Cell Structure and Function

Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Describe the ultra-structure and functions of the major organelles and surface features of eukaryotic
cells.

2. List the eukaryotic cell organelles and explain their importance.

The Cell
- **Basic unit of structure and function in living organisms:** Often referred to as "the building
block of life."

- **Cell theory:** Developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.

- **Origin of the term "cell":** Derived from Latin 'cellula,' meaning a small room, named by
Robert Hooke in 1665.

- **Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902):** German pathologist who further developed the cell theory and
initiated the study of diseases at the cellular level.

Some Specific Cells and Their Functions:

- **Muscle cell:** Involved in movement.

- **Nerve cell:** Functions in conductivity.

- **Pancreatic acinar cells:** Responsible for enzyme synthesis.

- **Mucous gland cells:** Secrete mucous.

- **Cells of adrenals, testes, ovaries:** Responsible for the secretion of steroids.

- **Cells of the kidney:** Involved in ion transport.

- **Macrophages:** Responsible for intracellular digestion.

- **Cells of the intestine:** Engaged in metabolic absorption.

Prokaryotic Cell (e.g., bacteria)

- Size: 1-10 µm

- Nucleus absent (anucleated)

- Single-celled

- Cell wall and plasma membrane present

- Organelles absent

- Single circular chromosomes with no nucleosomes

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

1. Cell Wall

2. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

3. Nucleoid Region

4. Ribosomes

5. Flagella

6. Pili (Fimbriae)

7. Plasmids

8. Inclusions

Eukaryotic Cell (e.g., animal)

- Size: 10-100 µm

- Membrane-bound nucleus present

- Multi-cellular (e.g., approximately 100 trillion cells in humans)

- Plasma membrane only

- Organelles present

- Multiple, linear chromosomes wound on nucleosomes

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Cell (Plasma) Membrane
- Thickness: 6-10 nm, acts as a boundary to contain cell contents and maintain cell integrity.

- Composition: Double layer of phospholipids with embedded proteins (fluid mosaic membrane), lipid
bilayer with phospholipids and cholesterol for rigidity.

- Part of the cell's membrane system, including the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
complex, and lysosomes.

The Plasma Membrane Functions

- Selective barrier

- Transport

- Communication

- Recognition

Cytoplasm

- Makes up 70% of the cell.

- Composed of water, salts, and inorganic molecules.

- High concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate.

- Contains approximately 8% protein.

- Houses organelles, filaments, and granules.

- Includes metabolic pathways like glycolysis and the hexose monophosphate (HMP) pathway.

Organelles

- Nucleus

- Mitochondria

- Rough endoplasmic reticulum

- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

- Golgi apparatus

- Lysosomes

- Peroxisomes

- Vacuole

- The Cytoskeleton
Nucleus

- Functions: Stores the cell's hereditary material (DNA) and coordinates cell activities (growth,
metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction).

- Structure: Double-membrane nuclear envelope, nuclear pore complexes, nuclear lamina.

- Contains DNA (genetic codes) and RNA (essential for protein synthesis).

Nucleus and DNA

- DNA: Double helix composed of 4 deoxyribonucleotides.

- Complementary base pairing (C-G, A-T) held together by hydrogen bonds.

- Attached to sugar-phosphate backbone.

- Chromatin consists of DNA, histones, non-histone proteins, and RNA.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Describes flow of genetic information within a biological system

● Three main processes: DNA replication, transcription, translation

● DNA Replication
○ DNA unwinds and separates into two strands
○ Each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand
○ Results in two identical DNA molecules
● Transcription (in Nucleus)
○ DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of RNA
○ RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes mRNA
○ mRNA
■ Messenger RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes.
■ Contains codons that code for specific amino acids.
● Translation (in Cytoplasm)
○ mRNA is decoded by ribosomes to produce a specific amino acid sequence
○ tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome based on mRNA codons
○ Amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide chain
■ tRNA + Ribosomes
■ Transfer RNA carries specific amino acids to the ribosomes.
■ Ribosomes act as the protein synthesis machinery by facilitating the
binding of tRNA to mRNA.
● Protein: Final product of the central dogma.
○ Amino acids are linked together in a specific sequence to form a functional protein.

Nucleolus

- Discrete densely-stained structure found in the nucleus.

- Organized from nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) on specific chromosomal regions.

- Role in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembly of ribosome subunits.

Example: Normal vs Cancer Cell

● Normal Cell Nucleolus

○ Small and round
○ Well-organized structure
○ Responsible for ribosome production
○ Regulates cell growth and proliferation
○ Contains distinct subcompartments
● Cancer Cell Nucleolus
○ Enlarged and irregular shape
○ Disorganized structure
○ Overproduces ribosomes
○ Promotes uncontrolled cell growth
○ Shows increased nucleolar size and number
○ Abnormal nucleolar morphology
○ Associated with aggressive cancer types

Mitochondria

- Main function: Conversion of food energy into ATP.

- Products of metabolism (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) are oxidized to produce energy.

- The number of mitochondria is indicative of the cell’s metabolic activity

- Structure: Outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, cristae.

● an outer membrane that encloses the entire structure – an inner membrane that encloses a
fluid-filled matrix – Between the two is the intermembrane space – Cristae (formed by
infoldings of the inner membrane)
● Mitochondria contain their own genetic material.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

● Structure of ER
○ Interconnected membrane network
○ Flattened sheets or elongated tubules
○ Cisternal spaces (lumen)
○ Double layer of lipid molecules
○ Associated proteins
● Function of ER
○ Proteins responsible for reactions in the cytoplasm
○ Biosynthesis of proteins and lipids
○ Transport of proteins and lipids
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

● Smooth ER
○ Membranes without attached ribosomes
○ Functions
■ Synthesis of lipids
■ Processing of proteins
■ Metabolism of steroids, carbohydrates, and drugs
● Rough ER
○ Membranes studded with ribosomes
○ Functions
■ Site of protein production

Ribosomes

- Composed of 60% RNA and 40% protein.

- Involved in protein synthesis.

- Two types: free ribosomes (in cytoplasm) and fixed ribosomes (attached to the ER).

- Ribosome quantity reflects protein synthesis.

The Golgi Apparatus

● aka Golgi body, Golgi complex

● Series of flattened membrane discs called saccules with secretory granules on its surface.
● Functions in modification, sorting, and packaging of macromolecules synthesized in the ER
for export.
○ Examples: Modification of proteins, transport of lipids, creation of lysosomes, and
carbohydrate synthesis.

Lysosomes

- Spherical organelles with a single membrane.

- Formed by budding from the Golgi apparatus.

- Functions in intracellular digestion by breaking down large molecules and worn-out cell parts.

- Contains hydrolytic enzymes, that come from the golgi that breakdown large molecules and worn
out cell parts into simple compounds.

● Also termed “suicide bags

● Lysosomal Enzymes
○ Function at acid pH (acid hydrolases)
○ Located in the lysosome (pH 5 compared to cytosolic pH of 7.2)
○ Enzymes include:
■ Nucleases
 ■ Proteases
■ Lipases
■ Phosphatases
■ Polysaccharidases
● Lysosomal Storage Diseases (LSD)
○ Genetic defects leading to LSD
○ Deficiency of acid hydrolases causes substrate accumulation in lysosomes
○ Results in enlargement of lysosomes, interfering with cell function
○ Liver and spleen often enlarged in LSD due to lysosome abundance

Peroxisomes (Microbodies)

- Special vesicles containing enzymes for removing toxic substances and breaking down excess fatty
acids.

- Bound by a single membrane, filled with enzymes.

- Synthesis of enzymes occurs in the cytosol.

The Cytoskeleton

● Definition
○ System of filaments and microtubules within the cell
● Functions
○ Maintains cell shape
○ Provides mechanical strength for protection
○ Facilitates movement within the cell
■ Excretion of material
■ Intracellular transport of organelles
■ Locomotion
○ Aids in cell division
■ Chromosome separation in mitosis and meiosis

The Cytoskeleton Filament Types

- Microfilaments (e.g., actin) - 5 nm

- Microtubules (e.g., tubulin) - 25 nm

- Intermediate filaments - 10 nm eg:

● Cytokeratin: epithelial cells

● Desmin: smooth/skeletal muscles
● Glial fibrillary acidic protein: astrocytes
● Neurofilament protein: neurone
● Nuclear lamin: nucleus
● Vimentin: mesenchymal cells

Centrioles
 ● Definition:
○ Pair of self-replicating organelles found within centrosomes (microtubule organizing
center) located outside the nucleus.
● Function:
○ Duplicates before mitosis.
○ Produce microtubules.
○ Role in spindle formation for chromosome separation during cell division.
● Structure:
○ Centrioles are at right angles to each other.
○ Made up of nine bundles of microtubules.
○ Found only in animal cells.
● Distribution:
○ Absent in mature red blood cells, skeletal muscle cells, and nerve cells.
● Importance:
○ Help in organizing cell division by forming spindles to separate chromosome pairs
during mitosis.
○ Not essential for the process but aid in efficient cell division.

Cilia and Flagella

● Cilia and Flagella

○ Cilia: short, numerous complex
○ Flagella: long, fewer complex
● Construction
○ Both constructed from microtubules
● Function
○ Motile cellular appendages in microorganisms and animals
○ Not found in higher plants
● Role in Single-celled Eukaryotes
○ Essential for locomotion (e.g., sperm)
● Role in Multicellular Organisms
○ Move fluid or materials past immobile cells
● Human Respiratory Tract
○ Cilia line the respiratory tract
○ Prevent entry of dust, smog, and harmful microorganisms
● Structure
○ Cilium/flagellum: cylindrical array of 9 evenly-spaced microtubules
○ Partial microtubule attached to each, giving a "figure 8" appearance
● Microtubule Pattern
○ 9+2 pattern in a single cilium in cross-section
○ 2 single microtubules run through the center
● Membrane Sheath
○ Entire assembly sheathed in a membrane
○ Extension of the plasma membrane
● Motion
○ Motion of cilia and flagella is created by the microtubules sliding past one another.
 ○ This requires: – motor molecules of Dynein, which link adjacent microtubules
together, and – the energy of ATP

Epithelial Cells

- Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities of the body (respiratory tract,
gastrointestinal tract)

- Functional units of secretory glands.

Epithelial Cell Specialization

● Cell surface projections

○ Cilia: facilitate transport along cell surface
○ Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption
● Secretory adaptations
○ Well developed ER and Golgi apparatus
● Cell junctions
○ Specialized junctional areas between epithelial cells allow adherence and
communication.
○ Types: Occludens type/tight junction (barrier), Nexus/gap junction (2nm;
communication), Adherens type (20nm; adhesion) - e.g. desmosomes

Topic: The Cell

1. Which of the following is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms?

○ A. Organ
○ B. Tissue
○ C. Cell
○ D. Molecule
2. The cell theory was developed by whom?

○ A. Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

○ B. Robert Hooke
○ C. Rudolf Virchow
○ D. All of the above
3. What is the term derived from Latin for a small room, and refers to the basic unit of structure
and function in living organisms?

○ A. Cell
○ B. Tissue
○ C. Organ
○ D. Molecule
4. Who further developed the cell theory and initiated the study of diseases at the cellular level?

○ A. Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

 ○ B. Robert Hooke
○ C. Rudolf Virchow
○ D. None of the above
5. Which of the following is an example of a muscle cell?

○ A. Nerve cell
○ B. Skin cell
○ C. Muscle cell
○ D. Bone cell

Topic: Prokaryotic Cell

6. What is the size range of a prokaryotic cell?

○ A. 1-10 µm
○ B. 10-100 µm
○ C. 100-1000 µm
○ D. 1000-10000 µm
7. What is absent in a prokaryotic cell?

○ A. Cell wall
○ B. Cell membrane
○ C. Nucleus
○ D. Ribosomes
8. What is the single, circular chromosome of a prokaryotic cell associated with?

○ A. Ribosomes
○ B. Nucleosomes
○ C. Plasmids
○ D. None of the above
9. Which of the following is NOT a structure found in a prokaryotic cell?

○ A. Cell wall
○ B. Cell membrane
○ C. Organelles
○ D. Flagella
10. What is the function of the flagella in a prokaryotic cell?

○ A. Movement
○ B. Support
○ C. Protection
○ D. Transport

Topic: Eukaryotic Cell

 11. What is the size range of a eukaryotic cell?

○ A. 1-10 µm
○ B. 10-100 µm
○ C. 100-1000 µm
○ D. 1000-10000 µm
12. What is the major difference between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell?

○ A. Size
○ B. Presence of a nucleus
○ C. Presence of membrane-bound organelles
○ D. All of the above
13. Which of the following is found in a eukaryotic cell but not in a prokaryotic cell?

○ A. Cell wall
○ B. Cell membrane
○ C. Nucleus
○ D. Ribosomes
14. How many chromosomes does a human cell have?

○ A. 1
○ B. 10
○ C. 23
○ D. 46
15. What is the function of the cell membrane?

○ A. Controls what enters and leaves the cell

○ B. Provides structural support
○ C. Site of protein synthesis
○ D. Stores genetic material

Topic: Cytoplasm

16. What makes up about 70% of the cell?

○ A. Cell wall
○ B. Cytoplasm
○ C. Nucleus
○ D. Cell membrane
17. What is the main component of the cytoplasm?

○ A. Water**
○ B. Proteins
○ C. Carbohydrates
○ D. Lipids
 18. What inorganic molecule is found in high concentrations in the cytoplasm?

○ A. Oxygen
○ B. Carbon dioxide
○ C. Potassium
○ D. Sodium
19. What is the function of the cytoplasm?

○ A. Stores genetic material

○ B. Site of cellular respiration
○ C. Provides a medium for cellular processes
○ D. All of the above

Topic: Organelles

20. Which organelle is responsible for storing the cell's genetic material and coordinating cell
activities?

○ A. Nucleus
○ B. Mitochondria
○ C. Ribosomes
○ D. Endoplasmic reticulum
21. The nuclear envelope is made up of how many membranes?

○ A. One
○ B. Two
○ C. Three
○ D. Four
22. What are the instructions for protein synthesis found in?

○ A. DNA
○ B. RNA
○ C. Proteins
○ D. Lipids
23. Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell?

○ A. Nucleus
○ B. Mitochondria
○ C. Ribosomes
○ D. Golgi apparatus
24. What is the function of the ribosomes?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Energy production
○ C. Waste removal
 ○ D. Transport

Topic: The Central Dogma

25. The central dogma refers to the flow of genetic information within a cell. Which of the
following processes is NOT part of the central dogma?

○ A. DNA replication
○ B. Transcription
○ C. Translation
○ D. Photosynthesis
26. During DNA replication, what is produced?

○ A. RNA
○ B. Proteins
○ C. Two identical DNA molecules
○ D. Waste products
27. What molecule carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes?

○ A. DNA
○ B. mRNA
○ C. tRNA
○ D. rRNA
28. What molecule brings amino acids to the ribosome based on mRNA codons?

○ A. DNA
○ B. mRNA
○ C. tRNA
○ D. rRNA
29. What is the final product of the central dogma?

○ A. RNA
○ B. DNA
○ C. Proteins
○ D. Sugars

Topic: Nucleus

30. What is a discrete, densely stained structure found within the nucleus?

○ A. Nucleolus
○ B. Ribosome
○ C. Mitochondrion
○ D. Golgi apparatus
 31. What is the main function of the nucleolus?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Ribosome production
○ C. Waste removal
○ D. Energy production
32. How does a cancer cell’s nucleolus differ from a normal cell’s nucleolus?

○ A. It is smaller and rounder.

○ B. It is enlarged and irregular in shape.
○ C. It produces fewer ribosomes.
○ D. It has a different chemical composition.

Topic: Mitochondria

33. What is the main function of the mitochondria?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Energy production (ATP)
○ C. Waste removal
○ D. Transport
34. What does the number of mitochondria in a cell indicate?

○ A. The cell’s age

○ B. The cell’s size
○ C. The cell’s metabolic activity
○ D. The cell’s type
35. What are the two membranes that make up the mitochondria?

○ A. Cell wall and plasma membrane

○ B. Inner and outer membrane
○ C. Nuclear envelope and plasma membrane
○ D. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
36. What structure inside the mitochondria increases the surface area for energy production?

○ A. Ribosomes
○ B. Cristae
○ C. Nucleolus
○ D. Golgi stacks

Topic: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

37. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes within the cell. What are the two main
types of ER?
 ○ A. Rough ER and smooth ER
○ B. Nuclear envelope and Golgi apparatus
○ C. Mitochondria and ribosomes
○ D. Lysosomes and vacuoles
38. What is the function of rough ER?

○ A. Synthesis of lipids and steroids

○ B. Site of protein production (with ribosomes attached)
○ C. Detoxification and breakdown of molecules
○ D. Packaging and modification of macromolecules
39. What is the function of smooth ER?

○ A. Synthesis of lipids and steroids

○ B. Site of protein production (with ribosomes attached)
○ C. Detoxification and breakdown of molecules
○ D. Packaging and modification of macromolecules

Topic: Ribosomes

40. What are ribosomes composed of?

○ A. Proteins and carbohydrates

○ B. Proteins and RNA
○ C. Lipids and carbohydrates
○ D. DNA and RNA
41. Where are ribosomes found in the cell?

○ A. Nucleus only
○ B. Cytoplasm only
○ C. Rough ER and cytoplasm
○ D. All of the above

Topic: The Golgi Apparatus

42. What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Energy production
○ C. Packaging, modification, and distribution of macromolecules
○ D. Waste removal

Topic: Lysosomes

43. What is the function of lysosomes?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Energy production
 ○ C. Breakdown of waste materials and worn-out cell parts
○ D. Cell movement
44. What are lysosomes also known as?

○ A. Powerhouses
○ B. Ribosome factories
○ C. Suicide bags
○ D. Microtubules

Topic: Peroxisomes

45. What is the function of peroxisomes?

○ A. Protein synthesis
○ B. Breakdown of toxic substances and fatty acids
○ C. Intracellular transport
○ D. Cell division

Class Quiz:

1. A centriole is an organelle that is:

A. present in the centre of a cell's cytoplasm

B. composed of microtubules and important for organizing the spindle fibres

C. surrounded by a membrane

D. part of a chromosome

2. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is:

A. an intracellular double-membrane system to which ribosomes are attached.

B. an intracellular membrane that is studded with microtubular structures

C. a membranous structure found within mitochondria

D. only found in prokaryotic cells

3. Which of the following statements does not apply to the nuclear envelope?

A. It is a double membrane

B. It has pores through which material enters and leaves

C. It is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum

D. It has infoldings to form cristae

4. Lysosomes are formed by budding from which cellular organelle?

A.smooth endoplasmic reticulum

B.Golgi apparatus

C.rough endoplasmic reticulum

D.nucleus

5. All peroxisomes carry out this function:

A. Break down fats and amino acids into smaller molecules that can be used for energy production by
mitochondria.

B.digest macromolecules using the hydrolytic enzymes they contain

C.synthesize membrane components such as fatty acids and phospholipids

D. Control the flow of ions into and out of the cell

6. Which of the following is the energy supplier for the cell; this organelle contains its own DNA:

A.Lysosome

B. Mitochondria.

C.Golgi apparatus

D.Ribosome

7. Which of the following is an enzyme-filled organelle for breaking down waste in the cell?

A. Lysosome.
B.Mitochondria

C.Golgi body

D.Endoplasmic reticulum

8. The major job of the ribosome is to:

A.Make fats

B. Make proteins.

C.Breakdown proteins

D.Make sugars

9. The cell membrane is composed of:

A. a single layer of proteins

B. A phospholipid bilayer.

C.a carbohydrate bilayer

D.a single layer of lipids

Answer Key

1. C
2. A
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. B
12. D
 13. C
14. D
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. C
19. C
20. A
21. B
22. A
23. B
24. A
25. D
26. C
27. B
28. C
29. C
30. A
31. B
32. B
33. B
34. C
35. B
36. B
37. A
38. B
39. A
40. B
41. C
42. C
43. C
44. C
45. B

Class Quiz:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.