Natural Products of Silk Road Plants Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Full Chapter

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants
Raymond Cooperk & Jeffrey John

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Natural Products of
Silk Road Plants
Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants
Series Editor:
Raymond Cooper
This unique book series focuses on the natural products chemistry of botanical medicines from differ-
ent countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Brazil, China, Africa, Borneo, Thailand, and Silk Road
Countries. These fascinating volumes are written by experts from their respective countries. The series
will focus on the pharmacognosy, covering recognized areas rich in folklore as well as botanical medici-
nal uses as a platform to present the natural products and organic chemistry. Where possible, the authors
will link these molecules to pharmacological modes of action. The series intends to trace a route through
history from ancient civilizations to the modern day showing the importance to man of natural products
in medicines, foods, and a variety of other ways.
RECENT TITLES IN THIS SERIES

Traditional Herbal Remedies of Sri Lanka
Viduranga Y. Waisundara
Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh and West Bengal
Botany, Natural Products, and Ethnopharmacology
Christophe Wiart
Brazilian Medicinal Plants
Luzia Modolo and Mary Ann Foglio
Natural Products of Silk Road Plants
Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin
Natural Products of
Silk Road Plants
Edited by
First edition published 2021
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Cooper, Raymond, editor. | Deakin, Jeffrey John, editor.
Title: Natural products of Silk Road plants / edited by Raymond Cooper and
Jeffrey John Deakin.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2021] |
Series: Natural products chemistry of global plants | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020020115 (print) | LCCN 2020020116 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367184513 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367184339 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780429061547 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Phytochemicals—History. | Botanical chemistry—History. |
Ethnobotany—History. | Medicinal plants—History. | Silk Road—History. |
Natural products—History. | Plants—Social aspects—History—To 1500.
Classification: LCC QK861.N396 2021 (print) | LCC QK861 (ebook) |
DDC 572/.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020115
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020116
ISBN: 978-0-367-18451-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-18433-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-06154-7 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... vii

Editors ....................................................................................................................................................... ix
Contributors .............................................................................................................................................. xi
Section I Introduction
Section II Eastern Asia

Mongolia
1. Medicinal Plants of Mongolia ......................................................................................................... 7
Narantuya Samdan and Odonchimeg Batsukh
China
2. Medicinal Plants of China Focusing on Tibet and Surrounding Regions ................................ 49
Jiangqun Jin, Chunlin Long, and Edward J. Kennelly
Section III Central and Southern Asia

India
3. Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalaya..................................................................................... 73
Ajay Sharma, Garima Bhardwaj, Pushpender Bhardwaj, and Damanjit Singh Cannoo
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

4. Medicinal Plants of Central Asia ................................................................................................ 105
Farukh S. Sharopov and William N. Setzer

5. Melons of Central Asia .................................................................................................................133
Ravza F. Mavlyanova, Sasha W. Eisenman, and David E. Zaurov

6. Resources along the Silk Road in Central Asia: Lagochilus inebrians Bunge
(Turkestan Mint) and Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa) ...................................................................153
Oimahmad Rahmonov, David E. Zaurov, Buston S. Islamov, and Sasha W. Eisenman
Section IV Western Asia and the Middle East

Iran
7. An Overview of Important Endemic Plants and Their Products in Iran ............................... 171
Reza E. Owfi
v
vi Contents
Iran
8. Crocus sativus and the Prized Commodity, Saffron ................................................................. 201
Jeffrey John Deakin and Raymond Cooper
Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan

9. Natural Plant Dyes of Oriental Carpets ..................................................................................... 211
Jeffrey John Deakin
Iraq and Syria

10. Wheat and Rice – Ancient and Modern Cereals........................................................................219
Georgia
11. Ethnobotany of the Silk Road – Georgia, the Cradle of Wine ................................................ 229
Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana, Shalva Sikharulidze, Zaal Kikvidze,
David Kikodze, David Tchelidze, and Ketevan Batsatsashvili
Turkey
12. Plants Endemic to Turkey Including the Genus Arnebia ......................................................... 255
Ufuk Koca Çalışkan and Ceylan Dönmez
Section V Maritime Routes

Sri Lanka
13. Maritime Routes through Sri Lanka: Medicinal Plants and Spices ....................................... 271
Viduranga Y. Waisundara
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 283

Index ...................................................................................................................................................... 285
Preface
CRC Press is publishing a new series of books under the general title, The Natural Products Chemistry
of Global Plants. The series of books focuses on pharmacognosy; covering recognized uses in folklore,
presenting natural products, and, where possible, linking these to pharmacological modes of action.
Books in the series relate to many different countries including Bangladesh, Borneo, Brazil, Cambodia,
Cameroon, Ecuador, Iran, Madagascar, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Vietnam,
and Yunnan Province (China). The series of books has been written by experts from each country with
an intention to bring forward scientific literature not widely appreciated in the West. This volume in the
series of books, Natural Products of Silk Road Plants, concerns plants and extracts from nations along
the historic Silk Road.
The books in the series are intended for chemistry students who are at university level and for scholars
wishing to broaden their knowledge in pharmacognosy.
Raymond Cooper PhD

Editor-in-Chief, ‘The Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants’
Department of Applied Biology & Chemical Technology
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Aims and Purpose

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants comprises an edited series of chapters, each presented by authors
expert in their field. Contributors provide new and fresh insights upon significant plants, plant extracts,
and chemical products from the flora of nations connected by the historic Silk Road.
A route is also traced through history showing the important value to humankind of natural products
in folk medicines, in foods, and in multiple other ways which, in the contemporary world, are associated
with valuable and important commodities.
The Silk Road – a complex network of trade routes over thousands of miles of vast regions that con-
nected China with the rest of the Eurasian continent by land and sea – contributed to the transformation
of the ethnic, cultural, and religious identities of diverse peoples. Just as civilizations in the East and
West were shaped through trade, plants, plant extracts, and spices were exchanged and improved. Plants,
which were of economic significance and indigenous to countries along the trading routes of the Silk
Road, yielded medicines, cereals, spices, beverages, dyes, and euphoric and exotic compounds.
This book describes many selected plants, key natural products, and chemical extracts. Consideration
is given to the locale in which the plants grow and to the scientific application of extracts. Enquiry is
made, where practicable, into the fascinating chemistry of building blocks which make up the large
molecules of complex natural products. The pharmacological nature of natural products is described
where possible.
This book will appeal to university students of botany and chemistry and to scholars who wish to
broaden their knowledge of pharmacognosy.

Editors
vii
Editors
Raymond Cooper is a visiting professor at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He earned his PhD in
organic chemistry from the Weizmann Institute in Israel. His dissertation researched the ancient wild
wheat of the Middle East, examining germination properties and chemical profiles. After completing a
postdoctoral fellowship at Columbia University, New York, he spent 15 years in drug discovery research
of plant and microbial natural products in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. He then
moved to the nutraceutical and dietary supplements industry to develop botanical products from tradi-
tional Chinese medicine including ginkgo, cordyceps, red yeast rice, green tea, and many other botani-
cal medicines. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, an honorary
visiting professor at the College of Pharmacy, University of London, and a member of the American
Pharmacognosy Society. He has published over 120 research papers, edited 5 books, co-authored the
book Natural Products Chemistry: Sources, Separations and Structures and received the American
Society of Pharmacognosy 2014 Varro Tyler Award for Contributions to Botanical Research.
Jeffrey John Deakin earned a first-class honors degree in chemistry from the University of London
followed by a PhD degree in chemistry from the University of Cambridge. He has published a number
of peer-reviewed research papers. After a long and successful career in the United Kingdom as a science
educator, he now writes articles and books with the aim of broadening the appeal of science and deepen-
ing interest in chemistry in particular. He and Ray were the co-authors of the book entitled Botanical
Miracles, Chemistry of Plants that Changed the World. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry
in the United Kingdom.
ix
Contributors
Ketevan Batsatsashvili Jeffrey John Deakin

Institute of Ecology Royal Society of Chemistry
Ilia State University London, United Kingdom
Tbilisi, Georgia
Ceylan Dönmez
Odonchimeg Batsukh Faculty of Pharmacy
Gurun Graduate Institute Department of Pharmacognosy
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia İzmir Katip Çelebi University
İzmir, Turkey
Garima Bhardwaj
Department of Chemistry Sasha W. Eisenman
Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Horticulture Program
Technology Department of Architecture and Environmental
Longowal, India Design
Tyler School of Art and Architecture
Pushpender Bhardwaj Temple University
Department of Medicinal Plants Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Defence Institute of High-Altitude Research
Delhi, India Buston S. Islamov
Department of Botany
Rainer W. Bussmann Samarqand State University
Department of Ethnobotany Samarqand, Uzbekistan
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Botanical Garden Jiangqun Q. Jin
Ilia State University Department of Botanical Sciences
Tbilisi, Georgia Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant
Cultivation
Ufuk Koca-Çalışkan Chongqing, China
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Pharmacognosy Edward J. Kennelly
Gazi University Department of Chemistry
Ankara, Turkey City University of New York
New York, New York
Damanjit Singh Cannoo
Department of Chemistry David Kikodze
Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Department of Ethnobotany
Technology Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Longowal, India Botanical Garden
Ilia State University
Raymond Cooper Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Applied Biology and Chemical
Technology Zaal Kikvidze
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Ecology
Kowloon, Hong Kong 4-D Research Institute
Ilia State University
Tbilisi, Georgia
xi
xii Contributors
Chunlin L. Long Ajay Sharma

Life and Environmental Sciences Department of Chemistry
Minzu University of China Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and
Beijing, China Technology
Longowal, India
Ravza F. Mavlyanova
World Vegetable Center Farukh S. Sharopov
Tashkent, Uzbekistan Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural
Products
Reza E. Owfi Academy of Sciences of the Republic of
Faculty of Natural Resources Tajikistan
Department of Rangeland Management Dushanbe, Tajikistan
University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Resources Shalva Sikharulidze
Gorgan, Iran Department of Ethnobotany
Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana Botanical Garden
Department of Ethnobotany Ilia State University
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Tbilisi, Georgia
Botanical Garden
Ilia State University David Tchelidze
Tbilisi, Georgia Department of Ethnobotany
Oimahmad Rahmonov Botanical Garden
Faculty of Earth Sciences Ilia State University
Department of Physical Geography Tbilisi, Georgia
University of Silesia in Katowice
Sosnowiec, Poland Viduranga Y. Waisundara
Australian College of Business and Technology
Narantuya Samdan Kandy, Sri Lanka
Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia David E. Zaurov
Department of Plant Biology & Pathology
William N. Setzer School of Environmental and
Department of Chemistry Biological Sciences
University of Alabama Rutgers University
Huntsville, Alabama New Brunswick, New Jersey
Section I
Introduction
The History and Geography of the Silk Road

The term, Silk Road, denotes the complex network of trade routes connecting China with the rest of the
Eurasian continent over land and sea. Its very existence promoted trade and cultural exchange among the
peoples it connected. The Silk Road contributed to forming and transforming the cultural, ethnic, and
religious identities of diverse peoples: Chinese, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Arabs, Turks and Mongolians.
During the Western Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC, the Chinese imperial envoy, Zhang Qian,
was sent to Central Asia. The mission gave the Chinese much knowledge about Central Asia and opened
trade between China and Central Asia and beyond, extending to North Africa and the Mediterranean
coast. There was no single road. These ancient trade routes collectively became known as the Silk Road.
The term referred to a multiplicity of routes: camel trails, mountain passes, seaports, and desert pas-
sages, which connected the great economic centers of the classical world, Han China and the Roman
Mediterranean. As the caravans rolled and trade flourished, cities and towns along the route grew, usu-
ally at strategic points such as crossroads or water wells. Traders and middlemen became rich.
The Silk Road extended some 10,000 km from east to west and 3,000 km from north to south. Initially,
goods moved along the Silk Road from east to west and in the return direction. It linked Constantinople
to Xi’an in China. Eventually, trade developed in other directions: goods headed north into the Russian
principalities and south to Persia, modern-day Iran.
In Mongolia, there were two main arteries: in the north and in the south. The Hunnu, Xi'an, Juan-juan,
Turkic and Uyghur peoples controlled the northern element of the Great Silk Road and made substantial
profits. The route ran southwest of the Bulgan River in the Altai Range. There was also the “Yellow
Road” in the south, a trade route in the Gobi region (Sukhbaatar, 1992). During the golden age of the
Mongol Empire (1206–1371), territory under control extended well into Asia as far as Europe. It was at
the time the largest contiguous empire in history (Figure 1).
Mongols led a nomadic life, were dependent upon horses for mobility and for transport, and traded
them for goods. The Mongols improved communications by establishing a courier system, along a line
of stations called Örtöö, which connected the empire with other nations using the Great Silk Road.
Through these measures, the Mongol Empire was able to provide military protection for convoys of
caravans using the routes of the Silk Road from the capital, Karakorum, to Samarkand, to Bukhar, and
on into Mongolian-occupied Chagatai Khanate (Cleaves, 1982). During the Mongol Empire, the Great
Silk Roads became more secure and were radically extended. European visitors began to arrive via the
2 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants
FIGURE 1 Extent of the Mongol Empire at its zenith.
Great Silk Roads: emissaries of King Louis IX of France; envoys of Pope IV Innocent; and the merchant
and adventurer, Marco Polo.
Many hundreds of different finished products passed along the Silk Road: gunpowder from China,
beautiful Venetian glass, and Levantine gold. Inevitably, as economic exchange grew, so did the influ-
ence of different religions notably Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. The Silk Road helped to trans-
fer innovation in logical thought too – in mathematics, in algebra, and in chemistry. A considerable
part of the commerce was handled by itinerant traders famed for their caravans and financial acumen.
Many items were known to have been carried; among them were silk, linen, woolen cloth, saffron,
pepper, camphor, and artifacts of gold and silver. Traders were the ‘glue that connected towns, oases,
and regions. They played a major role in Chinese silk reaching the eastern Mediterranean while silver
European ornaments have been found in the tombs of the Chinese elite (Frankopan, 2015). Trade in silk
was an early catalyst for commerce. The prominence of trade in Chinese silk probably resulted in the
trading routes themselves becoming known as the Silk Roads.
However, the land routes of the Silk Road were not easy to traverse. Goods were carried from the
Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and were taken to and from India by sea and land. Exchange with
Sri Lanka, China, and the eastern Mediterranean rose sharply. As trade between India and the Greco-
Roman world increased, spices came to rival silk and other commodities in importance. By the time of
the medieval period, Muslim traders dominated maritime spice-trading routes throughout the Indian
Ocean, shipping spices from trading centers in India westward to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea
from which overland or sea routes led to Europe. However, restriction of east-west trade in the east-
ern Mediterranean, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula by the Ottoman Turks during medieval times
motivated western European trading nations to seek maritime routes to the Far East as an alternative
(Figure 2). Vasco da Gama was born in the 1460s and died in 1524. He was a Portuguese explorer and the
first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe
and Asia by an ocean route via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans thereby connecting the Occident
to the Orient. Da Gama's discovery of the sea route was highly significant and opened the way for the
Portuguese to establish a colonial empire in Asia. Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to
avoid sailing across the highly disputed Mediterranean Sea and traversing dangerous land routes to the
Orient over the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut (modern-day
Introduction 3
FIGURE 2 Routes of the Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road (UNESCO, 1990).
Kozhikode), a city in the state of Kerala in southern India, and quickly established exclusive European
access to Indian spice routes. At first, pepper and cinnamon were obtained but soon many other spices
new to Europe were sourced. Sri Lanka is known as The Pearl of the Indian Ocean due to its geographi-
cal shape and natural beauty. The island has a strategic location in the southwest of the Bay of Bengal
and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. Deep-water harbors, such as that at Trincomalee, became key
maritime locations from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to the modern era. Great commercial
importance was placed upon spices as a commodity. Key spices were cinnamon, cardamom, and cloves.
Not only were these spices used as flavoring agents, locally as well as overseas, but they also had thera-
peutic properties well known to traditional medicinal practitioners since ancient times.
Portugal maintained commercial monopoly of these commodities for several decades before other
European powers, notably Dutch, English, and French, were able to challenge her naval supremacy on
the Cape Route and hence her trading position. Trade was transformed when new maritime routes such
as these were established. An extended period of European domination of commerce in the East was the
result as well as increased cultural exchange among diverse cultures. The predominance of trade along
maritime routes led to inevitable, consequential decline in the importance of historic overland routes of
the Silk Road.
Russian investment in the infrastructure of the “Iron Silk Road” led, in 1880, to the construction of
the Trans-Caspian Railway connecting Samarkand and Tashkent. Then the Trans-Siberian Railway and
connections with associated branches, such as the Chinese Eastern Railway, were completed in 1916.
Thus, the first rail connection was established between Europe and Asia, from Moscow to Vladivostok.
The line, at 9,200 km (5,720 mi), is the longest in the world and led to a boom in trade (Frankopan, 2015).
By 2018, a major rail terminal had been located in Germany near Duisburg (Figure 3). It is claimed that
up to 80% of direct rail freight traffic between China and Western Europe passes through the city as an
entrepôt (Posaner, November 2018).
The economic factors of cost and speed determine that direct rail links between China and Europe are
intermediate in importance to air and sea options. Rail freight tends to be used for bulky goods that
are valuable and moderately urgent where the time advantage of rail over ship is notable, and the goods
FIGURE 3 How China put German rust-belt city on the map; courtesy Joshua Posaner.
are heavy enough to make the cost saving over air transport noticeable. It is anticipated that the volume
of goods moving by rail will remain a small percentage of that carried by sea, but rail transfer may well
affect significantly the volume of air cargo. Other rail routes for the “Iron Silk Road” between China and
Europe may yet be developed via Turkey connecting with Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and
Iran. One such is the Marmaray project which would involve a new tunnel under the Bosporus replacing
a much slower rail ferry (Usal, November 2013).
Despite huge actual and proposed investment in transport infrastructure, Central Asia remains in the
21st century lightly populated and largely underdeveloped. Through successful collaboration by China,
Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan in 2014, UNESCO has recognized “The Corridor of the Silk Road” (from
Xi’an in China to Central Asia) as a World Heritage region. Recent efforts by the Chinese government to
establish a “Silk Road Economic Belt” are also helping to bring greater economic prosperity stimulating
resurgence in the rich legacy of the Silk Road.
REFERENCES
F.W. Cleaves, 1982. The Secret History of the Mongols (translated into English with commentary) Volume 1,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 225.
Jeffrey Deakin and Raymond Cooper with a contribution on Mongolia from Dr. J. Gerelbadrakh of the
Mongolian National University of Education in Ulaanbaatar.
P. Frankopan. 2015. The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. Bloomsbury, London.
J. Posaner. 01 November 2018. How China put a German rust-belt city on the map. CET.
G. Sukhbaatar, 1992. Mongolian Nirun khanate (330–555). Press Articles, Ulaanbaatar, 236–237.
O. Uysal. 12 November 2013. Is Marmaray Key for Europe-Asia Rail Connection? Rail Turkey.
Section II
Eastern Asia
Mongolia
1
Medicinal Plants of Mongolia
Narantuya Samdan
Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Odonchimeg Batsukh
Gurun Graduate Institute
CONTENTS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols .............................................................. 8
Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae] ................................................................................ 9
Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]........................................................................................... 10
Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae] ................................................................................................. 10
Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus ...................................................................11
Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae] ...................................................................................................11
Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) ........................................................................................... 13
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae] ............................................................................................. 13
Plants Important for Liver Disorders ...................................................................................................14
Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 15
Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae] .................................................................16
Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae] .......................................................................................17
Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]....................................................................................................18
Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae] ................................................... 19
Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae] ......................................................................................... 20
Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae] ....................................................................... 21
Rhodiola rosea L. [Crassulaceae] .................................................................................................. 22
Salsola laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae] ................................................................................. 23
Saussurea amara Less [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 24
Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae] ................................................................................... 25
Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants ................................................................................................. 27
Adonis mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae]........................................................................... 27
Astragalus mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae] ................................................................................... 27
Bidens tripartita L. [Asteraceae] ................................................................................................... 29
Equisetum arvense L. [Equisetaceae] ............................................................................................ 30
Gentiana macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae] ...................................................................................31
Oxytropis muricata DC [Fabaceae] ............................................................................................... 32
Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Gontsch. ex Grubov [Fabaceae] ...................................................... 33
Thalictrum foetidum L. [Ranunculaceae] ...................................................................................... 34
7
Toxic Plants Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids ................................................................................ 35

Cacalia hastata L. [Asteraceae] .................................................................................................... 35
Lappula myosotis Moench ............................................................................................................. 36
Ligularia sibirica (L.) Cass. [Compositae].................................................................................... 37
Senecio vulgaris L. [Compositae] .................................................................................................. 38
Senecio argunensis Turcz. [Compositae] ....................................................................................... 39
Senecio nemorensis (L.) [Compositae] .......................................................................................... 40
References .................................................................................................................................................41
Introduction
The topography of Mongolia may be divided into seven vegetation zones: montagne, alpine, taiga,
steppe, forest-steppe, desert-steppe, and desert. Mongolia has extreme weather conditions; notably there
is wide seasonal variation in temperature from +45°C to –45°C. In order to thrive under these extreme
conditions, Mongolian plants needed to be adaptable which included the synthesis of many secondary
metabolites that are principal sources for traditional medicine. It is estimated that about 3,160 species,
684 genera, and 108 families of vascular plants exist in Mongolia, and of these, about 1,100 species
are medicinal plants. Traditional Mongolian medicine (TMM) has played an important role within
the medical system until the present day, and its heritage is recognized officially. Preparations used
in traditional medicine are usually complex mixtures of plants, plant extracts, minerals, and animal
drugs of local and foreign origin. In this chapter, plants listed in Table 1.1 are presented in the follow-
ing categories:
• Edible plants documented in The Secret History of Mongols

• Plants important for liver disorders
• Endemic and rarely reported plants
• Toxic plants to be wary of containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
The material should help researchers, students, and scholars to improve knowledge of Mongolian plants,
their applications, and the significance of many bioactive, secondary metabolites.
Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols

The Secret History of Mongols, written in the 13th century CE, has survived as a literary chronicle and
is the oldest and the most important of medieval Mongolian texts. Only members of the imperial fam-
ily and Mongols were permitted to read it. It is recorded in The Secret History of the Mongols, written
between 1,228 and 1,323, that the mother of the Temuujin boy, who later became the Genghis Khan, the
founder and Emperor of the Mongol Empire, raised her sons with much wisdom through times of hard-
ship foraging for wild plants along the banks of the river Onon.
And so the Tayichi’ut brethren set out and left behind in the camp the widowed Lady Hoe’eluen,
her little ones, and the mothers and their children. Lady Hoe’eluen born a woman of wisdom,
raised her liitle ones, her own children… She ran upstream along the Onon’s bunks, gathering
oelirsuen and moyilsun. Wielding a pointed stick of juniper, she dug up sueduen and chichigina
and nourished them. With wild onions and garlic, the sons of the noble mother were nourished,
until they became rulers… With gogosun and wild garlic the beautiful lady raised her admirable
sons. They became high officials and fine men… they became powerful and brave.
The plants she collected were indigenous and are known in the modern Mongolian language as Mangir,
Haliar, Odoi Saraana, Monos, Gichgene, Sod, and Alirs. This section is devoted to brief descriptions of
each of these edible plants.
Medicinal Plants of Mongolia 9
TABLE 1.1
List of Plant Names
No Scientific Name Mongolian Name English Name
1 Achillea asiatica Aziin tologch ovs Asiatic Yarrow
2 Allium senescens Mangir Aging chive, German garlic
3 Allium microdictyon Haliar Onion
4 Adonis mongolica Mongol khundaga Mongolian Adonis
5 Astragalus mongholicus Mongol khunchir Mongolian Milkvetch
6 Bidens tripartite Guramsan Ajig Bur beggarticks
7 Dianthus versicolor Alag basher Versicolor Pink
8 Dianthus superbus Goyo Bashir, Javkhaalig Bashir Lilac Pink
9 Equisetum arvense Khodoonii Shivel Fox Tail
10 Filifolium sibiricum Sibiri Zur ovs Siberian Filifolium
11 Gentiana macrophylla Tomnavchit Degd, Ukher Degd Largeleaf Gentian
12 Iris potaninii Potaninii Tsakhildag Potanin Iris
13 Lilium pumilum Odoi saraana Low Lily
14 Leontopodium leontopodioides Egel Tsagaanturuu, Uul ovs Common Edelweiss
15 Oxytropis myriophylla Tumen navchintsart Ortuuz Dense leaf Crazyweed
16 Oxytropis muricata Zoolon orgost ortuuz Crazyweed muricate
17 Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Khuurmag bulchirhait ortuuz Falseglandular Crazyweed
18 Rhodiola quadrifida Dorvolson mugez, Altangagnuur, Foursplit Rhodiola
19 Rhodiola rosea Yagaan Mugez, Altangagnuur Rose root, Golden Root
20 Thalictrum foetidum Omkhii Burjgar, Burjgar, Ogor Glandularhairy Meadowrue
21 Cacalia hastate Ilden igyyshin Hastate Cacalia
22 Lappula myosotis Durskhal tsetsgerkhuu notsorgono Stickseeds
23 Ligularia sibirica Sibiri zayaakhai Siberian Goldenray
24 Padus asiatica Aziin monos Bird cherry, hackberry
25 Potentilla anserina Galuun Gichgene Silverweed Cinquefoil
26 Salsola laricifolia Shineserkhuu Budargana Larchleaf Russian Thistle
27 Sanguisorba officinalis Emiin sod Great burnet
28 Saussurea amara Gashuun Banzdoo, Gazriin khokh Meadow Saussurea
29 Senecio vulgaris Egel zokhimon Groundsel
30 Senecio argunensis Urgunii zokhimon or Orgonii ˙zokhimon Argun groundsel
31 Senecio nemorensis Oin ˙zokhimon, Naimaldai zokhimon, Nemorensis ragwort
32 Stellera chamaejasme Odoi dalan turuu, Choniin cholbodos Chinese Stellera
33 Vaccinium vitis-idaea Alirs Cowberry
Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae]

Mongolian name: Haliar
English name: Onion
Allium microdictyon (Figure 1.1), commonly known as mountain garlic, is a popular, economically
important species in many Asian countries such as Korea, China, and Mongolia. The leaves are used as
culinary side dishes and in traditional medicines.
Allium is the onion genus. With 600–920 species, it is one of the largest plant genera in the world
extending to ornamental and culinary onions and garlic. Its native range of the species is Asia (Seregin
and Korniak, 2013) where it grows in the forest fringes of the Khangai, Khentei, and Altai mountains
(Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used for the following disorders: bacterial problems and treatment of tumors, swell-
ing, and necrosis of muscle. Extracts from the inflorescence are beneficial in treating uterine disorders
(Boldsaikhan, 2004).
FIGURE 1.1 Allium microdictyon.
FIGURE 1.2 Allium senescens.
Plants of the Allium genus produce chemical compounds, which are derived from cysteine sulfoxides,
that produce the characteristic smell and taste of onion and garlic. The tasty leaves are edible. Up to the
present day, the leaves of A. microdictyon remain popular in cooking, particularly in springtime.
Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]

Mongolian name: Mangir
English name: Aging chive, German garlic
Allium senescens (Figure 1.2) is a bulbous herbaceous perennial. It produces pink flowers in character-
istic umbels in mid- to late summer and grows 20–102 cm in height. The foliage is thin and strap-like.
The plant grows in the steppes of the Khangai, Khentei, and Altai mountains (Ligaa et al., 2005).
It is used to treat flatulence, sleeplessness, ulcers, lymph disorders, and hemorrhoids (Boldsaikhan,
2004; Seregin and Korniak, 2013).
Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae]

Mongolian name: Odoi saraana
English name: Low Lily
Lilium pumilum (Figure 1.3) is a perennial herb with bright red flowers. It has edible bulbs 3–4 cm long,
which were used as a food by Temuujin’s mother for the future Genghis Khan and his siblings.
Lily bulbs are white skinless ball-shaped corms, which contain starchy, scale-like sections. They have
a slightly perfumed smell, crunchy texture, and a refreshingly sweet taste, and are eaten fresh or fried
together with butter.
FIGURE 1.3 Lilium pumilum Delile.
The plant grows on the sloping grounds of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan,
Dund. Khalkh, and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In addition to being used as a food item, lily bulbs have many traditional medicinal uses – most
commonly as an ingredient in the preparation of an expectorant and to treat asthma. It is also used as a
diuretic and to reduce edema. The flowers are used for hemostasis, treating wounds, and menorrhagia
(Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). The plant contains alka-
loids (Antsupova, 1975; Antsupova, 1976); carotenoids (Partali et al., 1987); and flavonoids: rutoside,
kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (Obmann, 2010).
Bioactivities: The plant shows anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, and liver-protective properties (Tsend-
Ayush, 2001). Plant extracts and pure substances of L. pumilum enhanced bile secretion in the isolated
rat liver perfusion system tests (Glasl et al., 2007; Kletter et al., 2004).
Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus

Mongolian name: Aziin monos
English name: Bird cherry, wild black cherry
There are several types of Padus growing in the world. Padus asiatica or Monos tree is widespread in
Mongolia. It belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is a species of cherry, a deciduous small tree or large
shrub up to 16 m tall. It is found on the edge of forests, on meadow slopes, and on river shorelines of
Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005).
P. asiatica (Figure 1.4) blossoms in early spring, grows well on moist soils, and also tolerates cold
climatic conditions well. P. asiatica has rich white flowers with a pleasant aroma and small edible black
fruits (Boldsaikhan, 2004).
The fruit contains up to 15% of tannins, 8% of anthocyanin, 4%–6% of fructose, 5%–6% of glucose,
0.1%–0.6% of saccharide, and 1.1% of pectin. The leaves contain 200 mg/% ascorbic acid.
Thus, from a nutritional point of view, P. asiatica is rich in citric acid and vitamin C. In medical applica-
tions, it is astringent and is used to treat inflammation of the colon and tuberculosis (Enkhjargal et al., 2018).
Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae]

Mongolian name: Galuun Gichgene
English name: Silverweed Cinquefoil
It is documented in The Secret History of the Mongols that its root has food value. Mongolians, who did
not have access to vegetables, would dig out roots of Potentilla anserina, which could be easily dried
and stored for later use.
FIGURE 1.4 Padus asiatica.
FIGURE 1.5 Potentilla anserina L.
P. anserina (Figure 1.5) is a perennial with thin creeping stems and grows in the provinces of
Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Khyangan, Khovd, Mong.
Altai, Ikh nuur, Olon nuur, Gobi-Altai, and Zyyngar (Ligaa et al., 2005).
It is used to treat hemorrhages, diarrhea, and hemiparesis (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004).
The plant contains various sugars: glucose, fructose, and rhamnose; vitamins: carotene and couma-
rin; ellagic acid; tannins; flavonoids: quercetin, quercitrin, quercetin glycoside, kaempferol, and myric-
etin glycoside (Eisenreichová et al., 1974; Sokolov et al., 1987); and leucoanthocyanidin (Bednarska,
1971).
Bioactivities: The plant shows antibacterial activity and is used as a purgative (Sokolov et al., 1987).
Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae)

Mongolian name: Emiin sod
English name: Great burnet
This is a plant belonging to the Sanguisorba genus in the family Rosaceae. Sanguisorba officinalis is
distributed in the northern temperate zone of Asia and throughout Europe and China. This plant grows
at altitudes between 30 and 3,000 m. It is a perennial herb, 30–120 cm in height. Roots are fusiform and
rarely cylindrical. The root surface is brown or purple-brown and yellowish-white in transection. The
roots are used as food as well as medicine.
S. officinalis (Figure 1.6) grows on steppe, meadowland, and in woodland areas of Khovsgol, Khentei,
Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khovd, Mongol Altai, and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005).
It has a bitter taste, is used in TMM for diarrhea, and is hemostatic (Boldsaikhan, 2004).
The roots contain pyrogallic compounds: ellagalic acid and saponins; flavonoids: kaempferol and
quercetin (Enkhjargal et al., 2018).
Root extracts are used as an astringent, to reduce intestinal motility, and as a pain killer (Enkhjargal
et al., 2018).
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae]

Mongolian name: Alirs
English name: Cowberry
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Figure 1.7) is an edible small shrub belonging to the family Ericaceae. It is
2.5–25 cm tall with whitish branches. It grows in larch, cedar, and mixed forests in the steppe and alpine
belts of Khovsgol, Khentei, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, and Khovd (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is cold-resistant,
withstanding temperatures down below –40°C.
The leaves stay leather-like in winter, and the ovary is quadrilateral producing a berry which is orbicu-
lar. The fruit is in common usage as food while the leaves are infused to make tea.
Medicinal applications are the following: enhance longevity and as an antitussive (Ligaa et al., 2005;
Boldsaikhan, 2004).
The leaves are helpful in treating influenza. Familiar nutrients like vitamin C and fiber play a very
important role in Alirs’s health benefits. The leaves contain aldehydes; triterpenoids; ascorbic acid;
phenol glycosides: arbutin (Figure 1.8), methylarbutin (Thieme and Winkler, 1971; Chukarina et al.,
2007; Shnyakina and Cigankova, 1981), and phenolic carboxylic acids; their derivatives: chlorogenic,
caffeic, isochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, and ferulic acids; catechins: (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin,
FIGURE 1.6 Sanguisorba officinalis.

FIGURE 1.7 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.
FIGURE 1.8 Structure of arbutin.
(+)-gallocatechin (Haslam et al., 1964; Gubina et al., 1977; Thompson et al., 1972), and tannins; and
flavonoids: kaempferol, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-L-rhamnoside,
kaempferol 3-O-L-rhamnoside, avicularin and hyperin (Sokolov, 1986; Kaminska, 1966), luteolin
3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and luteolin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (Shnyakina and Cigankova, 1981).
The fruit contains sugar; ascorbic acid; organic acids: citric, benzoic, and salicylic (Sokolov, 1986);
terpenoids: α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineol, camphor, borneol, myrcene, and γ-terpinene; and aromatic
compounds: benzene, toluene, phenol, anisaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and acetophenol (Anjou and Sydow,
1969; Tserendendev, 1984).
Bioactivities: The plant exhibits sedative, antioxidant (Chukarina et al., 2007), and diuretic properties
(Mashkovsi, 1994).
Plants Important for Liver Disorders

Knowledge of Mongolian plants in the West has been limited since many publications have been written
only in Mongolian or Russian and have been presented in obscure, inaccessible journals. Only a limited
number of books about traditionally used Mongolian plants has been published in English to date (Ligaa,
1996; Boldsaikhan, 2004), essentially, compilations of plant names, which cite the traditional name and
the corresponding systematic, scientific name. One important study of Mongolian plants presented the
chemistry of several Achillea species, especially Achillea asiatica (Pitschmann et al., 2013).
Further documented research has focused on plants used traditionally for the treatment of liver disor-
ders. Liver impairments are prevalent according to the National Statistical Office of Mongolia. Due to
more efficient monitoring, increasing incidences of liver cancer, viral hepatitis, and liver and gastrointes-
tinal disturbances have been found among the Mongolian population.
Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae]

Mongolian name: Aziin tologch ovs
English name: Asiatic Yarrow
A. asiatica (Figure 1.9) belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is a perennial herb with rhizomes. Stems
are 20–50 cm tall, whitish in color, with long, slender, entangled hairs, erect, and branched only at the
inflorescence. It grows on sandy terraces of the western and eastern slopes of the Khangai, Khentei and
Altai mountains, and on forest fringes (Sanchir et al., 2003). In TMM, it is used for treating persistent
fever (Ligaa et al., 2005).
Chemical constituents: The plant contains sugars and organic acids (Kalinkina and Beresovskaya,
1974; Kalinkina et al., 1989). There are essential oils such as, hamazulene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene,
camphor, limonene, cineole, and n-cymol. Steam distillation of the extract provides a blue-tinged oil,
which is predominately made up of hydrocarbons (58%) and chamazulene (17.5%). However, the content
of essential oils varies depending on the harvest and growth season. The highest content of proazulene
was measured at full bloom in the inflorescence, whereas in the stalks, the level was found to be low dur-
ing the entire growth period. Therefore, the best yields are achieved at full flowering (Motl et al., 1990;
Yusubov et al., 2000; Kalinkina and Beresovskaya, 1975). Several proazulenes have been isolated and
their chemical structures elucidated (Gunbilig, 2003; Glasl et al., 2001a,b).
Coumarins, such as umbelliferone and scopoletin, were detected (Kalinkina et al., 1989). The flavo-
noids comprise kaempferol (Kalinkina et al., 1989), vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, isoorientin (Valant-
Vetschera, 1984; Narantuya, 1996), apigenin, diosmetin, centauredin, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside
(Figure 1.10) (Narantuya et al., 1999).
Several sesquiterpene lactones are present such as 8α-angeloyloxy-2α, 4α, 10β-trihydroxy-6βH,
7αH, 11βH-1(5)-guaien-12,6α-olide, 8α-angeloxy-1β, 2β, 4β, 5β-diepoxy-10β-hydroxy-6βH, 7αH,
FIGURE 1.9 Achillea asiatica.
OH
OH
HO O O
O
HO
OH O
OH
FIGURE 1.10 Structure of apigenin-7-O-glucoside.

11βH-guaien-2,6α-olide, 8α-angeloxy-4α, 10β-dihydroxy-2-oxo-6βH, 7αH, 11βH-1(5)-guaien-12,6α-

olide, 8-desacetyl-matricarin, 8α-tigloxy-artabsin, 8α-tigloxy-3-oxa-artabsin, 8α-angeloxy-artabsin,
3-oxa-achillicin, 8-acetoxy-artabsin, and 8-angeloxy-3-oxa-artabsin (Narantuya et al., 1999).
Bioactivities: An aqueous extract exhibited anti-inflammatory and hemostatic activities (Myagmar,
1992). In another trial, a preparation known as “Achigran” isolated by extraction with ethanol–water
from A. asiatica was investigated for its acute and chronic antiulcer activities after direct intragastric
administration, via catheter, in both rat and mouse (Slipchenko et al., 1994). The systemic antiphlogis-
tic effect of a lipophilic extract from A. asiatica, enriched with sesquiterpenes, was tested in mice and
showed significant activity after 30–120 minutes, which decreased toward the end of the experimental
period (Gunbilig, 2003). In vitro and in vivo experiments in rabbits exhibited an anthelmintic effect.
Also, A. asiatica was active against the larvae of trychostongyle gastrointestinal nematodes (Nemeth
and Bernath, 2008).
A new proprietary patent-protected drug (Narantuya et al., 1992), named “Achillo”, with hepatoprotec-
tive activity has been developed.
Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae]

Mongolian name: Alag bashir
English name: Color-changing Pink, Versicolor Pink
Dianthus versicolor (Figure 1.11) belongs to the plant family Caryophyllaceae. Its thick roots produce
many flowering stems but not vegetative shoots. It is found growing on the slopes of mountains and hills
in forest-steppe and the steppe zone regions of Khovsgol, Khentii, Khangai, Khyangan, Mong. Altai,
Khovd, Gobi-Altai, Dornod Mongolia, Dund Khalkh, Olon nuur, and Ikh nuur (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, the plant is used in the treatment of pneumonia, typhoid, typhoid fever, and scurvy (Ligaa
et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004).
Chemical constituents: The herb contains saponins and ascorbic acid while the flowers contain saponins
and flavonoids (Fedorov, 1985; Boguslavskaya et al., 1983). Also present are isovitexin-7-O-rutinoside, iso-
vitexin-7-O-rhamnosyl-galactoside, isoscoparin-7-O-rutinoside, isoscoparin-7-O-rhamnosyl-galactoside,
isoscoparin-7-O-galactoside, isoorientin-7-O-galactoside, and isovitexin-7-O-glucoside (Figure 1.12),
(Obmann et al., 2007, 2010).
Bioactivities: Its uses include antihypertensive, hemostatic, and uterine stimulant properties (Fedorov,
1985).
FIGURE 1.11 Dianthus versicolor.

FIGURE 1.12 Structure of isovitexin-7-O-glucoside.
An aqueous extract of the plant stimulated production of bile with slight dose dependency. The effect
was compared to a control compound, cynarin, which is recognized for choleretic activity. An extract
examined on organ preparations isolated from the uterus, aorta, heart, arteria pulmonalis, and the termi-
nal ileum showed constringing activity (Obmann, 2010).
According to a report concerning market research on Mongolian traditional medicinal drugs prepared
in September 2007 for the WHO, D. versicolor ranks among the 45 most common domestic herbal drugs
traded in Mongolia.
Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae]

Mongolian name: Goyo Bashir, Javkhaalig Bashir
English name: Lilac Pink
Dianthus superbus (Figure 1.13) belongs to the plant family Caryophyllaceae. It is a perennial herb with
long creeping rhizomes. The plant grows in larch and birch forests in the forest-steppe belt of Khovsogul,
Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Khovd, and Dornod Mongolia (Gubanov, 1996).
In TMM, the plant is used to aid in childbirth and to treat lymph disorders and uterine diseases. It has
diuretic, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, high doses can cause bleeding (Ligaa
et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007).
Chemical constituents: The herb contains pectins (Gyrdagva, 2004); saponins: dianosides G, H, and
I, azukisaponin (Oshima et al., 1984), dianthus-saponin A, B, C, and D (Shimizu and Takemoto, 1967);
FIGURE 1.13 Dianthus superbus.

cyclopeptides: dianthins A–F (Hsieh et al., 2004; Wang et al., 1998), longicalycinin A (Hsieh et al., 2005),
alkaloids, pyrocatechin tannins; flavonoids: orientin, homoorientin (Seraya et al., 1978), and 4-methoxydi-
anthramide B (Hsieh et al., 2005). The flowers contain saponins and flavonoids (Fedorov, 1985).
Bioactivities: Anti-DPPH free radical, 15-lipoxygenase (Gyrdagva, 2004), anticonvulsant (Fedorov, 1985).
Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]

Mongolian name: Potaninii Tsakhildag
English name: Potanin Iris
Iris potaninii (Figure 1.14) belongs to the plant family Iridaceae. It is an acaulis perennial with needle-
like roots. It grows on the slopes and forest fringes of mountain-steppe and forest-steppe regions in the
provinces of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khovd, Mong. Altai, Dund Khalkh, Dornod
Mong., Ikh nuur, Olon nuur, Dor. Gobi (Delgerkhangai), and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is applied
medicinally in the following ways: wound healing, lymph disease, and inflammation of the stomach and
large intestine (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004).
Chemical constituents: Root contains 5′, 7,8-trihydroxy-3′, 4′, 6-trimethoxy-isoflavone, 6-O-β-D-
glucopyranosy l-4′, 7-dimethoxy-3′, 5′, 8-trihydroxyisoflavone, 4′, 7-dimethoxy-3′, 3,5-trihydroxyflavanone,
6,7-methylenedioxy-3′, 4′, 5′, 5-tetramethoxy-isoflavone (Figure 1.15), 4′, 5-dihydroxy-3′-methoxy-
6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, 5′, 5-dihydroxy-3′, 4′-dimethoxy-6,7-methylendioxyisoflavone, 4′,
5-dimethoxy-3′-hydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, 4′-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisofla-
vone, and iriflophenone (Purevsuren, 2004; Purev et al., 2002; Purevsuren and Narantuya, 2002).
Bioactivity: Flavonoids present in the plant exhibit kidney-protective activity (Purevsuren, 2004).
Some benzoquinones isolated from Iris species have been used as anticancer agents in modern Chinese
medicine (Seki et al., 1995).
FIGURE 1.14 Iris potaninii.
O
O
H 2C OCH3
O
OCH3 O OCH3
OCH3
FIGURE 1.15 Structure of 6,7-Methylenedioxy-3΄,4΄,5΄,5-tetra-methoxyisoflavone.

Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae]

Mongolian name: Egel Tsagaanturuu, Uul ovs
English name: Common Edelweiss
Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is the flower most commonly associated with the Swiss Alps where
it grows in inaccessible regions and is a protected species. The unique beauty of the white flower is a
symbol of purity in Bavaria. The edelweiss is still worn today and is featured on German beer steins as
a decorative symbol of love, bravery, strength, and dedication.
L. leontopodioides (Figure 1.16) is a relative of edelweiss, which grows in the Mongolian montagne
region growing at an altitude of 1,700 m. The plant is well adapted to climatic extremes due to its deep
FIGURE 1.16 Leontopodium leontopodioides Willd. Beauverd.

fibrous root and felt-like covering of its leaves which protect it from drought, strong winds, and potentially
damaging sun. The petals of the flower, white in color and arranged in star shape, have medicinal value.
The plant is found in the provinces of Khovsogol, Khentei, Khangai, Khyangan, Mong-Dag., and
Dornod Mong (Gubanov, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, the plant is used for the treatment of diarrhea, alleviation of pain, and healing glandular
tuberculosis (Ligaa, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005).
Chemical constituents: Coumarins: obliqine, 5-methoxy-obliqine, 5-hydroxy-obliqine; sesquiterpene
lactones: [(1S, 2Z, 3aS, 5aS, 6R, 8aR)-1,3a, 4,5,5a, 6,7,8-octahydro-1,3a, 6-trimethylcyclopenta[c]pentalen-
2-yl]methyl acetate and 1-[(2R*, 3S*)-3-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,3-dihydro-2-[1-(hydroxymethyl)
vinyl]-1-benzofuran-5-yl]ethanone (Dobner et al., 2003; Batsugkh, 2008; Narantuya, 2005).
Bioactivities: It has antidiarrheal and anticonvulsant properties (Sokolov et al., 1993).
Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae]

Mongolian name: Tumen navchintsart Ortuuz
English name: Dense leaf Crazyweed
Oxytropis myriophylla (Figure 1.17) belongs to the family Fabaceae. It is an acaulis perennial forming
a dense bush which grows on stony slopes and dry, sandy soil in Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Dund.
Khalkh, Dornod Mongolia, and Khyangan (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used to treat bone diseases, dermatitis, anthrax, and ulcers and also used for amenorrhea
and suppurative wounds (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007).
Chemical constituents: The aerial parts contain 0.1%−0.3% alkaloids: N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine
(Figure 1.18), N-benzoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine, N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-phenylethylamine,
FIGURE 1.17 Oxytropis myriophylla DC.
OH
OH
O HO O
NH
OH
OH O
N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine Quercetin
FIGURE 1.18 Chemical structures of N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine and quercetin.

N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine, N-cis-cinnamoyl-β-phenylethylamine (Kojima et al.,

2001; Purevsuren, 2002), 0.6%−2.3% flavonoids (Purevsuren, 2002; Sokolov et al., 1987): kaempferol,
quercetin, (Figure 1.18) rhamnasin, astragalin, rhamnetin (3,5,3′, 4′-tetrahydroxy-7-methoxyflavone) (Lu
et al., 2002), (2S)-7-hydroxyflavanone, pinocembrin, sacuranetin (Purevsuren, 2002), (6R, 9R)-roseoside,
(6R, 9S)-roseoside, adenosine, myriophylloside B, myriophylloside C, myriophylloside D, myriophylloside
E, myriophylloside F (Lu et al., 2002), isorhamnetin-3-O-α-D-galactopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-α-D-
glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-α-D-rhamnopyranoside (Sokolov et al., 1987), oxymyrioside (quercetin-
3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-glucofuranosyl)-7-O-α-L-rhamnofuranoside), acetyloxymyrioside
(quercetin-3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-D-glucofuranoside-10″-acetyl-7-O-α-L-rhamnofuranoside),
coumaroyloxymyrioside (quercetin-3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-D-glucofuranoside)-10″-II-
coumaroyl-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) (Blinova and Tchuani, 1977a), oxytroside (kaempferol-3-O-(β-
D-glucopyranosyl-6-β-L-rhamnopyranoside)-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) (Blinova and Tchuani, 1977b),
steroid saponins, coumarin (Sokolov et al., 1987), phenolic glucosides: 2-methoxy-4-(3′-hydroxy-n-butyl)-
phenol-1-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, syringin, 2-methoxy-4-(3′-hydroxy-propenyl)-phenol-1-O-beta-D-
glucopyranoside (Lu et al., 2004) and pinitol, benzoic acid, triterpene glycosides (Okawa et al., 2002).
Bioactivity: Antihistamine (Lu et al., 2002).
Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae]

Mongolian name: Dorvolson mugez, Altangagnuur, Zerleg Mugez
English name: Foursplit Rhodiola
Rhodiola quadrifida (Figure 1.19) is a dioecious perennial with a long slender root and a thick elongated
rhizome, which grows on scree slopes in the mountainous areas of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Khovd,
Mong. Altai, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used to treat lung infections, as a tonic and as an astringent mouthwash (Ligaa et al.,
2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004).
Chemical constituents: organic acids, 0.8% tannins, β-sitosterol, 0.5%–1.1% salidroside (rodiolo-
side) (Dumaa, 2006), chlorogenic acid, rhodioline, rosiridine, rosavine, rhodiooctanoside, monghroside
FIGURE 1.19 Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey.

(Dumaa, 2006; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007), gallic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, umbelliferone, scopole-
tin (Ligaa et al., 2005). Cyanoglycosides: rhodiocianoside A (Figure 1.20) and hodiocianoside B, octyl
α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1–6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, gossypetin, and 7-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1–3)-α-L-
rhamnopyranoside (Yoshikawa et al., 1995).
Bioactivity: Antibacterial (Dumaa, 2006).
Rhodiola rosea L. [Crassulaceae]

Mongolian name: Yagaan Mugez (Altangagnuur)
English name: Rose root, Golden Root
Rhodiola rosea L. (Figure 1.21) is a common member of the family Crassulaceae, known as one of the
most important popular medicinal plants of northern Europe as well as in Mongolia. The plant is found
FIGURE 1.20 Structure of rhodiocianoside A.
FIGURE 1.21 Rhodiola rosea L.

only in a severe alpine climate and grows very slowly. It is 20–40 cm tall, perennial, and a flowering
herb. The rhizome is branched, golden yellow or gray-brown, with many emerging erect stems. The plant
grows on scree and stony riverbanks in the mountainous areas of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Khovd,
Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005).
The rhizomes and roots are used as medicinal raw material. It can take up to a decade before the raw
roots are suitable for medicinal use. Russian researchers in the early 1950s reported the ability of the
plant to support adaptation of the body to a variety of chemical, biological, and physical stresses. In
TMM, the Mongolian doctors prescribed it for tuberculosis and cancer. Siberians secretly transported
the herb down ancient trails to the Caucasian mountains where it was traded for Georgian wines, fruits,
garlic, and honey. Chinese emperors sent expeditions to Siberia to bring back Golden Root for medicinal
preparations.
Chemical constituents: The plant contains sugars: glucose, galactose, arabinose, and rhamnose
(Davaasuren, 2006); organic acids; 15.9%–20.25% tannins, while the essential oil mainly consists of
oxygenated monoterpenes (83.38%). The chief components of the oil are geraniol (25.93%), myrtenol
(14.94%), octanol (13.71%), and (E)-pinocarveol (11.07%) (Irekhbayar et al., 2018); phenylpropanoid:
rosavin (Dumaa, 2006), rosin, rosarin (Curkin et al., 1984; Zapesochnaya and Cursin, 1982; Òroshencî
and Cuticova, 1967); phenylethanol derivatives: salidroside (rodioloside) (Figure 1.22) (Òroshencî and
Cuticova, 1967; Dumaa, 2006), tyrosol (Sokolov et al., 1990; Ming et al., 2005); flavonoids: rodio-
lin (Dumaa, 2006), kaempferol, astragalin, rodionin, rodiosin, acetylrodalgin, trycin, kaempferol-7-
rahmnoside, trycin-7-glucoside, 8-methylgerbacetin, rhodioflavonoside (Sokolov et al., 1990; Curkin
et al., 1984; Revina et al., 1976), and others; terpenoids: rosiridol (Sokolov et al., 1990), rosiridin (Dumaa,
2006), rhodiolosides A-E (Ma et al., 2006); steroids: β-sitosterol, daucosterol; phenol carboxylic acids:
chlorogenic, 4-hydroxycinnamic, gallic, isochlorogenic, neochlorogenic acids (Dumaa, 2006), and
lotaustralin (Akgul et al., 2004).
Bioactivities: Clinical studies, undertaken since the early 1950s, have supported the reputation of the
plant as a stimulant of the nervous system, enhancing work performance, improving sleep, eliminat-
ing fatigue, improving concentration, and also preventing stress-induced cardiac damage. The roots of
R. rosea possess a wide range of pharmacological activities: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antican-
cer, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects because of the presence of phenols and flavonoids
(Irekhbayar et al., 2018). It is also reported to have cytotoxic (Ming et al., 2005) and antibacterial proper-
ties (Dumaa, 2006; Mashkovsi, 1994).
Salsola laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae]

Mongolian name: Shineserkhuu Budargana
English name: Larchleaf Russian Thistle
Throughout the world, there are several plants that have been identified with the ability to boost the
immune system and the Salsola laricifolia Turcz (Figure 1.23) is one of those (Narmandakh et al., 2013).
FIGURE 1.22 Structure of salidroside.

FIGURE 1.23 Salsola laricifolia Litv. Ex. Drobow.
It is 50–60 cm tall and a small shrub with curved branches. It grows on the upper levels of the slopes of
sandy mountains in Dorno Gobi, Gobi-Altai, and Alashani Gobi (Olziikhutag, 1983).
In traditional medicine, it is used for the treatment of broken bones, healing wounds, alleviating itch-
ing, and swollen joints (Boldsaikhan, 2004). The nomads of the Gobi Desert prepare a tea from the
overground parts of the plant as a winter tonic.
Chemical constituents: The plant contains coumarins: fraxidin, isofraxidin, scopoletin, fraxetin,
calicantoside, fraxidin-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, scopolin, fraxin, cleomiscosin B, cleomiscosin D,
and lariside (Narantuya, 1996, 2005). Coumarin content is the highest at 0.3% in a 60% alcohol extract,
while the flavonoid content is at 0.6% in a 60% alcohol extract (Narmandakh et al., 2013).
Bioactivities: Herbal compounds derived from S. laricifolia have a significant effect on the human
immune system (Tserendolgor et al., 2013; Narantuya, 2005). A new drug, named “Salimon”, which
stimulates immune activity, has been developed. It is protected by patent and is one of the best-selling
drugs in the Mongolian drug market (Narantuya et al., 2002).
Saussurea amara Less [Asteraceae]

Mongolian name: Gashuun Banzdoo, Gazriin khokh
English name: Meadow Saussurea
There are 42 different species of the genus, Saussurea, in Mongolia (Grubov, 2001). It is perennial herb
with erect, strong, glabrous, or scabrous stems some 7–60 cm in height, branched in upper part. The
flowers of Saussurea amara Less (Figure 1.24) are pink. It is grows in wet alkaline, rocky riverbanks in
Khovsgol (Darkhad), Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Ikh
nuur, Olon nuur, and Zyyngar (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In traditional medicine, the herbal parts of Saussurea are useful in treating hepatobiliary disorders and
indigestion (Ligaa, 1996; Khaidav et al., 1985). It is also used for bile disorders and for its antibacterial
properties (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007).
Chemical constituents: Sesquiterpene lactones: cynaropicrin (Figure 1.25), desacylcynaropic-
rin, γ-linolenic acid (Daariimaa, 2006; Konovalova et al. 1979; Tsevegsuren et al. 1997), sugars, cou-
marins, cardenolides, anthraquinone glycosides, 0.1% alkaloids, 0.7% tannins (Sokolov et al., 1993);
sterols: taraxasterol, 3-O-acetyltaraxasterol, β-sitosterol, lupeol; flavonoids: apigenin and apigenin-7-O-
glycoside (Figure 1.25), genquanine (Daariimaa, 2006).
Bioactivities: Hemostatic, antitumor, and antibacterial properties (Modonova et al., 1986).
Cinaropicrin, apigenin, and apigenin-7-O-glycoside exhibit choleretic effects (Daariimaa, 2006; Glasl
FIGURE 1.24 Saussurea amara Less.
OH OH
OH
HO O HO O O
O
HO
OH O OH O
OH
Apigenin Apigenin-7-O-glucoside
H 2C HO
CH2
H
O
HO O
H 2C H CH2
O
O
Cynaropicrin
FIGURE 1.25 Chemical structures of apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, and cynaropicrin.
et al., 2007). Sesquiterpenes (Konovalova et al., 1979) were found to exhibit neoplasm-inhibiting and
bactericidal activities (Modonova et al., 1986).
Plant extracts and pure substances of S. amara enhanced bile secretion in the isolated rat liver per-
fusion system tests. The sesquiterpene, cynaropicrin, and the flavonoid, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, were
shown to stimulate bile in extracts of S. amaras (Glasl et al., 2007; Kletter et al., 2004).
Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae]

Mongolian name: Odoi dalan turuu, Choniin cholbodos
English name: Chinese Stellera
Stellera chamaejasme (Figure 1.26) grows on stony slopes and meadows in mountain steppe regions of
Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, and Dornod Mong (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is a small shrub,
having long, thick, woody roots, and leafy stems, which reaches 20–30 cm in height.
FIGURE 1.26 Stellera chamaejasme L.
FIGURE 1.27 Structure of daphnoretin.
Over a thousand years ago, people living on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and in Mongolia were using
S. chamaejasme as a raw material in the production of handmade Tibetan paper. The raw material is
still used today in the modern industry. Tibetan handmade paper has made important contributions to
the social, economic, and cultural development in the region. Many scriptures of Buddhism, printed on
Tibetan paper, have been well preserved for hundreds of years (Dege Sutra-Printing House, 2014). The
paper has unique characteristics and contains a preservative. Books and scrolls printed or written on
Tibetan paper can be stored for a long time free from damage caused by herbivorous insects. The paper
also has good strength and strong ink absorbency (Li et al., 2009).
In TMM, it is used as an antibacterial agent to treat inflammation (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan,
2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007).
Chemical constituents of S. chamaejasme roots are as follows: 73.5% holocellulose, 39.7%
α-cellulose, and 17.6% lignin. It is noted that the holocellulose content is comparable to that of various
non-woody plants indicating that S. chamaejasme root is a potential raw material for lignocellulosic
paper production (Li et al., 2014). Roots contain sugars, organic acids, saponins, 1.2% tannins; 0.35%
flavonoids: 5,7-dihydroxy-4′, 11-dimethoxy-3′, 14-dimethylbenzoflavanone (Liu et al., 1995), ruixiang-
langdusu A and B, 4′, 4′″, 5,5″, 7,7″-hexahydroxy-3,3″-biflavone (Xu et al., 2001a), 7-methoxyneochamae-
jasmin A (Feng et al., 2002); 0.3% coumarins: sfondine, isobergapten, pimpinellin, isopimpinellin,
umbelliferone, daphnoretin, bicoumastechamin (Xu et al., 2001b), diterpenes (Jiang et al., 2002); lig-
nans: (+)-kusunokinin, lirioresinol-B, magnolenin C, (−)-pinoresinol monomethyl ether, (−)-pinoresinol,
(+)-matairesinol, isohinokinin, and (−)-eudesmin (Xu et al., 2001b); steroids: daucosterol, β-sitosterol
(Liu et al., 1995). The herb contains coumarins: daphnorin, daphnetin, daphnoretin (Figure 1.27), and
daphnetin 8-O-β-D-glycopyranoside, chamaejasmoside (Narantuya, 1996; Narantuya et al., 2000).
Bioactivities: Anti-ulcerative, laxative, and wound-healing properties (Narantuya et al., 2000).
Recently, it has been found to exhibit antitumor, antiviral, and anti-HIV activities (Feng et al., 2002).
A new patented, bleaching reagent for wool and cashmere, named “Bicum”, has been developed,
which contains bicoumarins from S. chamaejasme (Narantuya, 1995).
Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants

One hundred and twenty species (including 12 subspecies) are endemic vascular plants, which are found
predominantly in the Altai mountains (45), followed by the Khangai mountains (26) and the Gobi region
(13). Two endemic plants are included here, Adonis mongolica and Astragalus mongholicus, and seven
other plants have been rarely reported in the English scientific literature.
Adonis mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae]

Mongolian name: Mongol khundaga
English name: Mongolian Adonis
Adonis mongolica is an endemic plant of Mongolia. It belongs to one of the endangered species. Global
warming, aridity, livestock grazing, the drug industry and mining have each contributed to the reduction
in the distribution of this endangered plant (Bat-tseren and Monkhjargal, 2014).
It grows in the form of a bush, has flowering stems and many basal leaves and emerges from a rhizome.
The plant grows in mountain meadows and riverbanks in the mountain forest-steppe belt of Khovd,
Khangai, and Khentei (Ligaa et al., 2005; Sanchir et al., 2003).
In TMM, it is used for treating Salmonella typhi poisoning, blood disorders, and wounds. Also, it is
used to treat swelling caused by heart diseases, heart pain, and heart arrhythmias (Ligaa et al., 2005;
Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007).
Chemical constituents: Leaves contain cardiac glycosides (0.51%–0.55%); flower and seed con-
tain 0.2%, and stems contain 0.2%. The cardiac glycosides are cymarin, corchoroside A, adonitoxin,
K-strophanthin-β, erysimoside, olitroside, k-strophanthoside, and gluco-olitroside. The main cardiac
glycosides are K-strophantin-β (up to 0.4% of dried plant, up to 76% of total cardiac glycosides), cyma-
rin (up to 13% of total cardiac glycosides) (Lamjav, 1975); flavonoids: luteolin, kaempferol, luteolin-7-
glucoside, orientin, and tannins (3%) (Ligaa et al., 2005) (Figure 1.28).
Bioactivity: Cardiotonic (Khaidav, 1971).
Astragalus mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae]

Mongolian name: Mongol khunchir, Khunchir
English name: Mongolian Milkvetch
There are more than 2,500 species of Astragalus in worldwide, and 69 species of those grow in Mongolia.
It has flowering stems and many basal leaves, emerging from a rhizome to form a bush. Flowers are big,
the calyx is green with violet shade, and the corolla is white. The fruit is nut-like.
The plant grows in mountain meadows and riverbanks in the mountain forest-steppe belt of Khovd,
Khangai, and Khentii (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used for treating light swelling, water swelling, and phlegm, and improving physical
energy and strength. It is also used to soothe a purulent inflammation, for healing wounds, and to treat
lung fever, oliguria, and hemorrhoids (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004).
Nowadays, natural source of this plant has decreased; therefore, it is widely cultivated in Mongolia
for its roots, which have been used for medicinal purposes in both humans and animals for thousands
of years.
Chemical constituents: Root contains flavonoids: formononetin, 3-hydroxy-formonone-
tin, 2,3-dihydroxy-7,4-dimethoxyflavone, 7,3-dihydroxy-4-methoxyflavone 7-O-glucoside,
7,3-d ihydroxy-4 -dimethoxyflavone; saponins: astragaloside I–X (Figure 1.29), isoastragaloside I–IV,
polysaccharides. Above-ground parts contain astragaloside, quercetin, isorhamnetin, rhamnocetin,
isorhamnetin 3-β-D-glucopyranoside, propingoside, coumarin, tannins, and saponins (Oyun et al.,
2003; Dungerdorj, 1978).
O O
O O
O
O H
H OH
H OH
H OH
CH3 O
O OH
H
O
HO O
CH3
HO
OCH3
HO OH Cymarin
Adonitoxin
O O
O
H
H OH
CH3 O
OH
O
HOH2C O O
O
O OCH3
OH
HO
k-strophanthin-β O
H
OH
H OH
CH3 O
OH
O
CH2 O
HOH2C O O OCH3
O OH
OH
HO
HO
OH
OH
k-strophanthoside
FIGURE 1.28 Examples of chemical compounds in Adonis mongolica.
Bioactivities: Modern research supports how astragalus has been used in traditional herbal medicine.
Studies show that many of the over 200 compounds found in Astragalus have useful properties, including
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects (Wang et al., 2012).
Recently, it was shown that Astragalus appears to have anti-aging properties. For example, one com-
pound in the roots of A. membranaceus increased the length of chromosome tips. Called telomeres,
these segments of DNA help protect DNA, and telomere length is linked to lifespan (Wang et al., 2012;
Bernardes et al. 2011; Blasco, 2005).
FIGURE 1.29 Structure of astragaloside.
Bidens tripartita L. [Asteraceae]

Mongolian name: Guramsan Ajig
English name: Bur beggarticks
Bidens tripartita (Figure 1.30), belonging to the family Asteraceae, is an annual plant with stems
15–60 cm tall, glabrous, or with sparse hairs at the base. The plant grows on the banks of rivers and
waterside meadows in various provinces; Khentei, Mong-Dag., Dund. Khalkh (north), and Zyyngar
(Bulgan river) (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used for treating chest pains and fractured bones, healing wounds, soothing pain, and
treating anthrax (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Gorodnyanskoi, 1991).
Chemical constituents: The plant contains 4.5%–4.6% sugars (Isakova et al., 1986), 6.2% organic
acids, 0.05%–1.3% essential oil, 1.0% steroids; vitamins: 0.1% tocopherol, β-carotene (Morozova, et
al., 1981), 1.8%–12% tannins (Ivanić et al., 1976; Kazimina, 1961); aurons: sulfuretine, sulfurein, mari-
timetine, maritimein (Isakova et al., 1986; Serbin et al., 1972); coumarins: umbelliferone, scopoletin,
esculetin (Serbin et al., 1975a); flavonoids: luteolin, cinaroside (Ivanić et al., 1976); chalcones: butein,
isocorpemine, flavanomarein (Serbin et al., 1972, 1975a,b).
FIGURE 1.30 Bidens tripartita.

Bioactivities: Diuretic, diaphoretic, sedative, antihypertensive, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-allergic

(Sokolov et al., 1993).
Equisetum arvense L. [Equisetaceae]

Mongolian name: Khodoonii Shivel
English name: Fox Tail
Equisetum arvense (Figure 1.31), which belongs to the family Equisetaceae, is a big bushy plant
with a tap root and a stem 30–60 cm tall with white and black hairs. The plant grows in sandy ter-
races on the western and eastern slopes of mountains and forest fringes of the provinces of Khovsgol,
Khangai, Mong-Dag., Dornod Mong., Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, Ikh Nuur, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa
et al., 2005).
The plant is used in TMM for the treatment of anuria, nephrolithiasis, and cystolithiasis and is ben-
eficial for nose-bleeding, heart disease, and lung disease; it is used as a remedy for coughs and also for
tendon and bone disorders (Ligaa et al., 2005).
Chemical constituents: The plant contains saponins: equisetonin; alkaloids: equisetin, palustrine,
and nicotine; flavonoids: kaempferol, quercetin (Figure 1.32), luteolin, and gengwanin (Ligaa et al.,
2005); quercetin glycosides (Milovanović et al., 2007); steroids: β-sitosterol, campesterol, and isofucos-
terol (D’Agostino et al., 1984); essential oil: hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, cis-geranyl acetone, thymol, and
trans-phytol (Radulović et al., 2006).
Bioactivity: The plant has diuretic properties (Mashkovsi, 1994) and shows antioxidant and antimi-
crobial activities (Milovanović et al., 2007).
FIGURE 1.31 Equisetum arvense.

FIGURE 1.32 Structure of quercetin.
Gentiana macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae]

Mongolian name: Tomnavchit Degd, Ukher Degd
English name: Largeleaf Gentian
Gentiana macrophylla (Figure 1.33) belongs to the family Gentianaceae and is a plant with large rhi-
zomes and a stem base densely covered with fibrous leaf remnants. The plant is found growing in larch or
mixed forests and their fringes, waterside and forest meadows, meadow slopes, dwarf birch thickets, and
the banks of watercourses in the provinces of Khovs., Khent., Khang., Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Khovd,
and Mong. Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005).
In TMM, it is used for relief of pain, fever reduction, treatment of tumors, vaginal disease, bile dis-
order, wounds, and diseases of the blood vessels (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun
and Batchimeg, 2006).
Chemical constituents: Acids: erythrocentauric, roburic, and oleanolic acids (Chen et al., 2005),
loganic acid (Lin et al., 2004), 2-methoxyanofinic acid (Tan et al., 1996); flavonoids: homoorientin,
saponaretin (Tikhonova et al., 1989); alkaloids: gentianine (Figure 1.34), genctianal (Zhong and Jin,
1988), gentianidine (Liang et al., 1964); secoridoids: gentiopicroside, swertiamarin, sweroside, 6′-O-β-
D-glucosylgentiopicroside (Chen et al., 2005), 6′-O-β-D-glucosylsweroside, trifloroside rindoside;
and other compounds: kurarinone, kushenol I, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, daucosterol, β-sitosterol-3-
O-gentiobioside, α-amyrin, oleanolic acid, isovitexin, gentiobiose, and methyl 2-hydroxy-3-(1β-D-
glucopyranosyl)oxybenzoate (Tan et al., 1996).
FIGURE 1.33 Gentiana macrophylla.

FIGURE 1.34 Molecular structure of gentianine.
FIGURE 1.35 Oxitropis muricata.
Bioactivities: Anti-inflammatory and hemostatic properties, and stimulates secretion of gastric acids
(Sokolov et al., 1990).
Oxytropis muricata DC [Fabaceae]

Mongolian name: Zoolon orgost ortuuz
English name: Crazyweed muricata
Oxitropis muricata (Figure 1.35) is a plant of the family Fabaceae. It is a caespitose perennial
(Olziikhutag, 1983). The plant grows on sandy and stony slopes of mountains and hills, and riverbanks
in the steppe zone of Khovs., Khang., Mong-Dag., Dor. Mong, and Gobi-Altai (Gubanov, 1996).
In TMM, it is used for treating wounds, amenorrhea and for blood poisoning, as an antibacterial and
as a hemostatic (Boldsaikhan, 2004).
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Title: Brown leaves and other verses
Author: Ella Stevens Harris
Release date: September 16, 2023 [eBook #71665]
Language: English
Original publication: Montclair: Altavista, 1912
Credits: Charlene Taylor, Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROWN

LEAVES AND OTHER VERSES ***
Brown Leaves
AND
OTHER VERSES
BY ELLA STEVENS HARRIS
ALTAVISTA
16 ROCKLEDGE ROAD
MONTCLAIR
COPYRIGHT 1912 BY
ELLA STEVENS HARRIS
OSWALD PRESS, NEW YORK
ONE HUNDRED COPIES OF THIS BOOK

HAVE BEEN PRIVATELY PRINTED.
THIS COPY IS NUMBER 68

From time to time, for many years, some of these verses have appeared in
newspapers and periodicals. They are here collected at the request of
friends.
E. S. H.
TO E. P. H.
The language of the human heart,

Nor tongue nor pen may tell;
But other eyes look into ours,
And understand us well.
No gift is worthy, my Beloved,

Of what thou art to me;
But these frail children of my love,
I would bestow on thee.
The years will come, the years will go,

As poets oft have sung;
But Love is Life, and Life is Love,
And Love, is ever young!
CONTENTS
PAGE
Brown Leaves 3
To the Daisies 5
Absence 7
To Florence 9
Nature’s Influence 11
A Valentine 13
A Spring Reverie 15
To Her Dolly 19
My Prayer 21
Anniversary Ode 23
Our Heroes 25
A Call To Spring 27
Upper Air 29
Dreams 31
The Old Year and the New 33
Columbus 35
Lost Days 37
Mother’s Prayer 39
Expectation 41
The Silence of the Rosebud 43
Seed-time and Harvest 45
To a Blue-Fringed Gentian 47
A Fragment 49
My Christmas Wish 51
To a Rosebud 53
Trees 55
BROWN LEAVES
From the pipes of old Winter, has come a shrill blast,

And upon the gray earth a pure mantle is cast.
’Tis a garment of snow-flakes come down from the skies
And beneath it, in silence, the patient earth lies.
The moaning and rustling of dead leaves is past—

The comforter came, they are sheltered at last.
O, brown leaves of autumn! ’Tis a wise hand that leads,
And he sends what is best, who best knoweth our needs.
He gives and he takes, and in taking he gives:
From life cometh death, and in dying we live.
From mists of the river, the brooklet and sea
This beautiful shroud has been woven, and ye
Of its coming wist not, for from out the still air
It as silently fell as an answer to prayer.
O, could ye but creep from your coverlet white
And visit your home, a most wonderful sight
Would gladden your hearts, for the sun met the snow,
And the frost followed on with his cold breath, and lo!
Your home is a palace of crystal more bright
Than Aladdin beheld with his magical light.
Ye glow and ye fade—but as wondrous to me

Is the leaf on the ground as the leaf on the tree:
For links in time’s chain clasp eternity fast
And the chain becomes endless. Ever the past
Pays its debt to the future, leaf-life, or man’s,
So perfect the system that surely no hands
But of Infinite wisdom and love could be
The author of such an unerring decree.
Who knoweth the end? Little leaflets, not we!
Enough for ourselves, as we hang on life’s tree,
To gather the sunshine and freely bestow
O h d h df i b l
Our shade to the weary and faint ones below.
And when we grow brown, as, surely we must,
The end will be glorious can we but trust
That the Infinite love, which careth for all,
Forgets not the little brown leaves when they fall.
TO THE DAISIES
O Daisies, with your golden hearts

And petals white as snow,
Ye are, indeed, fond Summer’s eyes
O speak! for I would know
The secrets of this month of June
Of all months of the year,
And not one June of all my life
Was ever half so dear.
The secrets of this month of June

With your soft eyes declare:
What is it makes the roses bloom,
And beauty everywhere?
Is it the longing in the seed
That speaketh in the flower;
And is this longing satisfied
To breathe for one short hour,
And vanish? Nay: the hidden power,

In seed-life unto me
Seems deathless, as the human-soul,
Was, and will always be—
And what though on the silent air,
The perfume dies away
Of the June roses, and they fade—
Behold! shall any say,
However wise, that this is loss:
Alas! shall any deign
Deny, that Nature’s wondrous laws
May not restore again?
The waves roll in upon the shore,
Recede, and come again
And thirsty clouds drink in the floods,
T i h b k i i
To give them back, in rain.
O Daisies, when bright June is past,
And all your beauty fled;
If in my memory ye but live,
I dare not call ye dead,
For ye have led me to the fount
From whence all beauty springs,
Your silence filled my soul with awe,
And gave my spirit wings.
The self-same tint in morning’s glow
And in the crimson flush
Of the June roses, I behold
In timid maidens’ blush.
O Daisies, listen unto me,
My secret I impart—
Love’s sweetest flowers are all ablow;
’Tis June-time in my heart!
Go tell my secret to some bird,

The bob-o-link were best—
Tell him to ask his patient wife
To sit upon the nest;
And him unto my lover go,
And, as my minstrel sent,
Ask him to sing that song he sang
When he a-wooing went.
Thou think’st he might not find him?

It might be well to say,
My love, like light, will go before
To ’luminate the way.
ABSENCE
Thou art away and I am here.

The one that’s left is lonesome, dear.
I long to look into your face.

I long to-night for your embrace.
Like hopeless grief, the wind and rain

Beats at my darkened window pane.
There’ll come a time, my love, I know,

When one of us must surely go.
Beyond the call of voice or tear—

Which shall it be? I question, dear.
O, coward heart, find hope and rest—

Whatever comes to thee is best!
TO FLORENCE
(On Her Tenth Birthday.)
I am very sad and lonely, dear,

Do you care for what I say?
I once had a beautiful baby—
But now she has gone away.
To-day I went up to the garret,

And there in a chest I found
Little shirts, little shoes and stockings
And a dainty little gown.
Scarcely large enough for your dolly

Are the things she used to wear,—
Do you know where has gone my baby,
My baby—with soft, brown hair?
She was such a beautiful baby—

I had thought to keep her so,
But she slipped away with each passing day
And I did not see her go.
* * * * * * *
Then I had a child, as lovely
As my babe had seemed to me;
But she is gone and I gaze through tears
But her face I may not see.
I remember her childish prattle,

The wonderful things she’d say,
Her winsome smile and her merry laugh—
Now, why did she go away?
Her hair was soft as the thistle’s down,

But the sunshine lingered there
And wreathed such glory about her brow
As I never have seen elsewhere.
In the garret we put her high-chair,

And saved her rattle and ball,
But she never came back to claim them
And all in vain was my call.
* * * * * * *
“I will not go and leave you
As the others went away.”
Yes, I hear what you are saying, dear,
That you will be sure to stay.
* * * * * * *
It must be that I was dreaming
Of days that have passed away—
What is it, my own little daughter,
You are ten years old, to-day?
Yes, nestle up closer, my darling,

You have banished all my care,—
For you are my beautiful baby
And my child with the sunlit hair.
As I look in your soft, brown eyes, dear,

My baby’s face I see,
And I know not what to call you, now
Save my blessed trinity.
NATURE’S INFLUENCE
O, is there aught in this wide world more strange,

Or aught more wonderful in spheres unknown,
Than nature’s influence on human life?
We go into the open field or wood,
And she is there, and we are thrilled, and feel
An ecstacy which words cannot define—
A touch too delicate for human speech.
The robin’s song comes floating on the air,

And all his soul is in it—it is more
To me than grandest opera, for by it
Is ushered in the sweet arbutus bloom
And tulips gay and yellow daffodils.
I stray amid a field of daisy bloom—
That all-pervading Presence seems most nigh,
The atmosphere they breathe is full of cheer.
Who that has wandered with them, has not felt
His burdens lightened and his sorrows healed?
I know not why, but common flowers declare
Truth unto me when hot-house-cultured fail,
And yet, however reared, no bud could ope
But felt the Awakener’s touch of magic.
This do they teach. The same warm rays of sun

Fall on the nettle-plant, as fall upon
The sweet briar-rose, and the rain-laden cloud
Passes not by the meanest weed that grows.
And do not wayside flowers invite alike
The rich and humble? To possess is more
Than ownership. Who takes from harvest-field
Food for the inner life may richer be
Than he who fills his granary to the brim.
Jesus, who spake strong words for human needs
B k h lh f l dk
But spake what every soul has felt and known—
That life and body are of greater worth,
Than food and raiment.
Red’ning in the Spring

Each maple tree reveals that wondrous care
Which never slumbers. Throbbed our human hearts
In harmony with Nature’s, should we feel
It less, when dead leaves rustle ’neath our feet,
And winds of Autumn sing funereal dirge?
Why do men question of a future life?

The tiniest grass blades, springing from the sod,
Are bridges, whereupon with trusting feet
I can in safety cross the stream of doubt—
Wing of bird and cloud which floats above me,
Pebble and sea shell which the tide brings in,
Op’ning bud and tinted leaf of autumn,
Ye all are messengers unto my soul.
For ye are typical, and the revealers
Of the All-Beautiful, whom I adore!
A VALENTINE
(To E. P. H.)
A Valentine—Now if I might
But somehow tempt her to alight—
I mean my Muse—I’d try to say
Some word to cheer thy heart, to-day.
I know the meaning they attach
To Valentines: but then I’ll scratch
That off, and write, as to a friend—
’Tis fair, if so we comprehend.
How strange, that certain days and hours,
That certain trees and certain flowers,
Alone possess, as ’twere, a key
To certain rooms in memory.
When but a child, they used to say

That birds, like lovers, went away
In search of mates: and even now
I dimly can remember how
Their words I doubted, till one day
Our purple pigeon flew away,
Returned at night, and by his side
Fluttered his little snow-white bride.
And ne’er this day comes ’round to me
But flutters in my memory
The purple and the snow-white dove
Cooing their tender notes of love.
Some word to cheer thee, did I say?

Words—what are words? As helpless they
As blinded eyes to lead the feet
O’er tangled pathways, did they meet
Not some felt need or if they be

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Full Chapter

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Raymond Cooperk Jeffrey John Deakin Full Chapter

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Raymond Cooperk & Jeffrey John

RECENT TITLES IN THIS SERIES

and by CRC Press

© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-18451-3 (hbk)

Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... vii

Section II Eastern Asia

Section III Central and Southern Asia

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

Section IV Western Asia and the Middle East

Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan

Iraq and Syria

Section V Maritime Routes

Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 283

Raymond Cooper PhD

Aims and Purpose

Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin

Ketevan Batsatsashvili Jeffrey John Deakin

Chunlin L. Long Ajay Sharma

The History and Geography of the Silk Road

FIGURE 1 Extent of the Mongol Empire at its zenith.

Toxic Plants Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids ................................................................................ 35

• Edible plants documented in The Secret History of Mongols

Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols

Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae]

FIGURE 1.1 Allium microdictyon.

FIGURE 1.2 Allium senescens.

Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]

Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae]

FIGURE 1.3 Lilium pumilum Delile.

Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus

Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae]

FIGURE 1.4 Padus asiatica.

FIGURE 1.5 Potentilla anserina L.

Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae)

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae]

FIGURE 1.6 Sanguisorba officinalis.

FIGURE 1.7 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

FIGURE 1.8 Structure of arbutin.

Plants Important for Liver Disorders

Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae]

FIGURE 1.9 Achillea asiatica.

FIGURE 1.10 Structure of apigenin-7-O-glucoside.

11βH-guaien-2,6α-olide, 8α-angeloxy-4α, 10β-dihydroxy-2-oxo-6βH, 7αH, 11βH-1(5)-guaien-12,6α-

Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae]

FIGURE 1.11 Dianthus versicolor.

FIGURE 1.12 Structure of isovitexin-7-O-glucoside.

Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae]

FIGURE 1.13 Dianthus superbus.

Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]

FIGURE 1.14 Iris potaninii.

FIGURE 1.15 Structure of 6,7-Methylenedioxy-3΄,4΄,5΄,5-tetra-methoxyisoflavone.

Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae]

FIGURE 1.16 Leontopodium leontopodioides Willd. Beauverd.

Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae]

FIGURE 1.17 Oxytropis myriophylla DC.

FIGURE 1.18 Chemical structures of N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine and quercetin.

N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine, N-cis-cinnamoyl-β-phenylethylamine (Kojima et al.,