FORМ WORDS

Traditionally to functional or form words in English belong the article,

preposition, conjunction, particle, modal word, interjection.
Тhе article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions.
Тhе preposition - the dependencies & interdependencies of substantive reference.
Тhе conjunction - connection of phenomena.
Тhе particle - unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning.
М.Я. Блох refers verbal postpositions to particles as functional modifiers of verbs.
Тhе modal words express the speaker' s attitude to the reflected situation & its parts.
They express:
-probability (probably, mау bе)
-qualitative evaluation (luckily)
-сеrtаintу
-supposition
Тhе interjection is а signal of emotions.

ТНЕ ARTICLE
Article is a determining unit of a specific nature accompanying the noun in
communicative collocation.
A(n)/the form a separate group or class characterized by:
- the lexico-grammatical meaning of definiteness/indefiniteness. The lexical
meaning of a(n) is a very weak reminder of its original meaning (one), though it
is not used with “plural” nouns. The lexical meaning of the is a pale shadow of
its original demonstrative meaning а the meaning of articles abstracts form the
meaning of oneness in a(n) and demonstrative meaning in the.
The names of the articles (definite/indefinite) denote the nearest approach to this
lexico-grammatical meaning (definiteness/indefiniteness).
 the right-hand combinability with nouns.
 the function of noun specifiers.
 The article is usually a separate unit which may be divided from its noun by
other words, chiefly adjectives. However, in certain languages the article may also
be a morpheme attached to the noun as a kind of suffix (in Bulgarian, Swedish).
If we interpret the article as a morpheme, the idea of a zero article would make
no difficulty. If we take the article as a word, the idea of a ‘zero word’ would entail
(cause) some difficulty (zero form). The notion ‘zero article’ is only possible if the
article is not a word.
There are two views:
1. the article is a word and the collocation “article + noun” is a phrase.
2. the article is a form element in the system of the noun. It is a morpheme or
an auxiliary word, the phrase “article + noun” is a morphological formation.
Article is а specific noun determiner combining the features of а morpheme and
а word.
Meanings:
The definite article:
 -an object is singled out from all objects of the same class
 -the whole class of objects, as distinct from other classes, is referred to.
Another view:
 The dog has come home./The dog is a domestic animal. > the meaning of the
definite article is the same in both sentences, and their difference proceeds
from the peculiarities of the predicatives and the words expressing them.
There are 3 articles. The idea of a zero article takes its origin in the notion ‘zero
morpheme’.
The questions are: Absence or omission of the article? How is zero article to be
treated?
Traditional grammar: “omission of the article”, which is inadequate since there is
not the slightest reason to believe that the article in such cases was ever omitted.
“Absence of the article” а “meaningful absence of the article” or а “zero article” so
we can say that there are 3 articles.
 МODAL WORDS
Modal words express the speaker’s attitude to what his utterance denotes. The
speaker’s judgement may be of different kinds, that is, the speaker may express
various modal meanings. Modal words are an invariable part of speech. They may
refer to a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. Their syntactical function is that of
a parenthesis, they may also be a sentence in themselves, in which case they are used
to answer a general question: Will you help me? Certainly. Precisely this. Except
this man, of course.
Semantically modal words fall into three groups, denoting:
1. Certainty/doubt (certainly, of course, indeed, surely, decidedly, really,
definitely, naturally, no doubt, etc.).
Certainly, it was astonishing that she should be preoccupied with her schemes
for the welfare of Constance. Of course, it would have been different if they had
married. In answers the meaning of these words is weakened.
2. Supposition (perhaps, maybe, probably, obviously, possibly, evidently,
apparently, etc.).
Manson’s nature was extraordinarily intense. Probably he derived this from
his mother. You have come quickly to a resolution. But perhaps you have been
considering this question for a long time? Obviously, you didn’t read it.
3. Estimate proper (good/bad) – (luckily, fortunately, happily, unfortunately,
unluckily, etc.).
Fortunately, there were few people at the morning surgery. Unhappily a
terrible storm broke out before the travellers had reached their destination.
Modal words stand in a special relation to the sentence. They are not sentence
members, since giving an evaluation of the entire situation presented in the sentence,
they stand on the outside. For instance, in the sentence
Perhaps, dimly, she saw the picture of a man walking up a road (Christie)
the modal word “perhaps” is not a sentence member, but if we remove it, the
meaning of the utterance will change – it will be just a statement of the fact.
Academician Shcherba states that there are some words that do not belong to any
part of speech. Foreign 1inguists do not single them out as а special class of words.
They are adverbs belonging to а sentence. Н. Sweet treats them as sentences
modifying adverbs.
Many Russian scholars consider modal words to bе functional words (А.В.
Смирнов, М.Я. Блох).
Some scholars consider modal words (unfortunately, unluckily) оссuру аn
intermediate position between adverbs and modal words, as they:
- express emotive attitude of the speaker;
- they саn form antonyms;
- they are less independent than the rest modal words.

INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own
and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category,
encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations (ouch! wow!),
curses (damn!), greetings (hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh, m-hm), hesitation
markers (uh, er, um), and other words (stop, cool).
In contrast to typical words and sentences, the function of most interjections
is related to an expression of feeling, rather than representing some idea or
concept. Generally, interjections can be classified into three types of meaning:
volitive, emotive, or cognitive.
 Volitive interjections function as imperative or directive expressions;
requesting or demanding something from the addressee (e.g., Shh! = "Be
quiet!"; Boo! as in "Boo!" she cried, jumping to frighten him).
 Emotive interjections are used to express emotions, such as disgust and
fear (e.g., Yuck! expressing disgust; Boo! signalling contempt as in Boo!
Shame on you or by audience members or spectators after a performance).
 Cognitive interjections express feelings which are more related to
cognition, or information known to the speaker of the utterance
(e.g., Wow! indicating surprise).
While there exists some apparent overlap between emotive and cognitive
interjections, as both express a feeling, cognitive interjections can be seen as more
related to knowledge of something (i.e., information previously known to the
speaker, or recently learned).
Interjections may be subdivided and classified in several ways. A common
distinction is based on relations to other word categories: primary interjections are
interjections first and foremost (examples: Oops., Ouch!, Huh?), while secondary
interjections are words from other categories that come to be used as interjections in
virtue of their meaning (examples: Damn!, Hell!)
Primary interjections are generally considered to be single words
(Oh!, Wow!). Secondary interjections can consist of multi-word phrases, or
interjectional phrases, (examples: sup! from What's up?, Excuse me!, Oh
dear!, Thank God!), but can also include single-word alarm words (Help!), swear
and taboo words (Heavens!), and other words used to show emotion. Although
secondary interjections tend to interact more with the words around them, a
characteristic of all interjections—whether primary or secondary—is that they can
stand alone. For example, it is possible to utter an interjection like ouch! or bloody
hell! on its own, whereas a different part of speech that may seem similar in function
and length, such as the conjunction , cannot be uttered alone.
Further distinctions can be made based on function. Exclamations and curses are
primarily about giving expression to private feelings or emotions, while response
particles and hesitation markers are primarily directed at managing the flow of social
interaction.
И.Б. Хлебникова thinks that they are emotional e1ements, not а part of speech.
Б.А. Ильиш says interjections are approaching parentheses in their character as they
are closely connected with the sentence parts.
 PARTICLES

The particle is a part of speech the meaning of which is difficult to define. It

either emphasizes or limits the meaning of another word, or phrase, or clause.
Particles are invariable and have no syntactical function in the sentence.
They form a whole with the part of the sentence (a word or a phrase) they refer
to. Particles may combine with any part of speech.
Particles generally stand before the word they refer to but they may also follow
it. This book is for advanced students only.
According to their meaning particles fall into six groups.
1. Intensifying particlesjust, even, yet, still, all, simply. They emphasize the
meaning of the word (or phrase, or clause) they refer to or give special prominence
to the notion expressed by it.
The skirt comes just below my knees. They even offered him higher wages.
Maggie felt all the safer for that. These days we’re working with still greater
efficiency. We had yet another discussion.
The particles all, still, yet mostly intensify the comparative degree of
adjectives and adverbs. Play yet more softly.
2. Limiting particles: only, merely, solely, but, alone. They single out the word
or phrase they refer to or limit the idea (notion) expressed by them. I only wanted to
ask you the time. Man cannot live on bread alone. Time alone will show who was
right. She is still but a child, she wants to play. Mr. Green merely hinted at the
possibility. Just, merely, simply can be used at the beginning of imperative sentences.
You don’t have to be present. Just (merely, simply) send a letter of explanation.
3. Specifying particles: right, exactly, precisely, just. They make the meaning
of the word or phrase they refer to more precise. Draw a circle right in the middle of
the map (точно, прямо по середине). We were just about to start (как раз
собирались ...). They arrived precisely at ten (ровно, точно в десять). The room
looks exactly as it did when I was here last year (точно так, как). What exactly do
you mean (что именно ...)?
 4. The additive particle else. It combines only with indefinite, interrogative
and negative pronouns and interrogative adverbs. It shows that the word it refers to
denotes something additional to what has already been mentioned: Something else,
nobody else, what else, where else.
5. The negative particle not. Not a word was said about it. Not saying anything
was a bad idea. Not everyone likes this book. Do you want to go? - Not me!
6. Connecting particles: also, too, which may function as conjuncts. Were you
at the film? - I was also there. I went there too. Won’t you come too?
Traditionally particles were classed with adverbs with which some are
homonymous: just, simply, yet, still, exactly, precisely, right, too, barely, etc. She is
old too (particle). She is too old (adverb). He’s just the man I’m looking for
(particle). He has just arrived (adverb).
Other particles are homonymous with adjectives (only, even), conjunctions
(but), pronouns (all), statives (alone). Only a doctor can do that (particle). She is the
only person for the job (adjective)
Foreign linguists do not single them out as а separate part of speech and treat
them as special groups among adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions.
Problems:
1. а particle is а separate secondary sentence member.
2. it is аn element in the part of the sentence which is formed bу the word to which
the particle refers (аn element of the subject, predicate, object). But occasionally it
mау stand at а distance.
I have only met him twice.
3. sometimes the particle stands outside the structure of the sentence.

WORDS OF AFFERMATION/NEGATION
In linguistics and grammar, affirmation and negation are ways in which
grammar encodes positive and negative polarity into verb phrases, clauses, or
other utterances. An affirmative (positive) form is used to express the validity
or truth of a basic assertion, while a negative form expresses its falsity. For example,
the affirmative sentence "Jane is here" asserts that it is true that Jane is currently
located near the speaker. Conversely, the negative sentence "Jane is not here" asserts
that it is not true that Jane is currently located near the speaker.
The grammatical category associated with affirmatives and negatives is
called polarity. This means that a clause, sentence, verb phrase, etc. may be said to
have either affirmative or negative polarity (its polarity may be either affirmative or
negative).
Affirmative is typically the unmarked polarity, whereas a negative statement
is marked in some way. Negative polarity can be indicated by negating words
or particles such as the English not, by other means, which reverses the meaning of
the predicate.
The process of converting affirmative to negative is called negation – the
grammatical rules for negation vary from language to language, and a given
language may have multiple methods of negation.
Affirmative and negative responses are often expressed using particles or
words such as yes and no, where yes is the affirmative, or positive particle, and no is
the negation, or negative particle.
Б.А. Ильиш thinks that they mау form а special part of speech as they саn
form sentences without any other words, being joined to them. Не calls them
sentence words.

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a function word indicating a relation between two notional
words. Its semantic significance becomes evident when different prepositions are
used with one and the same word, as in: to go to the park, to go across the park, to
go round the park, to go out of the park, to go through the park, etc.
A preposition may altogether change the meaning of the verb: he shot the
officer (he aimed at him and hit him), he shot at the officer (he aimed at him but
probably missed).
 Although the tradition of differentiating prepositions from other word classes
(conjunctions, and in some cases adverbs) is well established, it is not always easy
to draw the border-line; nearly all one-word prepositions can also function as
adverbs or as conjunctions, their status being determined only syntactically. A few
words - after, before, since, for (with the change of meaning), behind - may function
not only as adverbs, adverbial postpositions, or conjunctions, but also as
prepositions. Compare the following groups of sentences: They sailed up
(postposition). They sailed up the river (preposition). Everybody was up at the sound
of the bell (adverb). The milk boiled over (postposition). He presided over the
meeting (preposition). I can’t tolerate such men as him (preposition). As he was
passing the door he turned back (conjunction). No one saw him but me (preposition).
But no one saw him (conjunction). He is stronger than me (preposition). He is
stronger than I am (conjunction). The grammatical meaning of them is to express
subordination.
Most of the common English prepositions are simple in structure: out, in, for,
on, about, but (в значении кроме, исключая), against.
Derived prepositions are formed from other words, mainly participles:
excepting, concerning, considering, following, including, during, depending,
granted, past, except.
There are also many compound prepositions: within, outside, upon, onto,
throughout, alongside, wherewith, whereof, whereupon, herein, hereafter, withall.
Composite or phrasal prepositions include a word of another class and one or
two prepositions, as in by virtue of, but for, because of, by means of, instead of, in
lieu of, prior to, on account of, abreast of, thanks to, with reference to, opposite to,
in front of, for the sake of, in view of, in spite of, in preference to, in unison with,
for the sake of, except for, due to, in addition to, with regard to, on behalf of, in line
with, at variance with. A composite preposition is indivisible both syntactically and
semantically, that is, no element of it can be varied, abbreviated, or extended
according to the normal rules of syntax. Thus in the composite preposition for the
sake of neither the definite article nor the preposition can be replaced by words of
similar meaning.
Semantically prepositions form a varied group of words. Most of them are
polysemantic (in, to, for, at, from), their original meaning having become vague,
others have retained their full meaning and are accordingly monosemantic (down,
over, across, off, till, until, save, near, along, among, despite, during, etc.). This also
applies to prepositions borrowed from Latin: versus, via, plus, minus.
Structurally prepositions mау bе classified as:
-left-hand sided (оп the table with pleasure)
-right-hand sided (to eat with)
-double sided (to eat with а fork)
Relations expressed by prepositions may be of various types:
1) agentive - the letter was sent by a friend of mine;
2) attributive - a drawing in crayon, the people in question (люди, о которых
идет речь);
3) possessive and partial relations - one of my friends, the roof of the house,
a glass of brandy, a decline in waste, a rise in production;
4) relation indicating origin, material, or source - a girl from Brighton, made
of gold:
5) objective relation – don’t be angry with me, I'II look into the matter, to
work at a book, to speak on the matter (about the matter, of the matter);
6) relation indicating to whom the action is directed - to show it to him, to
give lessons to the children;
7) instrumental relation - to write with a pencil, to cut with a knife;
8) relation of subordination - to be secretary to a Minister;
9) relation defining the sphere or field of activity - the country depends on
exports for its food; Tom is good at football;
10) relation of involvement or association - to cooperate with somebody;
coffee with cream, to compare this with that, to get involved in a discussion;
 11) respective relation - he is big for a youngster, I did not know I had a
blackguard for a son;
12) relation of resemblance - he is like his father;
13) relation of dissociation and differentiation - to disburden oneself of one’s
past; to be devoid of something, to disentangle oneself from something; to know
something from something, to deduce from something;
14) various adverbial relations:
a) of manner, means, style and language - with diligence, by telegram, in
slang, in bad print, in a neat hand. in good style, in brief;
b) of purpose or aim - to send for the doctor, he did it for fun, the police were
after the criminal;
c) temporal relations. These may be subdivided into those denoting
precedence, sequence, duration, etc. - in good time, at 5 o’clock, before the dawn;
d) of cause or reason - I did it out of fear, through his negligence, I despise
you for this;
e) spacial relation, including directional relation - past the gate, by the
window, across the river, at the 197 gate;
f) concessive relation - in spite of the bad weather, despite our protests, for all
his attempts, with all her diligence.
O. JESPERSON treats such cases as one word in different functions. The
majority of scholars explain such forms as homonymous forms.
CURМE treats prepositions as morphemes, as they are used to express
analytical cases.
Б.А. Ильиш denies the existence of complex prepositions (along with, instead
of as the preposition is а word, not а word group. Не distinguishes only simple
prepositions.
CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a function word indicating the connection between two

notional words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
 According to their morphological structure conjunctions fall into the
following types:
1. Simple conjunctions: and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when.
2. Derived conjunctions; until, unless, seeing, supposing, provided.
3. Compound conjunctions: whereas, wherever.
4. Composite conjunctions: as well as, in case, for fear, on condition that, on
the ground that, as long as, etc. Several conjunctions form correlative pairs, though
strictly speaking the first element is not a conjunction: both ... and, either ... or,
neither ... nor, not only ... but (also), whether ...or.. Б.А. Ильиш denies the existence
of complex conjunctions as each conjunction is а word, not а word-group.
According to their meaning (or rather the semantic relation they express) all
conjunctions fall into two types: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating
conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions express copulative, disjunctive, adversative and
causative-consecutive connections. These four main types of coordinative
connection allow of different shades of meaning, depending on the context. The
coordinating conjunction and may be used in a somewhat different function if it joins
the same nouns; the effect may be to suggest that different types of persons or objects
should be distinguished: There are teachers and teachers. (There are good and bad
teachers.) Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate clauses to main clauses,
although some of them may join a word or a phrase within a simple sentence. They
are positionally less fixed than coordinating conjunctions and need not necessarily
be between the elements they join but may precede both the subordinate and the
main clauses. Wherever he turned, he saw flowers.