserves plus imports from Australia and Indonesia. However, serious urban air
pollution together with a commitment to limiting carbon emissions after 2030 is
leading to a less rigorous expansion of this electricity source.

Investment in infrastructure

The government has built many new roads, improved the rail system and made
China’s major rivers navigable all year round. China has five of the ten largest
container ports in the world (including Shanghai and Shenzhen). Urbanization
has also been encouraged. with a robust urban-construction program.

Economic diversification

China has recently started to diversify into Research and Development,

specialist manufacturing and hi-tech industry. It is investing labor and capital in
innovation so that it can sustain its economic growth and reduce the risk
involved in having a narrow economic base.

Education

Literacy levels of China have risen dramatically over the past 20 years and now
stand at 95%. This has underpinned the economic development of the country.
As a result, China has both large numbers of unskilled workers and a growing
number of highly skilled workers. For instance, China trains 600,000 new
engineers every year.

‘Going global’

China has started to globalize economically by buying up foreign companies in

North America and Europe particularly. In fact, in 2010 China invested $56bn in
in outward Foreign Direct Investment. With inward FDI averaging some $60bn
per year, China had, by 2015, converted from a net recipient to a net investor in
FDI, a marker of its economic maturity in many respects.

Location

China’s geographical location has geopolitical significance because of its

proximity to consumer markets and trading partners. South Korea, Taiwan,
Japan and Hong Kong are on major trade routes. It is no coincidence that the
first SEZs were concentrated on the east coast facing Taiwan and the Pacific,
particularly around Hong Kong.

Raw materials

China has a great wealth of natural resources, having vast reserves of coal, oil
and natural gas. These are being used to fuel the industrial development of the
country. However, so large is the country’s requirement for raw materials to
feed its manufacturing industries, that it is a major importer of oil, gas, coal,
iron-ore, copper and other key commodities in world trade.

Confucian values

State and society are emphasized above the individual. There is a long history of
submitting personal ambition to that of the community and state through
Confucianism. The degree of control and authoritarian structures are more
accepted in China than in most western cultures with their emphasis on
individualism.

Population growth
Rapid population growth in China, despite the One Child Policy, has resulted in
very large numbers in the economically active population, leading to rapid
urbanization. This has fueled further industrialization, allowing for further
population growth.

As geographers, we should categorize these factors (Social, Economic,

Environmental, Political), rank them, draw links between them and consider the
players and stakeholders involved. We will then have a detailed understanding
of the factors which have enabled China to pursue an accelerated path to
economic development.
 WEEK 4-6

ECOSYSTEM; Can the Eartg cope?

Objectives;

-Define the ecosystem

-Explain the challenges faced by the earth and its ecosystem

--State ways of overcoming these challenges.

ECOSYSTEM

Things around us is known as Environment. It consists of living component also

known as biotic component and non-living component also known as Abiotic
Component
The interaction between abiotic and biotic components is defined as ecosystem.
It is a self sustaining and functional unit of biosphere. The term ecosystem was
coined by Sir Arthur Tansley (OLYMPIAD).

Ecosystem includes all the living things {plants ,animals and organisms} in a
given area interacting with each other and with their non-living environments
{weather ,earth, sun ,soil, climate, atmosphere in an ecosystem ,each
organism has its own niche or role to play.

Ecosystem are the foundation of the biosphere and they determine the health
of the entire earth system.

Types of Ecosystem

There are two types of ecosystem-

1. natural ecosystem and

2. artificial ecosystem.

Natural ecosystem; The ecosystem present naturally is known as Natural

Ecosystem. Example of Natural Ecosystem are forests, grasslands, deserts,
ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries, sea.

Artificial ecosystem; The ecosystem which is man-made is known as Artificial

Ecosystem. For
example Gardens,
Aquariums and Agro-
ecosystem which is
the largest manmade
ecosystem.

Components of
ecosystem
Fig.1. Components of ecosystem

Abiotic Factors Include - Climatic factors such as rain, temperature, wind etc.
Another abiotic factor is edaphic factors such as soil, pH, minerals etc.

Biotic Factors Include-

Producers which can make their own food, such as plants, blue green algae etc.

Consumers feed on producers. Such as herbivores. In consumers there are-

primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers etc.

Carnivores are flesh eating animals.

Omnivores consume both plants and animals.

Parasites live inside and depend upon living host.

Saprophytes feed on dead remains of plants and animals.

Food Chain is defined as series of organisms in order in which organism feeds on

another organism. There are various steps in food chain in which energy is
transferred, each level is known as trophic level. Energy is always transferred
unidirectionally.

Characteristics of food chain

There is a unidirectional flow of energy from producers to consumers.

There are generally 3 to 4 trophic levels.

It is always straight

Organism can occupy different trophic levels in different food chain.

A 10 percent law is followed in energy transfer which was given by Raymond

Lindeman. This law states that “only 10 percent of energy is transferred from
one trophic level to another trophic level”. The remaining 90 percent will be
used by the present trophic level in different processes. Therefore. there are
usually 3-4 trophic levels in a food chain.

Energy transfer in trophic level

Food web

Interconnection of food chain is known as Food Web. It shows how food chain
are interdependent.
Characteristic of Food Web

Food webs are never straight as they are formed by interlinking of food chains.

Food web provides alternative pathways of food availability. If a particular

species is destroyed, the predator can feed on an alternative species.

Food webs increase ecosystem stability.

Ecological Pyramids
Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation to show biomass or bio
productivity. There are different ecological pyramids such as pyramid of
biomass, pyramid of number and pyramid of energy. Pyramid of number
indicates number of individuals at different trophic levels. Pyramid of biomass
indicates biomass of the members of the food chain present at different trophic
levels. Pyramid of energy indicates energy at different trophic levels.

Impact of Human Activities

Biological Magnification

The concentration of harmful substances increases with every trophic level. This
is known as Biomagnification. Addition of pesticides in one trophic level
increases the concentration of pesticides in other trophic level.
 Ozone layer

High UV radiation break down oxygen into oxygen atoms. These oxygen atoms
when combine with oxygen, they form ozone.

Depletion of Ozone Layer

The thickness of the ozone layer over Antarctica was found to be decreased in
the year 1985. This is defined as ozone depletion. This is due to excessive use of
chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerators, ACs, aerosols, etc. Thinning of ozone would
allow penetration of Ultraviolet rays into earth’s atmosphere causing blindness,
skin cancers and mutations.

In 1987 United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) signed an agreement to

limit the usage of CFCS. This is known as Montreal Protocol.

Consequences of Ozone Depletion

Exposure of UV rays causes skin cancer. UV-rays damage the eyes also. It affects
humans, plants as well as animals.

Garbage Disposal
Waste materials are known as garbage. There are two types garbage -
Biodegradable Garbage and Non-biodegradable Garbage.

Garbage that can be completely decomposed by the microorganism are called

Biodegradable Garbage., such as fruit and vegetable peel, sewage.

Substances which cannot be decomposed through microorganisms are known as

Non-biodegradable Garbage, For Example, Plastic, Glass, Pesticide, Metals,
Radioactive Elements etc.

Methods of Waste Management

Waste disposal is a very important part of day - to day life. There are different
methods of waste disposal management- sewage treatment plant, biogas plant,
land fillings, recycling, incineration, composting and reuse.

CHALLENGES FACED BY THE EARTH AND ITS ECOSYSTEM

Our environment faces several problems, and many of these seem to be

worsening with time, bringing us into a time of a true environmental crisis. It is
therefore becoming increasingly important to raise awareness of the existence
of these issues, as well as what can be done to reduce their negative impact.
Some of the key issues are:

1) Pollution

Pollution of the air, water and soil caused by toxins such as plastics, heavy
metals and nitrates, caused by factors such as toxins and gases released by
factories, combustion of fossil fuels, acid rain, oil spill and industrial waste.

2) Global warming

The emission of greenhouse gases due to human activity causes global warming,
which in turn causes an increase in temperature that then leads to rising sea
levels, melting of polar ice caps, flash floods and desertification.

3) Overpopulation
We are facing a shortage of resources such as food, water and fuel to sustain
the rising global population, particularly in developing countries. Intensive
agriculture attempting to lessen the problem actually leads to more damage
through the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.

4) Waste disposal

An excessive amount of waste is produced and dumped in the oceans. Nuclear

waste is particularly dangerous, as well as plastics and electronic waste.

5) Ocean acidification

The increase in the production of carbon dioxide by humans causes the oceans’
acidity to rise, which has a negative impact on marine life.

6) Loss of biodiversity

Species and habitats are becoming extinct due to human activity. This causes an
imbalance in natural processes like pollination and poses a threat to ecosystems
– coral reef destruction is particularly affected.

7) Deforestation

Loss of trees in order to make space for residential, industrial or commercial

projects means that less oxygen is produced, and temperature and rainfall are
affected.

8) Ozone layer depletion

Pollution caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the air creates a hole in the

ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful UV radiation.

9) Acid rain

Pollutants in the atmosphere such as sulphur- dioxide and nitrogen oxides

cause acid rain, which has negative consequences for humans, wildlife and
aquatic species.

10) Public health issues

Lack of clean water is one of the leading environmental problems currently.
Pollutants in the air also cause issues such as respiratory disease and
cardiovascular disease.

WAYS OF OVERCOMING CHALLENGES FACED BY THE EARTH ECOSYSTEM

Here are 5 simple ways you can help the environment and spark others to
become more environmentally aware.

1. Replace disposable items with reusable

Anything you use and throw away can potentially spend centuries in a landfill.
See below for simple adjustments you can make to decrease the amounts of
disposable items in your daily life.

 Carry your own reusable cup or water bottle

 Use airtight, reusable food containers instead of sandwich bags and

plastic wrap

 Pack a waste-free lunch: carry your utensils, cloth napkin, and containers
in a reusable lunch bag

 Bring your own bags to the grocery store

 Consider buying bulk containers of your preferred beverages and refilling

a reusable bottle, instead of buying individually packaged drinks

 Use rechargeable batteries

2. Pass on paper

We are living in the Digital Era, but think about all the paper products you use in
your daily life. These actions still align with reusing and repurposing, though
may take a little more time for transition.

 Join a library instead of buying books or buy a Kindle

 Print as little as possible; and if you must, print on both sides

  Wrap gifts in fabric and tie with ribbon; both are reusable and prettier
than paper and sticky-tape

 Stop using paper towels and incorporate washable cloths

 Look at labels to make sure you only use FSC-certified wood and paper
products

 Cut out products made by palm oil company that contribute to

deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia

3. Conserve water & electricity

The tips you see below will seem like no-brainers; however, it may take to
become more aware of your unconscious habits.

 Turn the sink water off when brushing your teeth

 Water the lawn in the morning or evening; cooler air causes less
evaporation

 Switch off anything that uses electricity when not in use (lights,
televisions, computers, printers, etc.)

 Unplug devices when possible; even when an appliance is turned off, it

may still use power

 Remove chemicals inside of the house; research companies that use

plant-derived ingredients for their household cleaning products

 Remove chemicals outside of the house; use eco-friendly pesticides and

herbicides that won’t contaminate groundwater

 Consider signing up for a renewable energy producer that uses 100%

renewable energy to power homes

4. Support local & environmentally friendly

Here are a few reasons to start buying local:

  Reduces plastic and paper waste

 Boosts cost-efficiency

 Enables bulk purchasing

 Helps support your neighbour

 Retains farmland within the community

 Builds up the local economy

 Uses fewer chemicals for both for growing and transporting

5. Recycle (& then recycle properly)

Implementing recycling habits into your daily life is one of the most effective
ways to help lessen landfill waste, conserve natural resources, save habitats,
reduce pollution, cut down on energy consumption, and slow down global
warming.

 Confirm you are using the proper separation containers for your
household per the local recycling services

 Remember to make sure your trash bags are recycled or biodegradable,

and always cut up the plastic rings from packs of beer or soda to prevent
wildlife from getting caught

 Educate yourself about what can and cannot be recycled, as not all plastic
and cardboard is acceptable (like pizza boxes for example, due to the
grease).

 Learn how to identify and dispose of hazardous waste properly

Taking the time to simply read this article for ways to solve environmental
problems is a step forward to becoming more aware of the needs of your
environment. You are now taking action, and every change–big or small–will
create an impact.
If you’re already taking action on the suggestions above, see below for
additional tips and ideas:

 Add these simple lists to your digital checklist and pick one at a time to
tackle. After a week or so, check it off the list and move on to the next.
Remember to pat yourself on the back! You just created a change in your
lifestyle!

 Find a comfortable compromise for your life. Purchase a pack of

affordable, reusable rags and give them a specific purpose. For example,
perhaps you always clean your countertops with paper towels; try wiping
them down with cloth towels instead.

 Remember to highlight your successes and share them with others!

#savetheplanet

 Calculate your environmental footprint to see how much impact just one
person has on the world’s resources and adjust accordingly.
 WEEK 7-8

ECOSYSTEM; POPULATION AND RESOURCES

Objectives;

-Explain the relationship between the ecosystem, population and resources.

Ecology studies the relationships between organisms and their environment,

including abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors. Here, we discuss how
organisms interact with their own species define keywords in ecology, such
as populations and niches.

What is a population?

We probably think about the human population when we hear the word
population. However, we can also have populations of dogs, cats, wolves -
basically any species. This is because a population is defined as all the individual
organisms found in a given habitat of one species.

Population: all the individual organisms found in a given habitat of one species.

What is a community?

A community is made up of all the various populations in a habitat. Species do

not exist on their own; they interact with other species living in the same area
to form communities.

Community: all the living populations in a given area.

A rainforest community might include several species of trees and shrubs

growing at different heights and occupying different layers of the rainforest. It
would also include the many birds, mammals, and insects who feed on these
plants, as well as worms, fungi and bacteria that break down waste in the
ecosystem.

What is an ecosystem?
So, what is an ecosystem? An ecosystem includes the community of living
organisms in a habitat and all the non-living (abiotic) components, such
as water, soil and temperature. Ecosystems vary in size and scale. Some, such as
ocean ecosystems, are extremely vast, while others, like pond ecosystems, are
relatively small. Even humans can be considered ecosystems, as they are home
to many complex interacting communities of microorganisms.

Ecosystem: the collection of all communities in a habitat, together with the

abiotic components.

In a rainforest ecosystem, the plant community produces energy from the sun
which is then consumed by the other organisms, and waste is recycled by other
organisms in the system as well. In other words, the rainforest is a relatively
self-sustaining unit. Little energy is exchanged between the rainforest and other
ecosystems. However, no ecosystem is completely self-contained. For instance,
many birds migrate between distant habitats at certain times of the year, thus
linking multiple ecosystems.

Ecosystems are dynamic and this is because the biotic and abiotic components
are constantly in flux. Biotic factors, such as competition, and abiotic factors,
such as temperature, can change at any time. These changes can happen at
different rates, with some occurring very quickly (e.g., a decrease in population
size due to the spread of a disease) and others very slowly (e.g. rocks
undergoing erosion over time).

Competition: where two organisms strive to obtain limited resource supplies.

Intraspecific competition occurs between individuals of the same species
whereas interspecific competition occurs between individuals of different
species.

Two major processes are very important to consider within an ecosystem. This
includes the flow of energy and the flow of nutrients.
Flow of energy

First, there is a constant flow of energy between the organisms in the

ecosystem, which occurs through feeding. Producers, such as plants, are eaten
by primary consumers, who are then eaten by secondary consumers, who are
eaten by tertiary consumers. When organisms die, they are decomposed and
recycled.

Producers: organisms that generate organic molecules, usually by

photosynthesis.

Consumers eat other organisms to obtain their energy, including primary,

secondary and tertiary consumers.

Flow of nutrients

The second important process is the constant flow of nutrients within the
ecosystem. Nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and important
molecules such as water are recycled within the ecosystem.
Carbon flows within the ecosystem in a process known as the carbon cycle.
Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from the respiration of
organisms, as well as emissions from factories, cities, and homes. It is then
taken up by primary producers, who convert it into glucose during
photosynthesis. Animals consume these plants and pass the energy along the
food chain; they also continue to respire and release carbon as waste.
Eventually, plants and animals die and decompose, and the carbon in their
bodies returns to the atmosphere or is used as fuel.

What is a habitat?

Organisms live in habitats, which are areas characterised by their physical

conditions and occupants. An ecosystem is composed of several habitats.

A rainforest ecosystem includes the canopy habitat, which might be home to

some species of birds, as well as the forest floor habitat, which is home to fungi
and small mammals. Habitats also house smaller units called microhabitats,
which, as their name suggests, are home to organisms on an even smaller scale,
such as worms and bacteria.

What is a niche?

In ecology, a niche describes the way that an organism fits into its environment.
In other words, a niche is where the organism lives, what it does there, and how
it interacts with others and its environment. It describes the organism’s role in
the ecosystem.

According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species occupy the

same niche in the same habitat. This is the proposition that two species that use
the same limited resource cannot coexist at constant population levels, as even
the slightest advantage of one species over another will allow the dominant
species to outcompete the other to the point of extinction or exclusion. In other
words, complete competitors cannot coexist.

Population in Ecosystems - Key takeaways

 A population is defined as all the organisms of a particular species in a

given habitat. A community is defined as all of the population that live
together in a particular place at the same time.

 A community is defined as all of the populations that live together in a

particular place at the same time.

 The two major processes to consider in an ecosystem are the constant

flow of energy between organisms and the constant flow of nutrients in
the ecosystem.

 A niche describes the way that an organism fits into its environment. Due
to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species can occupy the
same niche.
 WEEK 9-10

FROZEN LANDSCAPE

Objectives;

-Explain the meaning of frozen landscape

-Explain glacier and its causes

-State the preventive measures

The freezing of land is primarily caused by a drop in temperature that leads to

the solidification of water in the ground. Here are some key factors that
contribute to land freezing:

1. Low Temperatures: When the air temperature drops below the freezing point
of water (0°C or 32°F), any moisture in the ground, such as groundwater, soil
moisture, or surface water, can freeze.

2. Seasonal Changes: In many regions, land freezes during the winter months
when temperatures are consistently below freezing. This seasonal freeze and
thaw cycle can affect the top layer of soil and bodies of water.
3. Latitude and Altitude: Land is more likely to freeze at higher latitudes and
altitudes because these areas generally experience colder temperatures year-
round.

4. Snow Cover: A layer of snow on the ground can insulate the land beneath it,
preventing it from freezing as deeply as it would without snow cover.

5. Duration of Cold Weather: The longer the period of cold weather, the deeper
the ground can freeze. Prolonged cold spells can lead to the freezing of the
ground to significant depths.

6. Type of Soil: Different types of soil have varying freezing points and conduct
heat differently. Sandy soils, for example, freeze more easily than clay soils.

7. Bodies of Water: Lakes, rivers, and ponds can freeze when temperatures are
consistently below freezing. The thickness of the ice depends on temperature
and the size and depth of the water body.

8. Permafrost: In polar regions and some high-latitude areas, there is a layer of

permanently frozen ground called permafrost. This occurs when the ground
remains below freezing for an extended period and can extend deep
underground.

Overall, freezing of the land is a natural process that occurs in cold climates
when the environmental conditions support the solidification of water in
various forms.

Permafrost is primarily caused by a combination of factors related to climate

and geology:

1. Cold Climate: Permafrost forms in regions with extremely cold temperatures,

typically where the mean annual air temperature is below freezing (0°C or 32°F).

2. Insulation: Snow and vegetation act as insulating layers, preventing heat from
the sun or the Earth's interior from reaching the ground. This insulation helps
maintain the freezing temperatures necessary for permafrost.
3. Time: Permafrost develops over long periods, often thousands of years, as the
ground gradually cools and freezes.

Glaciers are large masses of ice that form from the accumulation and
compaction of snow over long periods of time. They have several significant
meanings and effects on the environment and Earth's climate:

1. Climate Indicator: Glaciers are sensitive indicators of climate change. Their

size and movement are influenced by temperature and precipitation patterns. A
shrinking glacier can signal a warming climate.

2. Freshwater Reservoirs: Glaciers store a substantial amount of freshwater in

the form of ice. As they melt, they release freshwater into rivers and lakes,
providing a crucial water source for communities downstream.

3. Sea Level Impact: When glaciers melt, they contribute to rising sea levels. This
can lead to coastal erosion, increased flooding, and the displacement of coastal
communities.

4. Erosion and Landform Creation: Glaciers shape the landscape through

processes like abrasion and plucking. They can carve valleys, fjords, and other
distinctive landforms.

5. Habitat and Biodiversity: Glacial environments support unique ecosystems

adapted to extreme cold. These ecosystems are home to various species of
plants and animals.

6. Tourism and Recreation: Many glaciers attract tourists and outdoor

enthusiasts for activities like skiing, hiking, and glacier exploration. This can
have economic benefits for local communities.

7. Hydropower: Some regions harness the meltwater from glaciers to generate

hydropower, contributing to their energy supply.

8. Agriculture and Irrigation: In some areas, glacier meltwater is used for

irrigation, allowing agriculture to thrive in regions with limited rainfall.
9. Global Climate Regulation: Glaciers play a role in regulating the Earth's
climate by reflecting sunlight (albedo effect) and influencing ocean circulation
patterns.

However, it's important to note that many glaciers are currently experiencing
rapid retreat due to global warming, which has far-reaching consequences,
including disruptions to ecosystems, water resources, and sea levels.
Understanding these effects is crucial for addressing climate change and its
impacts.

Geology: Geological factors, such as the type of soil or sediment and the
presence of groundwater, can influence the formation and persistence of
permafrost.

These factors work together to create the conditions for permafrost to exist,
and any changes in them, such as warming temperatures due to climate change,
can lead to permafrost thawing and its associated consequences.

Frozen landscapes can be found in various regions around the world. Some
notable areas of frozen landscape include:

1. Arctic Tundra: The Arctic tundra, located in the northernmost parts of North
America, Europe, and Asia, is characterized by frozen soil and a layer of
permafrost. It features vast expanses of icy terrain, including frozen lakes,
rivers, and snowy plains.

2. Antarctica: The entire continent of Antarctica is a frozen landscape, with ice

sheets that cover nearly 98% of its surface. It's the coldest, windiest, and driest
continent on Earth, known for its immense glaciers and icy coastlines.

3. Siberian Taiga: The Siberian Taiga in Russia experiences extremely cold

winters, with frozen rivers and lakes, as well as vast coniferous forests
blanketed in snow.

4. Canadian Arctic: The Canadian Arctic Archipelago and northern Canada

experience long, harsh winters with extensive frozen landscapes, including ice-
covered seas like the Arctic Ocean and frozen tundra.
5. Himalayan Glaciers: High in the Himalayan mountains, glaciers and snow-
covered peaks dominate the landscape, creating frozen vistas that contribute to
the region's majestic beauty.

6. Alpine Regions: Mountainous areas around the world, including the Swiss
Alps, Rocky Mountains, and Andes, exhibit frozen landscapes at higher
elevations, with snow and ice persisting year-round in some places.

7. Patagonian Ice Fields: In southern Chile and Argentina, the Patagonian ice
fields are among the largest non-polar ice masses in the world, featuring glaciers
and frozen landscapes amidst stunning mountain scenery.

These are just a few examples of the many frozen landscapes on our planet,
each offering its own unique beauty and challenges.

Surviving in a frozen landscape can be challenging, but with the right knowledge
and preparation, you can increase your chances of staying safe. Here are some
essential tips:
1. Dress in Layers: Wear thermal or wool clothing in multiple layers to trap body
heat. Don't forget a waterproof outer layer to protect against snow and
moisture.

2. Insulated Footwear: Invest in insulated, waterproof boots with good traction

to keep your feet warm and dry.

3. Cold-Weather Gear: Wear a hat, gloves, and a scarf to protect your

extremities from frostbite. Mittens tend to be warmer than gloves.

4. Stay Dry: Wet clothing can lead to hypothermia. Use waterproof gear and
stay out of wet areas when possible.

5. Shelter: Carry or build a shelter to protect yourself from the cold and wind. A
snow cave or igloo can provide insulation.

6. Fire :Learn how to build a fire in cold conditions. Fire provides warmth and a
means to melt snow for water.

7. Food and Water: Carry high-energy, non-perishable food and a way to melt
snow for drinking water. Stay hydrated.

8. Navigation: Have maps, a compass, and a GPS device. Whiteouts and blizzards
can disorient you.

9. Communication: Carry a charged mobile phone, a satellite phone, or a radio

for emergency communication.

10. First Aid: Know how to treat cold-related injuries like frostbite and
hypothermia. Carry a well-stocked first-aid kit.

11. Travel in Groups: It's safer to travel with others in extreme conditions. If
something goes wrong, you can help each other.

12. Learn Survival Skills: Take courses on cold-weather survival to learn essential
skills.