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Human Physiology 16Th Edition Stuart Ira Fox Full Chapter
Human Physiology 16Th Edition Stuart Ira Fox Full Chapter
Ira Fox
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ISTUDY
Human Physiology SIXTEENTH EDITION
ISTUDY
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121.
Copyright ©2022 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States
of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of
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transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers
outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-59766-0
MHID 1-260-59766-0
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ISTUDY
Brief Contents
2 Chemical Composition of the Body 24 14 Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood
Pressure 449
3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control 49
15 The Immune System 492
4 Enzymes and Energy 86
16 Respiratory Physiology 531
5 Cell Respiration and Metabolism 104
17 Physiology of the Kidneys 580
6 Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular
Environment 128 18 The Digestive System 618
Glossary G-1
11 Endocrine Glands 315
Index I-1
12 Muscle 358
iii
ISTUDY
About the Authors
iv
ISTUDY
Preface
The Story of the Sixteenth Edition This sixteenth edition marks a major addition to Human
Physiology: Krista Rompolski, Ph.D. (Moravian College) has
Stuart Fox, Ph.D., contributed significantly to the revision of chapters 8 and 18.
wrote the first edition As a very active physiology educator, Krista brings a new per-
(published 1983) to spective and her own expertise to make this edition an even
help students under- more exciting revision. This was achieved while maintaining
stand the concepts of the book’s tradition of remaining readable, accessible, and
human physiology, useful to students.
and this objective has To create this landmark sixteenth edition, Stuart had the
remained the guid- support of Krista Rompolski as coauthor and a superb team
ing principle through at McGraw-Hill. This team includes Matthew Garcia, Melisa
all of the subsequent Seegmiller, Sherry Kane, Brent Dela Cruz, Joan Weber, Angela
editions. All editions FitzPatrick, Valerie Kramer, Jim Connely, Kristine Rellihan,
have been lauded Beth Blech, and Lori Hancock. We are all incredibly grateful
for their readability, to the many reviewers who provided their time and expertise to
the currency of the critically examine individual chapters and be Board of Adviser
information, and the partners. These reviewers and advisers are listed on the pages
clarity of the presen- that follow.
tation. The sixteenth
edition continues this tradition by presenting human physi-
ology in the most current, readable, and student-oriented
way possible.
ISTUDY
4
118 Chapter 5
Guided Tour
to 85% of the body’s energy is stored as fat, which amounts
Bile acids Steroids to about 140,000 kilocalories. Stored glycogen, by contrast,
accounts for less than 2,000 kilocalories, most of which
Cholesterol
(about 350 g) is stored in skeletal muscles and is available
for use only by the muscles. The liver contains between 80
REFRESH YOUR MEMORY and 90 C H A Pof
grams TEglycogen,
R O UTLI N E can be converted to glucose
which
and used by other organs. Protein accounts for 15% to 20% of
Ketone bodies Citric acid 4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts 87
cycle)to review 2these the stored calories in the body, but protein usually is not used
Acetyl CoA CO
tissue
explore (or relevant serves as
white fat) topics of the
Total majorinterest
clinical
ATP form of energy and4are storage
ATP pathway.
placed atend. In a process Instead, the pyruvate
known as32β-oxidation will
(or 34) ATP move to a
(β is the 26different
Greek cellular
(or 28)letter
ATP
location and Becausea an
undergo increase
different in certain
reaction; the NADH enzymes in the blood can
produced Amylase
in the body. One gram of *fat Theprovides 9 iskilocalories of ATPof energy, oxidativebeta), enzymes remove two-carbon acetic
Detailed acid molecules from
key points in the chapter to support
theoretical yield the
the surrounding
number produced material.
by phosphorylation
by glycolysis
inside the
will
mitochondria
indicate damage
eventually
(explained in the
be to specific
oxidized,
Accounting
organs,
but that
section).
such
occurs testslater may aid the Aldolase
compared to 4 kilocalories for ayieldgram
**The actual ofaccount
takes into carbohydrates
the energy cost of or the
transporting ATPacid end
out of the of a fatty
mitochondria and intoacid chain. This results in the forma-
the cytoplasm.
Subjects
protein. Incovered
a nonobese include pathologies,
70-kilogram currentman,
(155-pound) research,
80% in the
tion of story.
diagnosis of diseases. For example, an increase in a man’s
acetyl CoA, as the third carbon from the end becomes Creatine kinase (or
pharmacology, and a variety of clinical diseases. In aerobic blood levels of acid
respiration, pyruvate phosphatase may result from disease of
oxidized to produce a new carboxyl group.leaves The fatty theacid cellchain cyto- creatine phosphokinas
the 36 to 38 ATP produced per glucose in the mitochondrion, plasm and the
enters from prostate
FADH
the 2 (table
interior result (the 4.1).
in thematrix)
pumping of of only 6 protons (4 by the
mitochondria. (CK or CPK)
C H E C K P O I NT S only 30 to 32 ATP actually enter the cytoplasm of the cell.
is thus decreased in length by 2 carbons. The
second pump and 2 by the third pump). Because 1 ATP is pro-
process of oxida-
Roughly 3 protons must pass through the respiratory
Once
tion pyruvateduced
continues
assem- until
is theinside
for entire
a protons
every 4 fatty
mitochondrion,
acid
pumped,molecule carbon
electrons is derived dioxide
converted from FADH2
Lactate dehydrogenase
1a. Define the termAPPLICATION
glycolysis in terms of its initial
LIFESTYLE
substrates and products. blies andExplain
activate whyATP synthase
there is to a produce
net
is
to enzymatically
acetyl CoA
1 ATP. However, the Lifestyle ⊳ (fig. removed
5.14).
result in the Application from
formation of 6 ÷Boxes each three-carbon-long
4 = 1.5 are ATP.readings
Each citric acid thatcycle
explore
(LDH)
and updated. which led to the discovery of circadian clock genes in humans.
⦁. Information about the respiratory complexes expanded. ⦁. Updated discussion in a Lifestyle Application box on
⦁. Respiratory complexes identified in figure 5.9. benzodiazepine prescription, use, and abuse.
⦁. Added information on essential amino acids. ⦁. Table 8.6 updated for accuracy on cranial nerve composition
and function.
vii
ISTUDY
New to This Edition
⦁. New figure of the cranial nerves added to Section 8.6. ⦁. Single-Unit and Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle heading given a
⦁. Additional information provided on the structure and function of Systems Interactions icon.
the anterior corticospinal tracts. ⦁. Autonomic Innervation of Smooth Muscles heading given a
Systems Interactions icon.
Chapter 9
⦁. New Systems Interactions question added to the Review
⦁. Figure 9.11 updated and modified for increased accuracy.
Activities.
⦁. Legend for figure 9.11 updated and expanded.
Chapter 13
Chapter 10
⦁. Updated information on aplastic anemia in the Clinical
⦁. Updated and expanded description of neural pathways for
Applications box on anemias.
somesthetic sensation.
⦁. Updated information on the origin of platelets.
⦁. New Clinical Application box on the gate control theory of pain.
⦁. Updated information on thrombopoietin.
⦁. Descriptions of the “labeled line” concept of taste transmission
⦁. Updated information on hemophilia A and B.
updated and expanded.
⦁. Figure 13.23 labels and legend modified to emphasize
⦁. Updated and expanded discussion of the physiology of sour
mechanical correlates of electrical activity.
taste.
⦁. Cardioprotective effects of exercise added to a Lifestyle
⦁. Descriptions of the structure and functions of the cupula in the
Application box.
semicircular canals updated and expanded.
⦁. Updated information on potential repairs of myocardial infarction.
⦁. Addition of motion sickness explanation.
⦁. Updated information on ECG changes in myocardial infarction.
⦁. Description of sensorineural deafness updated and expanded.
⦁. New information added on paroxysmal supraventricular
⦁. Figure 10.37 modified to show the direction of light.
tachycardia.
⦁. Description of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells
⦁. New information on pericytes added.
added.
Chapter 14
Chapter 11
⦁. Expanded and updated discussion of the control of cardiac rate.
⦁. Updated discussion of the role of heat shock proteins in steroid
⦁. Heading Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys given a
hormone action.
Systems Interactions icon.
⦁. Updated discussion in a Clinical Applications box of the Her2
⦁. Heading Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow given a Systems
receptor and the action of Herceptin in the treatment of breast
Interactions icon.
cancer.
⦁. Updated discussion of changes in coronary blood flow with
⦁. Figure 11.11 labels modified, and legend expanded and updated.
exercise.
⦁. Description of the osmoreceptor neurons and control of ADH
⦁. Updated and expanded explanation of how aerobic exercise
secretion updated and expanded.
improves cardiovascular health.
⦁. Heading Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary given a
⦁. Heading Baroreceptor Reflex given a Systems Interactions icon.
Systems Interactions icon.
⦁. Updated discussion of hypertension.
⦁. Heading Functions of the Adrenal Cortex given a Systems
⦁. Table 14.8 updated to display latest classification system for
Interactions icon.
hypertension.
⦁. Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome description
⦁. Updated discussion of septic shock.
expanded and updated.
⦁. Three new Systems Interactions questions added to the Review
⦁. Heading Pancreatic Islets given a Systems Interactions icon.
Activities.
⦁. Three new questions regarding Systems Interactions added to
the Test Your Understanding section of the Review Activities. Chapter 15
⦁. Updated information on danger-associated molecular patterns
Chapter 12
(DAMPs).
⦁. Clinical Application box on muscular dystrophy updated.
⦁. Updated information on macrophages.
⦁. Updated and expanded discussion of titin in muscle contraction.
⦁. Expanded and updated explanation of the causes and functions
⦁. Updated and expanded discussion of muscle fatigue.
of a fever.
⦁. New discussion of the myokine irisin added.
⦁. Expanded and updated description of the sources and functions
⦁. New Lifestyle Application box added regarding the healthful
of gamma interferon.
consequences of a change from a sedentary to a more active
⦁. Updated and expanded description of neutrophil actions in an
lifestyle.
infection.
⦁. Updated discussion of muscle satellite cells.
⦁. Expanded and updated information on regulatory
⦁. Updated information on muscle spindle.
T lymphocytes.
⦁. Heading Skeletal Muscle Reflexes given a Systems Interactions
⦁. Updated information on sepsis in a Clinical Applications box.
icon.
viii
ISTUDY
⦁. Updated and expanded explanation of the nature of B cell clones ⦁. Two new Systems Interactions questions added to the Review
in the development of secondary immune responses. Activities.
⦁. Updated information on immunological competence and
Chapter 18
immunological tolerance.
⦁. Clinical Investigation updated throughout the chapter.
⦁. Updated and expanded information on chimeric antigen
⦁. Updated descriptions of the mucosal and serosal layers of the
receptors and immune checkpoint blockade in the treatment of
alimentary tract.
cancer.
⦁. New detail included on the nerve composition of the vagus nerve.
⦁. Updated information on the viral causes of cancer.
⦁. Clinical Application box on Barrett’s esophagus updated to
⦁. New information on anaphylaxis.
include the role of esophageal stem cells in the development of
Chapter 16 esophageal cancer.
⦁. Updated and expanded description of control of the vocal cords. ⦁. Clinical Application box on gastroesophageal reflux disease
⦁. New information about lower respiratory tract infections added. (GERD) updated to include additional risk factors.
⦁. Updated and expanded information about how allergens ⦁. Discussion on celiac disease added to the updated Clinical
stimulate asthma. Application box on lactose intolerance.
⦁. Description of the role of the pons in the control of breathing ⦁. New and expanded description of the function of the
updated. interconnected cells of Cajal in the stomach and intestines.
⦁. Updated description of the role of the central chemoreceptors in ⦁. Additional information on the structure of the large intestine.
the control of breathing. ⦁. Label for taenia coli added to figure 18.16.
⦁. New description of the hypoxic ventilatory response. ⦁. Section on Intestinal Microbiota revitalized with new headings
⦁. Updated and expanded description of obstructive sleep apnea. and up-to-date research on its development, role in immune
⦁. New discussion of cardiovascular changes during breath-holding function, metabolism and disease development.
and hyperventilation. ⦁. Clinical Application box on inflammatory bowel disease
⦁. New information added about treatments for sickle cell anemia (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) updated to include
and thalassemia. distinguishing features of ulcerative colitis and Chron’s disease.
⦁. Heading Principles of Acid–Base Balance gets Systems ⦁. Updated description of salt and water transport in the large intestine.
Interactions icon. ⦁. Description on the steps of defecation reflex updated.
⦁. Expanded and updated description of the role of the kidneys in ⦁. Clinical Application box on cirrhosis, nonalcoholic fatty liver
assisting the lungs in the control of acid–base balance. disease, and liver diseases caused by chronic alcohol use updated.
⦁. Updated and expanded discussion of the mechanisms of ⦁. Table 18.3 updated to include storage functions of the liver.
acclimatization to high altitude. ⦁. Legend for figure 18.22 on metabolism of heme and bilirubin
⦁. New Systems Interactions question added to the Review updated for more detail and accuracy.
Activities. ⦁. Urobilinogen changed to sterocobilin in text and figure 18.23 for
accuracy in terminology.
Chapter 17
⦁. Updated and expanded description of the metabolism and
⦁. Updated and expanded explanation of autoregulation of renal
circulation of bile acids and the role of bile acids in the
blood flow and tubuloglomerular feedback.
secretion of hormones by the small intestine.
⦁. Expanded and updated description of the secretion of ADH.
⦁. Lifestyle Application on exercise and the timing of meals
⦁. Figure 17.21 modified to show reabsorption from and secretion
updated to include the autonomic nervous system’s influence on
into blood vessels.
digestion during exercise.
⦁. Heading Role of Aldosterone in Na+/K+ Balance given a
⦁. New information added to the structure and function of the
Systems Interactions icon.
enteric nervous system.
⦁. Figure 17.25 modified to show reabsorption from and secretion
⦁. New information on the role of secretin in metabolism of brown
into blood vessels.
adipose tissue.
⦁. Heading Renal Acid–Base Regulation given a Systems
⦁. Updated explanation of the transport of chylomicrons by the
Interaction icon.
lacteals of the intestinal villi.
⦁. Figure 17.29 modified to show Na+ being cotransported with
bicarbonate out of the proximal tubule. Chapter 19
⦁. Added explanation of sodium-bicarbonate cotransport from ⦁. Updated and expanded discussion of the development of adipose
proximal tubule. tissue.
⦁. Updated and expanded explanation of the renal generation of ⦁. New discussion of subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral fat, and
bicarbonate and ammonia. ectopic fat.
⦁. Updated description of acute mountain sickness. ⦁. New heading, Hormonal Signals from the GI Tract.
ix
ISTUDY
New to This Edition
ISTUDY
Acknowledgments
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xi
ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
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3 Cell
History of Physiology 4
Negative Feedback Loops 5 Structure and
Positive Feedback 8
Genetic Control 49
Neural and Endocrine Regulation 8
Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion 8 3.1 Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures 50
2
Endoplasmic Reticulum 59
Chemical Composition Golgi Complex 60
of the Body 24 3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression 61
Genome and Proteome 62
2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds 25
Chromatin 63
Atoms 25
RNA Synthesis 63
Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic
RNA Interference 66
Compounds 26
3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion 67
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale 28
Transfer RNA 67
Organic Molecules 30
Formation of a Polypeptide 68
2.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids 32
Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi
Carbohydrates 33
Complex 69
Lipids 36
Protein Degradation 69
xv
ISTUDY
xvi Contents
3.5 Dna Synthesis and Cell Division 71 5.4 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins 117
DNA Replication 71 Lipid Metabolism 117
The Cell Cycle 72 Amino Acid Metabolism 120
Mitosis 75 Uses of Different Energy Sources 121
Meiosis 77 Interactions 124
Epigenetic Inheritance 78 Summary 125
Interactions 82 Review Activities 126
Summary 83
6 Interactions
Review Activities 84
Between
Cells and the Extracellular
4 Enzymes and Energy
4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts 87
86
6.1
Environment
Extracellular Environment
128
129
Body Fluids 129
Mechanism of Enzyme Action 87
Extracellular Matrix 129
Naming of Enzymes 89
Categories of Transport Across the Plasma
4.2 Control of Enzyme Activity 90
Membrane 130
Effects of Temperature and pH 90
6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis 131
Cofactors and Coenzymes 91
Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane 133
Enzyme Activation 91
Rate of Diffusion 134
Substrate Concentration and Reversible Reactions 92
Osmosis 134
Metabolic Pathways 92
Regulation of Blood Osmolality 139
4.3 Bioenergetics 95
6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport 140
Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions 96
Facilitated Diffusion 141
Coupled Reactions: ATP 96
Active Transport 142
Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction 98
Bulk Transport 146
Summary 100
6.4 The Membrane Potential 147
Review Activities 102
Equilibrium Potentials 148
5 Metabolism
Resting Membrane Potential 150
Cell Respiration and 6.5 Cell Signaling 151
Second Messengers 152
104
G-Proteins 153
5.1 Glycolysis and the Lactic Acid Pathway 105 Interactions 155
Glycolysis 105 Summary 156
Lactic Acid Pathway 107 Review Activities 158
7
109
Citric Acid Cycle 109
Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation 110
The Nervous System 160
Coupling of Electron Transport to ATP Production 110 7.1 Neurons and Supporting Cells 161
ATP Balance Sheet 113 Neurons 161
5.3 Interconversion of Glucose, Lactic Acid, Classification of Neurons and Nerves 162
and Glycogen 115 Neuroglia 164
Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis 115
Neurilemma and Myelin Sheath 165
Cori Cycle 115
Functions of Astrocytes 168
ISTUDY
Contents xvii
9 The
Acetylcholine in the PNS 187
Acetylcholine in the CNS 188 Autonomic Nervous
7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters
System
188
242
Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter 190
Dopamine as a Neurotransmitter 191 9.1 Neural Control of Involuntary Effectors 243
Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter 191 Autonomic Neurons 243
7.6 Other Neurotransmitters 192 Visceral Effector Organs 244
Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters 192 9.2 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 245
Polypeptides as Neurotransmitters 194 Sympathetic Division 245
Endocannabinoids as Neurotransmitters 195 Parasympathetic Division 246
Gases as Neurotransmitters 196 9.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System 250
ATP and Adenosine as Neurotransmitters 196 Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic
7.7 Synaptic Integration 197 Transmission 250
Synaptic Plasticity 197 Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation 251
Synaptic Inhibition 198 Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation 255
Summary 199 Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters 256
Review Activities 201 Organs With Dual Innervation 257
Organs Without Dual Innervation 258
8
Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher
The Central Nervous Brain Centers 259
10 Sensory Physiology
Cerebral Cortex 207
Basal Nuclei 213 265
ISTUDY
xviii Contents
10.3 Taste and Smell 273 Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary 332
Taste 273 Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary 332
Smell 275 Feedback Control of the Anterior Pituitary 334
10.4 Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium 277 Higher Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion 335
Sensory Hair Cells of the Vestibular Apparatus 278 11.4 Adrenal Glands 336
Utricle and Saccule 279 Functions of the Adrenal Cortex 337
Semicircular Canals 279 Functions of the Adrenal Medulla 338
10.5 The Ears and Hearing 281 Stress and the Adrenal Gland 339
Outer Ear 282 11.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 340
Middle Ear 282 Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones 341
Cochlea 283 Parathyroid Glands 343
Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti) 285 11.6 Pancreas and Other Endocrine Glands 344
10.6 The Eyes and Vision 289 Pancreatic Islets 344
Refraction 293 Pineal Gland 346
Accommodation 294 Gastrointestinal Tract 348
Visual Acuity 295 Gonads and Placenta 348
10.7 Retina 296 11.7 Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation 348
Effect of Light on the Rods 298 Examples of Paracrine and Autocrine
Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells 299 Regulation 349
Cones and Color Vision 300 Prostaglandins 350
Visual Acuity and Sensitivity 302 Interactions 353
Neural Pathways from the Retina 303 Summary 354
10.8 Neural Processing of Visual Information 306 Review Activities 355
359
Summary 310 Structure of Skeletal Muscles 359
Review Activities 313 Motor End Plates and Motor Units 360
12.2 Mechanisms of Contraction 363
11
Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction 366
Endocrine Glands 315 Regulation of Contraction 368
11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones 316 12.3 Contractions of Skeletal Muscles 373
Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus 373
Regulation 316 Types of Muscle Contractions 374
Chemical Classification of Hormones 318 Series-Elastic Component 375
Prohormones and Prehormones 319 Length-Tension Relationship 375
Hormone Interactions 320 12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscles 376
Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles 377
Response 320 Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers 379
11.2 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 322 Muscle Fatigue 381
Hormones That Bind to Nuclear Receptor Adaptations of Muscles to Exercise Training 381
Proteins 322
Muscle Damage and Repair 383
Hormones That Use Second Messengers 325
12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles 383
11.3 Pituitary Gland 330
Muscle Spindle 384
Pituitary Hormones 330
ISTUDY
Contents xix
14 Cardiac
Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons 386
Coactivation of Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons 386 Output, Blood Flow,
Skeletal Muscle Reflexes 386 and Blood Pressure 449
Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal Muscles 389
14.1 Cardiac Output 450
12.6 Cardiac and Smooth Muscles 390
Regulation of Cardiac Rate 450
Cardiac Muscle 391
Regulation of Stroke Volume 451
Smooth Muscle 392
Venous Return 454
Interactions 397
14.2 Blood Volume 455
Summary 398
Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and Tissues 456
Review Activities 400
Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys 458
13 Blood,
14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow 462
Circulation 403
Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow 464
Paracrine Regulation of Blood Flow 465
13.1 Functions and Components of the Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow 466
Circulatory System 404 14.4 Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal Muscles 467
Functions of the Circulatory System 404 Aerobic Requirements of the Heart 467
Major Components of the Circulatory System 404 Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow 468
13.2 Composition of the Blood 405 Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal Muscles 469
Blood Plasma 405 Circulatory Changes During Exercise 469
The Formed Elements of Blood 406 14.5 Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin 472
Hematopoiesis 408 Cerebral Circulation 472
Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Typing 411 Cutaneous Blood Flow 473
Blood Clotting 413 14.6 Blood Pressure 474
Dissolution of Clots 416 Baroreceptor Reflex 476
13.3 Structure of the Heart 417 Atrial Stretch Reflexes 478
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations 417 Measurement of Blood Pressure 478
Atrioventricular and Semilunar Valves 418 Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure 480
Heart Sounds 419 14.7 Hypertension, Shock, and Congestive
13.4 Cardiac Cycle 421 Heart Failure 481
Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle 422 Hypertension 481
13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and Circulatory Shock 483
the Electrocardiogram 424 Congestive Heart Failure 485
Electrical Activity of the Heart 424 Interactions 487
The Electrocardiogram 427 Summary 488
13.6 Blood Vessels 430 Review Activities 489
Arteries 430
ISTUDY
xx Contents
15.6 Diseases Caused by the Immune System 520 Principles of Acid-Base Balance 567
Autoimmunity 520 Ventilation and Acid-Base Balance 568
Immune Complex Diseases 522 16.9 Effect of Exercise and High Altitude on
Respiratory Function 569
Allergy 522
Ventilation During Exercise 569
Interactions 526
Acclimatization to High Altitude 570
Summary 527
Interactions 574
Review Activities 528
Summary 575
16 Respiratory Physiology
Review Activities 577
Structure of the Respiratory System 532 17.1 Structure and Function of the Kidneys 581
Thoracic Cavity 535 Gross Structure of the Urinary System 581
16.2 Physical Aspects of Ventilation 535 Control of Micturition 583
Intrapulmonary and Intrapleural Pressures 536 Microscopic Structure of the Kidney 583
Physical Properties of the Lungs 537 17.2 Glomerular Filtration 586
Surfactant and Respiratory Distress Syndrome 539 Glomerular Ultrafiltrate 587
16.3 Mechanics of Breathing 539 Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate 588
Inspiration and Expiration 540 17.3 Reabsorption of Salt and Water 589
Pulmonary Function Tests 541 Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule 590
Pulmonary Disorders 543 The Countercurrent Multiplier System 591
16.4 Gas Exchange in the Lungs 546 Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 594
Calculation of PO2 546 17.4 Renal Plasma Clearance 597
Partial Pressures of Gases in Blood 547 Transport Process Affecting Renal Clearance 598
Significance of Blood PO2 and PCO2 Measurements 549 Renal Clearance of Inulin: Measurement of GFR 599
Pulmonary Circulation and Ventilation/Perfusion Renal Clearance Measurements 600
Ratios 549
Reabsorption of Glucose 601
Disorders Caused by High Partial Pressures of Gases 551
17.5 Renal Control of Electrolyte and Acid–Base
16.5 Regulation of Breathing 552 Balance 603
Brain Stem Respiratory Centers 552 Role of Aldosterone in Na+/K+ Balance 603
Effects of Blood PCO2 and pH on Ventilation 554 Control of Aldosterone Secretion 605
ISTUDY
Contents xxi
19 Regulation of Metabolism
Natriuretic Peptides 606
Relationship Between Na+, K+, and H+ 607 662
18
18.1
The Digestive System
Introduction to the Digestive System
618
619 19.3
Caloric Expenditures 675
Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism 676
Energy Regulation by the Pancreatic Islets 678
Layers of the Alimentary Tract 620 Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion 678
Regulation of the Alimentary Tract 622 Insulin and Glucagon: Absorptive State 680
18.2 From Mouth to Stomach 622 Insulin and Glucagon: Postabsorptive State 680
Esophagus 623 19.4 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypoglycemia 682
Stomach 624 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 683
Pepsin and Hydrochloric Acid Secretion 624 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 683
18.3 Small Intestine 628 Hypoglycemia 686
Villi and Microvilli 628 19.5 Metabolic Regulation by Adrenal Hormones,
Intestinal Enzymes 629 Thyroxine, and Growth Hormone 687
Intestinal Contractions and Motility 630 Adrenal Hormones 687
18.4 Large Intestine 632 Thyroxine 688
Intestinal Microbiota 633 Growth Hormone 689
Fluid and Electrolyte Absorption in the Intestine 635 19.6 Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate
Balance 691
Defecation 636
Bone Deposition and Resorption 691
18.5 Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas 636
Hormonal Regulation of Bone 693
Structure of the Liver 636
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 695
Functions of the Liver 639
Negative Feedback Control of Calcium and
Gallbladder 642
Phosphate Balance 696
Pancreas 643
Summary 698
18.6 Regulation of the Digestive System 645
Review Activities 699
Regulation of Gastric Function 646
20 Reproduction
Regulation of Intestinal Function 648
Regulation of Pancreatic Juice and Bile Secretion 650 702
Trophic Effects of Gastrointestinal Hormones 650
20.1 Sexual Reproduction 703
18.7 Digestion and Absorption of Food 651
Sex Determination 703
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates 651
Development of Accessory Sex Organs and
Digestion and Absorption of Proteins 652
External Genitalia 706
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids 653
Disorders of Embryonic Sexual Development 707
Interactions 657
20.2 Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction 709
Summary 658
Interactions Among the Hypothalamus,
Review Activities 659 Pituitary Gland, and Gonads 710
ISTUDY
xxii Contents
Menopause 735
ISTUDY
1 The Study of Body
Function
C H A P TE R O UTLI N E
CLINICAL INVESTIGATION
1.1 Introduction to Physiology 2
As you study the sections of this chapter, you can see
Scientific Method 2
how your new knowledge can be applied to interesting
1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control 4
health issues that may be important to know in your future
History of Physiology 4
career as a health professional. This can add zest to your Negative Feedback Loops 5
studies and increase your motivation to truly understand Positive Feedback 8
physiological concepts, rather than to simply memorize Neural and Endocrine Regulation 8
facts for examinations. Each chapter begins with a medical Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion 8
mystery for you to solve, using information in the text of that 1.3 The Primary Tissues 10
Muscle Tissue 10
chapter and “Clinical Investigation Clues” within the chapter.
Nerve Tissue 11
For example, suppose Linda goes for a medical Epithelial Tissue 12
examination where her body temperature is measured, and Connective Tissue 15
she gives a fasting blood sample to test for glucose. Your 1.4 Organs and Systems 17
first Clinical Investigation challenge is to determine the An Example of an Organ: The Skin 18
medical significance of these physiological tests. Systems 19
Body-Fluid Compartments 20
Summary 21
Review Activities 22
ISTUDY
2 Chapter 1
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 3
It is quite possible that when others attempt to replicate the or is it due to chance variations in the measurements? Scien-
experiment, their results will be slightly different. They may tists attempt to test the null hypothesis (the hypothesis that the
then construct scientific hypotheses that the differences in rest- difference is due to chance) by employing the mathematical
ing pulse rate also depend on other factors, such as the nature tools of statistics. If the statistical results so warrant, the null
of the exercise performed. When scientists attempt to test these hypothesis can be rejected and the experimental hypothesis
hypotheses, they will likely encounter new problems requir- can be deemed to be supported by this study.
ing new explanatory hypotheses, which then must be tested by The statistical test chosen will depend on the design of the
additional experiments. experiment, and it can also be a source of contention among
In this way, a large body of highly specialized information scientists in evaluating the validity of the results. Because of
is gradually accumulated, and a more generalized explanation the nature of the scientific method, “proof” in science is always
(a scientific theory) can be formulated. This explanation will provisional. Some other researchers, employing the scientific
almost always be different from preconceived notions. People method in a different way (with different measuring tech-
who follow the scientific method will then appropriately mod- niques, experimental procedures, choice of control groups, sta-
ify their concepts, realizing that their new ideas will probably tistical tests, and so on), may later obtain different results. The
have to be changed again in the future as additional experi- scientific method is thus an ongoing enterprise.
ments are performed. The results of the scientific enterprise are written up as
research articles, and these must be reviewed by other scien-
Use of Measurements, Controls, tists who work in the same field before they can be published
and Statistics in peer-reviewed journals. More often than not, the reviewers
will suggest that certain changes be made in the articles before
Suppose you wanted to test the hypothesis that a regular exer- they can be accepted for publication.
cise program causes people to have a lower resting heart rate. Examples of such peer-reviewed journals that pub-
First, you would have to decide on the nature of the exercise lish articles in many scientific fields include Science
program. Then, you would have to decide how the heart rate (www.sciencemag.org/), Nature (www.nature.com/nature/),
(or pulse rate) would be measured. This is a typical problem in and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
physiology research because the testing of most physiological (www.pnas.org/). Review articles on physiology can be found
hypotheses requires quantitative measurements. in Annual Review of Physiology (physiol.annualreviews.org/),
The group that is subject to the testing condition—in this Physiological Reviews (journals.physiology.org), and Physi-
case, exercise—is called the experimental group. A measure- ology (physiologyonline.physiology.org). Medical research
ment of the heart rate for this group would be meaningful only journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine
if it is compared to that of another group, known as the control (content.nejm.org/) and Nature Medicine (www.nature.com/nm/),
group. How shall this control group be chosen? Perhaps the also publish articles of physiological interest. There are also
subjects could serve as their own controls—that is, a person’s many specialty journals in areas of physiology such as neuro-
resting heart rate could be measured before and after the exer- physiology, endocrinology, and cardiovascular physiology.
cise regimen. If this isn’t possible, a control group could be Students who wish to look online for scientific articles
other people who do not follow the exercise program. The published in peer-reviewed journals that relate to a particular
choice of control groups is often a controversial aspect of phys- subject can do so at the National Library of Medicine website,
iology studies. In this example, did the people in the control PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi).
group really refrain from any exercise? Were they comparable
to the people in the experimental group with regard to age, sex,
ethnicity, body weight, health status, and so on? You can see Development of Pharmaceutical Drugs
how difficult it could be in practice to get a control group that The development of new pharmaceutical drugs can serve as
could satisfy any potential criticism. an example of how the scientific method is used in physiology
Another possible criticism could be bias in the way that and its health applications. The process usually starts with
the scientists perform the measurements. This bias could be basic physiological research, often at cellular and molecular
completely unintentional; scientists are human, after all, and levels. Perhaps a new family of drugs is developed using cells
they may have invested months or years in this project. To pre- in tissue culture (in vitro, or outside the body). For example,
vent such bias, the person doing the measurements often does cell physiologists studying membrane transport may discover
not know if a subject is part of the experimental or the control that a particular family of compounds blocks membrane chan-
group. This is known as a blind measurement. nels for calcium ions (Ca2+). Because of their knowledge
Now suppose the data are in and it looks like the experi- of physiology, other scientists may predict that a drug of
mental group indeed has a lower average resting heart rate than this nature might be useful in the treatment of hypertension
the control group. But there is overlap—some people in the con- (high blood pressure). This drug may then be tried in animal
trol group have measurements that are lower than some people experiments.
in the experimental group. Is the difference in the average mea- If a drug is effective at extremely low concentrations in
surements of the groups due to a real physiological difference, vitro (in cells cultured outside of the body), there is a chance
ISTUDY
4 Chapter 1
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 5
TABLE 1.1 | History of Twentieth- and Twenty-First-Century Physiology (two citations per decade)
1900 Karl Landsteiner discovers the A, B, and O blood groups.
1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his work on the physiology of digestion.
1910 Sir Henry Dale describes properties of histamine.
1918 Earnest Starling describes how the force of the heart’s contraction relates to the amount of blood in it.
1921 John Langley describes the functions of the autonomic nervous system.
1923 Sir Frederick Banting, Charles Best, and John Macleod win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin.
1932 Sir Charles Sherrington and Lord Edgar Adrian win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries related to the functions of neurons.
1936 Sir Henry Dale and Otto Loewi win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of acetylcholine in synaptic transmission.
1939–47 Albert von Szent-Györgyi explains the role of ATP and contributes to the understanding of actin and myosin in muscle contraction.
1949 Hans Selye discovers the common physiological responses to stress.
1953 Sir Hans Krebs wins the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the citric acid cycle.
1954 Hugh Huxley, Jean Hanson, R. Niedergerde, and Andrew Huxley propose the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.
1962 Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins win the Nobel Prize for determining the structure of DNA.
1963 Sir John Eccles, Sir Alan Hodgkin, and Sir Andrew Huxley win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries relating to the nerve impulse.
1971 Earl Sutherland wins the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the mechanism of hormone action.
1977 Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries of the brain’s production of peptide hormone.
1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for his discoveries regarding the specializations of the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
1986 Stanley Cohen and Rita Levi-Montalcini win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries of growth factors regulating the nervous system.
1994 Alfred Gilman and Martin Rodbell win the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the functions of G-proteins in signal transduction in cells.
1998 Robert Furchgott, Louis Ignarro, and Ferid Murad win the Nobel Prize for discovering the role of nitric oxide as a signaling molecule
in the cardiovascular system.
2004 Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory
system.
2012 Sir John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become
pluripotent (like embryonic cells).
2019 William G. Kaelin, Gregg L. Semenza, and Peter J. Ratcliffe win the Nobel Prize for their discoveries of how cells sense the oxygen
levels in their environment and initiate physiological responses.
ISTUDY
6 Chapter 1
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 7
1
Sweat Sweat
X Sensor Integrating center
37° C Normal
– range
Quantitative Measurements
– – – To study physiological mechanisms, scientists must measure
Set point Normal
(average)
– – –
range specific values and mathematically determine such statistics as
their normal range, their averages, and their deviations from
the average (which can represent the set point). For these and
FIGURE 1.3 Negative feedback loops maintain a state of other reasons, quantitative measurements are basic to the sci-
dynamic constancy within the internal environment. The
completion of the negative feedback loop is indicated by negative ence of physiology. One example of this, and of the actions of
signs. antagonistic mechanisms in maintaining homeostasis, is shown
in figure 1.5. Blood glucose concentrations were measured in
five healthy people before and after an injection of insulin, a
Antagonistic Effectors hormone that acts to lower the blood glucose concentration. A
graph of the data reveals that the blood glucose concentration
Most factors in the internal environment are controlled by sev- decreased rapidly but was brought back up to normal levels
eral effectors, which often have antagonistic actions. Control within 80 minutes after the injection. This demonstrates that
by antagonistic effectors is sometimes described as “push-
pull,” where the increasing activity of one effector is accom-
panied by decreasing activity of an antagonistic effector. This
affords a finer degree of control than could be achieved by sim- Insulin injected
ply switching one effector on and off. 100
Room temperature can be maintained, for example, by
concentration
(mg/dl)
ISTUDY
8 Chapter 1
negative feedback mechanisms acted to restore homeostasis in organ by the nervous and endocrine systems. The endocrine
this experiment. These mechanisms involve the action of hor- system functions closely with the nervous system in regulating
mones whose effects are antagonistic to that of insulin—that and integrating body processes and maintaining homeostasis.
is, they promote the secretion of glucose from the liver (see The nervous system controls the secretion of many endocrine
chapter 19). glands, and some hormones in turn affect the function of the
nervous system. Together, the nervous and endocrine systems
Positive Feedback regulate the activities of most of the other systems of the body.
Regulation by the endocrine system is achieved by the
Constancy of the internal environment is maintained by effec- secretion of chemical regulators called hormones into the
tors that act to compensate for the change that served as the blood, which carries the hormones to all organs in the body.
stimulus for their activation; in short, by negative feedback Only specific organs can respond to a particular hormone, how-
loops. A thermostat, for example, maintains a constant tem- ever; these are known as the target organs of that hormone.
perature by increasing heat production when it is cold and Nerve fibers are said to innervate the organs that they
decreasing heat production when it is warm. The opposite regulate. When stimulated, these fibers produce electrochemi-
occurs during positive feedback—in this case, the action of cal nerve impulses that are conducted from the origin of the
effectors amplifies those changes that stimulated the effec- fiber to its terminals in the target organ innervated by the fiber.
tors. A thermostat that works by positive feedback, for exam- These target organs can be muscles or glands that may function
ple, would increase heat production in response to a rise in as effectors in the maintenance of homeostasis.
temperature. For example, we have negative feedback loops that help
It is clear that homeostasis must ultimately be maintained maintain homeostasis of arterial blood pressure, in part by
by negative rather than by positive feedback mechanisms. The adjusting the heart rate. If everything else is equal, blood
effectiveness of some negative feedback loops, however, is pressure is lowered by a decreased heart rate and raised by an
increased by positive feedback mechanisms that amplify the increased heart rate. This is accomplished by regulating the
actions of a negative feedback response. Blood clotting, for activity of the autonomic nervous system, as will be discussed
example, occurs as a result of a sequential activation of clotting in later chapters. Thus, a fall in blood pressure—produced
factors; the activation of one clotting factor results in activation daily as we go from a lying to a standing position—is compen-
of many in a positive feedback cascade. In this way, a single sated by a faster heart rate (fig. 1.6). As a consequence of this
change is amplified to produce a blood clot. Formation of the negative feedback loop, our heart rate varies as we go through
clot, however, can prevent further loss of blood, and thus rep- our day, speeding up and slowing down, so that we can main-
resents the completion of a negative feedback loop that restores tain homeostasis of blood pressure and keep it within limits.
homeostasis.
Two other examples of positive feedback in the body are Feedback Control of
both related to the female reproductive system. One of these
examples occurs when estrogen, secreted by the ovaries, stim-
Hormone Secretion
ulates the woman’s pituitary gland to secrete LH (luteinizing The nature of the endocrine glands, the interaction of the ner-
hormone). This stimulatory, positive feedback effect creates an vous and endocrine systems, and the actions of hormones will
“LH surge” (very rapid rise in blood LH concentrations) that be discussed in detail in later chapters. For now, it is sufficient
triggers ovulation. Interestingly, estrogen secretion after ovula- to describe the regulation of hormone secretion very broadly,
tion has an inhibitory, negative feedback, effect on LH secre- because it so superbly illustrates the principles of homeostasis
tion (this is the physiological basis for the birth control pill, and negative feedback regulation.
discussed in chapter 20). Another example of positive feedback Hormones are secreted in response to specific chemi-
is contraction of the uterus during childbirth (parturition). Con- cal stimuli. A rise in the plasma glucose concentration, for
traction of the uterus is stimulated by the pituitary hormone example, stimulates insulin secretion from structures in the
oxytocin, and the secretion of oxytocin is increased by sensory pancreas known as the pancreatic islets. Hormones are also
feedback from contractions of the uterus during labor. The secreted in response to nerve stimulation and stimulation by
strength of uterine contractions during labor is thus increased other hormones.
through positive feedback. The mechanisms involved in labor The secretion of a hormone can be inhibited by its own
are discussed in more detail in chapter 20 (see fig. 20.50). effects in a negative feedback manner. Insulin, as previously
described, produces a lowering of blood glucose. Because a
Neural and Endocrine Regulation rise in blood glucose stimulates insulin secretion, a lowering of
blood glucose caused by insulin’s action inhibits further insu-
Homeostasis is maintained by two general categories of regu- lin secretion. This closed-loop control system is called nega-
latory mechanisms: (1) those that are intrinsic, or “built into” tive feedback inhibition (fig. 1.7a).
the organs being regulated (such as molecules produced in the Homeostasis of blood glucose is too important—the brain
walls of blood vessels that cause vessel dilation or constric- uses blood glucose as its primary source of energy—to entrust
tion); and (2) those that are extrinsic, as in regulation of an to the regulation of only one hormone, insulin. So, when blood
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 9
Sensor
Integrating center
Effector Lying down
Standing up
Negative –
feedback 4. Rise in blood pressure 1. Blood pressure falls Stimulus
response
3. Heart rate
increases
2. Blood pressure
receptors respond Sensor
Effector
Medulla Sensory
Motor oblongata nerve fibers
nerve fibers of brain
Integrating center
FIGURE 1.6 Negative feedback control of blood pressure. Blood pressure influences the activity of sensory neurons from the
blood pressure receptors (sensors); a rise in pressure increases the firing rate, and a fall in pressure decreases the firing rate of nerve
impulses. When a person stands up from a lying-down position, the blood pressure momentarily falls. The resulting decreased firing rate
of nerve impulses in sensory neurons affects the medulla oblongata of the brain (the integrating center). This causes the motor nerves to
the heart (effector) to increase the heart rate, helping to raise the blood pressure.
Sensor
Integrating center Fasting
Effector
Pancreatic islets
Blood glucose (of Langerhans)
Pancreatic islets
Insulin
(of Langerhans)
Glucagon
–
– Insulin
Cellular uptake of glucose
Glucose secretion into
Cellular uptake of glucose blood by liver
FIGURE 1.7 Negative feedback control of blood glucose. (a) The rise in blood glucose that occurs after eating carbohydrates is
corrected by the action of insulin, which is secreted in increasing amounts at that time. (b) During fasting, when blood glucose falls, insulin
secretion is inhibited and the secretion of an antagonistic hormone, glucagon, is increased. This stimulates the liver to secrete glucose
into the blood, helping to prevent blood glucose from continuing to fall. In this way, blood glucose concentrations are maintained within a
homeostatic range following eating and during fasting.
ISTUDY
10 Chapter 1
glucose falls during fasting, several mechanisms prevent it from microscopic anatomy of tissues constitutes a field of study known
falling too far (fig. 1.7b). First, insulin secretion decreases, pre- as histology. The anatomy and histology of specific organs will
venting muscle, liver, and adipose cells from taking too much be discussed together with their functions in later chapters. In this
glucose from the blood. Second, the secretion of a hormone section, the common “fabric” of all organs is described.
antagonistic to insulin, called glucagon, increases. Glucagon Cells are the basic units of structure and function in the
stimulates processes in the liver (breakdown of a stored, starch- body. Cells that have similar functions are grouped into catego-
like molecule called glycogen; chapter 2, section 2.2) that cause ries called tissues. The entire body is composed of only four
it to secrete glucose into the blood. Through these and other major types of tissues. These primary tissues are (1) muscle,
antagonistic negative feedback mechanisms, the blood glucose (2) nerve, (3) epithelial, and (4) connective tissues. Groupings of
is maintained within a homeostatic range. these four primary tissues into anatomical and functional units
are called organs. Organs, in turn, may be grouped together by
common functions into systems. The systems of the body act in
CLINICAL INVESTIGATION CLUES a coordinated fashion to maintain the entire organism.
Clinical Investigation Clues are placed immediately
following the text information that pertains to the Clinical Muscle Tissue
Investigation for the chapter. Use these to solve the medical
mystery—if you need to, reread the information preceding Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction. There are three types
the “Clues.” You can check your answers against the Clinical of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle
Investigation Summaries at the end of the chapters. In this is often called voluntary muscle because its contraction is con-
case, Linda had a normal resting body temperature and sciously controlled. Both skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues are
a normal fasting glucose concentration, suggesting that striated muscle tissue; they have striations, or stripes, that extend
homeostasis of these values was being maintained. across the width of the muscle cell (figs. 1.8 and 1.9). These stria-
tions are produced by a characteristic arrangement of contractile
C H E C K P O I NT S
3a. Define homeostasis and describe how this concept can
be used to explain physiological control mechanisms. Muscle
fibers
3b. Define negative feedback and explain how it
contributes to homeostasis. Illustrate this concept by
drawing and labeling a negative feedback loop.
4. Describe positive feedback and explain how this
Nucleus
process functions in the body.
5. Explain how the secretion of a hormone is controlled
by negative feedback inhibition. Use the control of
insulin secretion as an example.
Nucleus
LE A R N I N G O UTCO M E S
After studying this section, you should be able to: Intercalated
6. Distinguish the primary tissues and their subtypes. discs
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 11
ISTUDY
12 Chapter 1
the nucleus and serves as the metabolic center of the cell. The secrete chemicals through a duct that leads to the outside of
dendrites (literally, “branches”) are highly branched cytoplasmic a membrane, and thus to the outside of a body surface. Endo-
extensions of the cell body that receive input from other neurons crine glands (from the Greek endon = within) secrete chemi-
or from receptor cells. The axon is a single cytoplasmic extension cals called hormones into the blood. Endocrine glands are
of the cell body that can be quite long (up to a few feet in length). discussed in chapter 11.
It is specialized for conducting nerve impulses from the cell body
to another neuron or to an effector (muscle or gland) cell.
Neuroglia do not conduct impulses but instead serve to Epithelial Membranes
bind neurons together, modify the extracellular environment of The general term membrane refers to a thin sheet of some kind
the nervous system, and influence the nourishment and electri- that acts as a barrier and separation. When we talk about a
cal activity of neurons. In recent years, neuroglia have been plasma membrane around cells, we are referring to a molecular
shown to cooperate with neurons in chemical neurotransmis- structure so thin that it cannot be seen with a microscope. Epi-
sion (chapter 7), and to have many other roles in the normal thelial membranes, by contrast, are composed of cells that are in
physiology (as well as disease processes) of the brain and spi- close contact with each other in a sheet-like arrangement visible
nal cord. Neuroglia are now known to be about as numerous in a microscope. Epithelial membranes are classified accord-
as neurons and can divide by mitosis throughout life, whereas ing to the number of their layers and the shape of the cells in
mature neurons do not divide. the upper layer (table 1.3). Epithelial cells that are flattened in
Neurons and neuroglia are discussed in detail in chapter 7. shape are squamous; those that are as wide as they are tall are
cuboidal; and those that are taller than they are wide are colum-
Epithelial Tissue nar (fig. 1.12a–c). Those epithelial membranes that are only one
cell layer thick are known as simple epithelia; those that are
Epithelial tissue consists of cells that form membranes, composed of a number of layers are stratified epithelia.
which cover and line the body surfaces, and of glands, which Epithelial membranes cover all body surfaces and line the
are derived from these membranes. There are two categories cavity (lumen) of every hollow organ. Thus, epithelial mem-
of glands. Exocrine glands (from the Greek exo = outside) branes provide a barrier between the external environment
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 13
(b)
Basement
membrane
Goblet Connective
cell Nucleus tissue
(a)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Squamous
(c) surface cells
(b)
and the internal environment of the body. Stratified epithe-
lia are specialized to provide protection. Simple epithelia, in FIGURE 1.13 A stratified squamous nonkeratinized
epithelial membrane. This is a photomicrograph (a) and
contrast, provide little protection; instead, they are specialized illustration (b) of the epithelial lining of the vagina.
for transport of substances between the internal and external (a) ©Victor P. Eroschenko
ISTUDY
14 Chapter 1
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 15
Epithelium
Connective
tissue
Cells from
surface
Connecting epithelium Connecting
cells grow down cells
Epithelial into
persist to cord or disappear
form duct underlying
tubule tissue
Deepest If exocrine If endocrine
cells become gland forms gland forms
secretory
Capillary Deepest cells
remain to secrete
into capillaries
FIGURE 1.15 The formation of exocrine and endocrine glands from epithelial membranes. Note that exocrine glands retain
a duct that can carry their secretion to the surface of the epithelial membrane, whereas endocrine glands are ductless.
ISTUDY
16 Chapter 1
Extracellular matrix
Protein Ground
fibers (collagen) substance
Mesenchymal
cell
Fibroblast Nucleus of
adipocyte
Collagen Fat
fibers globule
Reticular Cytoplasm
fibers
Cell
membrane
Macrophage (b)
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 17
Enamel
Dentin
Pulp
Cementum
C H E C K P O I NT S
6a. List the four primary tissues and describe the
distinguishing features of each type.
6b. Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue.
6c. Describe the different types of epithelial membranes
and state their locations in the body.
7a. Explain why exocrine and endocrine glands are
considered epithelial tissues and distinguish between
(b)
these two types of glands.
7b. Describe the different types of connective tissues
and explain how they differ from one another in their
content of extracellular material.
Lamellae
ISTUDY
18 Chapter 1
Hair Sebaceous
gland
Sweat
pore
Stratum corneum
Epidermis Stratum granulosum
(Epithelial
Stratum spinosum
tissue)
Stratum basale
Arrector
Dermis pili muscle
(Connective (Muscle tissue)
tissue)
Sweat gland
Hypodermis
An organ is a structure composed of at least two, and usually cornified surface of the skin, helping to prevent it from dry-
all four, primary tissues. The largest organ in the body, in terms ing and cracking.
of surface area, is the skin (fig. 1.22). In this section, the numer- The skin is nourished by blood vessels within the dermis.
ous functions of the skin serve to illustrate how primary tissues In addition to blood vessels, the dermis contains wandering
cooperate in the service of organ physiology. white blood cells and other types of cells that protect against
invading disease-causing organisms. It also contains nerve
An Example of an Organ: The Skin fibers and adipose (fat) cells; however, most of the adipose
cells are grouped together to form the hypodermis (a layer
The cornified epidermis protects the skin against water loss beneath the dermis). Although adipose cells are a type of con-
and against invasion by disease-causing organisms. These nective tissue, masses of fat deposits throughout the body are
functions, as well as the function of body temperature regula- referred to as adipose tissue.
tion (thermoregulation) through sweating and flushing, are Sensory nerve endings within the dermis mediate the cuta-
ways that the skin participates in maintaining homeostasis. neous sensations of touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain. Motor
Invaginations of the epithelium into the underlying connec- nerve fibers in the skin stimulate effector organs, resulting in, for
tive tissue dermis create the exocrine glands of the skin. example, the secretions of exocrine glands and contractions of the
These include hair follicles (which produce the hair), sweat arrector pili muscles, which attach to hair follicles and surround-
glands, and sebaceous glands. The secretion of sweat glands ing connective tissue (producing goose bumps). The degree of
cools the body by evaporation and produces odors that, at constriction or dilation of cutaneous blood vessels—and therefore
least in lower animals, serve as sexual attractants. Sebaceous the rate of blood flow—is also regulated by motor nerve fibers.
glands secrete oily sebum into hair follicles, which transport The epidermis itself is a dynamic structure that can respond
the sebum to the surface of the skin. Sebum lubricates the to environmental stimuli. The rate of its cell division—and
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 19
ISTUDY
20 Chapter 1
TABLE 1.4 | Organ Systems of the Body The extracellular compartment is subdivided into two
parts. One part is the blood plasma, the fluid portion of the
System Major Organs Primary Functions
blood. The other is the fluid that bathes the cells within the
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails Protection, organs of the body. This is called interstitial fluid. In most parts
thermoregulation of the body, blood plasma and interstitial fluid communicate
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, Regulation of other freely through blood capillaries. The kidneys regulate the vol-
nerves body systems ume and composition of the blood plasma, and thus, indirectly,
Endocrine Hormone-secreting Secretion of the fluid volume and composition of the entire extracellular
glands, such as the regulatory compartment. The interactions between these fluid compart-
pituitary, thyroid, and molecules called ments and total body fluid regulation is explained in chapter 14
adrenal glands hormones and illustrated in figure 14.8.
Skeletal Bones, cartilages Movement and There is also selective communication between the intra-
support cellular and extracellular compartments through the movement
Muscular Skeletal muscles Movements of the of molecules and ions through the cell membrane, as described
skeleton in chapter 6. This is how cells obtain the molecules they need
for life and how they eliminate waste products.
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, Movement of blood
lymphatic vessels and lymph
Immune Red bone marrow, Defense of the body C H E C K P O I NT S
lymphoid organs against invading 8a. State the location of each type of primary tissue in
pathogens
the skin.
Respiratory Lungs, airways Gas exchange 8b. Describe the functions of nervous, muscle, and
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, Regulation of blood connective tissue in the skin.
urethra volume and 8c. Describe the functions of the epidermis and explain
composition
why this tissue is called “dynamic.”
Alimentary Mouth, stomach, Breakdown of food 9. Distinguish between the intracellular and extracellular
intestine, liver, into molecules that
gallbladder, enter the body
compartments and explain their significance.
pancreas
Reproductive Gonads, external Continuation of the
genitalia, associated human species
glands and ducts CLINICAL INVESTIGATION SUMMARY
ISTUDY
The Study of Body Function 21
SUMMARY
1.1 Introduction to Physiology 2 1.3 The Primary Tissues 10
A. Physiology is the study of how cells, tissues, and organs A. The body is composed of four types of primary tissues: mus-
function. cle, nerve, epithelial, and connective tissues.
1. In the study of physiology, cause-and-effect sequences 1. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac,
are emphasized. and smooth muscle.
2. Knowledge of physiological mechanisms is deduced from a. Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated muscle tissue.
data obtained experimentally. b. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the internal
B. The science of physiology shares knowledge with the related organs.
sciences of pathophysiology and comparative physiology. 2. Nerve tissue is composed of neurons and neuroglia.
1. Pathophysiology is concerned with the functions of a. Neurons are specialized for the generation and
diseased or injured body systems and is based on conduction of electrical impulses.
knowledge of how normal systems function, which is the b. Neuroglia provide the neurons with anatomical and
focus of physiology. functional support.
2. Comparative physiology is concerned with the 3. Epithelial tissue includes membranes and glands.
physiology of animals other than humans and shares a. Epithelial membranes cover and line the body
much information with human physiology. surfaces, and their cells are tightly joined by
C. All of the information in this book has been gained by intercellular junctions.
applications of the scientific method. This method has three b. Epithelial membranes may be simple or stratified, and
essential characteristics: their cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.
1. It is assumed that the subject under study can ultimately c. Exocrine glands, which secrete into ducts, and
be explained in terms we can understand. endocrine glands, which lack ducts and secrete
2. Descriptions and explanations are honestly based on hormones into the blood, are derived from epithelial
membranes.
observations of the natural world and can be changed as
warranted by new observations. 4. Connective tissue is characterized by large intercellular
spaces that contain extracellular material.
3. Humility is an important characteristic of the scientific
method; the scientist must be willing to change his or her a. Connective tissue proper is categorized into subtypes,
theories when warranted by the weight of the evidence. including loose, dense fibrous, adipose, and others.
b. Cartilage, bone, and blood are classified as connective
1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control 4
tissues because their cells are widely spaced with
abundant extracellular material between them.
A. Homeostasis refers to the dynamic constancy of the internal
environment.
1.4 Organs and Systems 17
1. Homeostasis is maintained by mechanisms that act
through negative feedback loops. A. Organs are units of structure and function that are composed
of at least two, and usually all four, of the primary types of
a. A negative feedback loop requires (1) a sensor
tissues.
that can detect a change in the internal environment
and (2) an effector that can be activated by the sensor. 1. The skin is a good example of an organ.
b. In a negative feedback loop, the effector acts to cause a. The epidermis is a stratified squamous keratinized
changes in the internal environment that compensate epithelium that protects underlying structures and
for the initial deviations that were detected by the produces vitamin D.
sensor. b. The dermis is an example of loose connective tissue.
2. Positive feedback loops serve to amplify changes and c. Hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands
may be part of the action of an overall negative feedback are exocrine glands located within the dermis.
mechanism. d. Sensory and motor nerve fibers enter the spaces
3. The nervous and endocrine systems provide extrinsic within the dermis to innervate sensory organs and
regulation of other body systems and act to maintain smooth muscles.
homeostasis. e. The arrector pili muscles that attach to the hair
4. The secretion of hormones is stimulated by specific follicles are composed of smooth muscle.
chemicals and is inhibited by negative feedback 2. Organs that are located in different regions of the body
mechanisms. and that perform related functions are grouped into
B. Effectors act antagonistically to defend the set point against systems. These include, among others, the circulatory
deviations in any direction. system, alimentary system, and endocrine system.
ISTUDY
22 Chapter 1
3. Many organs contain adult stem cells, which are able to B. The fluids of the body are divided into two major
differentiate into a number of related cell types. compartments.
a. Because of their limited flexibility, adult stem cells 1. The intracellular compartment refers to the fluid within
are described as multipotent, rather than as totipotent cells.
or pluripotent. 2. The extracellular compartment refers to the fluid outside
b. For example, the bulge region of a hair follicle of cells; extracellular fluid is subdivided into plasma (the
contains stem cells that can become keratinocytes, fluid portion of the blood) and interstitial fluid.
epithelial cells, and melanocytes; the loss of the
melanocyte stem cells causes graying of the hair.
REVIEW ACTIVITIES
Test your knowledge 9. A hormone called parathyroid hormone acts to help raise the
1. Glands are derived from blood calcium concentration. According to the principles
of negative feedback, an effective stimulus for parathyroid
a. nerve tissue. c. muscle tissue. hormone secretion would be
b. connective tissue. d. epithelial tissue. a. a fall in blood calcium.
2. Cells joined tightly together are characteristic of b. a rise in blood calcium.
a. nerve tissue. c. muscle tissue. c. either a fall or a rise in blood Ca2+ at different times.
b. connective tissue. d. epithelial tissue. d. unrelated to the blood Ca2+ levels.
3. Cells are separated by large extracellular spaces in 10. Which of these consists of dense parallel arrangements of
a. nerve tissue. c. muscle tissue. collagen fibers?
b. connective tissue. d. epithelial tissue. a. skeletal muscle tissue c. tendons
4. Blood vessels and nerves are usually located within b. nerve tissue d. dermis of the skin
a. nerve tissue. c. connective tissue. 11. The act of breathing raises the blood oxygen level,
b. muscle tissue. d. epithelial tissue. lowers the blood carbon dioxide concentration, and
5. Most organs are composed of raises the blood pH. According to the principles of
negative feedback, sensors that regulate breathing should
a. epithelial tissue. c. connective tissue. respond to
b. muscle tissue. d. all of these. a. a rise in blood oxygen.
6. Sweat is secreted by exocrine glands. This means that b. a rise in blood pH.
a. it is produced by endocrine cells. c. a rise in blood carbon dioxide concentration.
b. it is a hormone. d. all of these.
c. it is secreted into a duct. 12. Adult stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow, brain,
d. it is produced outside the body. or hair follicles, can best be described as ,
7. Which of these statements about homeostasis is true? whereas embryonic stem cells are described as
.
a. The internal environment is maintained absolutely constant.
a. totipotent; pluripotent
b. Negative feedback mechanisms act to correct deviations
from a normal range within the internal environment. b. pluripotent; multipotent
c. Homeostasis is maintained by turning effectors on c. multipotent; pluripotent
and off. d. totipotent; multipotent
d. All of these are true.
8. In a negative feedback loop, the effector produces changes Test Your Understanding
that are
13. Describe the structure of the various epithelial
a. in the same direction as the change produced by the initial membranes and explain how their structures relate to
stimulus. their functions.
b. opposite in direction to the change produced by the initial 14. Compare bone, blood, and the dermis of the skin in terms of
stimulus. their similarities. What are the major structural differences
c. in the same and opposite direction as the initial stimulus between these tissues?
at different times. 15. Describe the role of antagonistic negative feedback
d. unrelated to the initial stimulus. processes in the maintenance of homeostasis.
ISTUDY
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
stead, the comic supplement of the Sunday newspaper furnishes pictures
that well-nigh stifle the true domain once occupied by “Mother Goose.”
What would a parent do, asked suddenly to deal with a promiscuous
collection of juvenile books? Would she unerringly reach forth for the
volume most likely to please her son’s or her daughter’s taste? If she were
to claim little difference between the one college story she had read, and the
several hundred she had not read, she would not be far from wrong. But we
cannot tell how deep an impression the present activity among writers for
children will have on the future. Our temptation is to make the general
statement that the energy is a surface one, that no great writing is being
done for children because it has become an accessory rather than an end in
itself. Education saved us from the moral pose; it must not deny us the
realm of imagination and fancy.
FOOTNOTES
[41] In education, the influence of Froebel, in direct descent from
Rousseau, is to be considered.
[42] D. N. B.—Dictionary of National Biography.
[43] The student who desires to investigate the history of American
school-books will find much valuable material in the Watkinson Library
of Hartford, Conn., to which institution Dr. Henry Barnard’s entire
collection of school-books was left. Vide Bibliotheca Americana,
Catalogue of American Publications, including reprints and original
works, from 1820 to 1852, inclusive, together with a list of periodicals
published in the United States, compiled and arranged by Orville A.
Roorbach, N. Y., Oct., 1852. Includes Supplement to 1849 ed., published
in 1850.
Vide also Early English School-books. Educational Library, South
Kensington Museum.
[44] Vide Recollections of a Life-time; or, Men and Things I have Seen:
in a series of familiar Letters to a Friend. Historical, Biographical,
Anecdotal, and Descriptive. S. G. Goodrich. (2 vols.) New York, 1857.
[Contains a valuable list of the real Parley books; also the names of the
spurious Parleys. The volumes describe many small characteristics of
American life during the early years of the nineteenth century.]
[45] Cyclopædia.
[46] Mr. Welsh states that between 1706–1718, 550 books were
published in America, of which 84 were not religious, and of these 84,
49 were almanacs!
V. THE LIBRARY AND THE BOOK
THE LAND OF STORY-BOOKS
At evening when the lamp is lit,
Around the fire my parents sit;
They sit at home and talk and sing,
And do not play at anything.
Now, with my little gun, I crawl
All in the dark along the wall,
And follow round the forest track
Away behind the sofa back.
There, in the night, where none can spy,
All in my hunter’s camp I lie,
And play at books that I have read
Till it is time to go to bed.
These are the hills, these are the woods,
These are my starry solitudes;
And there the river by whose brink
The roaring lions come to drink.
I see the others far away
As if in firelit camp they lay,
And I, like to an Indian scout,
Around their party prowled about.
So, when my nurse comes in for me,
Home I return across the sea,
And go to bed with backward looks
At my dear land of Story-books.
—Robert Louis Stevenson, in
“A Child’s Garden of Verses.”
I. Children’s Books: Their Classification; Their
Characteristics.
There is nothing more variegated in its colour than a large assemblage of
children’s books; the cover-designers revel in their rainbow conceits,
sprinkling gold across the cloth as generously as fairies scatter star-dust; the
artists fill their brushes with delicate tints of red and blue and orange, and
sketch the progress of a story in spiral traceries of imagination. The
mechanical perfection of book-making is genuinely pleasing; the form, like
that of the glass-blown vase with its slender outlines, is fitted for the
worthiest content. The excellence of binding, the distinctness of type, the
spirit of the drawing—these points strike our senses, these are the
subterfuges of the publishing trade, these the artistic features that hide the
shallowness beneath. You may arrange your blue books together, and your
red, your brown, your white or green in rows; you may mix them all up
again, and marshal them in regiments of equal sizes; the persistent query
stares you in the face,—the stinging fact of ignorance—what of the story
you are about to buy?
In the public library, the shelves are empty; you are told, as the librarian,
to fill them. Not for yourself alone is the choice to be made, or even for
your own children, whom you are supposed to know; but for every one who
wishes to read. You have little right to assume much homogeneity of taste
or desire among young folks; you must balance your dreams with facts,
your ideals with human accomplishment. We are all as grains of sand in the
general scheme of the universe; we are all supposed to have equal chances
before the law; but what we are is the measure of what we read. You are the
custodian of a public trust, not of your private book-case. A row of children
—the poor by the side of the rich, the newsboy by the side of the patrician
—you are to supply them every one. Have you then the privilege of
assuming an autocratic policy of exclusion? Can you say to yourself, The
newsboy must read Homer!—and refrain from buying him his penny-
dreadful?
Each man’s standard of excellence differs from his neighbour’s. Matthew
Arnold’s idea of the best ignored your opinion and mine. The world has put
a face value on certain books; they live because the universal in them and
the universal in us is constant and persistent. And though we each stand
upon a different pivot of existence, though the wind blows with less fury
around you than around me, on calm nights we may each see the same star,
however different the angle of vision.
So, are you not here furnished a starting-point in your purchases? Where
you are concerned with children, your opportunity is richer by far than you
first imagined. They have no preconceived notions; they stand in a general
mystery of dawning experience; they know not how or why; all truth is a
fable before them. Common things are apparelled in celestial light; nature is
governed by omnipotence; creation is the first meeting with Aladdin’s lamp.
The common law of growth tells us this; our knowledge of men is carved
from such general mystery; our method of gaining this experience is higher
than we wot of; the father is judged in terms of King Arthur before he is
reckoned with as a man.
Therefore, it is your bounden duty to satisfy these several stages. You
must have pictures for the little ones that will cater to a familiarity with
common things, and will satisfy a tendency in them to make all nature
animate.[47] You must find an artist capable of seeing the significance, the
humour of the dish running after the spoon. There must be picture-books
that will treat of these things with all the purity they deserve; high-
mindedness is an essential part of elemental fun. The nursery claims a part
in your plan. Place, then, first upon your list, the best picture-books and
jingles. Let true art supplant the comic supplement sheet.
We will banish the use of baffling terms in speaking of the classes of
juvenile books. Our Fiction will become Stories; our Myths and Folk-lore
and Fables simply Fairy Tales and Legends. Our arrangement now assumes
a definite perspective, from the limitless past to ourselves as the fixed point.
Our standard is one of interest; we will apply the test of excellence, not to
books generally, but to each channel in which individual interest has a right
to seek its own development. By a psychological consideration, we are able
to hitch our wagon to a star, to span the distance separating the Present and
the Past, the Real and the Ideal. Myth flows imperceptibly into legend; and,
with all the massive proportions of the heroic, legend enters and becomes
part of history. And history is vitalised only when we present it to children
in the form of biography. Is it not Carlyle who defines history as the
biography of great men?
Thus, we add still more to the positive factors in our book selecting. We
will not disguise for the child the true character of a volume by a
nomenclature which is indefinite. Better the terms “How We Are
Governed” than “Civics”; and “How to Make Things” than “Manual
Training.” We will satisfy all tastes by the best to be had, and that rule shall
be proverbial. The boy, deprived of his dime novel,[48] must be given
something just as daring, just as redolent with sensationalism; but we will
transfer his den of thieves from the areaway to the broad green forest, and
his profession of robbery shall grow into outlawry; his Jesse James become
Robin Hood. Some of the best literature contains the quality of
sensationalism; it is the form that the dime novel has taken, and the cheap
exploitation of filthy detail, that have obscured many of the most beneficial
elements in melodrama. The Adventures of Ulysses, the Twelve Labours of
Hercules, Daniel in the Lion’s Den, Jonathan and David—the green lights
are not far away.
Have you ever watched the breathlessness of a messenger boy with his
“Ragged Dick Series”; the intent, eager faces in the gallery of the theatre
during a melodrama? Nine times out of ten, morals are not being perverted;
crime is not being glorified, but severely punished; chivalry is acting in
shirt-sleeves; the good is winning its just deserts in a large way, and the boy
glows. Not that I would have our libraries circulate “Ragged Dick,” but
there is more to remember in such stimulation, there is more effect than will
ever be drawn from the conventional tale with its customary noble and
ignoble heroes. The amount of inane fiction concocted for children is
pernicious.
Literature has been made cold to the child, yet there is nothing warmer
than a classic, when properly handled. Each man lives in his own age; we
are creatures of timeliness, but we see the clearer for being at times on the
mountain peak. The traveller from an antique land is part of our experience
quite as much as the man around the corner. What I contend is that the
attraction, the appeal of a story depends largely on the telling. With a broad
sweep of right emotion, we must be taught to soar, and there must be no
penalty of arrest for wishing to o’erleap the false horizon of a city skyline.
The tenement boy is a dreamer, even though he perforce must lay his cheek
against the rough brick of an air-shaft and squint up at the stars. The
democracy of a public library system affords him equal opportunities with
Keats—even though he may not have the same capacity for enjoyment—to
look into Chapman’s Homer; he is entitled to all that vast experience, that
same “hoard of goodly states and kingdoms.” But if his author is not deep-
browed, if he, too, is not given the same pure serenity of view, if his
Chapman does not speak out loud and bold, he will feel himself defrauded
of the vitalising meaning of literature, he will have missed being
... like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken.
This, therefore, should make you determine to cry against mediocrity; to
purchase for those empty shelves the best of a class, the best of an edition,
and the most authentic of texts.
Lady Eastlake once wrote: “The real secret of a child’s book consists not
merely in its being less dry and less difficult, but more rich in interest, more
true to nature, more exquisite in art, more abundant in every quality that
replies to childhood’s keener and fresher perceptions. Such being the case,
the best of juvenile reading will be found in libraries belonging to their
elders, while the best juvenile writing will not fail to delight those who are
no longer children. ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ the standing favourite of above a
century, was not originally written for children; and Sir Walter Scott’s
‘Tales of a Grandfather,’ addressed solely to them, are the pleasure and
profit of every age, from childhood upward. Our little friends tear Pope’s
‘Odyssey’ from mamma’s hands, while she takes up their ‘Agathos’[49] with
an admiration which no child’s can exceed.”
The opinion here quoted somewhat overstates the real case. The
experienced librarian of to-day could tell a different tale from the loan desk;
it is the average young person she must have in mind, and the average
understanding. But this understanding is not commensurate with the reading
ability of the child; it is much above it, and this fact also should be
considered an asset for the librarian to work with. Despite the theories
regarding how a story should be told to a seven-year-old reader, and to one
twelve years old, the volumes do not very consistently adapt themselves to
such a classification. The buyer must say: Is it to be read by the child?
Consider his schooling. Is it to be read to the child? Consider his
understanding.
Let us not subject ourselves to the criticism that our ideals will not work.
If they are unpractical, they are useless and must be amended. It is
recognised that something more is wanted than the “masterpiece,” so
guardedly extolled by Mr. Everett T. Tomlinson,[50] a popular author of
boys’ books. He separates the boy and the classic by a wide gulf of
adolescent requirements; he pleads for something in addition to bone and
tendon; he believes the boy demands material to fit his mental estate, which
is not equipped for “ready response” to adult literature. In other words, the
juvenile book of to-day, which is well typified by his own stories, is to
supplement and not to supplant the “masterpiece.”
The situation is a rather delicate and uncertain one; it would be well, as
Mr. Tomlinson suggests, if the results, as he thinks, were actually the case.
But does the girl, who reads her “series” trilogy, slip from Dinsmore into
Dickens; or does the boy, with his Henty books filling shelf after shelf,
graduate therefrom into Scott? The theory does not work, and, even if it did,
an immense amount of energy is going to waste somewhere. Miss Hewins,
from her extensive experience as a worker in the Hartford Public Library,
has outlined what you can get from a Henty book [Wisconsin Library
Bulletin. Madison, Sept.-Oct., 1906. Vol. 2, No. 5.]; her plan is most
interesting, and, were there readers possessing the zeal necessary to make
such literature permanently serviceable, we could actually view knowledge
growing from more to more. The summary is as follows:
“If a boy reads nothing but Henty for a year or so, he is not likely to care
for the great historical novels of the world later, but if he uses him under
guidance, reading after each one of his books a better story of the same
period, if he look up places on a map, unfamiliar words and references in a
dictionary or cyclopædia, and if he reads a life of one of the real characters
in every book, he is well on his way to an intelligent interest in general
history.”
But would it not be just as well to centre this concentration directly on
Scott? The librarian will doubtless claim that the boy turns more readily to
the one than to the other, and I believe that this is largely due to the over-
emphasis of Scott as a standard author, and of Henty as a popular writer for
boys. Scott has never been issued in form to catch the young reader’s eye.
Given as many illustrations as Henty, relegating the preface to the appendix,
or omitting it altogether, and the author of “Waverley” would be found to
have lost none of his grip. You will receive from any librarian the unfailing
statement that one of the most constant ambitions is to reduce the
proportion of fiction in circulation, and, in that proportion, to preserve what
is of true worth in place of the mediocre average of the modern story-books.
Mr. Tomlinson’s analysis of the qualities in a child’s book may be
indicated by seven divisions:
a. There must be a story.
b. There must be vigorous action with little contemplation. “Analysis
and introspection are words outside of his [the child’s] vocabulary,”
says Mr. Tomlinson.
c. Fancy is more to be sought for than pure imagination.
d. The writer must regard the moral character of boys: a lack of mercy,
a strict sense of justice; he must regard their faith which is credulity;
their sentiment of reverence; their power of being convinced.
e. The writer must likewise consider the differences between the sexes
in the point of moral faculties, even though in many respects they
are the same. For girls have tender consciences, though not so
tenacious; they are quick to promise, and as quick to forget; they are
easily stirred to pity, their sympathy easily appealed to. Bringing it
down to an animalistic basis, Mr. Tomlinson believes that though
the ancestral cruelty in girls is not so evident as in boys, when it
does flash forth it is sharper in every way. “To both, right and wrong
are absolute, not relative terms, and a youthful misanthrope is as
much of an anomaly as a youthful grandfather.”
f. The sentiments must be directed in channels of usefulness and
power, hence the story of patriotism, the situation of courage, the
incident of tenderness.
g. Since the faculties in action are receptive, rather than perceptive,
since the memory is keen to hold, the writer must bear this
psychological status in mind.
In fine, recognising that even in his play the boy takes things seriously,
and believing that the juvenile intellect “seeks the reasonable more than the
process of reasoning,” Mr. Tomlinson shapes a dicta of criticism, a standard
by which the child’s book may be recognised in terms of vital
characteristics. Apply them to recent juvenile books, if you will, and you
will find the majority wanting. But will not the classics meet these
requirements? Are we to relegate the best we have to the back shelves, and
buy nothing that smacks of good style? Instead of putting tight bands of
expectancy about our minds, and of making us bow down before a throne of
iced classics, let the librarian treat the “Iliad” genially, let her represent
“Siegfried” with the broad heavens above him. The classics have yielding
power.
It is characteristic of every age that a discontent is always manifest with
the conditions as they exist at the time. As early as 1844, the child’s book,
per se, was brought under rigourous scrutiny by an unnamed critic in the
Quarterly Review, and what was said then applies equally as well to the
state of affairs to-day. But this very entertaining writer, talking in terms of
judgment founded upon a keen understanding of what such a book should
be, attempts a list of juvenile books which bears all the ear-marks of his
age; he finds it necessary to select from the immediate supply; he knows
that there is the author of his own era whom he cannot discard. We have a
lurking suspicion that, with his canons of criticism, he would have altered
his list, could he have looked in perspective. But there was very little range
in children’s books of that day; the species was just becoming accentuated,
and his element of timeliness had to be regarded. Therefore, while we are
pleading with the librarian for a high choice in the selection of books, we
know that were the timely volume omitted, simply on the basis that it did
not conform with one’s idea of the best, the library would become fixed,
like a dead language. The Quarterly article was written at a time when the
secularisation of juvenile literature was just beginning to take place; the
moral and the educational factors were looking askance, the one at the
other, both claiming the boy and girl for instruction, but each from a
different basis. Our author pleads for the healthy, normal reader, in whom
“still-born” knowledge—mere lifeless acquisition—were a curse indeed!
He cries out against the educational catechism, as he does against the moral
one. His discriminating thesis advances in threefold manner, for he writes:
“Those who insist on keeping the sense of enjoyment rigidly back, till
that of comprehension has been forcibly urged forward—who stipulate that
the one shall not be indulged till the other be appeased—are in reality but
retarding what they most affect to promote.”
And again:
“Children have no sooner begun to enjoy than they are called upon to
reflect; they have no sooner begun to forget that there exists in the world
such a little being as themselves than they are pulled back to remember, not
only what they are, but what they will one day infallibly become.”
And still again:
“Children seem to possess an inherent conviction that when the hole is
big enough for the cat, no smaller one at the side is needed for the kitten.
They do not really care for ‘Glimpses’ of this, or ‘Gleanings’ of that, or
‘Footsteps’ to the other—they would rather stretch and pull....”
From a desert of dust-covered magazines, this comes to us like a hidden
spring bubbling with energy which no outer crust of years can quell.[51]
Then as now, they had the pernicious school-book—instance Peter Parley;
[52] then as now, they had the flippant tale. Our unknown author
recommended “Puss in Boots,” with designs by Otto Specker, as the beau
ideal of nursery books, and the Grimm Tales with Cruikshank’s
illustrations; he recognised the admirable qualities in the verses by the
Taylor sisters. Miss Edgeworth, Miss Tytler, Mrs. Barbauld, Mrs. Hofland,
Mary Howitt (although some of her books are questioned), Catherine
Sinclair, Mrs. Marcet, and a host of others, now dead to the circulating
shelves, received their quota of commendation. The list is a curious
example of existing circumstances; it illustrates the futility of crystallising
the library system; it demonstrates that the library, as an institution, must
reflect the aspirations of its age, not overreaching its full capacity of
usefulness and of average excellence.