[420]

Audit of accounting estimates

(Issued March 1995)

Contents

Paragraphs
Introduction 1–4

The nature of accounting estimates 5–7

Audit procedures 8–14

Evaluation of results of audit procedures 15–19

Compliance with International Standards on Auditing 20

Effective date 21

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 Audit of accounting estimates

Statements of Auditing Standards (‘SASs’) are to be read in the light of ‘The scope and
authority of APB pronouncements’. In particular, they contain basic principles and
essential procedures (‘Auditing Standards’), indicated by paragraphs in bold type,
with which auditors are required to comply in the conduct of any audit. SASs also
include explanatory and other material which is designed to assist auditors in
interpreting and applying Auditing Standards. The definitions in the Glossary of terms
are to be applied in the interpretation of SASs.

Introduction
The purpose of this SAS is to establish standards and provide guidance on the audit 1
of accounting estimates contained in financial statements. This SAS is not intended
to be applicable to the examination of prospective financial information, though
many of the procedures outlined herein may be suitable for that purpose.

Auditors should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding accounting 2

estimates. (SAS 420.1)

‘Accounting estimate’ means an approximation of the amount of an item in the 3

absence of a precise means of measurement. Examples are:
● allowances to reduce stocks and debtors to their estimated realisable value;
● depreciation provisions;
● accrued revenue;
● provision for deferred taxation;
● provision for a loss from a lawsuit;
● profits or losses on construction contracts in progress; and
● provision to meet warranty claims.

Directors and management are responsible for making accounting estimates 4

included in financial statements. These estimates are often made in conditions of
uncertainty regarding the outcome of events that have occurred or are likely to occur
and involve the use of judgment. As a result, audit evidence obtained is generally less
conclusive when accounting estimates are involved. Consequently, in assessing the
sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence on which to base the audit opinion,
auditors are more likely to need to exercise judgment in their consideration of
accounting estimates than in other areas of the audit.

The nature of accounting estimates

The determination of a complex accounting estimate may involve a high degree of 5
special knowledge and judgment. For example, estimating a provision for slow-
moving or surplus stocks may involve considerable analyses of current data and a
forecast of future sales.

Accounting estimates may be determined as part of the routine accounting system 6

operating on a continuing basis, or may be non-routine, operating only at period

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end. In many cases, accounting estimates are made by using a formula based on
experience, such as the use of standard rates for depreciating each category of fixed
assets or a standard percentage of sales revenue for computing a warranty provision.
In such cases, the formula is reviewed regularly by management or the directors, for
example by reassessing the remaining useful lives of assets or by comparing actual
results with the estimate and adjusting the formula when necessary.

7 If the uncertainty associated with an item, or the lack of objective data, makes it
incapable of reasonable estimation, auditors consider the implications for their
report.

Audit procedures
8 Auditors should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence as to whether an
accounting estimate is reasonable in the circumstances and, when required, is
appropriately disclosed. (SAS 420.2)

9 The evidence available to support an accounting estimate is often more difficult to

obtain and less conclusive than evidence available to support other items in the
financial statements.

10 An understanding of the procedures and methods, including the accounting and

internal control systems, used by management and directors in making accounting
estimates is often important in order for auditors to plan the nature, timing and
extent of their procedures.

11 Auditors should adopt one or a combination of the following approaches in the audit
of an accounting estimate:
(a) review and test the process used by management or the directors to develop the
estimate;
(b) use an independent estimate for comparison with that prepared by
management or the directors; or
(c) review subsequent events. (SAS 420.3)

Review and testing the process used by management or directors

12 The steps normally involved in the review and testing of the process used by
management or the directors are:
(a) evaluation of the data and consideration of the assumptions on which the
estimate is based;
(b) testing of the calculations involved in the estimate;
(c) comparison, when possible, of estimates made for prior periods with actual
results of those periods; and
(d) consideration of management’s or the directors’ review and approval proce-
dures.

Use of an independent estimate

13 Auditors may make or obtain an independent estimate and compare it with the
accounting estimate prepared by management or the directors. When using an

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independent estimate auditors generally evaluate the data, consider the assumptions
and test the calculation procedures used in its development. It may also be appro-
priate to compare independent estimates made for prior periods with actual results
of those periods.

Review of subsequent events

Transactions and events which occur after period end may provide audit evidence 14
regarding an accounting estimate made by management or the directors. The
auditors’ review of such transactions and events may reduce, or even remove, the
need for them to review and test the process used to develop the accounting estimate
or to use an independent estimate in assessing the reasonableness of the accounting
estimate.

Evaluation of results of audit procedures

Auditors should make a final assessment of the reasonableness of the accounting 15
estimate based on their knowledge of the business and whether the estimate is
consistent with other audit evidence obtained during the audit. (SAS 420.4)

Auditors consider whether there are any significant subsequent transactions or 16

events which affect the data and the assumptions used in determining the accounting
estimate.

As a result of the uncertainties inherent in accounting estimates, evaluating differ- 17

ences can be more difficult than in other areas of the audit. When there is a
difference between their estimate of the amount best supported by the available
audit evidence and the estimated amount included in the financial statements, the
auditors determine whether such a difference requires adjustment. If the difference
is reasonable, for example because the amount in the financial statements falls
within a range of acceptable results, it may not require adjustment.

Auditors consider whether individual differences which appear reasonable are 18

biased in one direction so that, on a cumulative basis, they have a material effect on
the financial statements. In such circumstances, they assess the reasonableness of the
accounting estimates taken as a whole.

If auditors believe the difference is unreasonable, management or the directors are 19

requested to revise the estimate. If they refuse to revise the estimate, the difference
is considered a misstatement and is considered with all other misstatements in
assessing whether the effect on the financial statements is material.

Compliance with International Standards on Auditing

Compliance with this SAS ensures compliance in all material respects with Inter- 20
national Standard on Auditing 540 ‘Audit of Accounting Estimates’.

Effective date
Auditors are required to comply with the Auditing Standards contained in this SAS 21
in respect of audits of financial statements for periods ending on or after 23
December 1995.

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