7
Industrial, Work
and Organizational Psychology in
Latin America
Jennifer Feitosa, Eduardo Salas and
Jairo E. Borges-Andrade
Individual countries here are at radically different
stages of development and maturity so it is sensi-
ble to have a country-by-country strategy built into
your more general regional business plans.
(Treasury in LA, 2008)
INTRODUCTION
Even though Latin America (LA) is often referred
to as one big market block, there are a number of
differences across LA countries and their imple-
mentation of industrial, work, and organizational
(IWO) psychology. Some of these countries have
different economic trajectories and their popula-
tions may descend from a diversity of nations in
the pre-Colombian Americas and in Europe,
Africa, and Asia. These populations may speak
languages that should not be called ‘Hispanic’ and
share values far from solely catholic values.
It is important to try to understand the nuances
and complexities of each context prior to general-
izing any scientific finding. As emerging econo-
mies, these countries are rapidly drawing from
our current knowledge and developing their own
techniques. Consequently, IWO psychology can
be of great help during this transition (Aguinis &
Kraiger, 1996).
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
The current effort of IWO is to consider the con-
text (Porter, 1996) and have more of a global per-
spective (Gelfand, Leslie, & Fehr, 2008). Gelfand
and colleagues (2008) recommend incorporating
views from around the globe, operationalizing
culture at the appropriate level, and understand-
ing when culture matters. Therefore, understand-
ing the historical and societal context in which
IWO develops in each Latin American country is
extremely relevant.
With the objective of providing a comprehen-
sive coverage of IWO psychology in LA, we will
first briefly describe IWO psychology in the con-
text of LA. Second, we will identify emerging
themes from IWO psychology in LA. Finally, we
conclude with the identification of an agenda that
will likely infiltrate research and practice of both
industrial and organizational psychology in LA.
IWO PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN LA
Psychology in LA is characterized by its original-
ity, scientific orientation, philosophical roots,
humans as the main study subject, and its prefer-
ence for applied psychology and socially and
politically relevant topics, according to Alarcón
150 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
(1997), as cited in Ardila (n.d.). However, the
development of IWO psychology is not homoge-
neous across all LA countries. Mexico, Colombia,
Guatemala, and Chile started their psychology
programs first, followed by Cuba, Brazil, Perú,
Argentina, and Venezuela (Alarcón, 2004). IWO
psychology is widely developed in Mexico,
Brazil, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina (Cárdenas,
2007), whereas other countries are less advanced
regarding IWO psychology (e.g. Belize,
Guatemala, Suriname).
The emerging themes are not homogeneous
influences throughout journals from LA countries
due to divergence concerning accessibility to col-
lecting the appropriate information. Specifically,
when tracing the history of IWO psychology in
Ecuador, Moreno (2000) was unable to find any
written trace of its origin in his country. This is true
for several countries, which serves as a huge obsta-
cle when trying to integrate knowledge across LA
countries. Even in countries such as Brazil, where
a larger scientific production was identified (around
500 research reports in fewer than 20 journals in
under two decades), this production is far from ben-
eficial, in terms of quantity and quality, to the dif-
ferent areas where IWO knowledge may be applied
(Borges-Andrade & Pagotto, 2010).
There are great differences in the speed of
development of IWO psychology. Some countries
have greater influence of the practice of psychol-
ogy than others. For instance, the law and code
of ethics play a large role in the regulation of the
practice of psychology in Venezuela (Yáber, 2006).
Currently, countries such as Brazil make signifi-
cant advances in regard to political and scientific
contributions (Ferreira & Mourão, n.d.), whereas
Ecuador’s IWO professors mainly spend their time
in teaching instead of research activities (Moreno,
2000). Even though the Brazilian society for IWO
psychology (Sociedade Brasileira de Psicologia
Organizacional e do Trabalho) and the main jour-
nal (Revista Psicologia: Organizações e Trabalho)
were only created in 2001, this field has been
extremely important and popular. Accordingly,
25% of psychologists belong to the IWO field in
Brazil and this field hires the largest (61%) amount
of full-time employed psychology professionals
in the country (Bastos & Gondim, 2010). Zanelli
(1994) mentions how the IWO psychologist is seen
as an agent for change in Brazil. In Colombia, sev-
eral journal outlets exist to disseminate informa-
tion from the IWO psychology field.
From the information available, it is common
for psychology training to entail about five years
for a terminal bachelor’s degree, being more spe-
cific and advanced than a bachelor’s degree in the
United States (Gutierrez & Ardila, 1992). The
psychology bachelor’s degree in LA is sufficient
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
to work as a psychologist, thus leading to a low
enrollment rate into graduate programs, especially
at the PhD level; however, this has been changing
in some countries. In Brazil, there was no gradu-
ate program in IWO, within the several tens of
local psychology graduate programs, until the last
decade of the twentieth century. Nevertheless, sig-
nificant changes were reported in the next couple
of decades: 20% of the psychology master and
doctorate programs had research lines or teaching
focus on IWO in four of the five Brazilian regions
(Gondim, Borges-Andrade, & Bastos, 2010). From
these programs, dense and cohesive networks that
include 220 researchers have been structured, with
a larger presence of foreign researchers, when
compared with networks in other psychology
fields. These network activities include the evalu-
ation of thesis and dissertations, the organization
of scientific meetings or presence in existing sci-
entific meetings, and the publication of books and
scientific articles (Neiva & Corradi, 2010).
In LA, IWO psychologists are often required
to provide psychological counseling to employ-
ees in addition to help with more traditional
duties (e.g. selection, training, measurement,
motivation, teams). IWO professionals may use
up to three paradigms that direct what they do
in practice. They are derived from the cognitive-
behavioral, the subjectivity-social historical,
and the subjectivity-clinical models, which are
taught in undergraduate and graduate courses
(Bendassolli, Borges-Andrade, & Malvezzi,
2010). These authors discuss the Brazilian case,
but it also applies to several other LA countries,
such as Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, and
Argentina. This shows that application of IWO
practices in this region can be more complex and
can widely differ from mainstream research. We
will now briefly describe Latin America as well as
the industrial and organizational psychology top-
ics predominant in this area.
Latin America
LA entails countries located from Mexico to
Argentina. As of 2011, the most populated coun-
tries were Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, and
Argentina, ranging from 197 to 41 million inhabit-
ants (Vassolo, De Castro, & Gomez-Mejia, 2011).
However, its population is mainly concentrated in
urban areas. Even though LA consists of 14% of
the world’s land mass, only 8% of the population
actually lives there (Nicholls-Nixon et al., 2011).
It is estimated that LA will have about 750 million
inhabitants, with 70% living in urban areas, by the
year 2050 (Cárdenas, 2007). It is important to
 INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN LATIN AMERICA
highlight the uneven settlement between urban
and rural areas when considering the overall
development of these countries.
In LA, there is a great sense of community that
originates from the indigenous Ibero-American
colonization process, and which structures social
and economic relations based on interpersonal
interactions (Rodríguez et al., 1999). Its labor
market has been deeply influenced by an African
slavery tradition, which lasted until the nine-
teenth century, and a strong migration tradition,
from Europe and Asia, in the last two centuries.
When considering managerial practices, human
resources management (HRM) in LA has other
distinct features, such as paternalism, author-
ity, and class (Rodríguez, 2010). These features
are not widely emphasized in Northern America
HRM practices. Furthermore, employees in LA
were found to work the most hours, have the most
children, and report the highest job satisfaction in
comparison to Anglos and Chinese (Spector et al.,
2004). These are unique differences that bring to
the forefront whether general IWO practices can
be applied in a similar manner in LA.
Industrial Psychology
Industrial psychology is concerned with selection,
recruitment, management, training, and many
other variables at work. This is generally how
IWO psychology began as a discipline and profes-
sion, and this trend was no different in LA coun-
tries. HRM practices were quickly adopted by
larger corporations or multinationals and became
popular around the 1980s (Perez Arrau, Eades, &
Wilson, 2012). However, the implementation of
best practices is still in development. For instance,
Aguinis and Kraiger (1996) point out the differ-
ences in paradigms within LA countries and those
currently used in the United States, including the
lack of crucial interventions such as job analysis.
When understanding the reason for the setback of
IWO psychology, authors have linked the slow
progress with either barriers that hinder imple-
mentation or the inappropriate implementation of
HRM best practice itself (Hoskisson et al., 2000).
Along these lines, others have found that the big-
gest challenge to HRM practices in LA is corrup-
tion (Perez Arrau et al., 2012).
Even with the current obstacles, IWO psychol-
ogy is increasingly paying greater attention to more
rigorous methodologies and evaluations of selection
systems (Myors et al., 2008). For instance, there is
a potential inappropriateness of using biodata in
selection in Mexico considering their low levels of
tolerance for ambiguity (O’Connell et al., 2002).
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
151
Studies suggest that differences were found regard-
ing HRM practices according to culture in Mexico
(Rao, 2009), and it is safe to assume that other
discrepancies will emerge when considering other
LA countries. In Chile, for example, not only are
systematic selection techniques used, but informal
contacts are also used to aid in selection and recruit-
ment (Rodríguez, 2010). In addition, interviews
may be given more importance than other selec-
tion assessments (Myors et al., 2008). Therefore,
it is important to consider the peculiarities within
each context as the legal systems in each country
are also likely to differ in addition to the cultural
differences. In Brazil, strict norms rule over the use
of valid tests that focus on psychological evaluation
and a large number of IWO professionals work with
selection systems. However, little research is done
on these systems, or on performance evaluation
systems, while larger theoretical and methodologi-
cal advances have occurred on training and devel-
opment systems, given the high private and public
investment in qualifying the work force (Borges-
Andrade & Pagotto, 2010).
With that being said, management models in
LA differ in the extent that they emphasize social
and power distance as well as collectivism (Elvira
& Dávila, 2005). Accordingly, the expatriate liter-
ature shows how perceptions of subordinates can
vary greatly depending on where the expatriation
happens (Miller et al., 1980). More specifically,
it is still questionable whether these differences
occur because of true differences across those
subordinates, lack of study rigor, or a priori biases
of expatriates. Although they recognize the impor-
tance and value of performance appraisal, most
employees in the study in Chile did not have a
formalized performance appraisal process or even
training opportunities (Rodríguez, 2010). Most
training interventions were created with little plan-
ning and/or based on market trends. Additionally,
Chilean organizations tend to increase wages via
more soft means of payment, such as rewards and
profit sharing (Vergara del Río, 1998). Contrary
to the model of a more flexible compensation
plan, others highlight the importance of senior-
ity and work intensity as better ways to reward
desired performance (López, 2008). In summary,
little consistency exists regarding how to reward
employees and appraise their performance, but
efforts are being made toward the improvement of
such systems throughout LA.
Organizational or Work Psychology
Organizational or work psychology focuses on
the interaction of workers, environmental forces,
152 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
and organizational structure. The origin of this
subtopic mostly draws from Hawthorne studies
(see Roethlisberger, 1989) that focus on how to
motivate employees and their interaction with
each other while performing at work. However,
the work attitude drivers in LA seem to have a
great deal of heterogeneity across LA countries
(Susaeta et al., 2013). These authors found that
how employees are motivated can vary accord-
ing to their generation or culture. Even within a
certain country, levels can differ. Specifically, a
study compiling data from five different hotels in
Brazil showed that one’s culture influences job
satisfaction levels, and Brazil has an overall job
satisfaction higher than most countries (Sledge,
Miles, & Coppage, 2008). Their Latin neighbors
do not fall short, as statistics show that LA coun-
tries report the highest job satisfaction, work the
most hours, and have the most children in com-
parison to Anglo and Chinese employees
(Spector et al., 2004). However, when job satis-
faction is low, employees are very passive when
acting to improve their situation (Rodríguez,
2010).
The differences are not just limited to job satis-
faction levels and employees’ motivation drivers.
LA nations have been shown to differ regard-
ing decision-making styles and treatment. For
instance, a more participative decision-making
environment can influence managers to differ-
ent degrees in Mexico and Perú (Parnell, 2010).
This study showed how participation can be
more motivating to Peruvian managers, leading
to increased commitment, than Mexican manag-
ers. Additionally, the treatment of women at the
workplace has been shown to vary across organi-
zations in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and
Mexico (Friedrich, Mesquita, & Hatum, 2006).
Table 7.1 Emerging themes from current IWO psychology research and application in Latin
America
Emerging themes Principles
Heterogeneity of #1. Research and practice of IWO
LA countries principles should take context into
consideration
Overarching #2. There is a need for the
approach development and validation of
universal frameworks
Diversity #3. More attention should be
management given toward diversity and the
management of it
Methodological #4. The improvement of
rigor methodological rigor goes hand-in-
hand with the proper application
of IWO psychology principles
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
This is an avenue that requires further investiga-
tion to better understand the work dynamics that
are often influenced by power and the organiza-
tional composition.
EMERGING THEMES IN CURRENT
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
In order to best synthesize the information avail-
able, we will highlight emerging themes, in addi-
tion to identifying principles and future agendas
for each. Therefore, we will now select major
themes that portray the current research and prac-
tice in LA, along with principles and future agen-
das (see Table 7.1 for a summary).
Heterogeneity of Latin American
Countries
We cannot think about IWO psychology and its
practices in a vacuum because the context vastly
shapes the research and applications of IWO psy-
chology. Accordingly, understanding the IWO
psychology in LA requires the proper definition
of what constitutes LA countries, and their differ-
ences and similarities across each other. The dis-
cussion regarding the extent to which IWO
practices in LA should rely on more general
versus specific approaches is not a simple ques-
tion. Consulting in LA for over a half century, a
native Mexican consultant highlights the cultural
diversity of the region and goes against the con-
sideration of LA as a single culture (Margaona,
Future agenda
Cultural peculiarities: When IWO practices are viewed from
a different cultural lens, a better understanding of how
current research can shape application will emerge
Integrate findings: When IWO practices are integrated,
redundant work is avoided and LA countries can build
from each other’s wealth of knowledge
Interpersonal relations: When IWO practices are focused
on interpersonal relations, the understanding of
diversity can increase to maximize its benefits
Interdisciplinary work: When IWO practices start drawing
from multiple disciplines, the proper tools and
resources can be utilized to explore phenomena from
different angles
 INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN LATIN AMERICA
2012). However, little research has documented
how to put this in context, drawing solely on local
management practices. An exception to this
model is Natura – a Brazilian cosmetics manufac-
turer – which was developed and sustained with
the consideration of typical Brazilian cultural
traits (Tanure & Duarte, 2005). This exemplifies
an effective way to draw from local resources and
be competitive within this emerging market.
Accordingly, research that compares countries
such as Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, and
Venezuela highlights the limitation in applying
organizational science to LA due to great cultural
discrepancies amongst its countries (Varela,
Esqueda, & Perez, 2009). These authors show
disparities in ethnicity, migration, industrializa-
tion, and wealth distribution across LA countries,
and suggest the use of Schwartz’s values to
understand differences that transcend the organi-
zational environment.
Others have noted how LA countries pres-
ent significant differences in the way employ-
ees respond to situations where cultural traits
are at stake (Friedrich et al., 2006). Similarly,
industrial-organizational (IO) psychologists
acknowledge cultural differences within emerg-
ing markets, such as timing issues, power, and
status (Aguinis & Kraiger, 1996). Thinking about
ways to cluster LA is not a novel concept. For
instance, Lenartowicz and Johnson (2002) found
subregions when comparing 12 LA countries in
regard to their value system. Taken these find-
ings together, specific approaches to IWO prac-
tices can be limiting for ignoring best practices
that have already been shown to work in other
regions.
Principle #1. Research and practice
of iwo principles should take context
into consideration
Overarching Approach
Even though a great deal of emphasis is given to
the peculiarities across the different LA countries,
a study investigating universal versus culturally
specific HRM practices showed the former to be
more effective than the latter (Bonache, Trullen, &
Sanchez, 2012). Recommendation on how to ben-
efit from a universal approach is characterized by
sharing a conceptual framework to effectively
intervene in emerging markets (Aguinis &
Kraiger, 1996), and to shape the appropriate
managerial insights (Hoskisson et al., 2000).
However, one issue is that LA countries are not
currently relying on any universal and overarching
framework (Fulkerson, 2012). The opposite is
probably closer to the truth, as tension persists
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
153
among those that produce knowledge and try to
use it as a result of the strong influence of the
three paradigms (Bendassolli et al., 2010).
The way in which LA countries can amalgam-
ate is through the market similarity that is emerg-
ing. They are all mostly undergoing change to
shift from more communal values to individual-
ism, competition, and consumerism via the disper-
sion of culture from the USA (Oppenheim, 2003).
Unfortunately, research shows that multination-
als based on the US model are not investing the
same to understand corporations in LA as they
are in other emerging markets such as Asia and
Africa (Torres-Baumgarten & Yucetepe, 2009).
Consequently, the answer to the question regard-
ing what is in the IWO psychologists’ bag of tools
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 1996) is that the general
approach is yet nascent and rudimentary in LA
countries.
Principle #2. There is a need for the
development and validation of
universal frameworks
Diversity Management
LA policies attracted a number of foreign inves-
tors to install organizations in this area (Brenes,
Metzger, & Requena, 2011). The diversity in cul-
tural backgrounds within LA countries leads to a
unique and challenging environment for manage-
ment (Dávila & Elvira, 2012), and significant
diversity exists within and between LA countries
(Vassolo et al., 2011). This calls for a deeper inter-
est in how to properly manage within a diverse
context. Diversity management should be a prom-
inent topic in many LA countries, especially con-
sidering how employees come from diverse and
multiracial backgrounds in countries such as
Brazil and Mexico. However, case studies in
Brazil show discrimination and a lack of diversity
management as a major issue within organizations
(Jabbour et al., 2011). Authors have pointed out
the scarcity of these types of studies despite the
urgent need for them.
Some characteristics may be more important
than others when navigating emerging markets.
For example, authors have pointed out the impor-
tance of measuring one’s aptitude for ambigu-
ity when considering leadership roles (White &
Shullman, 2010). Not everyone is suitable to lead,
and great leadership in one context may not be con-
sidered the same in another. The more traditional
and one-sided leadership approach should evolve
to pay more attention in the leader–follower rela-
tionship and sources of motivation (Pereira, 2005).
Due to the fundamentally paternalistic society in
LA, it is common for psychological contracts to
154 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
naturally emerge across subordinates and super-
visors (Dávila & Elvira, 2012), and authors have
suggested a hybrid leadership approach that uti-
lizes peculiarities from LA, but also includes cur-
rent leadership best practices.
Even though there are plenty of peculiarities,
and we cannot highlight enough how important it
is to consider the contextual forces, there are cer-
tain characteristics that are universally endorsed
across cultures. As Den Hartog and colleagues
(1999) showed, charismatic and transformational
leadership is considered an asset by all 62 cul-
tures that were part of the Global Leadership and
Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)
Research Program. On a similar note, there are
several similarities across labor laws regardless of
the differences within each context. Accordingly,
Goldin (2008) found fairness laws to be gener-
ally similar between Argentina and Canada, but
with great differences in territorial and political
implementation. The perspectives about selection
systems from different countries around the world
showed that Chile, for instance, did not have a
clear type of evidence needed to refute a claim
of discrimination or the consequences of violation
(Myors et al., 2008). Therefore, attention toward
diversity management and laws surrounding dis-
crimination should be brought to the forefront in
the IWO psychology agenda in LA.
Principle #3. More attention should
be given toward diversity and the
management of it
Methodological Rigor
One of the main areas of IWO psychology in LA
is to understand how people, teams, and organiza-
tions co-exist (Zanelli, Bastos, & Rodrigues,
2014). Accordingly, Capelleras and Rabetino
(2008) highlight the complexity and multidimen-
sionality of the phenomenon to understand how
organizations in LA countries can prosper (e.g.
individual, group, and organizational forces). This
requires the use of sophisticated methods to allow
for cross-level analysis. However, most articles
are solely theoretical, with only about 30% being
empirically based articles (Tonetto, Amazarray,
Koller, & Gomes, 2008) and, among those that are
empirically based, less than 40% use inferential
data analysis (Borges-Andrade & Pagotto, 2010).
Most developing countries have very limited
empirical work (Budhwar & Debrah, 2001). The
lack of attention toward validation and science
that is based on empirical results conflicts with
IWO psychology’s main advantages. Data-driven
measurement and evaluation is considered a key
component when highlighting the importance of
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
applying IWO principles to the workplace
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 1996).
In addition to considering more robust and
sophisticated methodologies, IWO psychology
must consider the culture component when uti-
lizing previous knowledge and applying it at a
different context. Specifically, methodologies
should have a degree of standardization as well as
consideration of cultural differences (Fulkerson,
2012). Culture (e.g. power distance) can influence
how people rate employees, thus it is important
to consider cultural orientation when relying on
ratings from peers, subordinates, and supervi-
sors (Atwater, Wang, Smither, & Fleenor, 2009).
Bearing in mind the diversity across LA countries,
and their cultural differences to the most common
sample of Americans, the applicability of IWO
practices should always be considered through the
cultural lens for best results.
Principle #4. The improvement of
methodological rigor goes hand-in-
hand with the proper application of
IWO psychology principles
Future Directions
The emerging themes described previously allow
us to identify where the IWO agenda seems to be
developing. In order to account for the heteroge-
neity of LA countries, we foresee a shift toward
cultural peculiarities. At the same time, we
expect a greater effort toward the integration of
findings to achieve a broader perspective.
Furthermore, a focus on interpersonal relations
and the use of interdisciplinary work will become
predominant in this area, which will be to under-
stand how to manage diversity and to increase the
methodological rigor necessary to advance IWO
practice forward.
Cultural peculiarities. We highlight the need
for a more hybrid approach that utilizes best prac-
tices but with the caveat of taking the context
into consideration. This approach, which authors
have called the culturally animated universalist
approach (Bonache, Trullen, & Sanchez, 2012),
seems to be appropriate considering the para-
doxical nature of this region, which shows condi-
tions that are both very attractive and seriously
challenging (Vassolo et al., 2011). Specifically,
this region has great natural resources and flex-
ible laws, but its context is still vulnerable and
income distribution is very uneven. When com-
paring multinational and local organizations,
a study shows that multinationals utilize more
sophisticated management processes, and impor-
tantly, more complex and integrative mechanisms
 INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN LATIN AMERICA
(Martínez, Esperança, & de la Torre, 2005).
There is, however, a lack in standardization of
reports from this region, which makes the gen-
eral approach even more challenging. The benefit
to these unique, yet similar, LA countries is to
combine both general and specific approaches.
As Fulkerson (2012) suggested, interventions
within these regions can only facilitate change
when the context in which the organization is a
part is understood. Accordingly, IWO research-
ers call for the use of robust methodological
approaches and the consideration of specifici-
ties in context for its flexible work in LA (Soto,
2012). Therefore, the integration of specific and
general approaches – which takes the context into
consideration – seems to have a promising avenue
ahead in helping IWO practices in LA countries.
Integration of findings. The global aspect of
current organizations calls for a better integration
of theories, consideration of local culture, with an
emphasis in leadership, diversity issues, and the
legal context (Cooper, 2012). The IWO psychol-
ogy literature in LA mainly consists of cross-
cultural research (i.e. cultural orientation, such as
Hofstede’s dimensions; Hofstede, 1980) or con-
textually-specific research. As Dávila and Elvira
(2012) mentioned within the leadership literature
in LA, the cross-cultural research is more of a
quantitative approach, whereas the contextually
specific research is more of a qualitative approach
(e.g. case studies). This calls for an integration of
the findings using mixed-methods, not only for
the leadership literature, but all IWO psychology
in LA literature. Doing measurement equivalence
studies when drawing from other countries’ IWO
practices and policies, for example, becomes an
extremely important step, especially when assess-
ments were conducted in different languages (De
Beuckelaer, Lievens, & Swinnen, 2007). Some
research has started to accumulate evidence
regarding the influence of cultural orientation into
HRM practices (e.g. Rao, 2009). This can be an
avenue to condense the IWO psychology science
and practice across LA.
Focus on interpersonal relations. In gen-
eral, IWO has switched from what began as very
industrial-heavy (e.g. assessment development
for selection) to more organizational-heavy (e.g.
quality of life at work) themes (Cárdenas, 2007;
Tonelli, Caldas, Lacombe, & Tinoco, 2003). The
themes of interest are not limited to the aforemen-
tioned, and more importantly, the emphasis in
each of them has changed and they will continue
to change throughout the years. For example, in
Brazil, topics went from motivation, satisfaction,
climate, and productivity in the 1980s to techno-
logical influences, behavior, and health and well-
being at the workplace (Tonetto et al., 2008), or
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
155
toward learning, psychological contracts, work
and organizational values, and perception of jus-
tice and effectiveness of training and develop-
ment, along with more traditional topics such as
satisfaction, but under a psychoanalytic approach
that focuses on pleasure and suffering (Borges-
Andrade & Pagotto, 2010). Consequently, the
trending topics highlight the focus on health, edu-
cation, and social relations as the core of IWO
psychology in Brazil, but the latter authors call
the consolidated research groups to study topics
away from what they usually do, using samples
from the primary segment (agriculture) and from
non-governmental organizations. In a less specific
manner, Teachout and Vequist (2008) identified
driving forces affecting future trends in business
consulting: market conditions, competition for
talent, customer demands, technology, cost, and
globalization. Accordingly, Ghiraldelli (2000)
points out how globalization led to the shift in
focus of IWO psychology from productivity to
interpersonal relations. Thus, such topics are
going to be likely to gain popularity and interest
from LA scholars and practitioners within the next
few decades.
Interdisciplinary work. We identify interdis-
ciplinary work as a ‘hot’ topic that should be at
the forefront of IWO psychology in LA. One way
in which IWO psychology can enrich its findings
and theoretical foundations is by drawing from
other disciplines, such as sociology, anthropol-
ogy, political science, education, economics,
and business administration. Psychologists are
still the overwhelmingly majority that publish
about IWO principles, even where around 70%
of the articles are located in management, rather
than psychology journals (Borges-Andrade &
Pagotto, 2010). However, efforts such as the HR
Leaders Exchange LA (2013) serve as a tool to
connect individuals based on their interest and
not necessarily a similar educational background.
This can provide a common platform to discuss
similar issues they may face and learn from
each other. Inserting individuals from graduate
programs outside psychology into the existing
strong research networks, described by Neiva and
Corradi (2010), could benefit IWO knowledge
production. Along these lines, more work from
a multidisciplinary and interactionist perspective
can better address the complexity that involves
understanding IWO principles and practices in a
more holistic manner (Aycan, 2000). In summary,
IWO psychology in LA is currently expanding on
topics related to interpersonal relations, culture,
and methodology, with new avenues of research
that call for a closer look at nepotism and inte-
gration of interdisciplinary work and multilevel
research.
156 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
CONCLUSION
Concepts of IWO psychology may be currently
underestimated or misunderstood in LA (Aguinis &
Kraiger, 1996). We need to first show the value and
science behind the aforementioned competencies
before our work can be taken seriously and applied
properly. With the wide differences across LA coun-
tries (Susaeta et al., 2013), it is important to avoid
the pitfall of lumping all countries into one big
pseudo-homogeneous block. First, we pointed out
the importance of considering context, as well as the
background of LA, regarding differences within and
across the countries. Second, we advocate for the
development and validation of universal frameworks
to make current best practices more generalizable.
Finally, we highlighted the focus on interpersonal
relations to account for diversity as well as the
improvement of research methods via more sophis-
ticated tools and practices, including more interdis-
ciplinary work. In summary, we broadly described
the history of IWO psychology in LA, shifting from
topics that were more industrial psychology to
organizational psychology, focusing on interper-
sonal relations. With that in mind, we highlighted
the new avenues for research, such as culture, meth-
ods, interpersonal dynamics, and interdisciplinary
work. Therefore, we hope this chapter is the begin-
ning of the integration of IWO psychology in LA,
and it encourages the development of frameworks
with proper testing across its countries.
REFERENCES
Aguinis, H. & Kraiger, K. (1996). Intervening in
emerging markets: Back to the basics, or go home
empty-handed. The Industrial-Organizational
Psychologist, 33(3), 84–7.
Alarcón, R. (2004). Medio siglo de Psicología
Latinoamericana: una visión de conjunto. Revista
Interamericana de Psicología, 38(2), 307–16.
Ardila, R. (n.d.) Psicología Latinoamericana: De dónde
venimos y hacia dónde vamos? Retrieved from
www.rubenardila.com/PSICOLOG%C3%8DA%20
L AT I N O A M E R I C A N A , % 2 0 D E % 2 0 D % C 3
%93NDE%20VENIMOS%20Y%20HACIA%20
DONDE%20VAMOS.pdf [accessed 16 June 2014].
Atwater, L., Wang, M., Smither, J. W., & Fleenor, J. W.
(2009). Are cultural characteristics associated with
the relationship between self and others’ ratings
of leadership? Journal of Applied Psychology,
94(4), 876–86.
Aycan, Z. (2000). Cross-cultural industrial and organi-
zational psychology contributions, past develop-
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
ments, and future directions. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(1), 110–28.
Bastos, A. V. B. & Gondim, S. M. G. (2010). O
Trabalho do Psicólogo no Brasil. Porto Alegre:
Editora Artmed.
Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Malvezzi,
S. (2010). Paradigmas, eixos temáticos e tensões
na PTO no Brasil. Estudo de Psicologia, 15(3),
281–9.
Bonache, J., Trullen, J., & Sanchez, J. I. (2012).
Managing cross-cultural differences: Testing
human resource models in Latin America. Journal
of Business Research, 65(12), 1773–81.
Borges-Andrade, J. E. & Pagotto, C. P. (2010). O
estado da arte da pesquisa brasileira em psicologia
do trabalho e organizacional. Psicologia: Teoria e
Pesquisa, 26(spec. numb.), 37–50.
Brenes, E. R., Metzger, M., & Requena, B. (2011).
Strategic management in Latin America: Issues
and assessment. Journal of Business Research,
64(3), 231–5.
Budhwar, P. S. & Debrah, Y. (2001). Rethinking com-
parative and cross-national human resource man-
agement research. International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 12(3), 497–515.
Capelleras, J. L. & Rabetino, R. (2008). Individual,
organizational and environmental determinants of
new firm employment growth: Evidence from
Latin America. International Entrepreneurship and
Management Journal, 4(1), 79–99.
Cárdenas, S. S. (2007). Psicología del trabajo y de las
organizaciones: Estado del arte, retos y desafíos en
América Latina. Perspectivas en Psicología, Dic, 10,
25–38.
Cooper, S. E. (2012). Introduction to the special issue
on international organizational consulting:
Consulting psychology goes global. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 64(4),
243–9.
Dávila, A. & Elvira, R. M. (2012). Humanistic leader-
ship: Lessons from Latin America. Journal of World
Business, 47(4), 548–54.
De Beuckelaer, A., Lievens, F., & Swinnen, G. (2007).
Measurement equivalence in the conduct of a
global organizational survey across countries in six
cultural regions. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 80(4), 575–600.
Den Hartog, D. N., House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-
Quintanilla, S., Dorfman, P. W., Abdalla, I. A.,
Adetoun, B. S., Aditya, R. N., … Zhou, J. (1999).
Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable
implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of char-
ismatic/transformational leadership universally
endorsed? The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2),
219–56.
Elvira, M. M. & Dávila, A. (2005). Cultura y adminis-
tración de recursos humanos en América Latina.
 INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN LATIN AMERICA
Universia Business Review, First Trimester(5),
28–45.
Ferreira, M. C. & Mourão, L. (n.d.) Industrial and
organizational psychology in Brazil. Retrieved from
http://www.siop.org/tip/oct10/16thompson.aspx
[accessed 16 June 2014].
Friedrich, P., Mesquita, L., & Hatum, A. (2006). The
meaning of difference: Beyond cultural and mana-
gerial homogeneity stereotypes of Latin America.
Management Research: The Journal of the
Iberoamerican Academy of Management, 4(1),
53–71.
Fulkerson, J. R. (2012). Organizational consulting in
international contexts: An integrative perspective.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and
Research, 64(4), 325–37.
Gelfand, M. J., Leslie, L. M., & Fehr, R. (2008). To
prosper, organizational psychology should …
adopt a global perspective. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 29(4), 493–517.
Ghiraldelli Jr, P. (2000). A teoria educacional no
Ocidente: entre modernidade e pós-modernidade.
São Paulo em Perspectiva, 14(2), 32–6.
Goldin, A. O. (2008). Fairness at work (the authors
report): An Argentinean perspective. Comparative
Labor Law and Policy Journal, 29(4), 533–546.
Gondim, S. M. G., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Bastos, A.
V. B. (2010). Psicologia do trabalho e das organi-
zações: produção científica e desafios metodológi-
cos. Psicologia em Pesquisa, 4(2): 84–99.
Gutierrez, G. & Ardila, R. (1992). Psychology in Latin
America. In U. P. Gielen, L. Loeb Adler, & N. A.
Milgram (Eds.), Psychology in International
Perspective: 50 Years of the International Council of
Psychologists (pp. 92–109). Amsterdam: Swets &
Zeitlinger.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organizations.
International Studies of Management and
Organization, 10(4), 15–41.
Hoskisson, R. E., Eden, L., Lau, C., & Wright, M.
(2000). Strategy in emerging economies. Academy
of Management Journal, 43(3), 249–67.
Jabbour, C. J. C., Gordono, F. S., de Oliveira,
J. H. C., Martinez, J. C., & Battistelle, R. A. G.
(2011). Diversity management: Challenges, ben-
efits, and the role of human resource management
in Brazilian organizations. Equality, Diversity and
Inclusion: An International Journal, 30(1), 58–74.
Lenartowicz, T. & Johnson, J. P. (2002). Comparing
managerial values in twelve Latin American coun-
tries: An exploratory study. MIR: Management
International Review, 42(3), 279–307.
López, C. B. (2008). Reflections on teaching, learn-
ing, and performing Chicana/o History. Radical
History Review, 102, 131–5.
Margaona, E. (2012). Selecting and developing
organizational leaders in Latin America: La cultural
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
157
importa. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice
and Research, 64(4), 295–306.
Martínez, J. I., Esperança, J. P., & de la Torre, J. R.
(2005). Organizational change among emerging
Latin American firms: From ‘multilatinas’ to multi-
nationals. Management Research: The Journal of
the Iberoamerican Academy of Management,
3(3), 173–88.
Miller, E., Batt, B., Hill, R., & Cattaneo, J. (1980).
Leadership attitudes of American and German expatri-
ate managers in Europe and Latin America. Academy
of Management Best Paper Proceedings, pp. 53–7.
Moreno, J. (2000). Industrial and organizational psy-
chology in Ecuador. The Industrial-Organizational
Psychologist, 28(2). Retrieved from: http://www.
siop.org/tip/backissues/TipOct00/14Steiner.aspx
[accessed 16 June 2014].
Myors, B., Lievens, F., Schollaert, E., Van Hoye, G.,
Cronshaw, S. F., Mladinic, A., Rodríguez, V., Aguinis,
H., … Sackett, P. R. (2008). International perspectives
on the legal environment for selection. Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, 1(2), 206–46.
Neiva, E. R. & Corradi, A. A. (2010). A psicologia
organizacional e do trabalho no Brasil: uma
análise a partir das redes sociais de pesquisadores
da pós-graduação. Psicologia: Organizações e
Trabalho, 10(2), 67–84.
Nicholls-Nixon, C. L., Castilla, J. A. D., Garcia, J. S., &
Pesquera, M. R. (2011). Latin America manage-
ment research: Review, synthesis, and extension.
Journal of Management, 37(4), 1178–227.
O’Connell, M., Hattrup, K., Doverspike, D., & Cober,
A. (2002). The validity of ‘mini’ simulations for
Mexican retail salespeople. Journal of Business and
Psychology, 16(4), 593–9.
Oppenheim, L. (2003). Latin America and the cultural
consequences and contradictions of globalization.
Perspectives on Global Development and
Technology, 2(1), 54–76.
Parnell, J. A. (2010). Propensity for participative deci-
sion making in Latin America: Mexico and Peru.
The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 21(13), 2323–38.
Pereira, O. (2005). Self leadership in a world of
uncertainty: A Brazilian perspective. Leadership
Review, 5, 73–82.
Perez Arrau, G., Eades, E., & Wilson, J. (2012).
Managing human resources in the Latin American
context: The case of Chile. The International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(15),
3133–50.
Porter, T. M. (1996). Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of
Objectivity in Science and Public Life. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rao, P. (2009). The role of national culture on
Mexican staffing practices. Employee Relations,
31(3), 295–311.
158 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL, WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Rodríguez, D., Majluf, N., Abarca, N., & Bassa, I.
(1999). Aspectos culturales de la gestión en
empresas Chilenas. Cultura en Organizaciones
Latinas: Elementos, Injerencia y Evidencia en los
Procesos Organizacionales. In A. Dávila & N. H.
Martínez (Eds.), Cultura en Organizaciones Latinas
(pp. 149–64). Mexico, D.F.: Siglo Veintiuno
Editores.
Rodríguez, J. K. (2010). Employment relations in
Chile: Evidence of HRM practices. Relations
Industrielles/Industrial Relations, 65(3), 424–46.
Roethlisberger, F. J. (1989). The Hawthorne experi-
ments. In W. E. Natemeyer & J. S. Gilberg (Eds.),
Classics of Organizational Behavior (pp. 3–13).
Danville, IL: Interstate.
Sledge, S., Miles, A. K., & Coppage, S. (2008). What
role does culture play? A look at motivation and
job satisfaction among hotel workers in Brazil. The
International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 19(9), 1667–82.
Soto, Á. (2012). Sección especial: La construcción de
identidades en el trabajo en América Latina.
Psykhe (Santiago), 21(2), 3–7.
Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Poelmans, S., Allen, T. D.,
O’Driscoll, M., Sanchez, J. I., Siu, O. L., Dewe, P., …
Yu, S. (2004). A cross-national comparative study
of work–family stressors, working hours, and well-
being: China and Latin America versus the Anglo
world. Personnel Psychology, 57(1), 119–42.
Susaeta, L., Pin, J. R., Idrovo, S., Espejo, A., Belizón,
M., Gallifa, A., Aguirre, M., & Pedrozo, E. A.
(2013). Generation or culture?: Work attitude
drivers: An analysis in Latin America and Iberian
countries. Cross Cultural Management: An
International Journal, 20(3), 321–60.
Tanure, B. & Duarte, R. (2005). Leveraging competi-
tiveness upon national cultural traits: The manage-
ment of people in Brazilian companies. The
International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 16(12), 2201–17.
Teachout, M. S. & Vequist IV, D. G. (2008). Trends in
business consulting. In J. W. Hedge & W. C.
Borman (Eds.), The I/O Consultant: Advice and
Insights for Building a Successful Career
(pp. 335–43). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Tonelli, M. J., Caldas, M. P., Lacombe, B. M. B., &
Tinoco, T. (2003). Produção acadêmica em recur-
COPYRIGHT 2018 Sage Publications Ltd.
sos humanos no Brasil: 1991–2000. RAE-Revista
de Administração de Empresas, 43(1), 105–22.
Tonetto, A. M., Amazarray, M. R., Koller, S. H., &
Gomes, W. B. (2008). Psicologia organizacional e do
trabalho no Brasil: Desenvolvimento científico con-
temporâneo. Psicologia & Sociedade, 20(2), 165–73.
Torres-Baumgarten, G. & Yucetepe, V. (2009).
Multinational firms’ leadership role in corporate
social responsibility in Latin America. Journal of
Business Ethics, 85(Suppl1), 217–24.
Treasury in Latin America: Diversity and Growth.
(2008, June 10). Retrieved from https://www.
gtnews.com/blogs/treasury-in-latin-america-
diversity-and-growth/ [accessed 16 June 2014].
Varela, O. E., Esqueda, S., & Perez, O. (2009). Birds of
a feather?: A test of cultural homogeneity among
a sample of Latin American countries. Management
Research: The Journal of the Iberoamerican
Academy of Management, 7(1), 49–59.
Vassolo, R. S., De Castro, J. O., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R.
(2011). Managing in Latin America: Common
issues and a research agenda. The Academy of
Management Perspectives, 25(4), 22–36.
Vergara del Río, M. (1998). Productividad, salarios y
negociación colectiva. Temas Laborales, 10.
Retrieved from: http://www.dt.gob.cl/documenta-
c i o n / 1 6 1 2 / a r t i c l e s - 6 0 3 4 3 _ Te m a _ L a b o r a l _
Productividad_Salarios_Negoc_Col.pdf [accessed
16 June 2014].
White, R. P. & Shullman, S. L. (2010). Acceptance of
uncertainty as an indicator of effective leadership.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and
Research, 62(2), 94–104.
Yáber, G. (2006). Psicología Industrial-Organizacional.
In G. Peña et al. (Eds.), Una Introducción a la
Psicología (pp. 463–75). Caracas: UCAB.
Zanelli, J. C. (1994). Movimentos emergentes na
prática dos psicólogos brasileiros nas organizações
de trabalho: Implicações para a formação. In A. E.
V. A. Güntert (Ed.), Psicólogo Brasileiro: Práticas
Emergentes e Desafios para a Formação (2nd ed.,
pp. 101–94). São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo.
Zanelli, J. C., Bastos, A. V. B., & Rodrigues, A. C. A.
(2014). Campo profissional do psicologia em
organizações e trabalho. In J. C. Zanelli, J. E.
Borges-Andrade, & A. V. B. Bastos (Eds.),
Psicologia, Organizações e Trabalho no Brasil (2nd
ed., pp. 549–82). Porto Alegre: Artmed.