Chapter 5 – Software Quality Assurance and Security (14 MARKS)

5.1 Project Scheduling

Software project scheduling can be defined as an activity that distributes the
estimated effort across the planned project duration by allocating the effort to
specific software engineering tasks.
5.1.1 Project Scheduling Principles
There are seven principles of software project scheduling :
1. COMPARTMENTALIZATION:
 A given software project is compartmentalized into a number of
manageable activities.
 The project is divided into a number of small tasks.
2. INTERDEPENDENCY:
 Interdependent tasks are accomplished first.
 Certain tasks occur in sequence whereas other tasks occur in parallel.
 Therefore tasks which occur in sequence has to be performed in a
sequential order since the output of one task will be the input of the next
task.
 Other tasks can occur independently.
3. TIME ALLOCATION:
 Each and every task has to be assigned a specific time period i.e a start
date and a completion date based on whether the work will be performed
in a full time or part time basis.
4. EFFORT VALIDATION:
 Every project is assigned to a software team.
 The project manager has to make sure that the effort allocated should not
be more than the number of people available to do the work.
5. DEFINED RESPONSIBILITIES:
 Each of the scheduled tasks is assigned to a specific member of the
software team.
6. DEFINED OUTCOMES:
 Each task has a defined outcome.
 Work product is the outcome of a software project.
7. DEFINED MILESTONES:
 Every task is associated with a milestone.
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  A milestone is an action or event marking a significant change in
development process.
In short we can state the principles as compartmentalization—
define distinct tasks interdependency—indicate task
interrelationship „
Time Allocation – allocate time (start and end ) to every task.
effort validation—be sure resources are available „
defined responsibilities—people must be assigned „
defined outcomes—each task must have an output
„ defined milestones review for quality
5.1.2 Work Breakdown Structure
Definition: The process of dividing complex projects to simpler and
manageable tasks is called as Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).

 Usually, the project managers use this method for simplifying the
project execution.
 In WBS, much larger tasks are broken down to manageable chunks
of work.
 These chunks can be easily supervised and estimated.
 WBS is not restricted to a specific field when it comes to application.
 This methodology can be used for any type of project management.

Following are a few reasons for creating a WBS in a project:

 Accurate and readable project organization.
 Accurate assignment of responsibilities to the project team.
 Indicates the project milestones and control points.
 Helps to estimate the cost, time and risk.
 Illustrate the project scope, so the stakeholders can have a better
understanding of the same.

Construction of a WBS
 Identifying the main deliverables of a project is the starting point for
deriving a work breakdown structure.
 This important step is usually done by the project managers and the
subject matter experts (SMEs) involved in the project.
 Once this step is completed, the subject matter experts start breaking
down the high-level tasks into smaller chunks of work.
 In the process of breaking down the tasks, one can break them down
into different levels of detail.
 One can detail a high-level task into ten sub-tasks while another can
detail the same high-level task into 20 sub-tasks.

 Therefore, there is no hard and fast rule on how you should

breakdown a task in WBS.
 Rather, the level of breakdown is a matter of the project type and the
management style followed for the project.
 In general, there are a few "rules" used for determining the smallest
task chunk.

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  In "two weeks" rule, nothing is broken down smaller than two
weeks worth of work. This means, the smallest task of the WBS is at
least two-week long.
 8/80 is another rule used when creating a WBS. This rule implies that
no task should be smaller than 8 hours of work and should not be
larger than 80 hours of work.
 One can use many forms to display their WBS.
 Some use tree structure to illustrate the WBS, while others use lists
and tables.
 Outlining is one of the easiest ways of representing a WBS.

Following example is an outlined WBS:

There are many design goals for WBS. Some important goals are as
follows:
 Giving visibility to important work efforts.
 Giving visibility to risky work efforts.
 Illustrate the correlation between the activities and deliverables.
 Show clear ownership by task leaders.

WBS Diagram
 In a WBS diagram, the project scope is graphically expressed.
 Usually the diagram starts with a graphic object or a box at the top,
which represents the entire project.
 Then, there are sub-components under the box. These boxes
represent the deliverables of the project.
 Under each deliverable, there are sub-elements listed. These sub-
elements are the activities that should be performed in order to
achieve the deliverables.
 Although most of the WBS diagrams are designed based on the
deliveries, some WBS are created based on the project phases.
 Usually, information technology projects are perfectly fit into WBS
model. Therefore, almost all information technology projects make
use of WBS.
 In addition to the general use of WBS, there is specific objective for
deriving a WBS.
 WBS is the input for Gantt charts, a tool that is used for project
management purpose.
 Gantt chart is used for tracking the progression of the tasks derived
by WBS.
Following is a sample WBS diagram:
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 5.1.3 Activity Network
An Activity Network Diagram (AND) is also called an Arrow Diagram
(because the pictorial display has arrows in it) or a PERT (Program
Evaluation Review Technique) Diagram, and it is used for identifying time
sequences of events which are pivotal to objectives.
In Critical Path Analysis this helps the teams to comprehend or understand
specific event sequences driving time requirements for objective
achievement.
Activity Network Diagrams are also very useful when a project has multiple
activities which need simultaneous management.
Activity Network Diagrams started out as an engineering and construction
project management tool.
Critical Path Analysis draws on this methodology to identify and
standardize medical management activities.
An Activity Network Diagram helps to find out the most efficient sequence of
events needed to complete any project. It enables you to create a realistic
project schedule by graphically showing :

 the total amount of time needed to complete the project

 the sequence in which tasks must be carried out
 which tasks can be carried out at the same time
 which are the critical tasks that you need to keep an eye on.

Example of Activity Network Diagram

A project is composed of a set of actions or tasks which usually have some kind
of interdependency. For example, before an axle can be turned, it must first be
designed, the metal must be purchased, etc. This type of complex system is
much easier to understand through the use of diagrams than through textual
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description, as actual interconnections between tasks can be shown. You can
draw the activity network diagram easily with Edraw software.

 The Activity Network diagram displays interdependencies between

tasks through the use of boxes and arrows.
 Arrows pointing into a task box come from its predecessor tasks,
which must be completed before the task can start.
 Arrows pointing out of a task box go to its successor tasks, which
cannot start until at least this task is complete.

Activity Network Diagram Drawing Rule

 All the preceding activities must be completed before the project can
begin.
 The arrows represent the logical precedence of the project.
5.1.4 Critical Path Method (CPM)
The Critical Path Method (CPM) can help you keep your projects on track.
Critical path schedules will...
 Help you identify the activities that must be completed on time in
order to complete the whole project on time.
 Show you which tasks can be delayed and for how long without
impacting the overall project schedule.
 Calculate the minimum amount of time it will take to complete the
project.
 Tell you the earliest and latest dates each activity can start on in
order to maintain the schedule.
The Critical Path Method has four key elements...
 Critical Path Analysis
 Float Determination
 Early Start & Early Finish Calculation
 Late Start & Late Finish Calculation

Critical Path Analysis

The critical path is the sequence of activities with the longest duration.
A delay in any of these activities will result in a delay for the whole
project.
Below are some critical path examples to help you understand the key
elements...

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Using the Critical Path Method (CPM)
The duration of each activity is listed above each node in the diagram.
For each path, add the duration of each node to determine it's total duration.
The critical path is the one with the longest duration.
There are three paths through this project...

Advantages of CPM:
1. It helps in determining the time schedule of activities having sequential
relationship.
2. It makes control easier for the management.
3. It identifies the most critical elements in the project. Thus, the management
is kept alert and prepared to pay due attention to the critical activities of the
project.
4. It makes better and detailed planning possible.
Limitation of CPM:
1. CPM operates on the assumption that there is a precise known time that each
activity in the project will take. But, it may not be true in real practice.
2. CPM time estimates are not based on statistical analysis.
3. It cannot be used as a controlling device for the simple reason that any
change introduced will change the entire structure of network. In other words,
CPM cannot be used as a dynamic controlling device.
5.1.5 Program Evaluation & Review Technique (PERT)
The program (or project) evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a
statistical tool used in project management, which was designed to analyze
and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project.
First developed by the United States Navy in the 1950s, it is commonly used in
conjunction with the critical path method (CPM).

PERT is a method of analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given

project, especially the time needed to complete each task, and to identify the
minimum time needed to complete the total project.
It incorporates uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project
while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities.
It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and
completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where time is the major
factor rather than cost.
It is applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine
infrastructure and Research and Development projects.
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Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) offers a management tool,
which relies "on arrow and node diagrams of activities and events:
arrows represent the activities or work necessary to reach the events or
nodes that indicate each completed phase of the total project."
Following is an example PERT chart:

The possibilities of PERT are listed below:

There are three estimates involved in PERT:
1. Optimistic Time Estimate (TOPT),
2. Most Likely Time Estimate (TLIKELY), and
3. Pessimistic Time Estimate (TPESS).

In PERT, these three estimate times are derived for each activity.
This way, a range of time is given for each activity with the most probable
value, TLIKELY.
Following are further details on each estimate:
1. TOPT
This is the fastest time an activity can be completed. For this, the assumption is
made that all the necessary resources are available and all predecessor
activities are completed as planned.
2. TLIKELY
Most of the times, project managers are asked only to submit one estimate. In
that case, this is the estimate that goes to the upper management.
3. TPESS
This is the maximum time required to complete an activity. In this case, it is
assumed that many things go wrong related to the activity. A lot of rework and
resource unavailability are assumed when this estimation is derived.

Advantages
 PERT chart explicitly defines and makes
visible dependencies (precedence relationships) between the work
breakdown structure (commonly WBS) elements.
 PERT facilitates identification of the critical path and makes this visible.
 PERT facilitates identification of early start, late start, and slack for
each activity.
 PERT provides for potentially reduced project duration due to better
understanding of dependencies leading to improved overlapping of
activities and tasks where feasible.
 The large amount of project data can be organized and presented in
diagram for use in decision making.
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  PERT can provide a probability of completing before a
given time. Disadvantages
 There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and
individual dependency relationships.
 PERT is not easily scalable for smaller projects.
 The network charts tend to be large and unwieldy, requiring
several pages to print and requiring specially-sized paper.
 The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/CPM charts makes it
harder to show status, although colours can help, e.g., specific
colour for completed nodes.

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