Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action 2 Volume Set Interacting With The Dead and The Living 1St Edition Roberto C Parra Full Chapter

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Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action
ffirs_v1.indd 1 12/2/2019 4:50:37 PM

Published and forthcoming titles in the Forensic Science in Focus series
Published
The Global Practice of Forensic Science
Douglas H. Ubelaker (Editor)
Forensic Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications
Jay A. Siegel (Editor)
Forensic Microbiology
David O. Carter, Jeffrey K. Tomberlin, M. Eric Benbow and Jessica L. Metcalf
(Editors)
Forensic Anthropology: Theoretical Framework and Scientific Basis
Clifford Boyd and Donna Boyd (Editors)
The Future of Forensic Science
Daniel A. Martell (Editor)
Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action: Interacting with the Dead and the Living
Roberto C. Parra, Sara C. Zapico and Douglas H. Ubelaker (Editors)
Forthcoming
Forensic Anthropology and the U.S. Judicial System

Laura C. Fulginiti, Alison Galloway and Kristen Hartnett‐McCann (Editors)
Humanitarian Forensics and Human Identification
Paul Emanovsky and Shuala M. Drawdy (Editors)
ffirs_v1.indd 2 12/2/2019 4:50:37 PM

Forensic Science and
Humanitarian Action:
Interacting with the Dead and
the Living
Volume 1
EDITED BY
Roberto C. Parra
Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (OHCHR), United Nations; and
Bioarchaeology and Stable Isotope Research Laboratory, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
Sara C. Zapico
Florida International University, International Forensic Research Institute, Miami, USA
Douglas H. Ubelaker
Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA
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This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law.
Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/
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The right of Roberto C. Parra*, Sara C. Zapico and Douglas H. Ubelaker to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
*The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Parra, Roberto C., 1979– editor. | Zapico, Sara C., editor. |
Ubelaker, Douglas H., editor.
Title: Forensic science and humanitarian action : interacting with the dead
and the living / edited by Roberto C. Parra, Sara C. Zapico, Douglas H. Ubelaker.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2020. |
Series: Forensic science in focus | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019030283 (print) | LCCN 2019030284 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119481966 (cloth ; 2 vol. set) | ISBN 9781119481942 (adobe pdf) |
ISBN 9781119482024 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Forensic sciences. | Forensic anthropology. |
Dead–Identification. | Humanitarian assistance.
Classification: LCC HV8073 .F58355 2020 (print) | LCC HV8073 (ebook) |
DDC 363.25–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019030283
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019030284
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Sandipkumar Patel/Getty Images; © Christos Georghiou/Shutterstock
Set in 10.5/13.5pt Meridien by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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In memory of:
María Isabel Chorobik de Mariani (Chicha), Mendoza, Argentina, 19 November
1923 – 20 August 2018.
Angelica Mendoza de Azcarsa (Mama Angelica), Ayacucho, Peru, 1 October
1929 – 28 August 2017.
We also dedicate this book to Enriqueta Estela Barnes de Carlotto, President of the
association Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (Argentina), and Adelina Garcia Mendoza,
President of the Asociación Nacional de Familiares de Secuestrados, Detenidos y
Desaparecidos del Perú (ANFASEP), and to all the members of those
organisations:
… emblematic women to whom we pay tribute and dedicate this book. They used
all their efforts to find them, saw and suffered the tragedy, the humanitarian
need, and the need for truth. They were visionary and promoted the use of science
in looking for them.
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Contents
About the editors, xxv

About the contributors, xxvii
Foreword – Peter Maurer, lvii
Foreword – Susan M. Ballou, lix
Foreword – Oran Finegan, lxiii
Series preface, lxvii
Preface, lxix
Acknowledgements, lxxv
Section I History, theory, practice and legal foundation, 1

1 Using forensic science to care for the dead and search for the missing:
In conversation with Morris Tidball‐Binz, 3
Morris Tidball‐Binz
Afterword, 20
Acknowledgement, 22
References, 23
2 The protection of the missing and the dead under international law, 25
Ximena Londoño Romanowsky and Marisela Silva Chau
2.1 Introduction, 25
2.2 The protection of the missing and the dead under international law, 26
2.2.1 The protection of the missing under international law, 26
2.2.2 The protection of the dead under international law, 28
2.3 The families at the center of the humanitarian action, 32
2.3.1 The needs of the families, 32
2.3.2 ICRC action in favor of the families, 33
2.4 Conclusion, 34
References, 34
3 Extraordinary deathwork: New developments in, and the social
significance of, forensic humanitarian action, 37
Claire Moon
3.2 Field constitution: new developments, 37
3.3 (Extra-ordinary) deathwork, 42
3.4 Conclusions, 46
References, 47
vii
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viii Contents
4 Between darts and bullets: A bioarchaeological view on the study

of human rights and IHL violations, 49
María del Carmen Vega Dulanto
4.2 What is violence?, 49
4.3 How do bioarchaeologists study violence?, 50
4.3.1 The skeletal data, 51
4.3.2 Interpreting violence, 52
4.3.3 Social theory, 54
4.4 A + B = violence?, 55
4.5 Bioarchaeological vs. clinical and forensic perspectives, 56
References, 58
5 Posthumous dignity and the importance in returning remains
of the deceased, 67
Sian Cook
5.1.1 Conceptualizing posthumous dignity, 67
5.1.2 Assumptions for the existence of dignity after death, 70
5.2 Posthumous dignity, 71
5.2.1 Deconstructing posthumous dignity, 71
5.2.2 Duties of the living regarding the deceased, 72
5.3 The concept of moral injury, 72
5.4 The concept of human remains as a boundary object, 74
5.5 Theoretical framework regarding safeguarding dignity of the deceased, 74
5.6 The importance of returning remains of the deceased, 75
5.7 Conclusion, 76
References, 76
6 Unidentified deceased persons: Social life, social death and
humanitarian action, 79
Roberto C. Parra, Élisabeth Anstett, Pierre Perich and Jane E. Buikstra
6.2 The social life of dead bodies, 81
6.2.1 Matter inside of place, 84
6.3 The social death of the dead, 86
6.4 Unidentified dead bodies and deposit sites, 89
6.5 Dignifying the life of the dead, 93
6.5.1 Rescue and burial as a humanitarian mechanism, 93
6.6 Conclusion, 95
Acknowledgement, 96
References, 96
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Contents ix
7 A forensic perspective on the new disappeared: Migration revisited, 101

Jose Pablo Baraybar, Inés Caridi and Jill Stockwell
7.2 Framing the tragedy: Data challenges, 103
7.3 Framing the tragedy: The missing and the dead, 104
7.4 Tracing and identification, 105
7.5 Complex networks and migration, 107
7.5.1 Example 1: People related to a particular event/series
of events, 107
7.5.2 Example 2: Inferring unknown information of individuals
through the network, 108
7.5.3 Example 3: Tracing missing migrants, 109
7.6 A non‐body centred forensic response?, 111
7.7 Conclusion, 112
Acknowledgement, 114
References, 114
8 Iran: The impact of the beliefscape on the risk culture, resilience
and disaster risk governance, 117
Michaela Ibrion
8.2 Risk culture, 118
8.3 Resilience, 118
8.4 Disaster risk governance, 119
8.5 Beliefscape in Iran, 119
8.5.1 Evil eyes, illness and death, 120
8.5.2 Death and funerary rituals, 121
8.5.3 Graves, cemeteries, dead and living people, 124
8.5.4 Washing the dead: technology and controversies, 124
8.5.5 Food offerings, the death passage rites and rituals and death
commemorations, 125
8.5.6 Earthquake disasters and dead people, 125
8.5.7 Moharam (muharram) and the commemoration of pain and dramatic
death of Imam Hussain, 127
8.5.8 Death, funeral ceremonies, controversies and three national figures
of Iran: Reza Shah Pahlavi, Mohammad Mossadeq and Gholam
Reza Takhti, 129
8.6 Discussions and concluding remarks, 132
References, 133
9 The search for the missing from a humanitarian approach as a Peruvian
national policy, 135
Mónica Liliana Barriga Pérez
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x Contents
9.2 Peruvian scenario regarding the search for missing persons, 136
9.3 Progress made by the DGBPD, 139
9.4 Conclusion, 142
10 Humanitarian forensic action in the Marawi crisis, 143
Sarah Ellingham and Derek C. Benedix
10.2 The Philippine forensic response capacity, 144
10.2.1 The Management of the Dead and Missing (MDM) Cluster, 144
10.2.2 Forensic human identification in the Philippines, 145
10.3 The conflict in Mindanao and the Marawi crisis, 147
10.4 Forensic humanitarian response to the Marawi crisis, 148
10.4.1 Body recovery, 149
10.4.2 Logistical challenges for post‐mortem documentation
and disposition of the dead, 149
10.4.3 Religious considerations, 150
10.4.4 Ante‐mortem data (AMD) collection, 151
10.5 Discussion, 152
Acknowledgements, 154
References, 154
Section II Forensic basic information to trace missing persons, 157
11 Integration of information on missing persons and unidentified human

remains: Best practices, 159
Diana Emilce Ramírez Páez
11.2 The integration of information, 160
11.2.1 Conceptualization, 160
11.2.2 The information integration process, 161
11.3 Premises to take into account, 163
11.3.1 Ante‐mortem and post‐mortem information can
be completed, 163
11.3.2 Collecting ante‐mortem and post‐mortem information
is a specialized process, 164
11.3.3 All data must be cross‐checked, 164
11.3.4 The technical cross‐checking process is cyclical until all missing
persons are located and found, 164
11.4 Best practices, 164
11.4.1 Normative, 165
11.4.2 Awareness of data quality, 165
11.4.3 Systematizing information, 165
11.4.4 Category agreement, 165
11.4.5 Homologation of variables, 166
11.4.6 Assignment of roles and/or responsibilities, 166
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Contents xi
11.4.7 Selection of qualified staff, 166

11.4.8 Information system training, 167
11.4.9 Monitoring information and computer systems, 167
11.4.10 Information cross‐checking expert report, 167
Appendix: Colombian normative references, 168
12 Forensic archaeology and humanitarian context: Localization,
recovery and documentation of human remains, 171
Flavio Estrada Moreno and Patricia Maita
12.2 Localization and recovery strategies, 172
12.3 Sites with human remains and their associated elements, 173
12.4 Recovery of human remains, 175
12.5 Recording human remains, 176
12.5.1 Body deposition, 176
12.5.2 Body position, 176
12.5.3 Orientation of the body, 177
12.6 Recording associated elements, 177
12.7 Disposal container, 178
12.8 Recording forensic deposits, 178
12.9 Evaluating relative chronology, 180
12.10 Conclusions and recommendations, 181
References, 181
13 Applications of physiological bases of aging to forensic science:
New advances, 183
Sara C. Zapico, Douglas H. Ubelaker and Joe Adserias‐Garriga
13.2 Chemical methodologies, 184
13.2.1 Aspartic acid racemization, 184
13.2.2 Lead accumulation, 185
13.2.3 Collagen cross‐links, 186
13.2.4 Chemical composition of teeth, 186
13.2.5 Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), 187
13.3 Molecular biology methodologies, 188
13.3.1 Telomere shortening, 188
13.3.2 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations, 188
13.3.3 sjTREC rearrangements, 189
13.3.4 Epigenetic modifications, 190
13.4 Conclusion, 191
References, 191
14 Adult skeletal sex estimation and global standardization, 199
Heather M. Garvin and Alexandra R. Klales
14.2 Sexual size dimorphism, 200
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xii Contents
14.3 Morphological traits, 201

14.4 Global standardization, 204
References, 206
15 Sexual dimorphism in juvenile skeletons and its real problem, 211
Flavio Estrada Moreno
15.2 Is it possible to estimate the sex of subadults based on morphological
characteristics of the jaw and the ilium?, 212
15.3 From what age range is it possible to estimate sex in subadult skeletal
remains? Skeletal growth, bone maturation and sex steroids, 213
15.4 What is the degree of precision and reliability of the visual criteria used
to estimate sex in subadult skeletal remains? What criteria are
applicable to forensic contexts?, 215
15.5 Comments and discussion, 216
15.6 Conclusions, 216
References, 217
16 Dental aging methods and population variation, 219
Joe Adserias‐Garriga and Joel Tejada
16.2 Dental age estimation: its application in forensic science, 221
16.3 Tooth developmental changes, 221
16.4 Dental age estimation methods using tooth development
and eruption, 223
16.5 Post‐formation changes in dental tissues, 226
16.6 Methods of dental age estimation using tooth post‐formation changes, 227
16.7 Dental age estimation methods and their application in forensic
casework, 229
References, 230
17 Age assessment in unaccompanied minors: A review, 235
José Luis Prieto
17.2 Age assessment methods in unaccompanied minors, 236
17.3 Age definition: What does age mean?, 240
17.4 Choosing a suitable method, 241
17.5 Forensic age assessment medical methods, 242
17.5.1 Interview and medical history, 243
17.5.2 Physical examination, 243
17.5.3 Dental development, 244
17.5.4 Skeletal maturation, 247
17.6 Final estimation and report, 250
References, 251
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Contents xiii
18 Forensic complex scenarios and technological innovation:

Brief case report from Colombia, 257
Ginna P. Camacho Cortés, Luz Adriana Pérez and Diana Arango Gómez
18.2 Case 1: Predictive spatial and statistical modeling (MESP) as a tool
to support the search for missing persons in the department
of Casanare, 258
18.3 Case 2: Modeling the estimated universe of persons reported missing:
The cases of Casanare and Norte de Santander, 262
18.4 Case 3: Proposal for the retrospective and integrated analysis
of environmental and contextual elements for a differential forensic
genetic approach, 264
18.5 Case 4: Tools for the forensic analysis of cases of alleged extrajudicial
executions, 267
References, 270
Section III Stable isotope forensics and the search for missing persons, 273
19 The role of stable isotope analysis in forensic anthropology, 275

Douglas H. Ubelaker and Caroline Francescutti
19.2 Trace element analysis, 276
19.3 Diet and isotopic analysis, 277
19.4 Variation within individuals, 278
19.4.1 Quality control, 278
19.4.2 Residence, 279
19.5 Summary, 280
References, 280
20 Basic principles of stable isotope analysis in humanitarian forensic
science, 285
Lesley A. Chesson, Wolfram Meier‐Augenstein, Gregory E. Berg,
Clement P. Bataille, Eric J. Bartelink and Michael P. Richards
20.2 Background on isotopes, 286
20.3 Isotopes in human tissue, 288
20.4 Longer‐term “memory” tissues: Bone and teeth, 292
20.4.1 Oxygen isotopic composition of bioapatite, 292
20.4.2 Carbon isotopic composition of bioapatite and collagen, 294
20.4.3 Caveats for the oxygen isotope analysis of bone and teeth, 296
20.5 Shorter‐term “memory” tissues: Hair and nail, 297
20.5.1 Hydrogen isotopic composition of hair and nail, 298
20.5.2 Caveats for the hydrogen isotope analysis of hair and nail, 299
20.5.3 Carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions of hair and nail, 300
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xiv Contents
20.5.4 Caveats for the carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of hair

and nail, 301
20.5.5 Strontium and lead isotopic compositions of human tissue, 302
References, 303
21 Andean isoscapes: Creating and testing oxygen isoscape models to aid in
the identification of missing persons in Peru, 311
James Zimmer‐Dauphinee, Beth K. Scaffidi and Tiffiny A. Tung
21.1.1 Stable oxygen isotope values in dentition, 312
21.1.2 Stable oxygen isotopes and the landscape, 313
21.2 Materials and methods, 314
21.2.1 Description of the datasets, 314
21.2.2 Methods, 317
21.3 Results, 318
21.3.1 Overview description of the stable oxygen isotope
data from surface water, 318
21.3.2 Ordinary kriging model, 320
21.3.3 Multiple linear regression model, 322
21.3.4 Regression kriging model, 322
21.3.5 Testing the model with archaeological samples, 324
21.4.1 Predicting source of water samples vs. archaeological human
samples, 325
References, 327
22 The period of violence in Peru (1980–2000): Applying isotope
analysis and isoscapes in forensic cases of the unidentified deceased, 331
Martha R. Palma, Tiffiny A. Tung, Lucio A. Condori and Roberto C. Parra
22.2 The Peruvian Conflict and the government response, 332
22.3 The search for missing persons: “Families remain walking”, 334
22.4 Applying new isotopic techniques to aid in identifying victims’
bodies in Peru, 335
22.4.1 Stable oxygen isotopes and strontium isotopes, 336
22.4.2 Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes, 338
22.5 Integrating traditional and non‐traditional methods to identify missing
persons in Peru, 339
References, 341
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Contents xv
23 Utility of stable isotope ratios of tap water and human hair in determining
region of origin in Central and Southern Mexico: Modeling relationships
between δ2H and δ18O isotope inputs in modern Mexican hair, 345
Chelsey Juarez, Robin Ramey, David T. Flaherty and Belinda S. Akpa
23.2 Water stress in Mexico, 346
23.3 Tuning parameters in mathematical models used for provenance
analysis, 348
23.4 Extension to analysis of hair isotopes in the absence of paired water
samples, 348
23.5.1 Isotope mapping procedure, 352
23.5.2 Analysis and discussion, 356
23.6 Estimation of credible parameter values by approximate Bayesian
computation, 359
23.7 Results obtained using the established US supermarket diet, 360
23.8 Results achieved by estimating international diet, drinking water,
and regional diet isotopes, 361
References, 364
24 Multi‐isotope approaches for region‐of‐origin predictions of undocumented
border crossers from the US–Mexico border: Biocultural perspectives on
diet and travel history, 369
Eric J. Bartelink, Lesley A. Chesson, Brett J. Tipple, Sarah Hall and Robyn T. Kramer
24.2 SIA as an investigative tool for undocumented border crossers, 371
24.2.1 Assumptions of SIA for provenancing studies, 371
24.2.2 Bio‐elements and geo‐elements used for geolocation, 372
24.3 Samples and analytical methods, 373
24.4 Results, 375
24.5 Case studies, 377
24.6 Summary and future research directions, 381
References, 382
25 Spatial distribution of stable isotope values of human hair: Tools for region‐
of‐origin and travel history assignment, 385
Luciano O. Valenzuela, Lesley A. Chesson, Gabriel Bowen, Thure E. Cerling and
James R. Ehleringer
25.2 Why hair?, 386
25.3 Methods, 388
25.4 How is isotopic information incorporated into hair?, 388
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xvi Contents
25.4.1 Carbon, 389

25.4.2 Nitrogen, 389
25.4.3 Sulfur, 390
25.4.4 Body water, 390
25.4.5 Oxygen, 391
25.4.6 Hydrogen, 392
25.4.7 Integrated signal, 392
25.5 Geographical and population patterns of δ13C, δ15N and δ34S
values, 393
25.5.1 From continents to cities, 395
25.5.2 From cities to individuals, 396
25.6 Geographical patterns of δ18O and δ2H values, 397
25.7 Individual deviations from expected patterns, 400
25.8 Travel history, 401
25.9 Solved forensic investigations, 403
25.10 Final considerations, 403
25.10.1 How fixed are the geographical patterns of δ13C, δ15N
and δ34S values?, 403
25.10.2 Seasonal stability of drinking water δ18O and δ2H values, 404
25.10.3 Bundling and analysing very long hair, 405
25.10.4 Fingernails vs. hair, 405
References, 406
26 Applicability of stable isotope analysis to the Colombian human
identification crisis, 411
Daniel Castellanos Gutiérrez, Elizabeth A. DiGangi and Jonathan D. Bethard
26.2 Stable isotopes in human provenance, 412
26.3 Human tissues appropriate for isotope studies, 415
26.4 Colombian geography, 416
26.5 The Colombian conflict and the missing, 418
26.6 Stable isotopes and identification in Colombia: Initial research
efforts, 418
26.7 Final remarks, 420
References, 422
27 Application of stable isotopes and geostatistics to infer region of geographical
origin for deceased undocumented Latin American migrants, 425
Robyn T. Kramer, Eric J. Bartelink, Nicholas P. Herrmann, Clement P. Bataille and
Kate Spradley
27.2 Stable isotopes, provenancing studies, and isoscapes, 426
27.2.1 Strontium and geological mapping, 427
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Contents xvii
27.2.2 Oxygen isotopes and precipitation, 429

27.2.3 Dual‐isotope maximum likelihood estimation
assignment model, 430
27.3.1 Sample, 431
27.3.2 Isotope sample preparation, 432
27.3.3 87Sr/86Sr isoscape, 433
27.3.4 δ18O isoscape, 433
27.4 Results, 433
27.4.1 OpID‐0383, 433
27.4.2 OpID‐0608, 435
27.5 Discussion and conclusions, 435
References, 437
28 Tracking geographical patterns of contemporary human diet in Brazil using
stable isotopes of nail keratin, 441
Gabriela Bielefeld Nardoto, João Paulo Sena‐Souza, Lesley A. Chesson and Luiz
Antonio Martinelli
28.2 Isotope procedures, 443
28.3 Scientific basis for isotope data interpretation, 444
28.4 Geographic peculiarities in stable isotope ratios of fingernails, 446
28.4.1 Brazilian Amazon, 446
28.4.2 Northeastern Brazil, 447
28.4.3 Central Brazil, 447
28.5 Brazilian isoscapes, 448
28.5.1 Primary source isoscapes, 448
28.5.2 Source‐consumer isoscapes, 451
28.6 Final considerations, 452
References, 453
Section IV DNA analysis and the forensic identification process, 457
29 Phenotypic markers for forensic purposes, 459

Ana Freire‐Aradas, Christopher Phillips, Victoria Lareu Huidobro and Ángel Carracedo
29.2 Biogeographical origin, 459
29.3 Externally visible characteristics, 463
29.3.1 Eye colour prediction, 463
29.3.2 Hair colour prediction, 464
29.3.3 Skin colour prediction, 465
29.3.4 Additional externally visible characteristics, 465
29.4 Individual age, 466
References, 469
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xviii Contents
30 Genetic structure and kinship analysis from the Peruvian Andean area:
Limitations and recommendation for DNA identification of missing
persons, 473
Gian Carlo Iannacone and Roberto C. Parra
30.2 Previous factors for matching success in the context of genetic
structure, 475
30.3 Substructure and matching between genetic profile databases
(Factor 3), 477
30.4 Origin of Peruvian population and the genetic structure
(Factor 3), 479
30.5 Admixture of Peruvian population and the genetic structure
(Factor 3), 483
30.6 Matching of genetic profiles in the context of genetic similarity
(Factor 3), 485
References, 487
31 Short tandem repeat markers applied to the identification of human
remains, 491
William Goodwin, Hassain M.H. Alsafiah and Ali A.H. Al‐Janabi
31.2 Selection of genetic markers, 491
31.3 STR loci and kinship testing, 495
31.4 The strength of DNA evidence, 495
31.5 Limitations of STR loci for the identification of human remains, 498
31.6 Massive parallel sequencing (MPS), 501
31.7 Incorporating DNA analysis into the identification process, 504
References, 506
32 Genetics without non‐genetic data: Forensic difficulties in correct
identification – the Colombian experience, 509
Manuel Paredes López
32.1 Genetics in the identification of bodies associated with the violation
of human rights and international humanitarian law: A humanitarian
challenge, 509
32.2 The integration of genetics into traditional forensic disciplines
specialized in the identification of human remains, 510
32.3 Forensic genetics in the Colombian armed conflict, 512
32.4 Interdisciplinary forensic work is a priority, 513
32.5 Tasks of the forensic geneticist within the interdisciplinary
identification team, 514
32.6 Effects of the overvaluation of the genetic result, 516
32.6.1 False negatives: non‐existent exclusion, 516
32.6.2 False positives and spurious matches in databases, 518
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Contents xix

References, 520
33 Is DNA always the answer?, 521
Caroline Bennett
33.2 The magic of DNA, 522
33.3 DNA as truth, identity and relatedness, 523
33.4 Justice and healing, 525
33.5 Dealing with bodies, 527
33.6 The politics of identification, 529
References, 532
Section V Identifying deceased and finding missing persons, 535
34 Migrant deaths along the Texas/Mexico border: A collaborative approach

to forensic identification of human remains, 537
Kate Spradley and Timothy P. Gocha
34.2 Background, 538
34.2.1 Lack of humanitarian forensic action, 538
34.2.2 Operation Identification (OpID) and the Forensic
Border Coalition (FBC), 540
34.3 Case studies, 541
34.3.1 Case 0387, 541
34.3.2 Case 0383, 543
34.3.3 Hugo Escobar Rodriguez, 544
References, 547
35 The Argentine experience in forensic identification of human remains, 549
Mercedes Salado Puerto, Laura Catelli, Carola Romanini, Magdalena Romero and
Carlos María Vullo
35.2 Methods and challenges in applying forensic genetics, 551
35.3 Databases, data comparisons and reconciliation, 554
References, 558
36 The approach to unidentified dead migrants in Italy, 559
Cristina Cattaneo, Debora Mazzarelli, Lara Olivieri, Danilo De Angelis, Annalisa
Cappella, Albarita Vitale, Giulia Caccia, Vittorio Piscitelli and Agata Iadicicco
36.1.1 The paradox of the largest mass disaster of the past century, 559
36.1.2 The Italian perspective, 561
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xx Contents
36.2 The experimental Italian strategy, 565

36.2.1 Pilot Study 1: AM data collection, 565
36.2.2 Pilot Study 2: PM data collection, 566
36.2.3 Working towards a national approach for the issue of dead
migrants, 567
References, 569
37 Identification of human skeletal remains at the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory, 571
Angi M. Christensen, Ann D. Fasano, Richard B. Marx, John E.B. Stewart,
Lisa G. Bailey and Richard M. Thomas
37.2 Search and recovery – FBI Evidence Response Teams, 572
37.3 Forensic anthropology, 576
37.4 DNA analysis, 581
37.5 Facial approximation, 584
37.6 Additional efforts, 590
References, 591
38 Forensic human identification: An Australian perspective, 593
Soren Blau
38.2 Identification contexts, 593
38.2.1 Long‐term missing persons, 593
38.2.2 Individuals missing following war, 594
38.2.3 Disaster victim identification, 595
38.2.4 Historical figures, 596
38.3 Ante‐ and post‐mortem data, 596
38.3.1 Fingerprint records, 597
38.3.2 Dental records, 597
38.3.3 DNA information, 597
38.4 Forensic anthropology in Australia, 599
38.5 The process of identification in coronial casework, 600
38.6 Research, 601
References, 602
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Contents xxi
39 Forensic identification of human remains in Cyprus: The humanitarian work

of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP), 609
Gülbanu K. Zorba, Theodora Eleftheriou, İstenç Engin, Sophia Hartsioti and
Christiana Zenonos
39.1 Origins and mandate of the CMP, 609
39.2 The project on the exhumation, identification and return of remains
of missing persons, 610
39.3 Investigations on missing persons cases, 611
39.4 Sources of information and challenges, 611
39.5 Locating human remains, 612
39.6 Search for and recovery of remains, 613
39.7 Analysis at the CMP Anthropological Laboratory (CAL), 614
39.8 Challenging cases, 615
39.9 Sampling strategy, 617
39.10 The role of DNA analysis, 617
39.11 Collection of family reference samples, 618
39.12 DNA analysis and the identification process, 618
39.13 Reconciliation of information and identification: Challenges
and approach, 619
39.14 Notification of identification and return of remains, 621
References, 623
40 Forensic human identification during a humanitarian crisis in Guatemala:
the deadly eruption of Volcán de Fuego, 625
Daniel Jiménez
40.2 The context of violence in Guatemala, 626
40.3 The forensic anthropological analysis in
medico‐legal investigation, 627
40.4 The Volcán de Fuego case: Paradigmatic event in Guatemala, 629
References, 633
41 Peruvian forensic experience in the search for missing persons and
the identification of human remains: History, limitations and future
challenges, 635
Roberto C. Parra, Martha R. Palma, Oswaldo Calcina, Joel Tejada, Lucio A. Condori
and Jose Pablo Baraybar
41.2 The development of anthropological–forensic investigations
and the search for missing persons in Peru, 636
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xxii Contents
41.3 Complexity and forensic limitations of the Peruvian case

and the expectations of the relatives, 639
41.4 Future challenges, 648
References, 651
42 Forensic identification of human remains in Uruguay, 653
Alicia Lusiardo, Ximena Salvo Eulacio, Aníbal Gustavo Casanova, Natalia Azziz,
Rodrigo Bongiovanni, Matías López and Sofía Rodríguez
42.2 Forensic identification of human remains in Uruguay, 654
42.3 Roberto Gomensoro Josman case, 655
42.4 Olivar Sena case, 656
42.5 María Claudia García case, 657
42.6 Jonathan Viera case, 658
42.7 Recommendations, 659
References, 660
43 Forensic analysis of the unidentified dead in Costa Rica from 2000 to
the present, 663
Georgina Pacheco‐Revilla and Derek Congram
43.2 Violence in Central and South America, 663
43.3 A complicating factor: Regional migration, 665
43.3.1 Case Study 1, 666
43.3.2 Case Study 2, 671
References, 677
44 Identifying the unknown and the undocumented: The Johannesburg
(South Africa) experience, 681
Desiré M. Brits, Maryna Steyn and Candice Hansmeyer
44.2 Forensic pathology services, 683
44.3 Forensic anthropology, 686
44.4 Discussion and conclusion, 689
References, 691
45 The Colombian experience in forensic human identification, 693
Jairo Vivas Díaz and Claudia Vega Urueña
45.2 Evolution of the forensic human identification process
in Colombia, 694
45.3 Other activities developed for human identification in the country, 698
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Contents xxiii
45.3.1 Cross‐checking or comparison of information for identification

purposes, 698
45.3.2 Forensic intervention of cemeteries, 699
45.4 Cold case: New forensic approach to the Palace of Justice case, 700
45.5 Recent challenges, 701
References, 702
46 The Chilean experience in forensic identification of human remains, 703
Marisol Intriago Leiva, Viviana Uribe Tamblay and Claudia Garrido Varas
46.1 Origins of the legal medical service, 703
46.2 September 1973 and the role of the Servicio Médico Legal (SML), 705
46.3 Family members: Search, justice, memory…, 706
46.4 The 1990–2006 transition to democracy: Family members and
the continuous search for the detained, disappeared and executed, 710
46.5 Identifications via genetics, 712
46.6 Comments, 714
Section VI Conclusions, 715
47 Humanitarian action: New approaches from forensic science, 717

Douglas H. Ubelaker, Sara C. Zapico and Roberto C. Parra
47.2 History, 718
47.3 Theoretical foundation, 719
47.4 The legal and cultural arena, 719
47.5 Regional applications, 720
47.6 Capacity‐building, 720
47.7 Trauma assessment, 721
47.8 Technology, 721
47.9 Expanding areas of application, 722
47.10 Summary, 722
References, 723
Index, 727
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ftoc_1.indd 24 11/27/2019 3:24:12 PM
About the editors
Roberto C. Parra, MA, DLAF, is an anthropologist formed in the School of

Anthropology of the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano in Puno, Peru. He did an
internship during his undergraduate studies at the Centro Mallqui, the bioanthro-
pology foundation of Peru, under the direction of Dr Sonia Guillen and Dr Marvin
Allison. As part of his academic development, he reached the level of physiologist
in the Master’s program in Physiology at the graduate school of the Faculty of
Medicine of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru. Roberto
is a career forensic anthropologist, and received his Master’s degree in Forensic
Anthropology at the graduate school of Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru.
Furthermore, he was certificated by the Latino American Board of Forensic
Anthropology of the Latino American Association of Forensic Anthropology
(ALAF), of which he is an active member and was President for two years.
Roberto has 18 years of experience in the field of forensic sciences, humani-
tarian action and human rights investigations, mainly in management of the dead
in armed conflict, catastrophes and crisis migration. In this capacity he has served
as an expert witness, reporting on more than 1500 cases including air crash and
shipwreck victims, human rights violations and domestic criminal cases. He has
testified in several legal proceedings.
In 2002 he began his forensic career in the Peruvian context as part of the
forensic staff of the Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences of Peru. In
this institution, Roberto has been an assistant in the forensic anthropology
department of the central morgue of Lima, later was national coordinator of the
specialized forensic team, and was also the national coordinator of the Peruvian
forensic response system for disasters, which includes the Peruvian DVI team. For
several years he was analyst at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Forensic
Genetics. Finally, Roberto reached the position of advisor to the head of the
Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences of Peru for the forensic
management of quality and forensic documentation of lethal lesions of external
causes. As part of his scientific advice, he was one of the founders of the Ibero‐
American network of Institutions of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences.
Since 2012, Roberto has developed several international missions in Latin
America, Africa and the Middle East as part of the Staff of the Forensic Unit of the
International Committee of the Red Cross and as part of the staff of forensic sci-
entists of the Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (OHCHR) of the
United Nations. Furthermore, Roberto is a Research Collaborator and Affiliate,
Bioarchaeology and Stable Isotope Research Lab (BSIRL), at Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee.
xxv
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xxvi About the editors
Sara C. Zapico, PhD, D‐ABC, is an Instructor in the Department of Chemistry

and Biochemistry and Graduate Program Director of the Professional Science
Master’s in Forensic Science at Florida International University. She is also a
Research Collaborator at the Anthropology Department of the National Museum
of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. She is part of the Interpol Disaster
Victim Identification group, on the Forensic Genetics and Forensic Pathology and
Anthropology sections. She served as an Associate at the International Committee
of the Red Cross in Geneva, Switzerland. She has authored 22 peer‐reviewed
scientific publications and edited one book in the fields of forensic biochemistry,
forensic anthropology and biomedical sciences. Her research interests focus on the
application of biochemical techniques to forensic anthropology issues like age‐at‐
death estimation and the determination of post‐mortem interval. She collaborates
as a biostatistician in forensic anthropology and fingerprints projects.
Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, is a curator and senior scientist at the Smithsonian
Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, where he
has been employed for nearly four decades. Since 1978, he has served as a consul-
tant in forensic anthropology. In this capacity he has served as an expert witness,
reporting on more than 900 cases, and has testified in numerous legal proceedings.
He is a Professorial Lecturer with the Departments of Anatomy and Anthropology
at the George Washington University, Washington, DC, and is an Adjunct Professor
with the Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan. Dr Ubelaker has published extensively in the general field of human
skeletal biology with an emphasis on forensic applications. He has served on the
editorial boards of numerous leading scientific publications, including the Journal
of Forensic Sciences, the Open Forensic Science Journal, International Journal of Legal
Medicine, Human Evolution, Homo, Journal of Comparative Human Biology, Anthropologie,
International Journal of the Science of Man, Forensic Science Communications, Human
Evolution, and the International Journal of Anthropology and Global Bioethics. Dr
Ubelaker received a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Doctor of Philosophy from the
University of Kansas. He has been a Member of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences since 1974 and achieved the status of Fellow in 1987 in the Physical
Anthropology Section. He served as the 2011–2012 President of the AAFS. He is a
Fellow of the Washington Academy of Sciences and is a Diplomate of the American
Board of Forensic Anthropology. He is a member of the American Association of
Physical Anthropology and the Paleopathology Association.
Dr Ubelaker has received numerous honours including the Memorial Medal of
Dr. Aleš Hrdlička, Humpolec, Czech Republic; the Anthropology Award of the
Washington Academy of Sciences; the T. Dale Stewart Award by the Physical
Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences; the FBI
Director’s Award for Exceptional Public Service; the Federal Highway
Administration Pennsylvania Division Historic Preservation Excellence Award; a
special recognition award from the FBI; and was elected Miembro Honorario of
the Sociedad de Odontoestomatologos Forenses IberoAmericanos and of the
Asociación Latinoamericana de Antropología Forense (ALAF).
fbetw.indd 26 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

About the contributors
Joe Adserias‐Garriga, DDS, PhD, D‐ABFO, is a forensic anthropologist and

forensic odontologist from Spain, where she has directed and lectured in different
postgraduate programs in forensic science. She is an external advisor to Mossos
d’Esquadra (Catalonian Police), who honored her contribution in forensic case-
work. Dr Adserias‐Garriga is currently working as a forensic anthropologist at the
Forensic Anthropology Center, Texas State University, United States. She has con-
ducted research collaborations with different entities in the United States and
Europe. She is an ABFO Diplomate, and cofounder of the International Group of
Forensic Odontology for Human Rights. She is a member of the INTERPOL DVI
Odontology SubWorking Group and the INTERPOL DVI Pathology‐Anthropology
SubWorking Group.
Belinda S. Akpa is an Assistant Professor of Integrated Synthetic and Systems
Biology at North Carolina State University. She holds a BA, MEng, and doctorate
in Chemical Engineering from the University of Cambridge (UK). A highly inter-
disciplinary researcher, her current interest is in developing mathematical frame-
works that integrate heterogeneous data and help connect molecular phenomena
to physiological outcomes. Dr Akpa is broadly interested in mathematical biology,
but more specifically in how statistical and mechanistic approaches can be
combined to frame targeted experimental strategies. By necessity, these efforts
explore the limits of what one can learn from empirical observations and
mathematical models, both independently and in integrative studies.
Ali A.H. Al‐Janabi graduated with a Bachelor of Dentistry in Iraq and then
acquired an MSc in genetics from the University of Baghdad, then going on to
work with the Medicolegal Directorate in Baghdad. Here he specialized in forensic
genetics, working in the Mass Graves Department and also the Crime Scene
Department. He has just returned to the Medicolegal Directorate after completing
his PhD in forensic genetics, optimizing the extraction of DNA from bone material
from mass graves and crime scenes in Iraq.
Hassain M.H. Alsafiah graduated from King Saud University with a BSc in
Biochemistry, and then worked as a forensic geneticist for the Ministry of Interior
in Saudi Arabia. He went on to complete a MSc in Medical Genetics at Glasgow
University and is now studying for a PhD in Forensic Genetics at the University of
Central Lancashire. His research involves studying the population genetics of
Saudi Arabia and the application of next‐generation sequencing. He will return to
be the Head of the Forensic Genetics Laboratory in the Eastern Province, Dammam,
once he has completed his PhD.
xxvii
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xxviii About the contributors
Élisabeth Anstett, PhD, is a social anthropologist, tenured senior researcher at

the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, and Director of
the Corpses of Mass Violence and Genocide programme funded by the European
Research Council. Her recent works deal with the social impact of mass exhuma-
tions, and more broadly with the legacy of genocide and mass violence in Europe.
She co‐edits the Human Remains and Violence book series published by
Manchester University Press, and is also one of the three general editors of Human
Remains & Violence: An Interdisciplinary Journal.
Diana Arango Gómez is a political scientist from the National University of

Colombia with a Master’s degree in Comparative American Studies, University of
London. With experience in research and coordination of networks of civil society
organizations and advocacy in international and national decision spaces.
Executive Director of EQUITAS, Colombia.
Natalia Azziz obtained her degree at the Universidad de la República (Udelar),

Uruguay, in 2013. In 2007, she joined the Forensic Anthropological team in
Uruguay in the search for detained‐disappeared persons during the last military
dictatorship (1973–1985). Natalia has been a full member of the Latin American
Association of Forensic Anthropology (ALAF) since 2014. She has participated in
several meetings and workshops of ALAF. She was also part of the Bioethics
Committee of the Administración de los Servicios de Salud del Estado (ASSE) in
2015–2016. She is currently completing a Master’s degree in Anthropology at the
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación (Udelar).
Lisa G. Bailey, BA, is a forensic artist with the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Laboratory in Quantico, Virginia. She has worked on numerous cases involving
the facial approximation of unidentified remains, composite sketches of unknown
suspects, as well as age‐progressed images of fugitives and missing children. Ms
Bailey was an instructor on the FBI Forensic Facial Imaging Course and an Adjunct
Faculty Member at the FBI Academy. A veteran of the US Navy, she earned her
BA in Visual Art from the University of Maryland and worked as a graphic artist
at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory before joining the
Bureau in 2001.
Jose Pablo Baraybar, PhD, is a Peruvian forensic anthropologist and

Transregional Forensic Coordinator with the ICRC. He worked for the International
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the ex‐Yugoslavia, and was head of the Office
on Missing Persons and Forensics (OMPF) for the United Nations in Kosovo.
Baraybar is a founding member and former Executive Director of the Peruvian
Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF).
Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, D‐ABFA, has taught for 13 years at California State
University, Chico, where he is currently a full professor and co‐director of the
Human Identification Laboratory. He is the President of the American Board of
fbetw.indd 28 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

About the contributors xxix
Forensic Anthropology and serves on the AAFS Board of Directors. His research
interests focus on the bioarchaeology of Native California, dietary reconstruction
using stable isotope analysis, and applications within forensic anthropology. He is
a coauthor of Essentials of Physical Anthropology, Introduction to Physical Anthropology,
and Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice, and has authored and co‐
authored numerous articles in scientific journals.
Clement P. Bataille, PhD, received his MSc in environmental engineering in
2008 from the Institut National Polytechniques de Toulouse (France). He received
his PhD in Geology in 2014 from the University of Utah. He spent two years in
Houston, Texas, working as a geoscientist before returning to academia and taking
up a post‐doctoral fellowship at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He
joined the University of Ottawa as an assistant professor in Earth and Environmental
Sciences in the fall of 2017. His lab group, the SAIVE group (Spatio‐temporal
Analytics of Isotope Variations in the Environment), uses spatiotemporal isotope
variations to (1) develop geolocation tools in ecology and forensic sciences, (2)
investigate weathering processes in rivers, and (3) reconstruct paleoenvironments
in greenhouse periods.
Derek C. Benedix, PhD, ABFA, received his Bachelor of Arts degree in
anthropology from the University of California, Santa Cruz, and his Master of Arts
and Doctorate in physical/forensic anthropology from the University of Tennessee,
Knoxville. Derek is a board‐certified forensic anthropologist by the American
Board of Forensic Anthropology. From 2001 to 2015, Derek worked as a forensic
anthropologist in the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central Identification
Laboratory in both Hawaii and Nebraska. Derek joined the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in September 2015, and has performed
numerous short mission assignments as Forensic Specialist (Manila, Philippines
and Athens, Greece), Regional Forensic Advisor (Kathmandu, Nepal), and
Regional Forensic Manager for Asia and the Pacific (Jakarta, Indonesia).
Caroline Bennett, PhD, is a lecturer in cultural anthropology at Victoria
University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her research considers genocide, violence
and post‐conflict environments, with particular attention paid to mass graves and
the mass dead. Her current research considers mass graves from the Cambodian
genocide of 1975–1979. Prior to undertaking a PhD in social anthropology,
Caroline spent some time working as a forensic anthropologist. She has published
work on disaster victim identification and DNA analysis, justice after genocide,
and dealing with the dead following the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia.
Gregory E. Berg, PhD, earned his BA in anthropology from the University of
Arizona in 1993, his MA from the bioarchaeology program of Arizona State
University in 1999, and his PhD from the University of Tennessee in 2008. He is
currently a laboratory manager and forensic anthropologist at the DPAA Laboratory
in Hawaii where he works on the recovery and identification of missing US
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xxx About the contributors
service personnel. His research has concentrated on ancestry and sex determina-
tion, trauma analysis, aging techniques, human identification and eyewear, intra‐
and inter‐observer error studies, and isotope analysis – all of which are focused on
human identification. He is a diplomate of the American Board of Forensic
Anthropology.
Jonathan D. Bethard, PhD, D‐ABFA, is currently an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Anthropology at the University of South Florida. He received his
PhD in Anthropology from the University of Tennessee‐Knoxville in 2013. Dr
Bethard specializes in forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology and has worked
as a consultant in forensic anthropology for the International Criminal Investigative
Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) in Colombia and Algeria, as well the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Tbilisi, Georgia. He is a Fellow
of the Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, a
Diplomate of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, and a Lifetime
Member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.
Soren Blau, PhD, is the Senior Forensic Anthropologist at the Victorian Institute
of Forensic Medicine. She is an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of
Forensic Medicine at Monash University, Founding Fellow Faculty of Science, The
Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia, and recipient of a Churchill Fellowship
(2013). Soren is also currently the Chair of the Forensic Anthropology Specialists
Working Group and a member of the INTERPOL Disaster Victim Identification
Pathology and Anthropology Sub‐Working Group. In addition to publishing peer‐
reviewed journal articles and numerous book chapters, Soren co‐edited the
Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology and co‐authored An Atlas of
Skeletal Trauma in Medico‐Legal Contexts. Soren undertakes domestic forensic
anthropology casework and has undertaken consultancies for the International
Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
Soren has participated in the recovery and analysis of human remains from
archaeological and forensic contexts in numerous countries, and has delivered
training to forensic practitioners and related stakeholders in Australia and
overseas.
Rodrigo Bongiovanni is an undergraduate student at the Universidad de la
República, Montevideo, Uruguay. He has been working with the Uruguayan team
of Forensic Anthropology since 2009, and had worked on different historical
archaeology projects between 2008 and 2013.
Gabriel Bowen, PhD, is a Professor of Geology and Geophysics and member of
the Global Change and Sustainability Center at the University of Utah, where
he leads the Spatio‐temporal Isotope Analytics Lab (SPATIAL) and serves as
co‐director of the SIRFER stable isotope facility. His research focuses on the use of
spatially and temporally resolved geochemical data to study Earth systems
fbetw.indd 30 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

About the contributors xxxi
processes, ranging from coupled carbon and water cycle change in geological his-
tory to the movements of modern and near‐modern humans. In addition to
fundamental research, he has been active in developing cyberinformatics tools
and training programs supporting the use of large‐scale environmental geochem-
istry data across scientific disciplines, including the waterisotopes.org and IsoMAP.
org websites and the SPATIAL summer course (http://itce.utah.edu).
Desiré M. Brits, PhD, received her BSc Hons and MSc from the University of
Pretoria and her PhD from the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. She
is employed by the University of the Witwatersrand and teaches a number of
courses including morphological anatomy and forensic anthropology to under-
graduate and postgraduate students. Her current research interests include decom-
position and taphonomy in the interior of South Africa, and establishing
identification methods specific for South Africans, using medical image modal-
ities. She recently received a Thuthuka grant from the National Research
Foundation (NRF) South Africa and a grant from the American Academy of
Forensic Sciences (AAFS) Humanitarian and Human Rights Resource Center
(HHRRC) in support of her research. Dr Brits is the coordinator of the Human
Identification Unit (HIU) of the Human Variation and Identification Research Unit
(HVIRU) at the University of the Witwatersrand, and regularly consults on forensic
anthropology cases for the South African Police Service (SAPS) and Forensic
Pathology Services (FPS). Dr Brits is an associate member of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences, a member of the International Academy of Legal
Medicine/Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe (FASE), and a lifetime
member of the Anatomical Society of Southern Africa, where she has served on
Council since 2012.
Jane E. Buikstra, PhD, D‐ABFA, is a regents’ Professor, and member of the
National Academy of Sciences. She is credited with forming the discipline of bio-
archaeology, which applies biological anthropological methods to the study of
archaeology. She was also the founding director of the Center for Bioarchaeological
Research at Arizona State University. The academic prestige of Dr Buikstra is rec-
ognized worldwide due to her important contribution to science. Dr Buikstra’s
international research encompasses bioarchaeology, palaeopathology, forensic
anthropology and palaeodemography. Among her current work is an investiga-
tion of the evolutionary history of ancient tuberculosis in the Americas based on
archaeologically recovered pathogen DNA. Dr Buikstra has recently published
Ortner’s Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. She has
mentored more 55 PhD students, is the president of the Center for American
Archeology and has served as past president of the American Association of
Physical Anthropologists, the American Anthropological Association and the
Paleopathology Association. She is the inaugural editor‐in‐chief of the International
Journal of Paleopathology. She is a certified member by the American Board of
fbetw.indd 31 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

xxxii About the contributors
Forensic Anthropology (ABFA #11). Recent awards include the American

Academy of Forensic Sciences’ T. Dale Stewart Award; the Charles R. Darwin
Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Physical
Anthropologists; the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology Lucy Wharton Drexel Medal; and the Gorjanovic‐Kramberger
Medal in Anthropology, Croatian Society of Anthropology.
Giulia Caccia is a graduate in natural sciences and a PhD student in Environmental
Sciences; she deals in particular with the study of the interaction between body
and environment for forensic purposes through the study of traces. In 2018 she
won a scholarship from the Isacchi Samaja Foundation for the identification of
migrant victims, particularly those of the disaster of 18 April 2015; currently she
is carrying out her research activities in the same laboratory.
Oswaldo Calcina is a Peruvian forensic anthropologist in the Specialized Forensic
Team (EFE) of the Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences (IMLCF) of
the Public Prosecutor’s Office in Peru. From the beginning of his career, Mr Calcina
specialized as an osteologist for the collection that is currently in the EFE. He has
8 years of experience in Ayacucho and Huancavelica in forensic investigation,
recovery and analysis of human remains in post‐conflict contexts. He is also
working with bone trauma analysis in cases of fresh dead bodies. He holds a degree
in anthropology from the Universidad Nacional del Altiplano, and is currently a
candidate for a Master’s degree at the National University of San Cristóbal de
Huamanga‐Ayacucho.
Ginna P. Camacho Cortés is a Biology graduate, Specialist in Criminal
Investigation from Police National School “General Santander”, Specialist in
Forensic Anthropology from National University of Colombia, and Magister in
Bioethics from Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Professor and scientific researcher,
mainly in the study of the estimation of the time of death by entomological
methods, and context analyst in cases of violations of human rights and interna-
tional humanitarian law. Technical Coordinator of EQUITAS, Colombia.
Annalisa Cappella is a biologist, forensic anthropologist, and has a PhD in
Morphological Sciences. She works at LABANOF on identification, injury analysis
and histology. She is a Fullbright Scholar with research on identification of dead
migrants. She participated as anthropologist in the medical forensic activities in
Melilli, Sicily, on the victims of the 18 April 2015 shipwreck.
Inés Caridi, PhD, is a physicist and researcher in the field of complex systems at
the Calculus Institute, University of Buenos Aires, and researcher at CONICET,
Argentina. She specializes in the application of techniques and tools from mathe-
matics and statistical physics to understand social systems in a multidisciplinary
framework.
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About the contributors xxxiii
Ángel Carracedo, PhD, is Professor of Legal Medicine at the University of

Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Director of the Galician Foundation of Genomic
Medicine from 1998 and Director of the Spanish National Genotyping Center, as
well as former director of the Institute of Forensic Science of the University of
Santiago de Compostela. He has published more than 600 papers, including in
Nature, Nature Genetics and Science. He is a highly cited researcher (Thomson &
Reuters 2012) in Molecular Biology and Clinical Medicine and leading scientific
production in Legal Medicine worldwide (Thomson & Reuters, 2001–2010).
Board member and external adviser to various national and international institu-
tions, foundations and societies (President of the IALM, Past President of the
ISFG), and Editor of FSI: Genetics. Prizes and distinctions include: the Jaime I
Award, Adelaide Medal, Galien Medal, National Award on Genetics, Medal
Castelao, Medal of Galicia, Medal to the Police Merit, Galician Prize of Research,
Prismas Award, and various prizes from foundations and scientific societies. Doctor
Honoris Causa for several universities in Europe and the Americas.
Aníbal Gustavo Casanova has a degree in Ciencias Antropológicas from Facultad
de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de la República – Uruguay.
Within the degree program, he chose the research option and specializes in
archaeology, mainly developing two lines of research: historic archaeology and
forensic archaeology. In 2006 he joined the Grupo de Investigación en Antropología
Forense (GIAF), which, as of 2017, has been hired directly by the Office of the
President of the Republic of Uruguay. The duties that he has been developing for
12 years in the area of forensic archaeology are mainly linked to the search for
bone remains from the detained‐disappeared from the civil–military dictatorship
in 1973–1985, specializing in archaeological fieldwork and preliminary research.
Daniel Castellanos Gutiérrez, MA, holds a Bachelor’s degree in anthropology
from the Los Andes University (Colombia) and a Master’s degree in Forensic
Anthropology and Bioarchaeology from the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.
He has worked as a forensic anthropologist with the National Police of Colombia
(Dijin and Interpol) and the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic
Sciences of Colombia. He is currently a Fulbright‐Colciencias Fellow and PhD can-
didate in Biological Anthropology at the State University of New York at
Binghamton. His research interests include the development of biological profile
standards for Colombia and Latin America, and geolocation through stable iso-
topes to search for missing persons and human identification.
Laura Catelli graduated from the National University of Córdoba, Argentina.
She is a biochemist and has been working in the Argentine Forensic Anthropology
Team (EAAF) Forensic DNA Laboratory since 2005, when the laboratory was
founded. At present she is in charge of the mitochondrial DNA analysis area. She
has published scientific articles of forensic genetics interest, in collaboration with
fbetw.indd 33 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

xxxiv About the contributors
her and other scientific workgroups. She has been involved in training sessions in
forensic genetics for analysts from El Salvador, Bolivia, Peru, Vietnam, South
Africa and Chile.
Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, is a forensic pathologist and anthropologist, currently
Full Professor of Legal Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine of the Università degli
Studi di Milano (Italy) and Director of LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e
Odontologia Forense. She has been actively involved with the Italian Ministry of
Internal Affairs in the creation of a national database for unidentified human
remains and since 2014 has been the medico‐legal coordinator for the
Governmental Office of the Commissioner for Missing Persons for the identification
of dead migrants. She also coordinates the medico‐legal activities on victims of
maltreatment, torture and on unaccompanied minors in Milan, Italy. She is a
forensic expert for various courts in Italy and occasionally in Europe, President of
FASE (Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe), member of the Swiss DVI
(Disaster Victim Identification) team and Co‐Editor in Chief for the journal Forensic
Science International.
Thure E. Cerling, PhD, is a biogeochemist at the University of Utah. His work
primarily concerns the use of isotopes to study biological and geological processes
occurring near the Earth’s surface. He has done extensive fieldwork in North
America, Kenya and Pakistan, and other geological and biological studies in
Argentina, Australia, Western Europe and Antarctica. These studies include
cosmic‐ray‐produced isotopes to study geomorphology, chemistry of lakes and
lake sediments, stable isotope studies of diet and of soils, isotope forensics, and
studies of early hominin environments in Africa. He served for 9 years on the US
Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board. He is a member of the US National
Academy of Sciences.
Lesley A. Chesson is an Isotope Analyst employed with PAE and working at the
Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA) in Hawaii. She received her BS in
Biology at Elon University and her MS in Biology at the University of Utah. She is
a member of the Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (FIRMS) Network and
an invited member of its Steering Group. She currently serves on the Editorial
Board of the journal Forensic Chemistry. Lesley has used isotope forensic techniques
for more than 15 years to examine documents, drugs, explosives, feathers, foods,
microbes and water. She has published more than 60 journal articles and book
chapters. Her current focus is assisting in investigations of unidentified human
remains.
Angi M. Christensen, PhD, D‐ABFA, is a forensic anthropologist with the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory and an Adjunct Professor in
the Forensic Science Program at George Mason University. She received her BA
in anthropology from the University of Washington, and her MA and PhD in
anthropology from the University of Tennessee, and is board‐certified by the
American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA). She is a co‐author of the
fbetw.indd 34 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

About the contributors xxxv
award‐winning textbook Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice, as well

as a co‐founder and editor of the journal Forensic Anthropology. Her primary
professional interests within forensic anthropology include methods of personal
identification, trauma analysis, and skeletal imaging techniques.
Lucio A. Condori, MA, is a Peruvian anthropologist of the Specialized Forensic

Team of the Public Ministry in Peru. He was a consultant for the United Nations
(JUSPER) and the Swedish Agency for International Development (ASDI) on
issues of transitional justice, search, exhumation and identification of the disap-
peared and judicialization of cases. He has 14 years of experience in the applica-
tion of forensic anthropology in emergency situations, common crimes and in
contexts of internal armed conflict. Licensed by the Universidad Nacional del
Altiplano and with a Master’s degree from the National University of San Cristóbal
de Huamanga, he has a special interest in the analysis of bone trauma and research
topics in human biological variability and adaptation. He is a Member of the Latin
American Association of Forensic Anthropology (ALAF).
Derek Congram, PhD, is a bioarchaeologist with 20 years of professional expe-

rience in over 25 countries, working for organizations such as the United Nations,
International Criminal Court, and the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team.
His primary professional and research interests are GIS‐based analysis and model-
ling of clandestine grave locations, professional ethics, and victim‐centred transi-
tional justice. He is currently a Regional Forensic Coordinator for the International
Committee of the Red Cross, based in Bogota, Colombia.
Sian Cook has a background in forensic anthropology and humanitarian action,

with experience in monitoring and evaluation, qualitative research, and
programme management. Sian has worked for various humanitarian organiza-
tions on projects related to child treatment, humanitarian evaluation and
admission prevention. Sian has also conducted research on the repatriation of the
deceased during and after humanitarian crises, and is currently researching the
use and impact of digital technology on quality of life for vulnerable adults.
Danilo De Angelis, DDS, PhD, is a dentist with a PhD in legal medicine, and
associate Professor in forensic medicine at the University of Milan. He has partic-
ipated in the medical forensic activities in Melilli, Sicily, on the victims of the 18
April 2015 shipwreck, on the identification of the victims of the two shipwrecks
that occurred near Lampedusa in October 2013, and before that on the identification
of the victims of the Linate air disaster (Milan, 2001). He is the forensic odontolo-
gist at LABANOF, University of Milan. He is Assistant Editor of Forensic Science
International and collaborates with ICRC.
Elizabeth A. DiGangi, PhD, D‐ABFA, earned her Bachelor’s degree in

Anthropology and History and Master’s in Biological Anthropology from the
State University of New York at Buffalo, and she holds a PhD from the University
of Tennessee in Knoxville, Tennessee. She is co‐editor (with Megan Moore) of
fbetw.indd 35 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

xxxvi About the contributors
Research Methods in Human Skeletal Biology (Academic Press, 2013); and co‐author
(with Susan Sincerbox) of Forensic Taphonomy and Ecology of North American
Scavengers (Academic Press, 2018). She is currently Assistant Professor of
Anthropology at Binghamton University in upstate New York. As a Diplomate of
the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, she works on forensic cases and
capacity‐building of international forensic science laboratories. Her scholarly
interests include developing population‐specific biological profile standards,
improving trauma analysis, and human rights.
James R. Ehleringer, PhD, is a distinguished professor in the School of Biological
Sciences at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. He joined the faculty in 1977
and is recognized as an expert in plant ecology. Jim founded the University’s
Global Change and Sustainability Center, which serves as the nexus for research,
teaching, and outreach for global change and sustainability activities. His research
focuses on ecological, environmental and forensic applications using naturally
occurring stable isotopes (nature’s natural recorders). He has advanced science by
training dozens of graduate students and postdocs during his career, and pub-
lishing over 500 scientific articles and books. For over 20 years, Jim and col-
leagues have offered IsoCamp, a summer training opportunity for graduate
students from across the United States and from around the world to learn about
stable isotope biogeochemistry and ecology through lectures and laboratory
experiences.
Theodora Eleftheriou is the Laboratory Coordinator at the Anthropological
Laboratory of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP). She has been
working for the CMP since 2006, and her primary role is to manage and review
the scientific operations relating to the anthropological examination and
identification of missing individuals.
Sarah Ellingham, PhD, is a broadly skilled forensic practitioner and research
scientist with experience in the humanitarian forensic response to international
disasters and armed conflicts from a variety of contexts. Sarah is an accredited
forensic anthropologist by the UK Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI), certified
in Interpol body search and recovery by UK DVI, with her laboratory and analyt-
ical skills being recognized by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Sarah has deployed
as a DVI consultant to mass fatality incidents in Namibia, France and PNG. Since
joining the ICRC in 2016 she has deployed as Forensic Specialist for Iraq as well
as Forensic Coordinator for South‐East Asia, during which time she advised on
the humanitarian forensic response to the Marawi Crisis of 2017.
Iṡ tenç Engin, MSc, DLAF, has been the Coordinator of the Anthropological
Laboratory of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP) since 2011.
She has contributed to the forensic anthropological analysis of skeletal remains of
missing people exhumed from single and mass graves, and assisted in establishing
fbetw.indd 36 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

About the contributors xxxvii
biological profiles of the deceased, selecting DNA samples for analysis, and helping
in the identification process for over 500 missing person cases.
Flavio Estrada Moreno has a BA in Archaeology from San Marcos National

University, Peru. He is candidate to a second degree in Forensic Expert from
Norbert Wiener University, and Master’s degree candidate in Science and
Technological Research from National University of Callao. He is a founding
member of the Specialized Forensic Team (EFE) of the Institute of Legal Medicine
and Forensic Sciences in Peru. Since 1998 he has worked in the recovery and
analysis of human remains from archaeological, historical and forensic contexts.
During his professional career he has been professor for physical anthropology
and exploration of archaeological sites in San Marcos National University. His
topics of interest include subadult sex estimation, contemporary funerary prac-
tices, formation of sites with human remains and associated elements, and human
and animal bone histomorphometry.
Ann D. Fasano, MA, received her BA in Biology from Boston University and her
MS in Forensic Anthropology from Boston University School of Medicine. In 1995
as a Special Agent with the FBI, she became the senior team leader over the
FBI ERT in Phoenix. In 2006 she became a Supervisory Special Agent in the FBI
Laboratory’s ERTU. She taught crime scene training to new agents, FBI academy,
and field ERT members. She was the program manager for operational matters.
Her crime scene experience includes processing homicides, mass shootings, the
recovery of human remains, and complex crime scenes. She has been deployed to
New York 9/11, Iraq, Uganda, Pakistan, and the Boston Marathon bombings. She
retired from the FBI in July 2018.
David T. Flaherty holds a Bachelor of Science degree in genetics from North

Carolina State University and is currently a PhD student in that institution’s
Comparative Biomedical Sciences program. His main research interest is the use
of applied mathematics in tackling complex biological problems. Currently, he is
using mathematical techniques for inverse problems to optimize predictive
biological models. These techniques help guide experimental roadmaps when
little to no quantitative data are available.
Caroline Francescutti is a student studying Biological Anthropology at the

George Washington University in Washington, DC, USA. She is also a research
assistant in the laboratory of Dr Douglas H. Ubelaker, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC.
Ana Freire‐Aradas, PhD, obtained her BSc degree in pharmacy from the
University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) in 2006. In the same year she started
her scientific research in the Forensic Genetics Unit, Institute of Forensic Sciences
at the same university; obtaining her MSc in molecular medicine in 2008 and her
fbetw.indd 37 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

xxxviii About the contributors
PhD degree in 2013. After completing her PhD, she continued her research at the
same institution. During 2015–2017 she worked as a post‐doc researcher at the
Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Cologne (Germany). After that, she
returned to the Institute of Forensic Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela,
where she is currently developing her research, mainly focused on the study of
epigenetic markers such as DNA methylation with forensic applications, such as
age estimation. Additional research interests include SNP analysis for inference
of biogeographical ancestry and externally visible characteristics; evaluation of
degraded DNA; and bioinformatic tools for assessment of DNA‐based prediction
models.
Claudia Garrido Varas, PhD, is a Forensic Advisor at the International

Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Holding a doctorate in physical anthropology,
since 2003 she has been part of a multidisciplinary team, the Special Unit of
Detained and Missing Persons, created in March 2003 in the Forensic Service of
Chile, to solve identification issues of human rights victims of the military
government that ruled Chile between 1973 and 1990. Her laboratory work in
Chile includes anthropological and odontological analysis of skeletonized remains;
anthropology and odontological analysis of mass graves; post‐mortem odontologi-
cal analysis of arson victims;, besides extensive experience in sample selection for
genetic analysis and in skeletonizing techniques. She has actively participated in
documenting, storing and managing individual victim information for victims of
Chilean human rights cases between 1973 and 1990, and reconstructed case his-
tories and events surrounding death through documentation analysis. Aside from
her experience in Chile, she has collaborated in the analysis of human remains in
the USA, the UK, Spain, Iraq, and worked in Asia and Africa. Since January 2014
she has worked as forensic adviser for the ICRC.
Heather M. Garvin, PhD, D‐ABFA, is an Associate Professor of Anatomy at Des

Moines University, Iowa, USA. She has a dual degree in Anthropology and Zoology
from the University of Florida, a Master of Science degree in Forensic and
Biological Anthropology from Mercyhurst College, and a PhD in Functional
Anatomy and Evolution from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. She
is a board‐certified forensic anthropologist, conducts casework for the State of
Iowa, is a Fellow in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, and is on the
editorial board for the Journal of Forensic Sciences. She conducts research in various
areas of biological anthropology and has a particular interest in understanding
how environmental variables affect levels of human sexual dimorphism.
Timothy P. Gocha, PhD, is the Chief Forensic Anthropologist for the Clark
County Office of the Coroner/Medical Examiner in Las Vegas, NV, as well as an
Adjunct Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of Nevada, Las
Vegas. His research focuses on examining mineralized tissue histology for
improving age‐at‐death estimates, as well as interpreting skeletal health. From
2016–2017, Dr Gocha served as a post‐doctoral scholar with Operation
fbetw.indd 38 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

About the contributors xxxix
Identification at the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State, helping them

locate unidentified migrant burials, perform exhumations, conduct skeletal anal-
ysis, and coordinate with various governmental and non‐governmental agencies,
as well as other academic institutions, in order to help identify the unidentified.
William Goodwin, PhD, studied for a BSc in biological sciences at the University
of Leicester. He followed this with a PhD at the University of Glasgow, looking at
gene expression in plants exposed to low temperatures. After this he spent eight
years at the Human Identification Centre at the University of Glasgow. During this
time he undertook casework, including human identification and paternity test-
ing, and also carried out research into improving the recovery of DNA from com-
promised samples. Since moving to the University of Central Lancashire in 2002,
Will has been involved with the delivery of undergraduate and postgraduate
teaching and the supervision of research degrees. In addition to his work at the
University, Will also acts as an advisor to the International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC), and is a member of their Forensic Advisory Board. He also acts as a
technical assessor, working for the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS),
assessing compliance of laboratories with ISO/IEC 17025.
Sarah Hall, MA, is currently a doctoral student at Arizona State University in the
School of Human Evolution and Social Change. Her research interests include
social identity in bioarchaeology, stable isotope applications for dietary reconstruc-
tion and migration studies, historical bioarchaeology, and forensic anthropology.
Candice Hansmeyer is a Specialist Forensic Pathologist at the Roodepoort

Medico‐legal Laboratory. She completed her specialist and undergraduate training
at the University of the Witwatersrand. Her main academic interests include the
identification of the unidentified decedent, forensic toxicology, as well as pediatric
forensic medicine. Dr Hansmeyer is currently involved in several departmental
research projects both as a supervisor for forensic science Honors students, as well
the principle and co‐investigator for other projects within her fields of interest. A
particular project of relevance to the problem of unidentified migrants is the use
of strontium isotopes in the identification of deceased migrants in South Africa. In
addition, her focus in forensic toxicology involves highlighting the high preva-
lence of organocarbamate/organophosphate toxicity in the forensic population.
She serves as a member and advocate of the Rahima Moosa South African Police
Services and Family Violence, Child Protection and Sexual Offences forum, and is
currently working on providing guidelines for health providers based on non‐
accidental injury syndrome. Her other academic duties include teaching medical
students and forensic pathology trainees in preparation for their exams and
clinical duties.
Sophia Hartsioti is an archaeologist who received her Bachelor’s degree from
the University of Thessaly and her MSc in Mediterranean Archaeology from the
University of Edinburgh. She has been with the Committee on Missing Persons
(CMP) since 2008, working at numerous excavations all over Cyprus.
fbetw.indd 39 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

xl About the contributors
Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Anthropology at Texas State University. His research interests span forensic
anthropology and bioarchaeology. He has co‐directed multiple NIJ‐funded
research grants examining stature estimation, stable isotope patterns in US
donated collections, NamUS mapping functions, dental age estimation, and com-
mingled remains from forensic contexts. His bioarchaeological interests focus on
the eastern Mediterranean, specifically Greece and Cyprus.
Victoria Lareu Huidobro is professor and director of the Institute of Forensic

Sciences “Luis Concheiro”, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Her
current research lines are in the forensic genetics field, especially the analysis of
DNA or RNA markers for individual identification (STRs, SNPs, InDels), searching
of markers for inference of ancestry and externally visible characteristics, as well
as epigenetic markers for forensic applications. She is principal investigator and
collaborator either in national and international research projects. She has pub-
lished 209 scientific papers, most of them in the field of forensic genetics, and she
has supervised 23 doctoral theses.
Agata Iadicicco is a Law graduate, and Vice Prefect and Deputy of the Office of
the Special Commissioner for Missing Persons in Italy.
Gian Carlo Iannacone, MSc, is a biologist specializing in genetics, and dedicated

to the study of the genetics of Peruvian populations for 20 years, and applying it
to forensic genetics for 18 years. He has used DNA to help solve massive open and
closed cases in Peru and other countries. His research focus is on the analysis and
management of genetic data in the context of the DNA database, using probabi-
listic analysis with the aim to achieving reliable match results. These studies have
been published in international journals and at events in more than 18 countries
in America, Europe and Asia. Currently, he is engaged in genomic population
analysis with the aim of improving forensic DNA identifications, for which he is
developing an algorithm to look for regions in the coding mitochondrial DNA that
contain the greatest number of neutral nucleotide variants through comparisons
between and within populations.
Michaela Ibrion is a researcher at the Norwegian University of Science and

Technology, Trondheim, Norway. Her research interests are linked to risk culture,
risk governance, disaster risk management, resilience, earthquakes and earthquake
disasters, tsunami, water, geopolitics and resources, risk perception and risk com-
munication, accidents in the oil and gas industry and marine nations. The cultural‐
geographical areas covered are particularly Japan, Iran and Norway. Her academic
background and experience is linked to engineering studies, risk, geography,
foreign policy and diplomacy, aviation safety, health and disaster risk management.
Marisol Intriago Leiva, anthropologist, is in charge of the Special Forensic

Identification Unit of the Legal Medical Service, Chile. Between 2003 and 2010
fbetw.indd 40 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

About the contributors xli
she worked as part of the Special Unit for the Identification of Disappeared
Detainees of the Legal Medical Service, in the identification and determination of
cause and manner of death of victims of the Chilean military dictatorship, together
with a multidisciplinary team also composed of archaeologists, dentists and med-
ical doctors, plus a support team. From 2011, she has been Chief of the Special
Unit of Forensic Identification, in charge of a multidisciplinary team that carries
out tasks of search, recovery and analysis in cases of human rights violations
during the military dictatorship, as well as complex crimes and massive disasters.
Daniel Jiménez has been working in forensic anthropology for the last 12 years.
This work has led him to hundreds of cases related to the politic violence during
Guatemala’s Civil War (1960 to 1996), and more than a thousand bodies resulting
from war crimes against the civil population. Currently he works with medico‐
legal criminal investigators on the identification of deceased persons due to natural
disasters in Guatemala. He has been called to provide expert testimony in the
genocide trials against former president Efrain Rios Mott (2013 and 2016) and the
trial of Sepur Zarco in where two former military leaders were convicted of com-
mitting war crimes against the indigenous population.
Chelsey Juarez, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Biological Anthropology at
California State University, Fresno. She holds a BA in Biological Anthropology
from University of California at Berkeley, and an MA and doctorate in Biological
Anthropology with a parenthetical notation in Latin American Latino Studies from
University of California at Santa Cruz. Dr Juarez is a practicing forensic anthropologist
at the Fresno State Osteological Investigations Laboratory, and has conducted case
work in multiple states. Her main area of research is provenience investigations
within the Latino diaspora through time. She uses isotopes from human bone, hair
and teeth to estimate region of origin, migratory behaviors and diet.
Alexandra R. Klales, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Forensic Anthropology
and Director of the Forensic Anthropology Recovery Unit at Washburn University
in Topeka, Kansas, USA. She has a BA in Anthropology from the University of
Pittsburgh, a Master of Science in Forensic and Biological Anthropology from
Mercyhurst College, and a PhD in Anthropology from the University of Manitoba.
She is an associate member of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and
currently conducts forensic anthropology casework in Kansas and Missouri. Her
research focuses on skeletal sexual dimorphism, specifically within the pelvis, and
methods for establishing the biological profile in forensic anthropology.
Robyn T. Kramer currently holds a MA in Anthropology from Texas State
University and is a PhD candidate at the University of Otago. Kramer’s background
is in forensic anthropology, stable isotope analysis, osteology and archaeology.
As a forensic anthropologist, she assisted the Butte County Sheriff’s Office with
the forensic recovery efforts for the deadly Camp Fire in 2018. Her research has
focused on applying isotope geolocation methods to predict region of origin and
fbetw.indd 41 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

xlii About the contributors
migration histories for modern forensic cases that are temporarily housed in the
Operation Identification facility at Texas State University. Kramer’s future research
will apply similar isotope geolocation techniques to prehistoric and historical
populations in the Solomon Islands.
Ximena Londoño Romanowsky is a Protection Delegate working on the

missing persons file at the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Sri
Lanka (2017–2019). She is a Colombian lawyer who graduated from the Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana in Bogotá, where she is admitted to Practice as Attorney.
She holds an LLM in international humanitarian law from the Geneva Academy
of IHL and Human Rights. Before joining the ICRC, Ms Londoño worked as a legal
adviser at the Ministry of National Defense of Colombia (2008–2010) and as an
adjunct lecturer on public international law at the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana
(2009–2010). Prior to joining the ICRC Delegation in Sri Lanka, Ms Londoño
worked at the ICRC Headquarters in Geneva (2011–2017). For one year, she
worked as an associate in the Legal Division and then as an adviser for the Health
Care in Danger Project. She later worked for four years as a legal adviser for the
ICRC Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, where she provided
technical and legal support on different issues related to national implementation,
in particular with regards to the protection of missing persons and their families,
IDPs, the role of the judiciary in applying and implementing IHL, and transitional
justice issues.
Matías López has a degree in Anthropological Sciences from Facultad de

Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de la República, Uruguay,
from 2018. Within the degree program, he chose the research option and
specialized in archaeology, mainly developing two lines of research: prehistoric
archeology and forensic archeology. He joined the Forensic Investigation
Anthropology Team in Uruguay (GIAF) as an honorary collaborator for a period
of three years. In 2014, he joined GIAF as an official member of the group and
worked until 2017, when the team was hired directly by the Office of the President
of the Republic of Uruguay. The work that he has been developing for eight years
in the area of Forensic Archeology are mainly linked to the search for bone
remains from the detained‐disappeared from the civil–military dictatorship during
1973–1985, specializing in archaeological fieldwork. Matías has been part of the
Latin American Association of Forensic Anthropology (ALAF) since 2015, taking
part in various academic activities promoted by the association, such as meetings,
courses and workshops.
Alicia Lusiardo, MA, DLAF, is a forensic anthropologist who obtained her BS

in Anthropology in Montevideo, Uruguay (Universidad de la República – Udelar)
and a MA in Forensic Anthropology from the University of Florida (Gainesville,
FL). She is also Board Certified (ALAF – Latin American Forensic Anthropology
Association). As a specialist in forensic anthropology, she coordinates the
fbetw.indd 42 11/26/2019 8:30:09 PM

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nail holes; also putty up any of the grain that may appear too open,
or else rub into the grain some lead mixed up very heavy.
The body, after having received three coats of lead, and been
puttied up, may now stand for two or three days. When it is again
taken in hand, sand-paper off any putty that may be above the level
of the surface; dust off, and brush on a level coat of lead, which must
dry hard and firm. Every coat of lead should be laid on as level as
possible, and made to fill up the grain of the wood as much as
possible. These coats are called “rough stuff.” The body may now
stand for three or four days, when it will be ready for the filling up.
There are two very important things to be studied in coach-
painting. First, to form a surface hard enough to hold out the varnish
and disguise the grain of the wood; and second, to have the first and
intermediate coats of paint sufficiently elastic to adhere and yield to
the natural action of the wood without cracking or flaking off. In
effecting one of these results we are apt to affect the other; and
nothing but the utmost care, on the part both of the manufacturer of
the essential ingredients and of the person who prepares them for
use, can insure durability.
The leather-covered portions are usually primed with two coats of
black Japan, reduced with a little turpentine.
A good stopping material for nail holes, &c., is made of dry lead
and Japan gold size. It is called “hard stopper.”
The rough coatings should dry firmly, possessing only sufficient
elasticity to bind them to the surface. The first coat will bear a trifle
more oil than the remaining ones, and should stand about four days
before the others are put on, which can be done every other day.
Five coats of filling up are next added, composed as follows:—
2 parts filling up stuff.
1 part tub lead.
2 parts turpentine.
1 part Japan gold size.
½ „ bottoms of wearing varnish.
The first coat should cover every portion of the lead surface, be
well brushed in, but not allowed to lie heavy at the corners. The
remaining coats may be applied reasonably heavy, but kept from
lapping over the edges or rounding the sharp corners, and thus
destroying the clean sharp lines of the body-maker.
Any defects noticed while filling in should be puttied or stopped,
ever bearing in mind that the perfection in finish aimed at is only
secured by care at every step taken.
The leather-covered parts generally have three additional coats of
filling in.
The time allowed for each coat to dry may be extended as far as
convenient, but there is nothing to be gained by allowing weeks to
intervene between the coatings. When a coat is hard it is ready for
another; and it is far better to have the body filled and set aside than
to divide the time between the coatings, and probably be compelled
to rub out the body before the last coat is firm. Of course, the time
occupied by the coats of filling in to dry varies according to its
composition. If much oil be used, it will take a longer time for each
coat to dry; but the above composition may be applied one coat
every other day.
The first coat may be applied rather thinner than the others, and is
improved by being mixed with a little more white-lead. It should also
be made more elastic than the succeeding ones, as it will then take a
firmer hold on the “dead” lead coat over which it is placed,
contributing a portion of its elasticity to that coat, and also cling more
firmly to the hard drying coats which follow.
The body having been filled in may be set aside to harden, or if the
smith is ready for it this is the best time for him to take it in hand, as
any dents or burns that he may cause can now easily be remedied
without spoiling the appearance of the vehicle. Later on, this is a
matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility. Any bruises should be
puttied; any parts which may happen to be burned must have the
paint scraped off bare to the wood. Prime the bare spots, and putty
and fill them to bring them forward the same as the general surface.
A material has recently been brought into the English market
called “permanent wood filling,” which is confidently recommended
as effecting a saving in time, expense, and labour, and at the same
time more effectually closing the pores of the wood than the ordinary
filling now in use. This invention is due to a Polish exile named
Piotrowski, who took refuge in America, and there introduced it about
1867, since which date it has found its way into the chief carriage
factories in the United States. It is applied to the bare wood, one coat
being given to bodies and two coats to carriage parts. This closes
the pores, holds the grain immovably in its place, and is so
permanent in its effect that neither exposure to dampness, nor
atmospheric changes, nor the vibrations to which a carriage is so
subject can affect the grain. The satisfaction which this material
appears to give to the Americans, who pride themselves on the
superiority of their carriage-painting, ought to induce our English
coach-builders to inquire after it; for if all that we hear of it be correct,
it must assuredly be a valuable acquisition to the paint shop.
In rubbing down use pumice-stone. It is best to begin on top and
follow on down, so that the filling water may not run down on to any
part that has been finished. Water should not stand for any length of
time on the inside of the body; and when the rubbing is completed
wash off clean outside and in, and dry with a chamois kept for the
purpose.
The body, when dry, receives a staining coat, and is to be carefully
sand-papered over, the corners cleaned out, and put on a coat or
two coats of dark lead colour, made of tub lead, lampblack, raw oil,
and a small quantity of sugar of lead, and reduced to a proper
consistency with Japan gold size and turpentine. When dry scratch
over the lead colour with fine sand-paper, which will make it appear
of a lighter colour; we shall then be able to detect any low or sunk
places by reason of the shadow. Putty up any imperfections with
putty made of lead and varnish, and when dry face down with lump
pumice and water. Follow with fine sand-paper, when the surface will
be in a condition to receive the colour coats. Sometimes, after
cleaning off, another coat of dark lead colour is laid on.
Analysing the foregoing, we find we have used—
1 priming coat of lead (or leather parts, 2 coats of
black varnish instead).
2 thin coats lead colour, and stopped up.
5 coats of filling up (8 coats on leather parts).
1 staining coat, rubbed down and cleaned off.
2 coats dark red colour, stopped up, and carefully rubbed down.
1 coat dark lead colour.
—
12 coats, and ready for colour.
So much for the body parts. To the carriage parts two coats of
priming are laid on, which are worked in the same way as those
applied to the body. All cavities are then stopped with hard stopper,
to which a little turpentine is added in order to make it sand-paper
easily. Two coats of quick-drying lead colour are then applied to the
wood parts. The whole is then well sand-papered down, and the
grain should be found well filled and smooth. A thin coat of oil lead
colour is then laid on, and when dry sand-papered down; any joints
or open places between the tire and felloes of the wheels are
carefully puttied up with oil putty. The carriage parts are then ready
for colour. This time we have applied—
2 coats of lead priming, stopped up.
2 coats of lead, thoroughly sand-papered.
1 coat (thin) of lead colour, sand-papered and puttied up.
—
5 coats, and ready for colour.
The colours are to be ground very fine, kept clean, and spread on
with the proper brushes. If the panels are to be painted different from
the other parts, lay on the black first, for if any black falls on the
panel colour it will occasion some trouble by destroying the purity of
a transparent colour. By repeatedly turning the brush over while
using it, there is less liability to accidents of this kind.
The colouring of the body is finished as follows:—For the upper
quarters and roof grind ivory black in raw oil to a stiff consistency,
add a little sugar of lead finely ground as a drier, and bring to the
required consistency with black Japan and turpentine. Lay on two
coats of this, and then two coats of black Japan, and rub down. Then
face off the moulding, and give a thin coat of dead black, after which
apply another coat of black Japan, and flat again. The whole should
then be varnished with hard drying varnish, flatted down, and
finished with a full coat of wearing body varnish. The varnish should
have at least three days to dry; five or six would be better. The first
coat of rubbing varnish may be applied thinner than the others, in
order to avoid staining the colours.
The pencils used on mouldings should be large enough to take in
the whole width at once, and let the colour run evenly along,
avoiding laps or stoppages, except at the corners, where it cannot be
helped. Avoid the use of turpentine in varnish if possible; but if the
varnish be dark and heavy, sufficient turpentine added to make it
flow evenly will not hurt it. The half elastic and fine bristle brushes
are better for working heavy varnish than the sable or badger.
In varnishing a body begin on the roof, bringing the varnish to
within 2 or 3 inches of the outer edges. Next, the inside of doors, &c.,
then the arch. When these are finished, start on the head rail on one
side, lay the varnish on heavy, and follow quickly to the quarter. The
edge on the roof, which was skipped before, is to be coated and
finished with the outside, thus preventing a heavy edge. Continue
round the body, finishing the boot last.
The frames and other loose pieces about a coach should be
brought forward along with the body, and not left as is often done.
The frames are most conveniently handled by a device similar to a
swinging dressing-glass; a base and two uprights stoutly framed
together, allowing space for the frame to swing. It is held in its
position by two pointed iron pins, one fixed and the other movable.
This is very convenient for varnishing, as the painter can examine
his work by tilting it to any angle, and thus detect any pieces of dirt,
&c.
If the body is to be lake in colour, the lake should be ground in raw
oil, stiff, and reduced with turpentine and hard drying varnish. The
same with dross black and Indian red. Over lakes and greens two
coats of hard drying varnish should be applied, and one coat of
finishing.
If the body is to be blue, mix ultramarine blue with one-half raw oil
and turpentine, and bring it to a workable consistency by thinning
with hard drying body varnish. Give the body two coats, and after
each a slight flatting; then give two more coats of the same with
varnish added.
When Prussian blue is used, two coats are applied, and white is
added, if necessary, to bring it to the required shade. The blues will
dry sufficiently well when merely ground in raw oil, stiff, and reduced
with turpentine, and it is better not to add a drier over blues; only one
coat of hard drying body varnish should be given, and one finishing
coat.
In no case should the painter allow his oil colours to dry with a
gloss. He must always flat them and give them the appearance of
dead colour. This is particularly important, in case rough stuff or
quick-drying colour is to be used over it.
The carriage parts are finished as follows:—Two coats of lead
colour are first laid on, composed in the same way as those for the
body before the colour is applied. Then stop all parts requiring it with
hard stopper, a little reduced with turpentine to sand-paper easily. To
the wood parts apply two coats of quick lead, composed of dry lead
and lampblack ground in gold size and thinned with turpentine.
Sand-paper down thoroughly, and the grain will be found smooth and
well filled up. A thin coat of oil lead colour is then applied, and sand-
papered down when dry; and at this stage any open parts between
the tire and felloe of the wheels, &c., should be again stopped up
with oil putty. A coat of colour varnish follows, then a second, with
more varnish added. The parts are then flatted and striped; another
light coat of clear varnish is given, and after being flatted down the
fine lines are added, and the whole is finished with a good coat of
wearing varnish.
The carriage parts are generally painted one or two tones lighter
than the colour of the panels of the body, except where the panel
colour is of a hue that will not admit of it. Certain shades of green,
blue, and red may be used on panels, but would not, when made a
tint or two lighter, be suitable for a carriage part. Dark brown, claret,
and purple lake would not be open to this objection, because, to the
majority of persons, they are colours which are pleasing to the eye,
both in their deep and medium tones.
When the panels are to be painted green, blue, or red, and the
painter wishes to carry these colours on to the carriage part, it is
better to use them for striping only, and let the ground colour be
black.
A carriage part painted black may be made to harmonise with any
colour used on the body, as the striping colours can be selected so
as to produce any desired effect. Brilliant striping can be brought out
on dark colours only, while, if the ground colour be light, recourse
must be had to dark striping colours to form a contrast. The carriage
part should not detract from the appearance of the body; that is,
there should be sufficient contrast between the two to bring out the
beauties of the body. A plainly finished body will appear to better
advantage on a showy carriage, and a richly painted body on one
that is not very ornate.
In striping the carriage parts, the bright colours should be used
sparingly. A fine line placed on the face of the spokes and naves,
and distributed over the inside carriage, would look far better than
when each side of the spokes, the faces, the naves, and felloes, &c.,
are striped on both sides.
The coatings of varnish contribute largely to the durability as well
as beauty of a carriage part. The ground and striping colours are
shown in their purity only after they are varnished and have a good
surface, and the test of wearing depends on the quantity and quality
of varnish applied.
Every carriage part should have at least two coats of clear varnish.
The first coat of varnish to be applied over the colour and varnish;
the second, a good finishing coat, possessing body, and good
wearing qualities. Ground pumice and water must be used to cut
down the varnish, otherwise the finishing coat will be robbed of its
beauty.
In laying on the finishing coat, avoid the extremes of putting it on
too thick or too thin. Lay on a medium coat. A thin one will appear
gritty and rough; and one too heavy will sink in and grow dim.
From the above description, it will be seen that painting a coach is
a tedious operation, and one which consumes a great deal of time in
its execution; but, if well done, the result will certainly be very
satisfactory. In no case should the painting be hurried, for by
allowing each coat of paint or varnish sufficient time to dry its
durability is insured.
A considerable amount of time is generally spent by the painter in
work which does not really belong to him—that of mixing and
grinding his colours. Where the muller and slab are used, they
occasion a great deal of labour, and the tones of the colours are
liable to be injured by the heat generated in the process; and even
where the hand mills are used, the process is by no means so
cleanly as it ought to be. And under the heading of waste, this must
always be a source of loss to the manufacturer, for the painter, for
fear of not mixing up sufficient colour for his use, generally prepares
too great a quantity, and as a rule, the surplus is waste, for it is no
use to employ stale colours in painting vehicles, however well it may
do in house painting.
What we want is to have the colours ready ground for the painter’s
hand, and against this has been urged the objection, that the
delicate colours would lose their purity, and all colours be more or
less affected by it. That this is utterly fallacious is seen by the fact
that paints and colours ready ground and prepared are the rule in
America. The invention of the machinery, &c., for this purpose, is due
to Mr. J. W. Masury, of New York, and he grinds pigments of the
hardest description to the most impalpable fineness without injuring
the tones of the most delicate; and by a process of his own
preserves them, so that the painter has nothing to do but to reduce
them to the consistency he may require for the work in hand. He
says they effect a saving of from 20 to 50 per cent. both of labour
and material. It is difficult to understand why so valuable an invention
is not more general in this country.
Irregularities in Varnish.
Varnish is subject to various changes after having been applied to

a body or carriage part. It crawls, runs, enamels, pits, blotches,
smokes or clouds over, and in the carriage parts gathers up and
hangs in heavy beads along the centre of the spokes, &c.
These irregularities will happen at times with the very best varnish
and the most skilled workmanship, and surrounded with everything
necessary to insure a perfect job.
The only reason that can be assigned for it is atmospheric
influence. These peculiarities have occupied a large portion of the
time of the trade, and no other solution has been arrived at than the
above.
The defects of varnishes should be divided into two classes: those
which take place while in the workshop and those which show
themselves after the vehicle has left the hands of the maker. The
defects which show themselves in the varnish room are those of
“spotting,” “blooming,” “pin-holing,” “going off silky,” “going in dead.”
Those which take place afterwards are “cracking,” “blooming,” “mud-
spotting,” and loss of surface, sometimes amounting to its almost
total destruction.
The two classes should be considered separately; and assuming
that the workmanship is of the best quality, the latter class of defects,
with the exception of blooming, are in no way attributable to the
varnish; and blooming is caused by the atmosphere being
overcharged with moisture, as would be the case before a storm,
and it is soon remedied. Cracking will arise from too great an
exposure to the sun, just as any other material will be damaged by
unfair treatment. Mud-spotting will arise from using the carriage in
muddy or slushy roads before the varnish is properly dry. The loss of
surface will depend largely on the coachman, who, from ignorance or
negligence, may rub down the panels of a carriage until its glossy
surface entirely disappears; and if the stable is contiguous to the
coach-house this destruction will be assisted by the ammoniacal
vapours arising from the manure, &c.
The other defects belong to the inherent nature of the varnish as
at present manufactured, and admitting the secondary cause to be
atmospheric influence, it is necessary to inquire why it is that varnish
should be subject to such influence. According to the usual way of
making varnishes, we know that various metallic salts and chemical
compounds are used to increase their drying properties. All these will
contain a certain definite amount of water, termed “water of
crystallization.” If deprived of this water they lose their crystalline
form, but they acquire a tendency of again assuming it by attracting
to themselves a proportionate amount of water when it is brought
within their power. Now the heat employed in making varnishes is
sufficient to expel this water; but the presence of the salts is sooner
or later detected, for when the varnish is applied to the work these
salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and by becoming
partially crystallized cause what is known as “blooming,” “spotting,”
and “pin-holing.” The tendency to bloom will always remain, even
after the varnish has hardened. But if any of these effects take place
in the varnishing room, while the varnish is drying, it will be fatal to
the appearance of the carriage.
To insure as near perfection as possible we want a substitute for
these objectionable driers, which will not be subject to atmospheric
influence.
CHAPTER XII.
ORNAMENTAL PAINTING.
monograms.
At the present time nearly all possessors of carriages have their
private marks painted on some part of the panels. These take the
form of monograms, initial letters, crests, and heraldic bearings or
coats of arms. The monogram is the commonest. For crests and
coats of arms a duty is levied, from which monograms are free.
A few examples are subjoined. They can be multiplied to any
extent; and designing monograms and initial letters would be
excellent practice for the apprentice.
Fig. 33.—Lay in C with dark blue, light blue,
and chrome yellow, No. 2; lighted with A to be
in Tuscan red, lighted with vermilion and
orange; V with olive green, lighted with a
bright tint of olive green and white. Separate
the letters with a wash of asphaltum.
Fig. 34.—Paint C a tan colour shaded with
burnt sienna, shaded with asphaltum to form
the darkest shades. Put in the high lights with
Fig. 33.—V. A. C.
white toned with burnt sienna. Colour I with
dark and light shades of purple, lighted with
pale orange; N to be lake colour lighted with vermilion. The above
may be varied by painting the upper half of the letters with the
colours named, and the lower portions in dark tints of the same
colour. When this is done, care must be taken
to blend the two shades, otherwise it will look
as if the letters are cut in two.
Fig. 35.—Paint the
upper half of O a light
olive green, and the
lower half a darker
tone of the same
colour; T to be lake,
lighted with vermilion
Fig. 34.—I. N. C.
above the division
made by the letter S,
no high lighting to be used on the bottom
portion of the stem; S to be painted red
Fig. 35.—O. T. S. brown, lighted with orange; or the colours
may be laid on in gold leaf, and the above
colours glazed over it.
Fig. 36.—This combination forms a
pleasing variety, and will afford good
practice in the use of the pencil. Lay in
the letters as indicated by the shading,
the letter V to be darker than A, and T
deeper in tone than either V or A. The
letters may all be laid on with gold leaf,
and afterwards glazed with colours to
suit the painter’s taste. The vine at the
base may be a delicate green tinged
with carmine.
Fig. 37.—This is of French design. Fig. 36.—V. A. T.
The letters furnish an odd yet attractive
style. It will be noticed that the stem of
the letter T covers the centre perpendicularly, and that the outer
lower portions of A and R are drawn to touch on the same line. The
main stems of these letters terminate in twin forms, arranged so as
to cross each other at the centre of the monogram and balance each
other on either side. In the matter of its colouring, it may be
mentioned that the letters in a monogram are
very often painted all in one colour, and
separated at the edges by a streak of white or
high light. Monograms painted in this manner
should be drawn so that the design will not be
confused by ornamentation; that is, the main
outlines of each letter should be distinctly
defined, and the spaces must be so arranged
as not to confuse the outlines. The pattern
here given may be coloured carmine, and the
Fig. 37.—A. R. T.
edges separated by straw colour or blue, and
the letters be defined by canary colour, or a
lighter tint of blue than the bodies of the letters are painted.
Fig. 38.—If the ground colour of the panels
is claret or purple the letters may be painted
with the same colour, lightened up with
vermilion and white, forming three distinct
tints; on brown, coat the letters with lighter
shades of brown; and so on with other
colours.
Fig. 38.—T. O. M.
Initial Letters.
A well painted initial letter is certainly quite equal to a monogram;
but then it must be well painted, because, as it stands alone, it has
only itself to rely upon for any effect, whereas, in a monogram, the
component letters mutually assist each other.
Fig. 39.—This letter possesses all the grace of outline that could
be desired in a single letter. Paint the letter in gold, shaded with
asphaltum and lighted with white. If a colour be used, have one that
agrees in tone with the striping on the carriage part; that is to say, if
blue be used in striping, then use the same kind of blue for the letter,
and so on with other colours.
We may here mention that all this kind of
painting is done on the last rubbing coat of
varnish, so that the letters receive a coat of
varnish when the finishing coat is given.
Fig. 40.—The
natural form of this
letter is graceful,
being composed of
curves bearing in
Fig. 39.—D. opposite directions,
and which blend into
each other, forming a continuous but varied
line. The ornamentation also falls into the
shape of the letter naturally. The upper and
lower ends of the letter terminate in three
stems, covered by three-lobed leafing, and
the main stem of the letter is preserved in Fig. 40.—S.
shape by appearing to grow out naturally from
its outer and inner edges.
Lay in the letter with gold, on which work out the design with
transparent colours. If colours only be employed the panel colour
may be taken as part of the colouring of the letter; for instance, if the
panel be dark brown, lake, blue, or green, mix up lighter tints of
whichever colour it may be, and considering the panel colour as the
darkest shade, lighten up from it.
Fig. 41.—This letter will please by the novelty of its ornamentation.
The body of the letter retains its natural outline almost wholly. From
the upper part of the thin stem springs a scroll, which curves
downward, reaching to the middle of the letter, and from this grows
out a second scroll, serving to ornament the lower portions.
Lay in the colour in harmony with the striping colour, deepening
the tone of the colour on the stem of the letter, as shown by the
shade lines. The leafing should be made out with light, medium, and
dark tints, blended into each other so as to avoid the scratchy
appearance which an opposite method produces.
Fig. 41.—V.
Crests and Heraldic Bearings.

It would be impossible to give anything like a comprehensive
series of these in this, or indeed in a very much larger work, as their
number and variety are so great. The examples subjoined are given
as exercises in colouring; and, if the student desires to extend his
studies in this direction, most stationers will supply him with sheets
of them at a trifling cost, and to them he may apply the principles
enumerated below.
Fig. 42.—This is a small ornament, but it
will disclose to the painter whether he has got
hold of the method of handling the “cutting-up
pencil.” If, in attempting the circular part, the
hand becomes inclined to be unsteady in its
motion, and create a lack of confidence, the
painter should practise until assured that the
hand will obey the will.
The ornamental part to be gold, shaded
Fig. 42.
with asphaltum, and high light with a delicate
pink, composed of flake white and light red.
The wreaths may be painted blue and white. Mix up three lines of
blue, placing the darkest at the bottom or lower part of each band
shown, as shaded in the figure. The white bands should not be of
pure white, but a light grey, made by mixing a little black with the
white colour. For the high light running along the centre of the
wreath, use white tinted with yellow. The space covered with
diagonal lines may either be left plain, showing the panel colour, or
barred across with grey lines made of flake white and black, tinged
with carmine.
Fig. 43.—This is the letter V combined
with a garter. Size in the entire pattern,
and lay the pattern in with gold, and glaze
over the inner part of the garter with a light
blue, the inner and outer edges to remain
gold. The flying ribbon to be pink,
composed of carmine and white, and the
shading to be clear carmine, with carmine
saddened with black for the deeper tones.
The stems of the letter V to be green,
shaded with a reddish brown, and the Fig. 43.
leafing to be the same colours.
Fig. 44.—Paint the cap crimson, the wreath green and grey,
lighted with a delicate pink. The circular part to be gold, shaded with
asphaltum tinted with carmine; the outside border of shield to be gold
also; the upper division of the shield to be red, deep and rich in tone.
The chevron, or white angular band across the shield, to be a grey,
lighted up with pure white. The lower division of the shield to be blue,
and the deep shades to be purple. Paint the leafing at the base with
a colour mixed of burnt umber, yellow, and lake; shade with
asphaltum tinted with carmine, and put in the high lights with orange
or vermilion.
Fig. 45.—This is from a design by Gustave Doré. It is an odd but
still pretty design. Lay in the whole of the pattern in gold; shade the
details with verdigris darkened with asphaltum; put in the high lights
with pink, composed of light red and white. The escutcheon may be
coloured with light brown, carmine, and dark brown. The edges of
the diagonal bar to be dotted minutely with vermilion.
Fig. 45.
Fig. 46.—Outline the garter

with gold; the buckle and slide to
be gold also. Fill in the garter
with light and dark tints of blue,
and put in the high lights with
canary colour. Paint the floral
Fig. 44. gorgons in brown shades, and
light with orange and clear
yellow. A small portion of lake added to
these browns will cause them to bear
out richly when varnished. Let the
medium lights and shades
predominate, and the high lights
added, first carefully considering their
true positions, and then touching them
in with sharp strokes of the pencil,
which will give life and “go” to the
details. The pendent stems with leaves
and berries may be coloured olive
green, and shaded with russet. When
Fig. 46. the painting of this ornament is dry it
will be considerably improved by
glazing.
Fig. 47.—The central pattern is Caduceus, a Roman emblem. On
the rod or centre staff the wings are represented “displayed,” and the
two serpents turning round it signify
power, the wings fleetness, and the
serpents wisdom.
This pattern would look well in
gold, with the dark parts shaded
with black to the depths shown on
the sketch; the lighter tones being
greys, warm in tone. The serpents
may be put in with carmine, as also
the wings and head, and the rod
carmine deepened with black.
Various treatments of colouring
may be applied to this pattern, and
thinking out some of these will be
very good exercise for the ingenuity
of the painter. Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.—
Put the pattern in in gold, separating the parts
where necessary with shadow lines, and
produce the effect of interlacing by a judicious
use of high light lines and deep black lines.
The best pencil suited to this class of
ornament is a “cutting-up” pencil an inch long.
Having traced the pattern on the panel,
commence by painting the crest, and next the
main upper left-hand division of the scroll
part, paying no attention to the leafing or
minor details. It will be noticed that the centre
Fig. 48. line of the heavy leafing is a part of the scroll
line, which passes from the wreath or ribbon
at the top, and is completed at the base; so
that to secure easy curves this line should be laid in through its
whole length, and the leafing or any minor dividing lines be governed
by it. Next lay in the other half of the pattern in the same manner,
and having secured these main curves the subordinate details may
be added.
Where two fine lines cross each other, the effect of one line
passing underneath the other may be produced by simply lighting
one of the lines across the intersection, which by contrast will make
the gold or colour of the other line appear darker, and as though the
lighted line passed over it and cast a shadow.
Paint the wreath blue and white, the crest to be merely lighted with
the colour used for high lighting the other parts.
Fig. 49.—This consists of a species of
dragon, having the head, neck, and wings of
a bird, and the body of a wild beast. He
supports a Norman shield, the “fess” or centre
part displaying a Maltese cross.
In painting this ornament, first get a correct
outline of the whole; then mix up two or three
tints of the colour you design painting it,
having a pencil for each, and a clean pencil Fig. 49.
for blending the edges, so that no hard lines
may appear at the junction of the different
colours. Lay on the shaded portions first, then the half lights, keeping
them subdued in tone, so as to allow for the finishing touches
showing clear and distinct.
On a claret-colour panel the whole may be painted in different
hues of purple and red. On a dark blue panel, varying shades of blue
lighter than the groundwork, and so with other colours. The shaded
portion must be distinct, and gradually connected with the lighter
portions by light tints of the shading colour.
Or the dragon may be painted grey, the high lights with the same
colour warmed up with yellow; the outline of the shield in gold; the
upper division, a light cobalt blue; the lower division, a pale orange;
the cross, brown, shaded with asphaltum; the wreath, blue and
white; and the flying ribbon and leafing in gold.
CHAPTER XIII.
LINING AND TRIMMING.

This is a department which requires great taste as well as skill. The
interior of a carriage should be lined with cloth and silk, or cloth and
morocco, with laces specially manufactured for the purpose. The
colours should correspond to or harmonise with the painting. Light
drab, or fawn colour, used to be a very general colour for the linings
of close carriages, such as broughams, because they at once
afforded relief to and harmonised with any dark colour that might
have been selected for the painting. But a severe simplicity of taste
has prevailed of late years in this country, and the linings of the
carriages have been made mostly dark in colour to correspond to the
colour of the painting. This is often carried to such an extreme as to
present an appearance of sameness and tastelessness. It is no
uncommon thing, for instance, to see a brougham painted dark
green, striped with black lines, and lined with dark green cloth and
morocco, with plain laces to correspond. This to us appears to be
only one degree removed from a mourning coach, and it will be a
great pity if such a taste prevails. On the other hand, violent
contrasts outrage all principles of good taste. Morocco and cloth, or
silk and cloth, of the same colour as the paint may be used for the
linings, but, as the painting should be relieved by lines that
harmonise with it, so should the linings be relieved by the laces and
tufts, which are intended to give life and character to it.
Landau Back, Quarter, and Fall.

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Forensic Science and Humanitarian

Action, 2 Volume Set: Interacting with

This eBook contains a multi-volume set.

For example, to go to page v of volume 1, type “1-v” in the Go box at

To go to page v of volume 2, type “2-v”… and so forth.

ffirs_v1.indd 1 12/2/2019 4:50:37 PM

Forensic Anthropology and the U.S. Judicial System

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About the editors, xxv

Section I History, theory, practice and legal foundation, 1

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4 Between darts and bullets: A bioarchaeological view on the study

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7 A forensic perspective on the new disappeared: Migration revisited, 101

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Section II Forensic basic information to trace missing persons, 157

11 Integration of information on missing persons and unidentified human

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11.4.7 Selection of qualified staff, 166

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14.3 Morphological traits, 201

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18 Forensic complex scenarios and technological innovation:

19 The role of stable isotope analysis in forensic anthropology, 275

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20.5.4 Caveats for the carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of hair

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25.4.1 Carbon, 389

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27.2.2 Oxygen isotopes and precipitation, 429

Section IV DNA analysis and the forensic identification process, 457

29 Phenotypic markers for forensic purposes, 459

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32.7 Conclusion, 519

Section V Identifying deceased and finding missing persons, 535

34 Migrant deaths along the Texas/Mexico border: A collaborative approach

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36.2 The experimental Italian strategy, 565

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39 Forensic identification of human remains in Cyprus: The humanitarian work

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41.3 Complexity and forensic limitations of the Peruvian case

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45.3.1 Cross‐checking or comparison of information for identification

Section VI Conclusions, 715

47 Humanitarian action: New approaches from forensic science, 717

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Roberto C. Parra, MA, DLAF, is an anthropologist formed in the School of

fbetw.indd 25 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

Sara C. Zapico, PhD, D‐ABC, is an Instructor in the Department of Chemistry

fbetw.indd 26 11/26/2019 8:30:08 PM

Joe Adserias‐Garriga, DDS, PhD, D‐ABFO, is a forensic anthropologist and

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11 Integration of information on missing persons and unidentified human

18 Forensic complex scenarios and technological innovation:

20.5.4 Caveats for the carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of hair

34 Migrant deaths along the Texas/Mexico border: A collaborative approach

39 Forensic identification of human remains in Cyprus: The humanitarian work

41.3 Complexity and forensic limitations of the Peruvian case

45.3.1 Cross‐checking or comparison of information for identification