Page |1

Table of Content
1. Milling Process ............................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1. Process Cycle....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Cutting Parameters .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3. Operations............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4. Equipment............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5. Tooling ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.6. Material Selection................................................................................................................................ 5
2. Introduction to CNC milling ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.1. CNC Milling ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2.2. Process Involved in making a product using CNC milling ................................................................. 6
2.3. Application of CNC machines ............................................................................................................. 6
3. Spanner ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
3.1. Types of Spanners ............................................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Material ............................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Uses of spanner.................................................................................................................................... 7
4. Workpiece Material Selection ..................................................................................................................... 7
5. Possible Defects........................................................................................................................................... 9
6. CNC Program for Spanner .......................................................................................................................... 9
7. Process Specification (both manual and CNC milling) ........................................................................... 9
8. Results ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
9. References ................................................................................................................................................. 10

Table of Figure
Figure 1: Parameters ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Manual Milling Machine ....................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: CNC Milling Machine ............................................................................................................................ 5
Figure 4: CNC Milling Machine ............................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 5: 3D and CAD Model ............................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 6: Manual Milling on Workpiece .............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 7: CNC Milling on Workpiece .................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 8: Final Workpiece .................................................................................................................................... 9
 Page |2

1. Milling Process
Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety
of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling
machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached
to a platform inside the milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured
in the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the workpiece into the rotating cutter,
material is cut away from this workpiece in the form of small chips to create the desired shape.
Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many features, such
as holes, slots, pockets, and even three-dimensional surface contours. Parts that are fabricated
completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for
prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets.
1.1. Process Cycle
The time required to produce a given quantity of parts includes the initial setup time and the cycle
time for each part. The setup time is composed of the time to setup the milling machine, plan the tool
movements (whether performed manually or by machine), and install the fixture device into the
milling machine. The cycle time can be divided into the following four times:
Load/Unload time - The time required to load the workpiece into the milling machine and secure it
to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load time can depend on the size,
weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of fixture.
Cut time - The time required for the cutter to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each
operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total cut length for that
operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the cutter relative to the workpiece.
Idle time - Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks that occur
during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore remove material. This idle
time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece, tool movements between
features, adjusting machine settings, and changing tools.
Tool replacement time - The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime and
therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in every cycle, but
rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining the cycle time, the tool
replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by multiplying by the frequency of a
tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the tool lifetime.
Following the milling process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However, secondary
processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required. The scrap material, in
the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled away from the workpiece by the
motion of the cutter and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore, no process cycle step is required to
remove the scrap material, which can be collected and discarded after the production.
1.2. Cutting Parameters
In milling, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These
parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size,
and more.
➢ Cutting feed
➢ Cutting speed
➢ Spindle speed
 Page |3

➢ Feed rate
➢ Axial depth of cut
➢ Radial depth of cut
➢ Rotational speed

Figure 1: Parameters

1.3. Operations
During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield the
desired part shape. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path
of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.
➢ End milling
➢ Chamfer milling
➢ Face milling
➢ Drilling
➢ Boring
➢ Counterboring
➢ Countersinking
➢ Reaming
➢ Tapping
1.4. Equipment
Milling machines can be found in a variety of sizes and designs, yet they still possess the same
main components that enable the workpiece to be moved in three directions relative to the tool.
These components include the following:
 Page |4

Figure 2: Manual Milling Machine

A manual milling machine requires the operator to control the motion of the cutter during the milling
operation. The operator adjusts the position of the cutter by using hand cranks that move the table,
saddle, and knee.
1.5. Tooling
The tooling that is required for milling is a sharp cutter that will be rotated by the spindle. The cutter
is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces between the teeth are called
flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the workpiece. The teeth may be straight along
the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on
the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of
teeth will provide a better surface finish. The cutters that can be used for milling operations are highly
diverse, thus allowing for the formation of a variety of features. While these cutters differ greatly in
diameter, length, and by the shape of the cut they will form, they also differ based upon their
orientation, whether they will be used horizontally or vertically.
 Page |5

1.6. Material Selection

In milling, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut. This
stock is available in a variety of shapes.
When selecting a material, several factors must be considered, including the cost, strength, resistance
to wear, and machinability. The machinability of a material is difficult to quantify, but can be said to
possess the following characteristics:
➢ Results in a good surface finish
➢ Promotes long tool life
➢ Requires low force and power to mill
➢ Provides easy collection of chips
Milling can be performed on workpieces in variety of materials, including most metals and plastics.
Common materials that are used in milling include the following:
➢ Aluminum
➢ Brass
➢ Magnesium
➢ Nickel
➢ Steel
➢ Thermoset plastics
➢ Titanium
➢ Zinc

2. Introduction to CNC milling

2.1. CNC Milling
CNC Milling or computer numerical control milling, is a machining process which employs
computerized controls and rotating multi-point cutting tools to progressively remove material from the
workpiece and produce a custom-designed part or product.
The CNC milling process can be used to produce not only shaping, but also slots, notches and pockets.
The cutting tools edge makes continuous quick cuts to sculpt the raw material’s surface, which are
continuously removed as the process continues.

Figure 3: CNC Milling Machine

 Page |6

2.2. Process Involved in making a product using CNC milling

➢ The first stage of CNC milling process starts by feeding the manufacturing instructions into a
CAD system in either a 2D or 3D format.
➢ Once this has been completed, the designs are converted into a machine-readable format which
is exported to the CNC machine.
➢ The machine will then relay the instructions to the different tools to recreate the design on the
chosen material.
➢ Before the process can begin, the machine would have to be fitted with the correct tools to do
the job and the raw material needs to be fixed in place with the vice versa.
➢ Once these preparations are completed the operator will launch the program using machine
interface.

Figure 4: CNC Milling Machine

When CNC milling process begins, the tool spin at thousands of RPM’s, enabling them to cut through
materials with ease. The table will then rotate on several axis to shape the raw material according to
given specifications.
Given the multitude of tools used in CNC milling process, it is compatible with wide range of materials
such as steel, bronze, copper, aluminum and titanium.
2.3. Application of CNC machines
These machines can be used for variety of projects such as the one associated with car parts and
aerospace. Cabinets, signs, instruments, sculpture and prototyping and modelling can also be done
using these CNC milling machines.

3. Spanner
A tool with a shaped opening or jaws for gripping and turning a nut or bolt.
3.1. Types of Spanners
Open ended spanners have U-shaped jaws with an opening the width of the nut or bolt head. They
have two flat sides which grips opposite side of a fastener in order to loosen or tighten it.
 Page |7

Basic tap spanners are designed for use during plumbing on hard to reach back nuts or compression
fitting in deep recesses such as those under sinks.
Compression Fitting Spanner: Specifically designed for plumbing work to join two pipes together, they
have the correct profiles to tighten compression nuts.
Ring spanners are simple spanners with a profile that is enclosed in a ring. The heads are usually
offset from the handle so it is easier to reach the fastener.
Immersion heating spanners are very specialized tools designed to fit or remove immersion heating
elements in an immersion heater. They have an octagonal profile with an 86mm diameter
Combination spanners are a simple spanner made up of a shaft and two spanner heads: one open-
ended head and one ring head.
Flare nut spanners are designed for turning fasteners that attach pipes to another component, for
example, vehicle brake pipes.
Podgers are spanners with a profiled head at one end and a spike on the other. The spike or ‘drift
pin’ is pushed through the bolt holes of two workpieces to line them up so the bolt can fit them
through easily.
Pin spanners are designed for fitting and removing lock nuts. The nuts have two holes on opposite
edges of the nut
Ratchet spanners use a ratchet system allowing the fastener to be turned in one direction but not the
other.
Flex-head spanners have heads that are suspended in a frame so that they can swivel back and forth
allowing the tool to be used at different angles
3.2. Material
Spanners are usually made from tool steel. An alloy of iron, carbon, manganese, chromium,
vanadium and is hardened using water quenching but different materials are used for different
applications.
3.3. Uses of spanner
➢ The spanner is a hand-held tool used to provide grip and tighten or loosen fasteners.
➢ It gives a mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects.
➢ The tool is used in turning rotary fasteners like nuts and bolts.
➢ From home repair jobs to assembling furniture or any king of DIY project the spanner can
assist in variety of applications.

4. Workpiece Material Selection

Select a material that minimizes overall cost. An inexpensive workpiece may result in longer cut
times and more tool wear, increasing the total cost
Minimize the amount of milling that is required by pre-cutting the workpiece close to the desired size
and shape
Select the size of the workpiece such that a large enough surface exists for the workpiece to be securely
clamped. Also, the clamped surface should allow clearance between the tool and the fixture for any
cuts. The material which was selected for our spanner is silver.
 Page |8

Figure 5: 3D and CAD Model

Figure 6: Manual Milling on Workpiece

Figure 7: CNC Milling on Workpiece

 Page |9

Figure 8: Final Workpiece

5. Possible Defects
Most defects in milling are inaccuracies in a feature's dimensions or surface roughness. There are
several possible causes for these defects, including the following:
➢ Incorrect cutting parameters - If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle speed,
or axial depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than desired and
may contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may result in vibration
of the cutter and cause inaccuracies in the cut.
➢ Dull cutter - As a cutter is used, the teeth will wear down and become dull. A dull cutter is
less capable of making precision cuts.
➢ Unsecured workpiece - If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction of
milling may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts.

6. CNC Program for Spanner

7. Process Specification (both manual and CNC milling)
Workpiece Material: Silver
Cutting Speed: 4000rpm
Depth of cut = 1.5mm
Tool Used: Carbide
Feed = 2.8mm/min
 P a g e | 10

No. Dimensional Required Dimensions Dimensions %Error % Error

of quantity dimensions achieved by achieved by Manual CNC
obs. for spanner manual Milling CNC Milling Milling Milling
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1. Thickness 5.70 5.705 5.70 0.087 0

2. AB 12.30 12.35 12.32 0.406 0.16

3. BC 12.15 12.16 12.15 0.08 0

4. x 89 89.46 89.1 0.52 0.1

5. y 120 120.12 120 0.1 0

6. z 11.42 11.45 11.42 0.26 0

8. Results

9. References
(2019, August 05). Retrieved from Custompartnet: https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/milling

(2021, August 06). Retrieved from Engineeringarticles: https://www.engineeringarticles.org/milling-

machine-definition-process-types/

(2021, August 07). Retrieved from Technologicalprocess: https://technologicalprocess.com/milling-

machining-parameters/

(2021, August 07). Retrieved from Fractory: https://fractory.com/milling-cutters-and-tools/

(2021, August 08). Retrieved from Eglvaughan: https://eglvaughan.co.uk/cnc-milling-process-explained/

(2021, August 08). Retrieved from Wonkeedonkeetools:

https://www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk/spanners/what-are-the-different-types-of-spanner

(2021, August 09). Retrieved from Tataagrico: http://www.tataagrico.com/blog-post/10-things-you-need-to-

know-about-combination-spanners/
P a g e | 11