DEFORMATION HISTORY AND

KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
A Practical Course for
Establishing and Understanding
Structural History and Shear Sense in the
Context of Controls to Mineralisation
Table of Contents

1 Deformation of Rocks – Stress, Strain and Related Concepts.....................................................1

1.1 Some Deformation-Related Concepts and Definitions .............................................................1
1.2 Deformation Partitioning ...........................................................................................................3
1.2.1 Interpreting Geometries Produced Deformation - using the concepts of
deformation partitioning and strain field geometries...........................................................6
1.2.2 Deformation Partitioning at the Micro-Scale .......................................................................8

2 Deformation History..........................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 Deformation History Nomenclature ..................................................................................11
2.1.1.1 Terminology of Surfaces (cleavages) Produced During Deformation ..............11
2.1.1.2 Terminology of Lineations Produced During Deformation................................12
2.1.1.3 Examples of the use of Deformation Nomenclature .........................................14
2.1.2 Implications of a Deformation History...............................................................................16
2.2 How to Establish a Deformation History..................................................................................18
2.2.1 Features to Record...........................................................................................................18
2.2.1.1 Overprinting/Cross-Cutting Relationships ........................................................18
2.2.1.2 Faults/Shears ...................................................................................................18
2.2.1.3 Foliation/Cleavage............................................................................................18
2.2.1.4 Veins.................................................................................................................19
2.2.1.5 Breccias............................................................................................................19
2.2.1.6 Competent Bodies ............................................................................................19
2.2.1.7 Bedding ............................................................................................................19

Deformation History and Kinematic Analysis

List of Tables

Table 2_1 – Example of a paragenetic table that incorporates several structural stages 11

List of Figures

Figure 1.2_1 – Examples of various strain field geometries : uniform mesh A 4

Figure 1.2_2 – Examples of various strain field geometries : uniform mesh 5

Figure 1.2.1_1 – Non-coaxial deformation of a strain field diagram 6

Figure 1.2.1_2 – Example from the Porphyry deposit in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia 7

Figure 1.2.2_1 – Photomicrograph of a porphyritic garnet-quartz-mica schist from the Robertson River Metamorphics 8

Figure 2_1 – Example of a complex geological history expressed in rocks adjacent to the Capsize Creek Granite 9

Figure 2_2 – Photograph and line diagram of overprinting relationships between structures and veining 10

Figure 2.1.1.2_1 – Intersection lineation produced by intersecting planes 12

Figure 2.1.1.2_2 – Deformation lineation terminology 12

Figure 2.1.1.2_3 – Fold axis terminology 13

Figure 2.1.1.2_4 – Stretching lineation terminology 14

Figure 2.1.1.3_1 – Terminology for describing ductile fabrics 15

Figure 2.1.1.3_2 – Terminology for describing ductilely deformed rocks 15

Figure 2.1.1_1 – Geometries and structures produced during two stages of folding 16

Figure 2.1.2_1 – Grey-scale 1VD aeromagnetic image and gravity image of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome 17

Figure 2.1.2_2 – Geological interpretation of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome 17

Deformation History and Kinematic Analysis

1 DEFORMATION OF ROCKS – STRESS, STRAIN AND RELATED CONCEPTS
Structural geology deals with the manner in which rocks respond to the application of
deforming forces and with analysis of the resultant structures and geometries that are
produced. The ultimate aim of structural geology is to establish the history of
displacements, strains, stresses, and to understand the evolution of geological entities
within this structural history. These forces, structures, and the interaction between them
are prime controllers for the localisation of mineralisation. Unfortunately, there is
commonly a lack of clear understanding of the processes and products controlling
mineralisation and an incomplete knowledge of the interaction of structural and economic
geology. This course attempts to provide a refresher on structural geology and its role on
fluid flow and mineral deposition. Hopefully a clearer understanding of structural geology
will evolve from this, with an increase in the ability to interpret deformed and mineralised
rocks. The logical progression from this will be ability to use this knowledge in a predictive
fashion in both the mining and exploration sectors.

1.1 Some Deformation-Related Concepts and Definitions

Stress
Stress can be a complex concept to comprehend. It represents the system of internal
forces within a body that has been established in response to an external force that has
tended to change the shape or volume of a body. Stresses may be compressive, tensile or
shearing. Shearing stress tends to be abbreviated to shear by geologists and represents
the force tending to deform a body by the translation of one part of a body relative to
another.

The various forces acting on a point, which is subjected to pure stress without shear, can
be resolved into three mutually perpendicular axes that are termed the principal axes of
stress. If these axes are equal in magnitude, their action upon a sphere will be to reduce
the size of the sphere but not to alter its shape. If there is a difference in magnitude of one
or more of the axes, then the sphere will become an ellipsoid, resulting in shear. The long
axis of the ellipsoid represents the minimum compressive stress, sigma 3 (σ3). The largest
compressive principal stress is typically designated as sigma 1 (σ1). Sigma 2 (σ2) is the
intermediate stress. Differential stress is the difference between σ1 and σ3. The mean
stress is the average of all three stress values. You will probably hear people talking about
low mean stress sites in terms of favourable locations for fluid inflow.

Strain
Strain is the shape or volume change imposed on a rock due to the application of stress.

Bulk Strain
When strain is partitioned the regional or bulk strain is the sum of the partial strains
contributed by domains at a lesser scale. In this case the term bulk refers to the scale of
the feature being described. For example, you may refer to the bulk strain that has
deformed a granite body or the bulk strain that has affected a hand-specimen. Likewise,
the partial strains in each situation refer to the scale of the feature being described. The
bulk strain can be further considered in terms of bulk shear strain and bulk shortening
strain. It is important to state the scale at which you are examining the strain.

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 Bulk Shear Sense
Bulk shear sense relates to the overall sense of shear operating at the scale of the feature
being described. For example, the bulk shear sense operating on one limb of an antiform
may be dextral. However, at a smaller scale there may be local deviation from this such as
on the short limbs of parasitic folds.

Synthetic/Antithetic Shear
As deformation progresses strain is redistributed, particularly the progressive shearing
component. This heterogeneously distributed progressive shearing strain operates in a
synthetic and an antithetic sense. The sense of the bulk shear is defined as synthetic.
The opposite sense of shear that locally operates (e.g. on short limbs of folds or local
zones within ductile shear zones) is termed antithetic. Hence, if the bulk shear is dextral
then the antithetic sense of shear is sinistral.

Overprinting
Overprinting refers to the relative ages of formation of structures, minerals etc. For
example, if S2 formed after S1 then it will overprint it and the overprinting criteria will be that
S2 deforms S1. Similarly, minerals can overprint structures and vice versa.

Shear Zone
Shear zones represent zones where the strain (shearing) has been relatively much higher
than elsewhere in the rock mass undergoing deformation. That is, they represent zones of
accumulation or concentration of dominantly shearing strain. Consequently, large
displacements are often associated with them and shear sense criteria are often very well
developed. Difficulties in interpretation often stem from several separate events utilizing
the same structure, thereby producing complex overprinting geometries. To say that their
common role as pathways for fluids and as hosts for mineralization suggests that we
should understand them would be an understatement.

Strain Shadows and Low Strain Zones

Strain shadows and low strain zones are some of the most effective tools available for
structural analysis. These are simply zones where relatively less strain has affected the
rocks compared to that which has operated over the general rock mass. Consequently,
overprinting relationships and geometries that developed in previous deformations, or early
within the same deformation, may be preserved from destruction during subsequent
deformation. Strain shadows and low strain zones occur at all scales, from features
kilometres across adjacent to igneous bodies to microscale structures adjacent to
porphyroblasts. One of the best examples is porphyroblasts themselves, which also
preserve structural relationships as inclusion trails.

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1.2 Deformation Partitioning
It is important to understand that the deformation sequence that is established represents a
structural sequence of events and may not necessarily represent the chronological age.
This is because structures commonly form diachronously i.e. a single structural event may
create a ‘deformation front’ that passes through and affects different portions of the rock at
different times. Consequently, a single structure, such as a regionally developed
cleavage, may be of the same structural age but show variation in geochronological
age over the region of investigation. Such age variations have been demonstrated in
regions where datable geological bodies (e.g. granites) have been progressively emplaced
over the evolution of a deformation event but show variations in the degree of development
of structures within them.

Another important aspect of deformed rocks concerns the variable development of

structures. This can be due to a number of factors, including:-

The ability of some rock-types to accommodate strain more readily than others

The presence of competent or rigid bodies (e.g. porphyroblasts, granite plutons) that
pertubate stress trajectories

Variations in crustal geotherm, with hotter rocks promoting ductile structure
development in preference to that in relatively colder rocks

The presence of pre-existing structures that may be reactivated in preference to the
formation of new structures.

Much of the variation in manifestation of structures is a function of the process of

deformation partitioning. During the progressive deformation of a rock mass the strain
constantly redistributes so that the overall deformation is most effectively accommodated.

The concept of deformation partitioning is a result of trying to understand the

geometric consequences of strain histories that rocks have experienced, which
includes the subdivision of deformation processes into:-

Pure Shear
Pure shear represents a form of constant volume deformation that results in lines
parallel to the principal stress axes retaining their right angle intersections with each
other. Lines parallel to individual stress axes remain parallel. The uniform movement
of particles results in undistorted straight lines and planes but circles become ellipses.

Simple Shear
This is essentially the card deck model, where parallel planes slip past each other
and there is no shortening perpendicular to the planes.

Inhomogeneous Simple Shear
This is a variation of the simple shear model. However, the planes accommodate
different amounts of slip. There is still no shortening perpendicular to the planes.

Bulk Inhomogeneous Shortening
Bulk inhomogeneous shortening results in different amounts of shortening occurring
across the layers that are slipping as well as along them. This results in
anastomosing slip planes that bound zones that pinch and swell.

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 Basically, these processes are an attempt to portray the manner in which different portions
of the rock accommodate different amounts and forms of strain. In general, the strain
experienced by a rock can be divided into shearing strain and shortening strain.
Transitions occur from domains of shearing strain, which are typically represented by
zones of displacement and dissolution (e.g. ductile shear zones) to those of shortening,
which are represented by relatively more competent domains such as rigid bodies
(e.g. plutons, porphyroblasts, boudins etc). These transition zones accommodate variable
proportions of shearing and shortening strain.

The concept of deformation partitioning is very important because it produces the structural
geometries from which we can determine shear sense e.g. progressive deflection of some
geological marker as shearing strain increases. Also, variations in strain intensity can
localize brecciation and may lead to structural preparation of sites for mineralization.

Figure 1.2_1
Examples of various strain field geometries produced during progressive inhomogeneous
deformation of an originally uniform mesh A

The geometries are directly analogous with those observed in tectonites and pertain to sinistral displacements. Subdivision of the mesh
into deformation domains is illustrated in B. Zones of effectively no strain occur in the ellipsoidal areas; zones of dominantly shortening
strain with minor shearing strain occur in the boudinaged zones, which are bounded by dotted lines and are analogous with shear zones.
C and D show variations on the geometries that are produced due to differing distributions and amounts of strain.

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 Figure 1.2_2
Examples of various strain field geometries produced during inhomogeneous deformation
of an originally uniform mesh

In the bottom left hand example (C) it can be seen that the fold hinges equate to zones of relatively low strain whereas shearing strain
predominates in the limbs. All examples are for sinistral shear.

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1.2.1 Interpreting Geometries Produced Deformation - using the concepts of deformation
partitioning and strain field geometries
The ability to interpret deformation geometries is very important as it allows identification of
those domains that preferentially host mineralisation, determination of shear sense and
interpretation of the structural environment responsible for such processes as brecciation.
As shown above, deformed rocks can be domained into portions that have undergone
dominantly (1) no strain; (2) dominantly progressive shortening strain plus minor shearing
strain; (3) dominantly progressive shearing strain (Figure 1.2.1_1). Zones (1) and (2) are
termed zones of progressive shortening strain and Zone (3) is termed a zone of
progressive shearing strain (Figure 1.2.1_1).

Figure 1.2.1_1
Non-coaxial deformation of a strain field diagram illustrating the division into zones of
variable forms of strain

A gradation will exist between the relative proportions of shearing strain and shortening
strain accommodated by the rock volume being studied. For example, relatively more
phyllosilicate-rich horizons will accommodate the shearing strain and the more quartz
and/or feldspar-rich horizons will accommodate the shortening strain. In fairly
homogeneous rocks the relatively finer-grained layers will accommodate more of the
shearing strain.

Deformation zones can be further interpreted as having undergone coaxial or non-coaxial

deformation. In the former case the angular relationships for lines parallel and
perpendicular to the major stress axes remain at right angles.

Obviously a need exists for a method that provides a spatial analysis of the
geometries produced during deformation partitioning. One such model is that
which incorporates strain field geometries.

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 Figure 1.2.1_2
Example from the Porphyry deposit in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia

The deposit is hosted in a porphyry unit that has locally undergone intense ductile deformation. Highest strain zones are
mylonitic in character and host the highest grades. Increased alteration and a decrease in grainsize occur as the amount of
strain increases. The figure shows that transition in deformation character with increasing strain from top to bottom. Note that
grey pyritic mineralised zones are associated with the zones of highest strain and smallest grainsize. Sense of shear in all
examples is dextral as viewed. Note the ‘tiling’ geometry of the feldspar crystals at the left hand side of the upper sample, which
has developed as they have slid past each other with a sense that is anithetic to the bulk shear. This is analogous to a set of
books toppling on a shelf.

Strain field analysis has arisen from the investigation of meshes of uniform geometry that
have been deformed to produce geometries similar to those expressed in rocks. Using
these geometries it is possible to ascribe deformation characteristics to packages of rocks
with analogous strain field patterns. To generate these geometries we must produce some
form of discontinuity or strain field transition between the deformed and undeformed rock.
A consequence of this, and the attempt to solve volume problems, is anastomosing of the
axial planes and fold axes.

Variations on the degree and distribution of shortening and shearing present in the
strain fields of the bulk inhomogeneous shortening model produces geometries that
closely mimic those seen in rocks. Importantly, the zones of shear help compensate for
volume problems by being zones of active dissolution. Similarly, zones of shortening are
commonly zones of deposition. Because the axial planes of folds cannot perfectly coincide
with the x-y plane of the strain ellipsoid, foliations must anastomose.

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 It is important realise that the strain variations occur in 3D.

Another consequence of deformation partitioning and non-coaxial deformation is the

formation of consistent, typically asymmetric, geometries that allow determination of shear
sense. This is addressed in one of the following sections.

1.2.2 Deformation Partitioning at the Micro-Scale

What happens at the shortening/shearing interface, particularly at the grain scale? Here
we see how different minerals with different crystallographic attributes play different roles in
accommodating the deformation.

Minerals with layered structures, such as phyllosilicates and graphite, accommodate much
of the shearing component of deformation. Minerals such as quartz and feldspar
accommodate the shortening component of deformation. Because minerals such as
quartz do not have a preferred crystallographic direction on which to accommodate the
shearing strain they tend to build up concentrations of dislocations. The energy associated
with these dislocation density gradients from strained to unstrained parts of the crystal
promote chemical potential gradients, which in turn aid dissolution of the crystal during
active shearing. Phyllosilicates tend to dissipate much of this energy by slide on their
001 planes rather than building up concentrations of dislocations.

Another onsequence of deformation partitioning at the microscale is the anastomosing of

cleavages. This produces microscale geometries analogous to those shown in
Figure 1.2.2_1.

Figure 1.2.2_1
Photomicrograph of a porphyritic garnet-quartz-mica schist from the Robertson River Metamorphics,
north Queensland, Australia

The garnet porphyroblasts (black) are zones of no strain, the quartz-rich crenulation hinges are zones of shortening and
minor shearing strain, and the mica-rich crenulation limbs are zones of shearing strain. Zones of shearing strain are
also zones of enhanced dissolution.

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2 DEFORMATION HISTORY
A deformation history is a compilation of the sequence of deformation events that have
affected a rocks mass. Deformation events are placed in the sequence in which they have
formed based on overprinting criteria. That is, if structure A cross-cuts structure B, then
structure A is younger at that particular outcrop. The deformation events are denoted by
the nomenclature D1-n, where 1 is the oldest event and n is the youngest recognised.

The deformation history of a rock should be integrated with other aspects of the geological
history to allow a meaningful interrogation of the rocks being studied. This includes the
integration of veining and alteration episodes, igneous emplacement events, and
metamorphic events. Given that many of these occur synchronously with deformation, and
are commonly controlled by it, the exclusion of any of these factors can greatly inhibit a
meaningful interpretation. A useful way of representing this history is with a paragenetic
table (e.g. Table 2_1). Figures 2_1 and 2_2 are examples of exposures that show the
effects of several geological events, including more than one stage of deformation.

Figure 2_1
Example of a complex geological history expressed in rocks adjacent to the Capsize Creek Granite near
Cloncurry, northwest Queensland

The calcsilicate hostrocks have been affected by at least two stages of deformation prior to intrusion by several igneous veining/dyking
episodes.

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 Figure 2_2
Photograph and line diagram of overprinting relationships between structures and veining at the
Quarters mine, Western Australia

The history is 1) emplacement of the laminated vein, 2) displacement of the laminated vein by the high strain zone,
3) emplacement of steeply dipping veins, 4) low-dipping shears that have locally reactivated the vein laminations as shear planes.

Deformation History and Kinematic Analysis Page: 10

 Table 2_1
Example of a paragenetic table that incorporates several structural stages

Stage 1 veins

Folding and upright cleavage

development

Shearing on lithological layering

and down-dip stretching lineation

Thrust formation

Stage 2 veins

Stage 3 veins

Stage 4 veins

Gold mineralisation

Quartz tension gashes in Stage 4

veins

Cross-faults and associated quartz

veining
These have been placed in a sequence with veining and mineralization based on overprinting relationships. Note that more
information could be incorporated, such as alteration stages that may or may not be associated with the veins.

2.1.1 Deformation History Nomenclature

The resolution of a deformation history in rocks that have endured more than a couple of
events can often be daunting, especially when they produce complex overprinting
geometries. Consequently, the use of a coherent deformation terminology is important. This
section describes a systematic manner for describing structures produced in complexly
deformed rocks. This terminology is useful in that it describes what sort of structure we are
looking at (e.g. foliation, stretching lineation, intersection lineation, fold axis) and indicates
overprinting between the structures. Essentially, if you can count you can use this
terminology.

For a given rock mass that has been deformed we can call the deformations D1, D2 etc
through to Dn to describe the order they formed in. Deformation events produce planar
surfaces (denoted by ‘S’), such as cleavages, and linear structures (denoted by ‘L’) such as
intersection lineations

2.1.1.1 Terminology of Surfaces (cleavages) Produced During Deformation

The Surface produced during a deformation event is denoted by the letter ‘S’.

Each surface is also given a subscript that is the same as that for the deformation that
produced it e.g. S1, S2, S3 etc

For example, D1 will produce a cleavage surface that is called S1. The cleavage that is
produced during D2 is S2. S3 is the cleavage that is produced during D3 and so on.

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2.1.1.2 Terminology of Lineations Produced During Deformation
Three forms of lineations can be produced during deformation; intersection lineations, fold
axes (which are a special form of intersection lineation), and stretching lineations. Each
form of lineation is described below.

1 Intersection lineations
Lineations are denoted by the letter ‘L’ and represent the line of intersection of two
surfaces e.g Surface A and Surface B in Figure 2.1.1.2_1.

Figure 2.1.1.2_1
Intersection lineation produced by intersecting planes

Intersection lineations are described with a subscript and a superscript.

The superscript is the number of the oldest surface and the subscript is the number of
the youngest surface (Figure 2.1.1.2_2).

Figure 2.1.1.2_2
Deformation lineation terminology

For example, if Surface A (SA) is the oldest surface and Surface B (SB) is the
youngest, then the line of intersection is called LAB. Similarly, if S1 intersects S2, the
line of intersection is called L12 (Figure 2.1.1.2_2). If two foliations such as S1 and S2
intersect then this will produce an intersection lineation. In this case it will be L12, to
denote that the surface that formed in the first event (written as the superscripted 1)
has been overprinted by the surface produced in the later event (written as the
subscripted 2). The earliest deformation number is always superscripted. Note that
D2 can produce both an L02 and an L12.

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 Another example: If S3 intersects bedding (S0), then the line of intersection is called
L03.

2) Fold axes
Fold axes are just a special type of intersection lineation that is located on the hinge
line of a fold.

Fold axes are denoted by the letter ‘F’.

Just like intersection lineations, Fold axes are described with a subscript and a
superscript.

The superscript is the number of the oldest surface that is folded and the subscript is
the number of the youngest surface that folds it.

For example, if Surface A (SA) is the folded and Surface B (SB) is the axial plane of the
event that has caused the folding, then the line of Fold axis is called FAB.

Similarly, if D2 folds S1, then S2 is the axial plane cleavage that is produced. Where S2
intersects S1 along the hinge of the fold the Fold axis is termed F12.

Another example: If D3 folds bedding (S0), then the Fold axis is called F03.

Because fold axes are just a special type of intersection lineation that is located on the
hinge line of a fold, they are parallel to intersection lineations produced during the
same event.

For example, F03 is parallel to L03, F01 is parallel to L01 and so on.

This terminology is demonstrated in Figure 2.1.1.2_3.

Figure 2.1.1.2_3
Fold axis terminology

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 3 Stretching lineations
Some deformations will produced a stretching lineation that lies in the plane of the
foliation for the same event. That is, S1 will be produced in D1 and may have a stretching
lineation on its surface. We call this lineation L11, to show that it was produced during D1
and lies in S1. Similarly, D2 will produce an L22. This terminology is demonstrated in
Figure 2.1.1.2_4.

Figure 2.1.1.2_4
Stretching lineation terminology

Stretching lineations give an indication of the tectonic transport direction of the rocks
that occurred when deformation was ongoing. That is, stretching lineations indicate
the direction the rocks were moved as they tried to accommodate the strain. An
example is a stretched pebble in a deformed conglomerate, or a preferred orientation
of biotite grains.

2.1.1.3 Examples of the use of Deformation Nomenclature

Figures 2.1.1.3_1 and 2.1.1.3_2 are examples of structural nomenclature used for rocks
that have experienced a single stage of ductile deformation. Figure 2.1.1.3_2 shows this
nomenclature in geological context. Figure 2.1.1.3_3 is an example of structures formed
by two successive deformation events.

Figures 2.1.1.3_1, 2.1.1.3_2, and 2.1.1.3_3 all show the relationship of fold axes to
intersection lineations. Fold axes will be parallel to intersection lineations for the event
they formed in and are denoted with an F. That is, if D2 affects S1 it will produce a
cleavage, S2, and an F2 fold of S1. The fold axis of this F2 fold will be F12 and will be
parallel to L12.

The terminology described above takes into account the formation of structures that are
produced by young deformation overprints of much older structures. That is, any
deformation event has the potential to deform fabrics associated with any older event. For
example, if D3 folds bedding (S0) then F03 folds will be formed and L03 intersection
lineations will be parallel to these.

Deformation History and Kinematic Analysis Page: 14

 Figure 2.1.1.3_1
Terminology for describing ductile fabrics

Figure 2.1.1.3_2
Terminology for describing ductilely deformed rocks

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 Figure 2.1.1.3_3
Geometries and structures produced during two stages of folding

Deformation nomenclature for the various structures is given.

2.1.2 Implications of a Deformation History

It must be kept in mind that a deformation history is an interpretation. Consequently, it
is subject to change as more information becomes available. The ordered sequence of
events can be useful for understanding mineral deposits, as it indicates which structures
formed prior to mineralisation, synchronous with mineralisation, or may have deformed
mineralisation. However, an incorrect interpretation of the cross-cutting relationships and
geometries can lead to marked differences in how we view the evolution of a mineralised
terrane. This is shown in Figures 2.1.2_1 and 2.1.2_2.

Figure 2.1.2_1 shows two geophysical images of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome in Western
Australia. The aeromagnetic data was collected some years prior to the gravity data. The
initial interpretation was that of a lobate granitoid that was wrapped at the southern end by
a series of arcuate D1 thrusts. The arcuate geometry of the thrusts was interpreted to be a
product of D2 folding of the thrust-repeated stratigraphy around and over the granite dome.
This implied that the dome was a syn- to pre-D2 structure and that it pre-dated D2 folding.
The greenstone on the eastern side of the dome was interpreted to be a veneer of country
rock on top of a downthrown portion of the intrusion.

The collection of gravity data showed that the eastern margin of the dome is quite planar
and that the greenstone does not overlie granite. That is, the granite contact is much
further west than originally interpreted. Furthermore, the southern end of the ‘dome’
actually tapers markedly and its southern extremity is much further south than previously
interpreted. In addition, the granite cuts across the sequence of arcuate faults. This
indicates that the granite post-dates the macroscale F2 fold, which is the opposite of the
original interpretation.

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 Figure 2.1.2_1
Grey-scale 1VD aeromagnetic image (left) and gravity image (right) of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome in the
Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia

The dome is a granodiorite intrusion. Red and black lines are interpreted faults. Note that the lobate geometry of the dome in the
aeromagnetic image is not duplicated in the gravity, and that the eastern margin of the dome is a relatively planar NNW-SSE
striking, subvertical fault. Part of the current geological interpretation of the dome geology has been overlain on the aeromagnetic
image in Figure 2.1.2_2.

Figure 2.1.2_2
Geological interpretation of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome showing the tapering southern end of the
intrusion that cuts across the folded NE-SW trending D1 thrusts

Granitoids are shown as pink.

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2.2 How to Establish a Deformation History
In order to compile a comprehensive deformation history, all structural features must be
recorded and characterised. This should be integrated with other elements of the
geological history, including veining, alteration, igneous intrusions, metamorphic events
etc.

Note that each outcrop will express a local history and will rarely possess all
elements of the overall geological history. The overall history must be amassed by
integrating and correlating (if possible) the local histories.

2.2.1 Features to Record

2.2.1.1 Overprinting/Cross-Cutting Relationships
These relationships need not pertain to structures only, but include all the features
previously mentioned, such as igneous intrusions, metamorphic mineral growth and
veining and alteration suites.

2.2.1.2 Faults/Shears
General features to record include size, shear sense (plan and section) and orientation.
However, there are a number of additional features that can be recorded. The dimensions
of the fault system should be assessed and the some of the following information may be
obtainable including:-

Strike length

Scale of structural disruption e.g. brecciation halo

Measurable displacements

Width (e.g metres as opposed to centimetres?)

Is there an appreciable amount of gouge?

Intensity of foliation development e.g. mylonitic?

A number of age relationships may be able to be established, which will allow integration
into the deformation history. These relationships include:-

Relationships of faults to rock units such as felsic intrusions (these can be emplaced
throughout the tectonic history)

Relationship to veins - requires formulation of, and integration with, a vein
paragenetic history

Is the fault a member of a regional population for which relationships are known?
That is, do faults of the same suite show datable or cross-cutting relationships to
geological features (e.g. intrusions) elsewhere?

2.2.1.3 Foliation/Cleavage

Intensity

Orientation

Character (e.g. spaced, stripey, slaty, crenulation etc)

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2.2.1.4 Veins

Host

Orientation of enveloping surface to the population

Paragenetic sequence

Age

Density

Style (e.g. breccia, crack-seal, replacement)

Mineralogy

Associated alteration

2.2.1.5 Breccias

Style – hydraulic, replacement, collapse, tectonic

Orientation of stockwork veins relative to country rock structures

Bounding structures? – If so, what is the orientation of them?

How many generations?

2.2.1.6 Competent Bodies

Shape and orientation

Deformed? How pervasively?

Contacts – altered?, faulted?

2.2.1.7 Bedding

Orientation

Younging

Rocktype variations

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