Ideas p-8 Book

ESS340
Primary
Science
Education
WORKBOOK
FACULTY OF ARTS AND EDUCATION

These study materials have been produced for units offered by the Faculty of Arts and Education.
Authorship and publication history

Attribution of authorship is provided with each part of this work.
Published by Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia
www.deakin.edu.au
First published 2005 as ESS340 Ideas for Teaching Science Years P–8
Reformatted 2010
© Deakin University 2005
Acknowledgements
These materials were prepared by Peter Hubber and Russell Tytler, based on work contained in Ideas for Teaching
Primary Science, © Deakin University 2000, written by Leisa Kelly, Russell Tytler and Beverly Jane, and The Science
of Toys and Tricks: Activity Book, © Deakin University 2000, written by Russell Tytler.
We wish to thank the Gould League <www.gould.edu.au> for permission to include its works in these study
materials.
Unless otherwise indicated, the following notice will apply:

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Contents
Introduction
Topic 1 Working scientifically
Topic 2 Air and flight
Topic 3 Floating and sinking
Topic 4 Light, vision and colour
Topic 5 Sound and music
Topic 6 Magnetism
Topic 7 Electricity
Topic 8 Force and motion
Topic 9 Earth in space
Topic 10 Rocks and soil
Topic 11 Physical changes to matter
Topic 12 Chemical change
Topic 13 Bodies and skeletons
Topic 14 Plants as living things
Topic 15 Animals
INTRODUCTION
Ideas for teaching science: Years P–8

P R E PA R E D B Y P E T E R H U B B E R & R U S S E L L T Y T L E R F O R T H E U N I T T E A M
Contents
Introduction 1
Sequencing 1
Science concepts 1
Rationale 1
Topics 2
© Deakin University
Primar y Science Education
Introduction
The Ideas for Teaching Science: Years P–8 materials (print, CD–ROM and website)
describe activities that focus on major science ideas appropriate for the primary
and early secondary school years. They have been developed over many years’
experience with Deakin University science methods units, and have been used
by students to plan activity sequences that explore and engage students’
conceptions in a range of topic areas.
Sequencing
The activities are organised around conceptual themes and are broadly ordered
from early years to middle years conceptions. The intention is that you can use
these activities to explore students’ prior ideas and challenge students to reflect
on and engage with scientific ways of explaining phenomena. The sequencing is
intended to encourage the idea, made explicit in conceptual change teaching
approaches, that a learning sequence should consist of graded activities that are
clustered around a coherent set of science ideas. Only in this way will students
be supported to engage with science concepts and extend their use of them in
different contexts.
The activities are not intended to be part of a predefined order. Nor is any
activity intended to be useful only for a particular year level. The same activity
might serve as an end point in an early years sequence, or an introductory
exploratory activity in a middle years sequence. The same activity will of course
look very different run in a Prep classroom than it will in a Year 7 classroom.
Many of the open–ended activities might well be appropriate for any year level
in the range.
Science concepts
In addition to providing sequenced activities as the basis for constructing units
of work based around science concepts, the topics attempt to make explicit the
science ideas underpinning the activities as well as the challenges students face
in approaching these. Thus, the explanations and commentaries deal with
science content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (being
knowledge of issues in students’ learning of particular concepts, and ways of
supporting this learning). The topics are thus designed as a support document
for primary teachers who do not have a strong science background.
Rationale
The presumption underpinning these activities is that both primary and early
secondary years science should focus on conceptual learning as a priority.
Therefore the relationship of activities to conceptions is critical in planning
sequences. This is not to say at all that science conceptual knowledge is the only
outcome that is appropriate. Higher order thinking, understandings about the
nature of science, and the development of skills and attitudes are all important
in planning sequences. Thus, in any science–based topic, these activities will
inevitably be supplemented and extended to include open–ended project work,
explorations arising out of student interest and questions, activities aimed at
refining students’ scientific literacies such as report writing and diagrammatic,
1
INTRODUC TION
graphical, multimedia and other representational forms. Support for asking

questions, observation, and so on, is also an integral part of supporting students
to develop capabilities in and responses to science. Particularly in integrated
units, the activities will sit within a wider context and will be extended into other
areas.
Topics
The topics covered in these materials are:
• Working scientifically
• Air and flight
• Floating and sinking
• Light, vision and colour
• Sound and music
• Magnetism
• Electricity
• Force and motion
• Earth in space
• Rocks and soil
• Physical changes to matter
• Chemical change
• Bodies and skeletons
• Plants as living things
• Animals
2
TOPIC 1
Working scientifically
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of working scientifically 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of working scientifically 2
Consumer science 2
Skills and understandings of consumer science 3
Things to consider when completing activities 3
Development of students’ testing capabilities 3

Prep/Year 1 3
Year 2 4
Year 3 4
Year 4 4
Years 5 and above 4
Activities 4
Exploring consumer science 4
Oobleck: exploring how scientists work 9
Introduction
‘Working scientifically’ involves the processes of science, including
understanding the sorts of questions that are the province of science; the design
of experiments; reasoning and arguing with scientific evidence; and analysing
and interpreting data.
Detailed discussion of working scientifically in primary schools can be found in

Keith Skamp’s Teaching primary science constructively (Thomson Learning 2004).
An example of the forms of knowledge associated with working scientifically can
be found in the Victorian Curriculum and Standards Framework (CSF) for science,
which can be found on the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority
website <http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/index.html>.
Key concepts of working scientifically

The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following key concepts:
• ‘Working scientifically’ involves particular forms of reasoning with evidence

that is different in detail from reasoning in other areas.
• There is no one ‘scientific method’, but many ways in which scientists plan to
establish ideas and generate evidence to explore and support these ideas.
• An oft–cited example of scientific method is the controlled experiment,
where the relationship between an effect and a variable is explored, with
other potentially confounding variables controlled (i.e. kept the same). An
example would be the exploration of the effect of the length of a pendulum
on its period of swing, keeping the weight and swing size the same but
varying the length and timing of the swing. However, for many branches of
science, this type of control is not possible. For instance, in studying
ecological systems, in many cases theories must be established by looking
at existing ecosystems with many variables. In geology and astronomy the
idea of controlling and repeating observations is very different. What is
common to all these areas, however, is the collection of evidence to support
or argue against claims, and reasoning with evidence that attempts to
isolate clear causes for phenomena.
• Working scientifically involves a number of ‘concepts of evidence’, including
the purpose and techniques of focused observation, the recognition of a
scientific question that can be investigated, the need for repeat
measurements and skills in devising measurement processes, ways of
recording data (these can vary considerably) and representing data for
analysis, different experimental designs and associated principles (e.g.
understanding ‘sample size’ in making observations in the field), and
reporting.
1
TO P I C 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of working scientifically

Research into students’ ideas about this topic has identified the following non–
scientific conceptions:
• Students will not immediately see the task of an investigation as exploring

ideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an investigation simply as
‘establishing what is’ without thought for considering alternative
interpretations.
• Students have problems recognising what is an investigable question and
will propose questions such as ‘What is electricity?’ as the basis for
investigation. Their questions need to be worked with and clarified to
become amenable to scientific investigation.
• Students will not understand many of the concepts relating to
measurement—for instance, the reading of a scale, the recording of
comparison measurements using consistent processes, the calibration of
instruments, the need for repeat measurements and the concept of
uncertainty in measurement. They need to be supported in making
defensible measurements.
• Students can understand the need to control variables in simple situations
(to make the test ‘fair’), such as the need to use the same amount of each
type of sugar when comparing the solubility of sugars. However, they have
difficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g. finding out the separate
effects of weight and length on a pendulum swing, or the separate effect of
light and moisture in determining where slaters prefer to live).
• Students will not understand the power of laying out data in tables and
graphs, and the use of a table as a design organiser to help plan a series of
measurements.
• Depending on their knowledge and experience, students may have trouble
arguing clearly from evidence.
It has been amply demonstrated that, with appropriate support, even very
young children are capable of distinguishing between observations and
inferences, of asking investigable questions, planning experiments and arguing
from evidence.
Consumer science
‘Consumer science’ refers to activities in the classroom whereby students use
scientific processes to make judgments about consumer products. Although
consumer science does not fall easily into any major curriculum topic categories,
it is an important and fun vehicle for teaching students about some of the
science processes such as fair testing, measuring and recording. It provides a
vehicle for learning about the nature of scientific investigation.
2
It should be noted, however, that these investigations, because they mostly

involve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do not illustrate the more difficult
nature of working scientifically that deals with the exploration of conceptual
ideas.
Skills and understandings of consumer science

The activities in this topic are designed to develop the following skills and
understandings of this topic:
• how to formulate useful, investigable questions

• the importance of measuring accurately
• why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are fair and repeatable
• the purpose of planning and designing investigations
• how to design valid experiments with appropriate variable control
• how to design measurement procedures
• how to represent data for analysis and reporting.
Things to consider when completing activities

The activities in this topic give examples of some types of products suitable for
early and middle years consumer science testing. In judging different products,
the things that need to be considered (summarising the discussion above) are:
• what criteria are relevant for the evaluation

• what weighting should be given to the various criteria
• whether the test is fair
• whether the results are reproducible
• whether the method of comparison (scale, addition of scores, etc.) is
appropriate.
Development of students’ testing capabilities

The following descriptions of students’ capabilities at different year levels, and
the type of activity appropriate for each, are based on reports of Deakin
University students teaching consumer science activities to groups of students
in schools.
Prep/Year 1
It is most appropriate to structure tests and scaffold children’s experimenting.
Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the teacher, using simple tests
and comparisons, rather than measurements. Ensure there is a low demand for
manipulation skills.
3
TO P I C 1
Examples of appropriate tests include comparing the sweetness of cereals, the

amount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of bubble in detergents.
Year 2
Students can define criteria, but have little understanding of a fair test, e.g. so
they may cheat to make sure their chosen sample ‘wins’.
Year 3
Students are beginning to appreciate the notion of a fair test. They can define
criteria and conduct given tests with fairness and appreciate how differences in
results can arise.
Year 4
Depending on the content area, students should now be able to design
experiments and plan measurements with minimal input from the teacher.
Years 5 and above

The comparison of products by discussion of weighting of criteria is increasingly
possible. Students are able to set out tables and deal with different orders on
different criteria. They can hold a reasoned discussion on the factors affecting
the performance of different products, and ways of exploring these further.
Activities
Exploring consumer science

Key ideas: Articulating and refining questions. Designing experiments and
controlling variables. Developing measurement procedures. Constructing and
interpreting data representations.
AC T I V I T Y: P OTAT O
CHIPS
Teaching note: This activity can be used for all levels but will need to be
adapted accordingly. Have the students work in groups. Each group should have
a scoresheet and a recorder, a reporter, a timekeeper and someone to hand out
each item. Make sure all the students take it in turns to taste the items. You
might want to collect the information and collate it on the board. Some
discussion of the problems with testing, especially the problems associated in
keeping things ‘fair’, should be encouraged.
You will need:
• a variety of brands of potato chips

• brown paper squares
• brown paper bags
• rolling pins
4
• breadboards
• jars of water.
(a) Test for salt content

Taste directly—have ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give
their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold the student
so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or least
favourite, accordingly).
Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)—crush a chip of each brand
(making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of each chip
into separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of salt to another
40 mL of water. Have a clean glass of water on hand. Alternatively taste the salted
water and each chip water, taking a sip of fresh water in between tastes. Which is
saltier?
(b) Test for oil content by rubbing between sheets of brown paper
Place a chip between two sheets of brown paper on the breadboard, and then crush it
by rolling over it with the rolling pin. How much oil appears on the brown paper?
Measure the spot using a ruler.
Alternatively, place a chip on top of a pile of brown paper pieces. Roll over it using the
rolling pin. How many thicknesses of paper did the oil penetrate? Hold the oil patch
over some print or up to the light. How translucent is the patch?
Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips.
(c) Taste test

Place a sample of each brand of chip into a paper bag. Have one student act as the
taste–tester (only one student at a time should test the chips!). Get the student to
taste each brand of chip from the unmarked bags. It might be a good idea to get
them to have a sip of clean water between each taste. What could they test for
(e.g. crunch, flavour, texture)?
(d) Testing the packaging

Examine the packaging that the chips come in. How is the manufacturer trying to sell
the chips? What colours are used in the packaging? What is the salt or fat content
according to the nutrition label? Is there a trinket included in the pack? Is this
important to the group? How easy are the bags to open? Rate what the students
think of each and keep score. Which brand of chips is considered to be best according
to its packaging? Why?
Rank the criteria in order of importance. Which chips would you recommend?
AC T I V I T Y: C E R E A L
Teaching note: This activity is similar to the chip experiment above and so the
same guidance should be offered. The experiments outlined above for potato
chips can be carried out for cereals, although you should test for sugar content
instead of salt!
You will need:
• a variety of cereal packages.

Look at the packet nutrition guide. Compare cereals for sugar, fat, carbohydrate
content.
5
TO P I C 1
AC T I V I T Y:
TESTING BALLS
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for all levels depending on the
comparisons made.
You will need:
• a range of types of balls, e.g. tennis, squash, ping–pong, golf, rubber, plastic
• a range of different surfaces, e.g. carpet, concrete, grass
• a metre rule.
(a) The bounciest ball

Ask the students to form a group and make up a table to record their results. Each
group should have at least a recorder, a reporter and an experimenter. Choose a
surface and drop each ball from a height of one metre. Which ball bounces the
highest? Which ball bounces the most? Record the results.
(b) Do surfaces make a difference?

Try all the same experiments on different surfaces. Does the type of surface make a
difference to the results? Why?
(c) A case of different criteria for different purposes

Discuss which ball would be best for what purpose. Some ideas for comparing the
balls are investigating: which ball rolls straightest along a surface, for use in bowling;
which ball is most suitable for a throwing–and–catching game.
AC T I V I T Y:
ERASERS
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for middle years students. The challenge
is to compare different brands and types of eraser.
The sorts of criteria that might be appropriate for comparing erasers include
efficiency, cleanness of finish, how long–lasting, effect on paper, ease of
handling and cost. For each of these a measurement method and a set of criteria
for coming up with a score would need to be devised. We have found a score out
of five is adequate—it is hard to judge on a ten–point scale. An alternative is to
rank the erasers for each criterion. A table can be set up to enter the scores,
which can then be averaged, or even given a weighted average.
You will need:
• a grey lead pencil

• five or six different types of erasers
• paper.
For testing the effectiveness of the eraser, the idea is to rule five or six pencil lines
depending upon how many erasers you are testing (remember: the lines must all be
the same length).
6
As an example, when you rule a pencil line to rub out to test which eraser is most
efficient, you will need to control:
• the type of paper

• the length, width and density of the line
• the strength of rubbing.
Will you compare after a given number of strokes, or count the strokes needed to
erase completely? What other criteria apart from erasing efficiency might be
appropriate? How could you arrange for the whole class to come up with displays of
comparable results?
AC T I V I T Y: S T I C KY
TA P E
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for students in the middle years. Students
should work in small groups or pairs. Ask students to design a series of tests to
determine the strength of the various tapes.
You will need:
• a variety of brands and types of tape

• a mirror or smooth surface.
Which is the strongest? (How much weight is needed to peel a piece of tape off a
mirror? Arrange a suitable set of tests.)
Which re–sticks the best? (How many unpeelings before no stickiness is apparent?)
Which sticks best to different types of surfaces (rough, wet, cloth)?
Are there other relevant criteria?
AC T I V I T Y: PA P E R
TO W E L S
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for students in the middle years.
You will need:
• a variety of paper towels

• a beaker of water
• an eyedropper
• a ruler
• weights (e.g. brass 50 g weights, or metal bolts of the same size)
• a measuring cylinder.
(a) Which absorbs the most water?

Using the eye–dropper, put a drop of water into the middle of the paper and see how
far it spreads. Dip the towel in water in a beaker and see how much is absorbed.
Devise a standard spill and see which towel cleans it with the fewest sheets.
7
TO P I C 1
(b) Which is the strongest?

Support the towel at the edges and measure how many weights it can hold before
breaking. Is dry or wet strength the most relevant?
AC T I V I T Y: G LU E S
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for students in Year 3 and above.
You will need:
• a variety of paper glues

• paper strips
• icy–pole sticks
• weights (e.g. brass 50 g weights, or metal bolts of the same size)
• a clock.
What do you expect from a good paper glue? Compare the glues to check which is
best.
General–purpose glue: glue two icy–pole sticks together and check the weight
needed to break the bond.
Paper glue: glue paper strips together and time how long it takes to dry. Alternatively,
rate the stickiness of the glue. Does it mark the paper?
AC T I V I T Y:
DETERGENT
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for students in upper primary years.
You will need:
• a variety of detergents
• microscope slides
• Vegemite
• butter or oil
• a 5c piece
• beakers.
Make up solutions of the different detergents and water, of comparable strength.
(a) Compare the foaming actions.

(b) Put a drop of oil on a microscope slide. Devise a method for comparing how
easily the detergents remove it. Repeat the same experiment using Vegemite on
a microscope slide.
Compare how many drops can fit on a 5c piece (the better the detergent, the fewer
drops).
8
AC T I V I T Y: M U G S
AND CUPS
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for all levels but the more complex tests
are suitable for students in upper primary years. Be careful using hot water.
You will need:
• a variety of mugs or cups

• hot or iced water
• thermometers.
Compare a range of mugs or cups according to different features. This might include
stability, feel, ease of handling and aesthetics.
Design a series of experiments to investigate their effectiveness in keeping tea or

coffee hot, or keeping cold drinks cold.
AC T I V I T Y: WAT E R
R E S I S TA N C E O F
C LOT H
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for students in Years 3 and 4.
You will need:
• a variety of types of fabric

• an eye–dropper
• a ruler.
Using five different types of fabric of approximately equal thickness, design, carry out
and report on an investigation of the materials provided. Which fabrics are best for
keeping dry?
There can be some confusion between the ideas of water absorption and water
resistance. One way of measuring resistance is to spread the cloth over a glass and
drop water on it, timing how long it takes for the water to run through. Some cloth
will absorb the water rather than allow it to pass through. How would you judge this?
Oobleck: exploring how scientists work

This activity, using an intriguing substance (Oobleck, made of cornflour and
water) that has properties unlike either normal liquids or solids, explores the way
scientists share ideas.
9
TO P I C 1
AC T I V I T Y:
SETTING UP
You will need:
• a plastic bowl
• a spoon
• a measuring cup
• ingredient ‘X’ (cornflour: i.e. maize flour, not wheat flour)
• water
• green food colouring.
Pour about a cup of ingredient ‘X’ into the bowl. Add about half a cup of tap water
along with a few drops of green food colouring. Stir in the ingredients until a smooth
paste is formed.
When the paste is just the right consistency, it is very difficult to stir quickly but still
quite easy to stir slowly. More ‘X’ or water may be added to achieve this consistency.
AC T I V I T Y: S O L I D
OR LIQUID?
Imagine a space probe has just returned from a planet in another star system. The
planet is covered with large, green oceans, and a sample of the ocean material was
collected by the space probe. Imagine you are a group of space scientists gathering to
investigate the properties of the ocean sample from outer space. Can the next space
probe safely land on this ocean?
Oobleck is a strange substance. It is your job, as a group of scientists, to construct a

list of properties of Oobleck. When you list the properties, make sure the language
you use is clear, so anyone can understand what you mean. (Don’t say ‘It’s scummy’,
say ‘It feels wet to touch, but small drops dry when ... ‘.)
Under what circumstances does Oobleck act like a solid, or a liquid? Which
observations help you to work this out? Can you provide evidence for your assertion?
Why do you think Oobleck behaves like this? Come up with a hypothesis.
AC T I V I T Y:
SCIENTIFIC
CO N V E N T I O N S
Professional scientists in most fields come from all over the world to attend meetings
called ‘scientific conventions’. During a convention, scientists listen to each other’s
experimental results and critically discuss them. The goal is not to prove each other
right or wrong, but to find the truth and to state it as clearly and completely as
possible.
The class is about to hold a scientific convention on Oobleck. The properties listed on
the board are the scientific results to be discussed, according to the following rules:
• Only one property of Oobleck will be discussed at a time. First, one lab team
explains or demonstrates the experiments that led to the property they focused
on.
10
• Students who wish to agree or disagree with the property being discussed are
invited to raise their hands to explain why.
• The class will find ways to change the wording of a property so everyone can
agree on it.
• After fully discussing a property, the class will vote on whether or not it is really a
property of Oobleck. If three–quarters of the class votes for a property, that
property is called a ‘law of Oobleck’. For example, ‘Water changes from liquid to
solid below 0° C could be called a ‘law of water’ as most scientists would agree
with this.
Aim to come up with at least two laws of Oobleck on the board.
11
TOPIC 2
Air and flight

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of air and flight 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of air 2
Activities 3
The presence of air 3
Air takes up space 5
Air is incompressible 7
Air has weight 9
Atmospheric pressure 9
Flight 15
Bernoulli effect 25
Introduction
This topic lends itself to a number of curriculum ideas. Problem-solving skills;
appreciation of technology and its impact on society; the history of
science/technology; career paths; language development; and flow chart design
could all be covered in a unit on air and flight.
Although the flight activities in this topic can be used for all levels of primary
school, older students tend to get more out of these activities, as they are able to
discuss the concepts at a deeper level. None of these activities can be explained
without an understanding that flight is occurring through air. The idea of air is
thus a prerequisite to understanding flight.
Key concepts of air and flight

Early years
• Air is all around us.
• Wind is moving air.
• Air fills up spaces if allowed.
• Air can push or cause pressure on things.
• Air slows down falling objects such as paper, balls and parachutes.
• The shape and size of an object affects the nature of airflow around it, hence
the air resistance.
• Planes and other flying things are held up by the force of air on their wings.
Middle years
• Air in the atmosphere exerts a pressure in all directions.
• The atmosphere can exert a surprisingly strong force on objects.
• ‘Sucking’ reduces pressure, causing a force imbalance towards the low-
pressure region.
• The pressure of air is used in many applications (tyres, hoists, etc.).
• Air pressure differences tend to equalise.
• A moving stream of air has reduced pressure.
• Air has weight.
• Air expands on heating, causing a pressure increase if it is contained.
• Hot air is less dense (or more spread out) than cold air, and rises.
• Air consists of a mixture of gases, one of which (O2, dioxide) is necessary for
burning.
1
TO P I C 2
• Objects can be shaped to either minimise or maximise the force of air on

them.
• A flat object such as a plane wing, a boomerang or a paper tube can be
supported by forces that arise due to differences in airflow across the top
and bottom surfaces.
• To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction: a stream of air (or
water) forced from a balloon or rocket will cause a force back on the balloon
or rocket to propel it.
• The force from air on a moving object depends on the surface area, and the
shape of the object.
• Wind is moving air.
Students’ alternative conceptions of air

Research into students’ ideas about this topic has identified the following non-
• Younger children often only associate air with wind, which is moving air.
Presumably this stems from a view that only directly observable entities are
real. Thus, they are most likely to interpret ‘air is everywhere’ as meaning that
air is only outside.
• Young children will think that air moves unaccountably into or out of
enclosed spaces, to explain why there might or might not be air in upturned
glasses, containers or cupboards.
• The wind is caused by trees swaying.
• Fans and moving objects create air (rather than simply set air in motion).
• Students can attribute the causes of these ‘air taking up space’ or ‘air
pressure’ activities to their own action (‘the water comes out because we
lifted our finger’, or ‘the tissue remains dry because we were careful’) or use
explanations based on analogy rather than identify causal mechanism (‘the
air was trapped’). Thus students can have an ‘alternative’ view of the nature
of scientific explanation.
• Suction involves creating a vacuum, which causes a negative, pulling force
on objects. In fact ‘suction’ is often not thought of so specifically but rather is
a term used to describe a class of phenomena. In this sense the use of the
terms ‘suction effect’, ‘suction cap’ or even ‘suction force’ can be quite helpful
in locating causes for movement or identifying the nature of a
phenomenon. It is the identification of the term with air ‘pulling’ that is
incorrect.
• Pressure only operates in a downward direction.
• Air exerts a force only when it moves.
• Air has no weight or negative weight.
• Hot air has negative weight, which causes it to rise.
2
Activities
The presence of air

Young children find the assertion that ‘air is everywhere’ difficult to accept.
Studies have shown that they tend to associate the presence of air mainly with
open spaces, breezes and breathing, and will think, for instance, that a jar will
contain no air. Some of the activities in this section are meant to reinforce the
idea of air as a tangible presence that takes up space and resists compression.
These activities focusing on the presence of air are most useful for early years
classes, but could also be productively used in the introductory exploration
section of middle years sequences.
AC T I V I T Y: W H E R E
IS AIR?
Teaching note: By the age of eight or so, most students will have a confident
idea about air taking up space and will be able to talk reasonably about some of
these activities in terms of air movement, or air being ‘squashed’.
It is instructive to talk with Years 1 and 2 students about where air might be
found: in a cupboard or a jar, or underneath a table. Students can be challenged
to collect air in plastic bags from places of their choice, trapping it by tying the
top. Some comments might include: ‘I had no idea there would be air across the
hall even though this door was shut tight’; ‘I even found air in the toilet bowl
with the door shut!’.
Older students might explore whether there is air in soil, or in cork, by putting
these things underwater and watching for bubbles. They can also measure their
lung capacity by bubbling air into an upturned bottle held full of water in a
bucket.
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Key idea: Air is everywhere.

You will need:
• a class set of the figure below.
Hand out and/or discuss the following probe with the students.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO L L E C T I N G A I R
You will need:
• plastic bags.
Give students a plastic bag each and ask them to collect as much air as they can in the
bag any way they like. Some children will blow the bag up; others will run around the
room with the bag open collecting air. Ask the children if there is anywhere that we
can’t collect air like this (hint: in outer space).
AC T I V I T Y: FA N S
You will need:
• pieces of paper.
Fan a student’s cheek with a piece of paper. Ask the student what they feel. Where
does the breeze come from? How did it get there? (Note: young children will claim
that the paper creates the wind!)
4
AC T I V I T Y: B LO W
U P A B A L LO O N
You will need:
• balloons.
Blow up a balloon. Release the air slowly and feel it coming out of the balloon.
Discuss what this means. What is being felt? What was the sequence of events in
terms of the presence of air?
Air takes up space

These activities are suitable for Years Prep to 4 students but could also be used in
the middle years as initial exploratory activities.
AC T I V I T Y:
PUSHING A
P L A S T I C B AG
I N TO A J A R
Teaching note: You can try this also using a balloon, with its neck over a soft-
drink bottle. A variation on this involves using a pin to prick a hole in the plastic
bottle and seeing if it makes a difference having a finger over the hole or not. In
practical terms, students will see the challenge as one of forcing the bag
inwards, and will break the seal trying this. It is a productive exercise to
challenge them to then open the bag out again; this proves difficult unless air
can be reintroduced to the bag.
Key idea: Air takes up space.

You will need:
• a glass or plastic jar

• a small plastic bag
• sticky tape or a strong rubber band.
Open out a plastic bag by blowing in it or waving it around to catch some air.
Fix the plastic bag over the top of an open jar. Attach it firmly with rubber bands and
tape, so that it is airtight. Push the plastic bag into the jar (without causing any air
leaks).
What do you think will happen? Try it! What did you discover? Was it easy?
Could you make the plastic bag open out more by gently pulling? Try it!
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AC T I V I T Y: T I S S U E
IN A GLASS
Key ideas: Air takes up space. Air can push on water.
You will need:
• a trough or plastic container of water at least 10 cm deep

• a transparent glass or cup
• tissue paper.
Push some dry tissue paper into the bottom of a glass, so that it won’t fall out when
the glass is upside down. Push the glass, upside down, underneath the water in the
trough or plastic container.
Do you think the paper will get very wet? Try it.
Take the glass out and feel the paper. Can you explain what you find?
AC T I V I T Y:
S A I L I N G A B OAT
U N D E R WAT E R
Teaching note: A plastic bottle top works well as a boat. The activity is really
impressive with a large perspex container over a toy boat or floating duck.
Students will find all sorts of reasons involving air in some strange situations to
explain why the tissue remains dry or the boat is pushed down. It is interesting
to ask the question ‘Is the boat floating?’ to probe what students’ conception of
floating is.
Key ideas: Air takes up space. Air pushes on water surfaces.

You will need:
• a trough or plastic container of water at least 10 cm deep

• a transparent glass or cup
• a small plastic bottle top or wooden boat small enough to float under the cup.
6
Let your little toy boat float in the trough or container of water. What do you think will
happen if you put the plastic container upside down over the boat and push it down
to the bottom? Will the boat sink? Try it.
Draw a picture to show what happened. Why did this happen?
AC T I V I T Y:
P L A S T I C B AG
CUSHION
Key idea: Air exerts a force to hold up objects.
You will need:
• a plastic bag.
Fill a plastic bag with air. Twist the opening up and hold it tightly, to make a cushion
out of the bag.
How much will the cushion hold up? Will it hold a book? Will it hold you? Try sitting on
it!
Air is incompressible
The following activities are suitable for middle years classes. They involve the
idea of air under pressure, exerting a force.
AC T I V I T Y:
B A L LO O N T U R T L E
Key ideas: Air can support heavy objects. Air is relatively incompressible.
You will need:
• a table that can be upturned (make sure the table is held steady)
• a clean, swept floor area
• six to ten round balloons.
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Blow up a number of balloons (not too tightly) and place them evenly over an
expanse of floor (sweep the floor clean of dust). Upturn a table and place it gently on
top of the balloons (ensuring that the balloons are equally distributed under the
table). Ask the students to climb on top of the upturned table. How many students do
you think can fit on top of the table before the balloons burst?
Have students draw what is happening, with an explanation. What is holding the
table up? What does this tell us about air?
AC T I V I T Y: H O W
M A NY B O O K S ?
You will need:
• a plastic bag or balloon

• books.
Blow up a plastic bag or balloon, and then steady it while books are carefully placed
on it. Alternatively, lift a stack of books by blowing into a plastic bag. Can you think of
some common applications of this principle?
AC T I V I T Y:
B I C YC L E P U M P
You will need:
• a bicycle pump.
Feel the compression and heat generated as you pump a bicycle pump with your
thumb over the end. (Note: part of the charm of this activity is that it gives very tactile
evidence of the presence of air and its relative incompressibility.)
8
AC T I V I T Y:
B A L LO O N S C A L E
Air has weight

You will need:
• two identical balloons

• a wire coathanger
• string.
Blow up two balloons to an identical size and tie them to either end of a wire
coathanger. Hang the coathanger so that the balloons are free of any impediments.
Gently put a small hole in the top of one of the balloons, near where it is attached to
the coathanger. As air escapes from the punctured balloon the full balloon will pull
the coathanger down on that side.
Atmospheric pressure
Teaching note: These activities are suitable for middle years classes. For
younger students the concept of atmospheric pressure is very difficult to
comprehend. These activities involve the interaction of air and water, and you
may find that younger students will interpret them as being about ‘water’ rather
than ‘air’, which is less noticeable and thus probably less exciting for them.
The idea that air takes up space, and competes for space with water, can be used
to effectively explain most of these experiments. The more powerful concept of
air pressure is more difficult, but accessible in restricted form, for younger
students, who tend to talk of the ‘strength’ of air, or of air ‘pushing’.
Students tend to call up a range of conceptions to account for their observations

of these activities, many of them quite useful over a range of phenomena. The
idea of ‘suction’, for instance, while not acceptable as a scientific explanation, is
more accessible to students (and adults) than the more powerful idea of
competing pressures that underlies many of these activities.
In planning a sequence of activities on air pressure it would be a good idea to

start with an activity such as Magic finger, which works nicely as a probe and
allows students to vary the conditions (i.e. opening and closing the hole, or
shaking, or increasing the hole size) to explore what is causing the water to be
trapped.
The idea of atmospheric pressure is counter-intuitive for two reasons. Firstly,

students do not have a confident idea of the gas state because they do not
associate matter with an insubstantial, invisible presence—’If you can’t see it or
feel it, then forget about it!’. The other reason is that the effects of atmospheric
pressure are mainly masked by the fact that air is everywhere; we do not
collapse under the weight of the atmosphere because every part of our bodies is
composed of air or water or other substances, which are at atmospheric pressure
and resist the effect of the atmosphere.
Another, more technical, difficulty sometimes encountered is that if students

accept that the weight of the atmosphere above us is bearing down on us, they
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TO P I C 2
imagine the force due to this must be downwards also, and not applied in all
directions, as is evident from the upturned glass or magic finger.
For all these reasons, we recommend saving a serious discussion of these

concepts until the middle years level. That being said, some of these activities
work well as challenges with lower year levels. Don’t be surprised, though, if
students revert to simpler ideas even after you’ve discussed the principles
thoroughly.
You will also find that students will use a variety of explanations for these
activities, and will hold onto naive ideas for some of them despite considerable
discussion. Learning is a slow process, and it’s important to monitor what
students are thinking about each activity.
AC T I V I T Y: M AG I C
FINGER
Teaching note: The ‘magic finger’ is really a double trick. The original version
had the magic finger on the hand not holding the container! Every time the
finger points, the water comes out because, unknown to the audience, the
finger on top of the (secret) hole rolls slightly to let air in. Classes have been kept
going on this by challenging others to see if their fingers are magic. They’re
always delighted to learn the trick and talk about it.
Even quite young students can get some sense of this activity. The easiest way to
explain it is in terms of air needing to be let into the top hole to take up the
space the escaping water will leave. Some students are attracted to a
‘trapped/released’ image and claim that the finger allows water to escape at the
bottom and air to escape out the top! The air pressure explanation involves the
outside pressure pushing on the water at the holes (again, you can see the effect
of surface tension as the water forms half-drops) and keeping it up, provided the
air inside is not at atmospheric pressure also.
Key ideas: The atmosphere exerts a pressure. Air will fill up space if allowed.
You will need:
• a plastic soft-drink bottle with cap

• a hot nail
• tongs
• a bucket
• water.
Take a plastic soft-drink bottle and make two or three small holes in the bottom and
one in the lid (use a hot nail held in some tongs to make the holes). Fill the container
about two-thirds full of water and replace the lid. Place your finger over the hole in
the lid and lift the container up. As you remove your finger from the hole, water will
pour out of the holes in the bottom. Replace your finger and the water will stop
flowing. To make a performance of this, you can point to the container with your
other hand and command the water to flow or stop (while moving your finger on the
hole in the lid accordingly). To debunk the magic finger idea, allow students to
experiment with their own containers over bowls of water.
10
AC T I V I T Y:
UPTURNED GLASS
Key idea: The atmosphere exerts a pressure in all directions.
You will need:
• a glass
• water
• a container to catch spilt water
• a piece of card or stiff paper or plastic sheet
• drinking straws
• optional items: oil, sparkling mineral water, detergent, plastic tubing of various
diameters.
Fill the glass with water, to the top, and put the piece of white card on top. Hold the
card while you turn the glass upside down. Make sure you do this over the tray, so it
won’t matter if it spills.
What do you think will happen if you take your finger off the card?
Does it make any difference to what happens if the glass is only half full of water?
What holds the card on? (Textbooks give the standard answer: ‘atmospheric
pressure’.) Does air inside the glass play a role? Will it work for a very tall glass? Does it
work with different liquids? Sparkling mineral water? Oil?
Is the card really needed? Lift water with a straw by putting your finger on the top of
the straw. Try it with different size straws or with some plastic tubing.
Does surface tension play a role? Try it with some detergent in the water.
Explanatory note: Most of the tricks in this section, involving water being
supported counter-intuitively, are related to the same principle. The Upturned
glass is a case in point, but we have never seen an explanation of this that is
satisfactory. This activity has now been run with many students and adults, and
the following questions come up:
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TO P I C 2
• How come it works with air inside? Doesn’t the air pressure from inside push
back?
• Why is the card necessary? Why doesn’t it work with just the water?
• How big a surface will the trick work with? Would it work with a bucket?
• How tall a glass would it work with? Surely there must be some limit?
• Isn’t it suction? When we try to do it with no air inside, there’s an air bubble
that always goes up to the top, sucked up just like the card.
The questions and extra challenges in the activity are meant to address some of
these.
The reason the card stays on is because of the outside air pressure acting
upwards. The complication of the air inside can be explained thus: when the
glass is upturned, the water level and card drop very slightly, increasing the
volume of the enclosed air. This drops the pressure, and the card settles when
the upward pressure exactly matches the downward weight of the water and
card, and the downwards but reduced pressure from the air inside.
If the card is relatively rigid you will be able to see it drops just a bit so there’s a
slight gap between the card and glass rim, filled with water. The surface tension
of the water allows this to happen by maintaining the surface and even
providing a small adhesive force. The trick works even if the water is taken out,
provided the card is wet! We’ve found a piece of thin plastic works better than
paper since it doesn’t soak, but it’s also been done with table napkins and
glasses of wine, when pushed! You need to be careful that the card or napkin is
not too big so that it droops and breaks the water seal.
The trick doesn’t work with lemonade because the bubbles increase the
pressure inside the glass. It works without a card provided the surface is small
enough to maintain the surface through cohesion, as with a straw used for
transferring water by the action of the thumb at the top (identical in principle to
the Magic finger activity).
AC T I V I T Y: T R I C KY
CUP
Key ideas: The atmosphere exerts a pressure on water surfaces. Air will fill up
space if allowed.
You will need:
• a clear plastic cup

• a heated needle
• a container of water.
Make a tiny hole in the bottom of a clear plastic cup with a heated needle. Hold the
cup underwater, full of water. Pull it slowly out of the water, upside-down, with your
finger on the hole.
12
Can you explain why the water stays in the cup?
What will happen if you take your finger off the hole?
AC T I V I T Y: T R I C KY
S T R AW
Key idea: Pressure imbalance causes a force.
You will need:
• a glass of water
• drinking straws
• a needle.
Can some people suck faster than others? Have a drinking race. Who will win?
Do some straws work better than others? Can you explain the differences?
Prick one of the straws with a pin so it has lots of tiny holes! Why does that make a
difference?
AC T I V I T Y: B I R D
FEEDER
Key ideas: The atmosphere exerts a pressure on water surfaces. Air will fill up
space if allowed.
You will need:
• a bird feeder
• a drinking straw.
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TO P I C 2
Fill the bird feeder with water and put the feeding tray on. Why doesn’t the water
come out?
What do you think will happen if you suck some water out with a straw? Try it.
DART
Key idea: The atmosphere exerts a pressure.
You will need:
• a dart with a suction cup at the end

• a tile or tiled surface.
Press the dart against the tile, and make it stick. Try to pull it off. What makes it stick?
Why doesn’t it pull off?
Work out the best way of getting the dart unstuck. What is happening now?
Explanatory note: The Tricky cup activity is just like the Upturned glass activity
except that the outside pressure is acting down on the water surface and is
transferred through the water to keep the cup full. The hole lets air in to take the
place of the dropping water.
The holes in the straws in the Tricky straw activity stop the air pressure being
reduced to below atmospheric pressure, and you end up sucking up air instead.
Some students swear that it works because water is sucked up but leaks out of
the holes, despite observational evidence to the contrary!
The Bird feeder activity illustrates the same principle as the Tricky cup activity. If
the water in the tray of the bird feeder drops below the rim it allows air to enter
the device and push out (or replace) the water as the level drops until the tray lip
is covered again.
14
The Sticky dart activity tends to invite ‘suction’ explanations, for obvious reasons.
What actually happens is that the action of pushing the dart down forces air out.
The rubber springs back, opening up the volume underneath slightly and
reducing the pressure. Any attempt to pull it off only reduces the pressure
underneath more, so that the difference from the atmosphere acting on the top
more than makes up for the pull force. The way to get these off? Lift the edge
with a fingernail to let air in at normal pressure underneath.
Flight
Some curriculum links for flight

The history of flight is a study that is ideally suited for study by primary school
students.
In less than an average human lifetime we have progressed from the first
powered flight of 37 m into the air to landing on the Moon. The Wright brothers
achieved a sustained flight with a powered aircraft for 12 seconds in 1903. In
1969 Neil Armstrong stepped onto the surface of the Moon after a journey of
approximately 370 000 kilometres in just under four days. In 1981 the space
shuttle Columbia established reusable spacecraft as a means of extraterrestrial
travel.
Grandparents can provide anecdotal data to enliven reading, and the major
space events (Apollo missions) have been televised and are readily available for
viewing (also hot air balloons, airships, etc.).
Students can easily build models of the early gliders and kites that provided
much of the early knowledge that led to advances in flight. Equal emphasis
should be placed upon historical research and the discussion of findings from
model building and flying. For example, what effect has powered flight had on
communications, jobs, lifestyle?
What other things fly, apart from planes? How do they do it?
Students could explore other ways of natural flight. For example, they could look
at bird skeletons, feathers, dandelion seeds (for parachutes), etc.
The first few activities are suitable for all year levels, but for middle years
students they are likely to be the prelude to more sophisticated explorations and
further challenges.
DROP
Teaching note: In this activity, most students will arrive at a conclusion that the
air resists the A4 paper but that dropping it held vertically minimises the surface
that is pushing through the air and hence it will drop quickly (at least initially,
until it skews off course). Younger students will often say that the crumpled
paper drops more quickly than the A4 sheet because it is heavier. Density, or
compactness, is often confused with weight, and this is a good opportunity to
have that discussion. The book falls more quickly, of course. This is because it has
greater weight to overcome the action of air on its surface.
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TO P I C 2
The real purpose of the activity, however, is the surprise and challenge offered
by the fact that the paper falls along with the book. The reason is that the book
is pushing the air that would be resisting the paper on its own. It is not needing
to force through air, and effectively falls as it would in a vacuum. This is similar to
the experiment conducted by Neil Armstrong on the moon, when he dropped a
hammer and a feather to find they fell at identical rates in the absence of an
atmosphere ... as argued by Galileo. Some people argue that the paper is in the
book’s slipstream, which is in fact the same explanation if you think about it. The
argument that air comes around the back of the book because of turbulence,
and holds the paper on, is unnecessarily complicated and I think incorrect,
although there is some turbulence.
One five-year-old child explained this counter-intuitive result very quickly and
convincingly by pointing out that the paper acted just like another page in the
book, and so would be expected to fall with it!
Dropping the paper and book from a greater height can productively extend
this activity—students are often convinced it would separate if given enough
time—or by dropping it with the paper partly projecting out from the book. You
can get some interesting turbulence/vortex effects by projecting it out a long
way.
Key idea: Air offers resistance to falling objects.

You will need:
• a number of A4 sheets of paper

• an A4-sized book.
An air-resistance predict-observe-explain (POE) sequence, worked in pairs:
Hold two sheets of A4 paper at an equal height above the floor. Hold one parallel to
the floor and the other perpendicular. Drop the two at the same time. Which do you
think will hit the ground first?
Screw up one of the sheets of A4 paper and repeat the above experiment. Which one
will reach the floor first this time?
Take one A4 sheet of paper and an A4-sized book. Hold both parallel to the floor at
the same height and drop them simultaneously. Which one will land first?
Now, put the A4 sheet of paper UNDER the book and drop them together. What will
happen?
Put the A4 sheet of paper ON TOP of the book and drop them together. What do you
think will happen here?
AC T I V I T Y:
PA R AC H U T E
Teaching note: This probe, because of the length and multiple challenges, will
inevitably become a learning activity. How well it works as a probe depends on
the questioning that takes place, focusing on students’ ideas of air resistance,
surface and weight. Some questions to consider:
16
• what principles govern the operation of the parachute?

• what would one hope students would be able to say about parachutes, after
such an activity?
Key ideas: Air resistance causes an upward force on falling objects. The size and
shape of an object affect the force.
You will need:
• a freezer bag or larger plastic bag

• a reel of cotton
• plasticine
• scissors.
Construct a parachute using a freezer bag, or even a larger plastic bag, using cotton
attached at the corners, with a plasticine model figure. Construct a parachute that
will drop as slowly and steadily to the ground as possible.
Predict what will make a difference to the effectiveness of the parachute.
Try out your ideas—compare different parachutes and figure sizes and methods of
attachment. It is a good idea to keep comparing your changes with a standard model.
Investigate the effect of cutting a hole in the canopy. How big a hole can be cut
without ruining the parachute? What is the effect of the hole on:
• the dropping speed?

• the smoothness of fall?
Explanatory note: A parachute involves the action of air resistance, as the

canopy pushes down through the air, in opposition to the weight force mainly
from the plasticine figure. Getting a slow drop requires the lift force to be
maximised by opening out the bag to provide a large canopy, and the weight to
be minimised by having a very small person. The right balance makes a very
slow drop.
It is surprising how well a parachute with a large hole in the canopy works. It will
be marginally slower than without a hole, but the net resistance must be pretty
much dependent on the total canopy area, hole or not. What is attractive about
the holed parachute is that the flow of air is smoother, and it does not rock from
side to side as air spills out from around the canopy. Recreational parachutes
have holes in them.
AC T I V I T Y:
W H I R LYB I R D S
Teaching note: As well as conceptual engagement, this activity provides the
opportunity for the development of students’ knowledge of investigations:
hypothesising, fair testing, measuring, recording and reporting. Try varying the
number of paperclips, and the wing length, separately. Timing the fall is difficult,
and comparing different designs two at a time is probably the most productive
thing to do if you don’t have access to a stopwatch and a balcony from which to
drop the whirlybirds. To keep track of what is happening, students should
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TO P I C 2
modify one aspect at a time, and preferably retain each modified design to keep
track of what is happening.
Key ideas: Flight involves the force of air on wings. The fall of an object involves
the balance between downward weight and upward lift.
You will need:
• sheets of A4 paper (possibly photocopied with four whirlybird patterns on them)

• scissors
• paperclips.
Trace and cut out the whirlybird design shown in the figure Whirlybird design.
Fold it to match the figure at left.
What do you think will happen when you drop the whirlybird? Try it.
Can you modify your whirlybird to make it spin the other way?
Design a whirlybird that takes as long as possible to reach the ground when dropped
from head height. (You might consider varying size, number of clips, wing span.)
Design a whirlybird that spins as fast as possible. Thinking about your learning:
• What have you learnt about airflow and forces and flying, in modifying your
whirlybirds?
• Develop a list of useful bits of technology based on this principle (hint: windmill).
18
Figure 2.1 Whirlybird design
Cut along the solid lines. Fold along the dotted lines in the direction of the arrows.
Place a paperclip on the bottom.
Drop the whirlybird.
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Explanatory note: The spinning effect is due to the action of air on the wings as
it rushes past the dropping whirlybird. You can check this by holding the
whirlybird and pushing up on one wing with your finger. The body moves back
as the wing is forced up. Pushing up on the other wing has the opposite effect,
and you can see that the net result is a spinning set of forces. Flipping the wings
causes them to spin in the opposite direction.
The longer the wings, the slower the drop, because of the uplift on the greater
wing area. The more paperclips, the faster the drop and spin, because of the
greater weight.
The challenge of constructing a whirlybird that drops as slowly as possible is

more difficult than constructing one that spins fast, although the measurement
problem here is more challenging.
AC T I V I T Y: K I T E S
Key ideas: The force of air on surfaces can be controlled by carefully designing
the shape of the surface. Stable flight involves the balance of forces.
You will need:
• one square of paper or card, at least 16 cm x 16 cm (the larger the square, the
sturdier the ‘paper’)
• enough string or strong wool to fly the kite (about 2 m)
• sticky tape glue
• a paper streamer for the tail (the length depends on the size of the kite and the
strength of the wind on the day; alternatively, you can glue strips of paper end to
end).
Simple kites that are easy and fun to fly can be made. The figure Making a kite shows
how to make a foolproof paper kite.
20
Figure 2.2 Making a kite
Explanatory note: In the case of kites, the lift force is from moving air and will
not be vertical, and there is the extra force of the string as well as that of gravity.
Balance is important in a kite to maintain the right angle, and the tail is critical
for providing stability.
PLANES
Key ideas: Air moving across wings can cause an uplift force. The shape of wings
and balance of weight can be manipulated to control the flight. The shape of a
flying object affects the air resistance on it.
You will need:
• sheets of A4 paper
• paperclips.
Using the basic pattern in the figure Making a paper plane, make a paper plane that:
• stays as long as possible in the air

• does spectacular tricks.
You may want to investigate the effect of paperclip weights, wing size, flaps, etc.
Try some different designs.
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Figure 2.3 Making a paper plane
Explanatory note: The basic principle is that air rushing past the wings provides
an uplift force that counteracts the downward pull of gravity. The plane flies with
the wings slightly angled up, so that air rushes faster over the top surface of the
wing compared to the bottom surface, causing a pressure difference. The
question of balance of the plane is thus important, and paperclips can help with
this (generally placed towards the front). The action of the flaps in causing the
plane to soar, or dive, is similar in principle to the effect of air on the whirlybird
wings as shown in the figure of a raised flap below.
The back of the plane is forced down as the airstream is forced up, thus causing
the plane to lift.
22
AC T I V I T Y: F LY I N G
LO O P S
Key ideas: The force of air on surfaces. Stability and balance depend on weight
distribution.
You will need:
• sheets of A4 paper
• paperclips
• sticky tape
• a drinking straw.
Make a flying loop by folding a sheet of A4 paper back about 3 cm along its long
length, and then rolling it into a cylinder. Keep it together with four paperclips on the
end with the fold.
Now throw the loop with the paperclips at the front. It will fly surprisingly smoothly.
What do you think the air is doing to keep the loop up?
Make a flying tube out of a plastic drinking straw and two loops of paper. What
factors can be altered to improve its flight? (Hint: two paper loops stuck to a straw
also fly smoothly if the straw is weighted with a paperclip.)
AC T I V I T Y:
B A L LO O N R O C K E T
Key idea: To every force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
You will need:
• a length of fishing line or waxy string

• a means to attach the line or string to walls
• sticky tape
• a plastic soft-drink bottle
• plasticine Blu-Tack
• drinking straws
• long balloons
• paperclips.
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String a fishing line across the room with a straw attached so it can slide along the
line. Use sticky tape to attach a balloon to the straw. Blow up the balloon and release
it, pointing the balloon so it is propelled along the fishing line.
An interesting extension of this idea is to have the balloon inside a plastic soft-drink
bottle that can be decorated. However, you can’t blow the balloon up inside the
bottle unless you prick a hole in the bottle. Why? The blowing up of the balloon and
release of air can be done using a straw, with plasticine or Blu-Tack sealing the
opening round the straw.
Design a wheeled cart (using recycled material) that is powered by a balloon. Adjust
your design so that the cart can go as far as possible with one balloon deflation.
Explanatory note: The balloon rocket works on the principle of rocket

propulsion. This is what is meant by ‘to every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction’. The balloon forces air out as it deflates, and itself experiences
a force from the air in the opposite direction.
AC T I V I T Y: H OT
A I R G A R B AG E
B AG
Key idea: Hot air rises.
You will need:
• a garbage bag
• a hair dryer.
Blow up a garbage bag using a hair dryer. Watch the bag inflate and attempt to rise.
AC T I V I T Y: T E A
B AG R O C K E T
You will need:
• a tea bag
• matches.
Remove the tag and the string from a tea bag, then undo and remove the staple.
Unfold the tea bag and empty out the tea. Gently open the tube you are now left
with, taking care not to tear it. Stand the tube vertically on end (I suggest you do it on
a plate or non-flammable surface in case your rocket falls over). Ignite your rocket by
lighting the TOP of the tea bag tube (not the base!) with a match and begin your
countdown. The tube will burn almost all the way down and then shoot up.
24
Explanatory note: As we know, warm air rises because it is less dense than
cooler air. The flames create a small pocket of warm air and, once combusted,
the tea bag material is very light. Hence the warm, light, combusted tea bag rises
to the roof. This works best in a coolish room.
Bernoulli effect
Teaching note: The Bernoulli effect is fascinating, but counter-intuitive. It is
quite difficult for younger students to grasp, since the concept of atmospheric
air pressure itself is difficult and not readily established even by middle years
students, and the activities also require some feeling for the possibility of
unbalanced forces. These activities are generally not recommended for the early
years except as intriguing phenomena. The links to the flight activities are
difficult to make clear, but these activities do at least provide some rationale as
to the way airflow is able to support a paper plane.
In each case with these tricks, a moving stream of air creates a low-pressure zone
that the object moves towards. Some students will explain this by arguing: ‘We
blew the air out of the way and so it doesn’t press as hard’—an interesting idea
but not correct. The air is still there, but its pressure is lowered.
The Bernoulli effect is probably best explored at the lower secondary school
level, although some of these activities would be productive for Years 5 and 6
students.
Key idea: Pressure is reduced in a moving stream of air.
In many science books one can find a range of activities designed to illustrate
the Bernoulli effect; that pressure is reduced in a moving airstream. This is the
principle on which aerofoils are based, although it is hard to relate it to paper
planes with flat wings.
LIFT
Teaching note: This activity is a good candidate as a predict-observe-explain
(POE) task.
You will need:
• a thin strip of paper
Take a thin strip of paper, hold it at one end close to your mouth, and blow across the
top of it. The strip of paper rises!
AC T I V I T Y:
F R I E N D LY C A N S
You will need:
• two empty aluminium cans

• at least twelve drinking straws.
25
TO P I C 2
Place two empty aluminium cans about 3 cm apart, on a set of plastic straws placed
parallel so the cans can easily roll toward or away from each other. Blow gently
between them. They come together because of the reduced pressure!
This trick can also be done with suspended balls if they are light enough.
AC T I V I T Y:
F LO AT I N G C A R D
You will need:
• a playing card
• a cotton reel
• a pin.
Place a playing card against the end of a cotton reel and blow hard down through the
hole in the reel. The card seems to stick to the reel because of the reduced pressure as
the air flows past it. With a bit of practice the card can be suspended that way. A pin
through the card, projecting into the reel, stops it slipping sideways.
Explanatory note: The floating card depends on the moving stream of air that is
forced between the reel and card, and the same is true of air blown down
through a funnel, forced past a ping-pong ball suspended underneath but the
larger air pressure underneath.
26
AC T I V I T Y:
B LO W I N G S U C K S !
You will need:
• a ping-pong ball
• a pouring funnel.
Hold a ping-pong ball inside a pouring funnel held upside down, and blow through
the funnel. The ping-pong ball is suspended in the airstream!
LIFT
You will need:
• two drinking straws

• a glass of water.
Cut a straw in two. Place one half in a glass of water (coloured water produces a more
dramatic effect) as shown in the figure below and use the other straw to blow a
stream of air across the top of the vertical straw. If you get it right, you will have quite
an effective spray device!
27
TO P I C 2
AC T I V I T Y:
F LO AT I N G B A L L
You will need:
• a drinking straw with a flexi-bend, or flexible tubing

• a ping-pong ball.
Use a drinking straw with a flexi-bend. Angle the end of the straw up vertically, and
place a ping-pong ball above the end of the vertical section. By blowing hard through
the straw you should be able to balance the ping-pong ball on the stream of air.
If you practise, you will even be able to balance the ping-pong ball with an angle
airstream.
A less stressful version of this trick can be done using a vacuum cleaner with an air
exhaust. The vacuum tube, blowing out air, can be used to suspend a beach ball in
mid-air.
Explanatory note: The ping-pong ball suspension, using a straw, is difficult to

sustain unless you’re a professional wind musician. To explain it fully: consider
what happens if the ball slips slightly out of the stream. If it slips to the left, for
instance, that creates a steady stream of air from the straw to the right, which
reduces the pressure and brings the ball back to centre. There is thus a natural
stabilising principle at work that cushions the ball in a moving stream of air.
28
TOPIC 3
Floating and sinking

P R E PA R E D P E T E R H U B B E R & R U S S E L L T Y T L E R F O R T H E U N I T T E A M
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of floating and sinking 1
Scientific terms associated with floating and sinking 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of floating and sinking 2
Activities 3
Practical uses for floating and sinking 3
What is ‘floating’? 3
What determines whether something will float? 4
Archimedes and boats 6
Upthrust forces from water 8
Floating in different liquids 10
Floating liquids! 11
Introduction
Floating and sinking is a common activity in early years classrooms. Students’
ideas about floating and sinking are intriguing. The strategies for developing
their understandings discussed in this topic are examples of the probing,
investigative and challenging activities that characterise effective science
teaching and learning.
Key concepts of floating and sinking

Early years
• Whether something floats depends on the material it is made of, not its
weight.
• Objects float if they are light for their size and sink if they are heavy for their
size.
• An object can be light for its size if it contains air, such as a hollow ball.
• Materials with a boat shape will float because they effectively contain air.
• Water pushes up on objects with an upthrust force.
Middle years
• Objects float if the upthrust force from the water can balance their weight
(gravity force).
• Objects float depending on their density compared to water; for an object
to float its density needs to be less than that of water.
• Objects float when air is enclosed in an object; their density is lowered,
thereby increasing the likelihood of floating.
• The upthrust depends on the amount of water displaced.
• Objects float better in salt water (density of salt water is greater than that of
pure water).
• Water surfaces have a cohesive force (surface tension) that makes them act
like a ‘skin’.
• Small, dense objects (e.g. a pin; a water spider) can ‘float’ on the surface of
water without breaking it, due to surface tension effects.
Scientific terms associated with floating and sinking

• force: a push or a pull.
• density: amount of mass per unit mass of an object (i.e. the concentration
of mass, or how ‘heavy for its size’ an object is). The density of water is 1 kg
per litre.
1
TO P I C 3
• pressure: amount of force applied per unit area. At a given pressure, twice
the area will experience twice the force.
• Archimedes’ principle: A floating object will experience an upthrust force
from water, equal to the weight of water displaced (pushed aside). It will
sink into the water until it reaches the point where the weight of the water
pushed aside equals its own weight. For an object that is floating, the mass
of the material equals the mass of water that is displaced by the object
(1 kg = 1 L of water). Dense objects cannot displace enough water to
provide an upthrust force to counterbalance their weight, so they plummet
below the surface. Objects made of material denser than water (e.g. a boat
made of iron) can still float if they contain air so that the mean density is less
than that of water.
Students’ alternative conceptions of floating and sinking

Research into students’ ideas about this topic has identified a number of non–
scientific conceptions.
Students will have views about at least three aspects of floating and sinking that
differ from science views. These alternative views centre around the questions:
• What do we mean by ‘floating’?

• What determines whether something will float or sink?
• What causes things to float (i.e. what are the forces involved in floating)?
Interviews reveal that students can attach different meanings to the term
‘floating’ and that these meanings vary depending on the context (such as
observing real objects in water as opposed to viewing line drawings). The
students still seem to be at the formative level with respect to this idea and there
are likely to be students in most classrooms whose understanding of ‘floating’
differs from scientists. Some students could become confused if teachers do not
recognise this.
Students have a range of views about why some things float while others sink.
Younger students (7–10 years) often do not realise that there could be a single
explanation. Their response is to give explanations for individual materials. The
explanations offered could be described as partial explanations. They focus on
specific aspects such as lightness or heaviness and fail to take into account other
aspects (such as size) needed to formulate a general rule that would explain all
cases. Very few students seem to have an understanding of flotation that
approximates that of scientists. Others realise that they do not really know why
things float or sink, but they appear interested to know.
A number of students think that the length of floating material, or the depth of
water underneath or on top of an object, affects flotation level. Some further
believe that floating material will sink if the part above the water is cut off, or if it
has vertical holes put through it. After initial experiences with reshaped non–
floating material, almost all students realise that non–floating material can be
shaped to float.
2
Activities
Practical uses for floating and sinking

Explore with the students what applications in technology are related to the
topic of floating and sinking. Some examples are hydrometers, submarines,
ships, airships, weather balloons, hot–air balloons, buoyancy vests and life
jackets.
What is ‘floating’?
AC T I V I T Y: W H AT
I S ‘ F LO AT I N G’ ?
Key idea: In scientific terms, things float if they are ‘supported by the water’ (or
air) due to an upthrust displacement force. A fish can be said to be floating in
water even if it is not on the surface.
Prior ideas: Consider the experiences children have had with floating and
sinking prior to coming to primary school. What ideas would they already have
about the topic?
You will need:
• the figure Objects in water, or a set of similar objects or pictures.

The term ‘floating’ is very loose. The everyday use of the term is different to the
scientific use, which is developed around a theory of upthrust and gravity
equilibrium.
Observe the objects illustrated in the figure Objects in water, devised by New Zealand
researchers. Which objects would you consider to be ‘floating’? Can we arrive at a
clear description of what we mean by ‘floating’?
Raise extra examples to do with objects in air: a helicopter, a hovercraft, a hot–air

balloon or a helium balloon, a hovering hawk, a piece of paper blowing in the wind?
What is keeping these up?
Explanatory note: The scientific understanding of ‘floating’ is that objects are

suspended in water (or on water) or air, held up by buoyancy forces that balance
gravity. Young children will sometimes express the idea that any part of an
object above the water is floating, the rest is sinking, or that floating is a passive
sort of state that does not include swimming or speeding. In everyday language
the term ‘sinking’ can be used for a yacht that is currently floating but is crippled
by a hole, for instance.
3
TO P I C 3
Figure 3.1 Objects in water
What determines whether something will float?
AC T I V I T Y:
F LO AT E R S A N D
SINKERS
Teaching note: In this activity, some students will push for a small number of
explanatory ideas (e.g. ‘these are heavy or have holes’, ‘these are made of light
material’) and will acknowledge contradictions, while others (mainly children in
the early years) will give a different reason for each object and not be bothered
at all if their predictions are incorrect. Thus, we can gain insight into the level at
which a child is constructing an explanation and considering evidence, separate
from their conceptions.
4
When establishing a class discussion on this, you could collect on the board a list
of ideas based on evidence as a shared class text. For example, ‘The aluminium
floated for a while, then sank. We thought it was because it had air inside it to
make it lighter’.
Another strategy is to challenge students’ simple idea that ‘heavy things sink’ by
asking them to find heavy things that float, such as a candle (or light things that
sink, such as a paperclip). This will involve talking through what we mean by
‘weight’ as opposed to density.
Key ideas: Objects float or sink depending on the material they are made of—
whether they are heavy or light ‘for their size’. Air trapped inside objects reduces
their effective density. This is also the case with boat–shaped objects.
You will need:
• a tub or bucket of water

• various objects of different size and shape that will float or sink (cork stopper,
eraser, metal paperclip, candle, plasticine, tennis ball, plastic lid, bolt, aluminium
foil, etc.)
Give groups of students ten or so objects and ask them to predict which will float in
water, which will sink quickly or slowly, and which will float somewhere between.
It would be useful to design a worksheet that will enable you to record predictions
and subsequent observations of the objects in water, with comments. Challenge
students to consider the implications if their predictions turn out to be incorrect. Use
questions such as:
• Why do you think this floated and that did not?

• This did not float as you predicted. Can we work out why that is? Do you have a
different view now?
• This crushed aluminium foil is floating. Do you think you could find a way to
make it sink?
• Do you think these floaters have anything in common?
After testing each of the objects, students should write down a reason why some
objects float and others sink. Is there one reason or many?
AC T I V I T Y:
F LO AT I N G /
S I N K I N G S TO R I E S
Read Who sank the boat? (Pamela Allen 1982, Nelson, Melbourne) and/or Mr
Archimedes’ bath (Pamela Allen 1980, Collins, Sydney), and discuss the relevant
concepts raised in the books. Focus on what happens to boats as they take on more
weight, and on the way water is displaced. Notice that the displacement of water is
determined by the immersed volume of objects rather than their surface area.
5
TO P I C 3
Archimedes and boats
AC T I V I T Y:
F LO AT I N G
PLASTICINE
Key idea: Dense materials can float if made into a boat shape.
You will need:
• a lump of plasticine (for younger children aluminium foil can be more easily
fashioned into a boat shape)
• a tub of water
• marbles to use as weights.
Give students a ball of plasticine and ask them ‘will it float?’ Students can test this
after guessing. Ask the students ‘could it ever float?’ When might the plasticine float?
Students should be encouraged to make the plasticine float by itself by modifying
the shape until it does.
Having done this, the students could discuss the shapes they used. Which shapes
float the best? Which shape will carry the most passengers (marbles) without sinking?
AC T I V I T Y:
ARCHIMEDES CAN
Teaching note: This activity is appropriate for the middle years or secondary
school. With the activities that focus on the relative density of water, a similar
approach could be taken. The words ‘dense’, ‘thick’, and ‘heavy’ will probably be
used interchangeably by students unless special care is taken, but they can
readily appreciate that adding salt to water helps support the egg, and can
relate to stories or photographs of swimming in the Dead Sea, which has an
extremely high salt content.
Key ideas: An object will push aside an amount of water equal to its volume. The
upthrust from water is related to the amount of water displaced.
You will need:
• an empty milk carton

• a drinking straw
• scissors
• water
• sticky tape of Blu–Tack
• a small measuring cylinder or jar with level markings
• plasticine.
6
An Archimedes can measures the amount of water pushed aside by objects when
they float or sink. Stick a short straw into the top of an empty milk carton to make a
spout, and seal it with tape or Blu–Tack. Fill it with water to the point where no more
water runs out of the spout. Place a narrow jar or measuring cylinder underneath the
spout to catch the water.
Take a lump of plasticine the size of a ping–pong ball and drop it carefully into the
can. Measure the amount of water that overflows. This is the volume of the plasticine.
Set up the can again, removing the water from the jar, and squeeze the plasticine into
a flat shape. Predict what will happen if you drop the plasticine into the can. Try it. Is
there more or less water?
Now shape the plasticine into a boat that will float in the can. Set the can up once
again and predict how much water will be pushed aside by the floating boat. Will
there be less, the same, or more water? Try it. Can you explain your result?
Explanatory note: The Archimedes can activity invariably astonishes those who
try it. The plasticine has the same volume whether it is round or flat, so the first
two results should be the same. The same amount of water is pushed aside by
the same amount of plasticine. The boat, however, pushes aside much more
water. The reason is that the air enclosed by the boat is also displacing water,
and so more water is pushed out. This extra water pushed aside means that the
upthrust force is much greater on the plasticine (Archimedes’ principle), and it
will float. It is air enclosed within the boat shape, therefore, that causes the boat
to float.
7
TO P I C 3
Upthrust forces from water
AC T I V I T Y:
U N D E R WAT E R
NETBALL?
Key idea: The upthrust increases as more water is pushed aside.
You will need:
• a netball
• a garbage can full of water (this activity can also work with a medium–sized
plastic ball in a bucket of water, but the effect is not as impressive).
Attempt to push a netball under water contained in a garbage bin.
You will be able to feel, quite tangibly, the upthrust force which depends on the
amount of water being pushed aside (displaced). Draw a diagram representing the
forces at work here.
What if the ball was full of a dense material like steel, rather than air. Imagine it
almost submerged. How would the upthrust from the water compare with that for
the netball in the same situation? Why would the netball pop up, and the steel ball
sink, in this situation?
AC T I V I T Y: B R I C K S
S U P P O R T E D BY
WAT E R ?
Key idea: Water exerts an upthrust force that opposes the force of gravity and
effectively lessens the weight of objects.
You will need:
• one or two bricks

• a long cord to tie to the brick/s
• a garbage can full of water.
Lower one or two bricks, suspended by a long cord, into the water. Predict what you
will feel before trying it.
Write a statement that captures what the last two activities tell us about why things
float.
Explanatory note: As the bricks enter the water, the weight felt in the rope
becomes much less because now the upthrust from the water is helping support
the bricks.
8
AC T I V I T Y:
MEASURING
UPTHRUST
Key idea: Water exerts an upthrust force that opposes the force of gravity and
effectively lessens the weight of objects.
You will need:
• an elastic band
• plasticine
• a bucket full of water.
Attach a lump of plasticine to an elastic band. The stretch of the elastic band is a
measure of the weight. If the plasticine were heavier the band would stretch more.
Predict what will happen to the stretch of the band when you lower the plasticine
into water. Try it. Now explain in terms of a diagram of the forces. Explain it in words.
You might like to try this with a spring balance. What could you measure?
AC T I V I T Y:
CARTESIAN DIVER
Key idea: Water pressure can affect weight and therefore upthrust.
You will need:
• a water dropper (glass is best, or weight the plastic dropper slightly with
plasticine)
• a plastic juice bottle with a wide neck and a screw top.
Partly fill a small glass or plastic dropper with water so that it just floats. Put it in the
top of a plastic bottle full of water and screw the lid on. The dropper will sink if the
container (with the top on) is squeezed.
Can you work out what is happening when you squeeze the bottle?
Look carefully at the dropper as you squeeze. You may notice the water level
changing.
Vary the conditions: the amount of water in the bottle, the amount in the dropper, try
weighting the dropper, loosen the lid, etcetera. What makes a difference, and why?
9
TO P I C 3
Explanatory note: Squeezing the bottle increases the pressure and drives more
water into the dropper as the air is compressed. The added weight increases the
density to the point where the dropper sinks.
Floating in different liquids

Teaching note: These activities are appropriate for middle years and up.
Key idea: The following activities are linked to the idea of relative density.
Objects that do not normally float can be made to float in water made dense
with sugar or salt. A liquid will float on top of another liquid that has greater
density.
AC T I V I T Y: CO K E
F LO AT
Place cans of ‘diet’ coke and ‘classic’ coke in water. Prediction? Observation?
Explanation?
AC T I V I T Y: E G G S –
CEPTIONAL!
You will need:
• a fresh egg
• salt
• bowls of water.
Place a fresh egg in fresh water, then in salt water. Notice what happens. Put a fresh
egg in a bowl of water, then add salt to the water. The egg will float. Now, with care,
start over again and arrange for fresh water to sit on top of the salt water. The egg will
float—but where?
AC T I V I T Y: P OTAT O
F I S H F LOAT E R
You will need:
• salt
• a container half full of water
• another container of fresh water
• coloured dye
• a potato
• cellophane.
Mix a cup of salt into a container half full of water to make brine. Once this is done,
carefully fill the container with water containing coloured dye. This should sit on top
of the brine.
Make a fish out of a slice of potato, using some coloured cellophane for fins. Place the
fish in a container of fresh water. It should sink. What do you predict will happen if
you put your fish in the container with dyed water and brine? Try it and see.
10
Explanatory note: With the Potato fish activity, it is important to establish that
the potato will sink in fresh water, and to have students make the brine solution
quite concentrated. In both this and the Liquid sandwich activity, students must
pour carefully so as not to mix the solutions.
AC T I V I T Y:
TESTING THE
DENSITY OF
LIQUIDS
You will need:
• plasticine
• oil
• methylated spirits
• salt water
• tap water.
Compare how high an object floats in oil, methylated spirits, salt water and tap water.
Make a hydrometer using a straw and plasticine. Attach the plasticine to the end of
the straw so that it partially sinks but remains upright. Put numbered marks along the
straw to measure the depth to which it sinks in each different liquid.
The scale can be arbitrary. Make up a table showing the relative depth for each
liquid—if you use ‘one’ as the depth marking for water, the depth measure for each
other liquid is a measure of that liquid’s relative density in informal units.
Explanatory note: An object will float higher in brine (salt water) since it needs
to displace less of the denser liquid to counterbalance its weight.
Floating liquids!
Key ideas: Liquids line up with a less dense liquid floating on top of a denser
liquid. Hot water is less dense than cold water. Brine is denser than normal water.
Alcohol and oil are both less dense than water.
11
TO P I C 3
AC T I V I T Y: L I Q U I D
SANDWICH
You will need:
• glycerine
• brine (salt water) or sugar syrup
• tap water
• alcohol (e.g. methylated spirits)
• oil.
Glycerine, brine (salt water) or sugar syrup, water, alcohol (e.g. methylated spirits) and
oil will float one above the other in that order, if they are poured carefully, one at a
time, into a tall glass. This happens because of the different relative densities. The
effect is dramatic if each is coloured with a different food dye. Cream will float on milk
for the same reason.
Drop into these layers some small objects made of plastic, wood, a piece of potato,
etcetera. You will find they will sink through some of the liquids and float at the line
(interface) between liquids, depending on their density.
AC T I V I T Y:
S WA P P I N G
LIQUIDS
You will need:
• two identical glasses

• hot and cold water
• red wine
• cooking oil
• salt.
Fill one glass with normal water with food colouring in it. Fill the other with hot water.
Put a card on top of the glass with coloured cold water. Turn it upside down, and
place it on top of the other glass. Now slide the card so that a small gap is opened
between the two liquids. What would you expect to happen with the hot and cold
water?
Explain what you see.
12
You can explore the same effect with:
• salt water (brine) on top and fresh water below

• water above and red wine below
• water above and oil below.
13
TOPIC 4
Light, vision and colour

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of light, vision and colour 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of light, vision and colour 2
Activities 3
Nature and transmission of light 3
The vision process 9
Effects of two eyes and a brain on the vision process 12
Images in mirrors 18
Multiple mirrors, light and vision 22
Images and rays of light 32
Bending light 36
Colour 42
Introduction
Historically, it was a considerable scientific achievement to understand vision in
terms of the eye as a sense organ that receives light that is scattered from
objects. Early ideas of vision held by thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, and
then the great Islamic scientists, were of vision as some sort of active
engagement of the world by the eye; almost as if some sort of ‘signal’ was sent
out by the eye to perceive objects. Students have difficulty in understanding the
eye as a passive receiver of light. They also have difficulty with the idea of light as
an independent entity that travels through space so that the role of a light
source in helping us to see, and the relationship of colour of an object to the
colour of the illuminating light, is problematic. Further still, ideas about how
images are formed in mirrors and lenses are problematic without scientific
notions of vision, and of light as a travelling entity. It is therefore important to be
aware of the children’s ideas when teaching them about light, vision and colour.
Key concepts of light, vision and colour

Early years
• Sight is a very important sense we use to interpret our world.
• Light is an entity that travels through space in straight lines.
• Some objects (a globe, the sun, a flame) are sources of light; most things we
see reflect light.
• Having two eyes is necessary for judgment of depth.
• The image in a mirror is inverted, and symmetrical with the object.
• Curved mirrors cause images that have distorted shapes when compared to
the object in front of the mirror.
• Coloured lights and paints can mix to form other colours.
Middle years
• We see when light is reflected from objects into our eyes.
• Ordinary surfaces reflect or scatter light in all directions. Mirrors reflect light
at an equal angle to the incoming light. Many surfaces, such as polished
floors, both scatter and reflect light.
• Shadow shapes are areas of no reflected light or areas where the reflected
light is less intense that the surrounding area.
• Most objects we see are due to scattered light from the objects.
• Some surfaces reflect more light than others. Black surfaces reflect the least
light.
• Our brain puts together the stereo view we have of the world. Our eyes and
brain can be misled.
1
TO P I C 4
• An image is produced when light that is reflected or emitted from an object

changes direction before entering the eye to be seen.
• Our image in a mirror is equally far behind the mirror as we are in front of it.
• Light can change direction going into or out of water or glass, which results
in an image of the object that may be a distorted shape when compared
with the object.
• Glass and water can split light into their constituent colours as they bend.
• White light consists of all the rainbow colours.
• Colours of light and pigments can be mixed together in different ways to
give different results. Colours of light mix differently from colours of paint,
pencil or crayon.
Students’ alternative conceptions of light, vision and colour

• Young children often make no connection between the eye and the object
in the vision process. No explanation for the processes of vision is given: ‘we
see with our eyes’ is sufficient explanation for the vision process.
• Older children often think of vision as something emanating from the eye to
the object: a ‘visual ray’, or ‘active eye’ model of vision.
• Older children also think that light only needs to illuminate an object for
vision of that object to occur; this is the ‘general illumination’ model.
• It is possible to see in situations where there is no light; it is totally dark.
• Light is only a source (for example, candle flame), an effect (for example,
patch of light on a wall), or a state (for example, brightness); there is no
recognition that light exists as an entity in space between the source and
the effect it produces (young children thinking).
• Light from dim sources remains at the source; light from other sources of
light travels away from the source a few metres or more, depending on the
brightness of the source (young children thinking).
• Light from a source travels further at night than during the day.
• Shadows are entities independent of light; light allows shadows to be seen,
rather than shadows being a result of absence of light (young children).
• Light stays on the mirror during reflection.
• Light does not reflect off non–mirrored surfaces.
• The image of an object in a plane mirror lies on the surface of the mirror.
• Lenses are not necessary to form images.
• The function of a colour filter is to dye white light the colour of the filter.
• White light is pure, not a mixture of coloured light.
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• The rules for mixing colour paints and crayons are the same as the rules for
mixing coloured lights.
• Colour is an innate property of an object.
Activities
Nature and transmission of light

The following activities are fruitful for exploring students’ ideas about the nature
and transmission of light and the formation of shadows.
Teaching note: Primary–school students find the idea of light as an entity in

itself, travelling through space, a difficult idea. The ambiguity of language does
not help their confusion, since in English we use the word ‘light’ in a variety of
ways. ‘Daylight’, ‘this is the lightest room in the house’, ‘it is becoming less light’ or
‘the fading light’ implies a general state of ‘lightness’ that is different to the
scientific sense of the word. ‘Turn on the light’ and ‘give me a light’ refer to
sources of light. ‘The candlelight flickers on the walls’ refers to the visible effects
of light, while ‘a beam of light’, ‘light from the candle’ or ‘light takes just over
eight minutes to reach us from the sun’ refer to light as an entity that travels. The
last sense is the one most often used in science.
No wonder there is confusion! It is not that there is a ‘correct’ use of the word,
but we need to be aware of the sense in which the word is being used by
students to engage with their ideas. Conversely, one might argue that
understanding ‘light’ requires being able to distinguish between these various
meanings in conversation. These activities are not ‘tricks’, but are interesting
questions designed to engage students with the different meanings of the word
‘light’, and clarify how light and vision are related. They are appropriate for upper
primary and lower secondary school students, if not adults.
A conversation about the candle will usually bring up three senses of the word
‘light’: the flame itself (‘the light stays on the candle’), the effects on the wall (‘I
can see the light out to about a metre, but maybe it would be further in the
dark’) and the light that travels (‘I know it comes as far as me because I can see
the candle’).
The light from the candle travels in straight lines until it hits an object. We see
the candle because light from it enters our eye and is focused by the eye lens on
our retina. The retinal image is then processed by our brain. Therefore, if we can
see a luminous object then light travels at least to our eyes. A scientific
understanding of the vision process then allows us to use the eye as a light
detector.
If we walked backwards from a candle, how far could we go and still see the
flame? Perhaps a kilometre if it was dark. Is that as far as the light travels?
Perhaps if we had a really powerful telescope we could see it from the moon!
(A telescope concentrates the light.) There is no theoretical limit on how far that
light will travel. It spreads out as it goes, of course, and becomes increasingly
difficult to detect.
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AC T I V I T Y:
CANDLELIGHT
Key ideas: Light from luminous objects keeps travelling until it hits something.
Daylight does not affect the amount of light produced from a luminous object
nor does it affect how far light will travel from the object.
You will need:
• a stick of incense
• a candle
• matches.
A stick of incense glows dully. Does it give out light? How far do you think the light
travels, if it is given off?
How would the answer to these questions differ for a candle, or for a light globe?
Candlelight can be seen flickering on the walls of a room at night, but cannot be seen
by day. Why do you think this is so?
Where is there light in this room at this moment? (This question may be asked in
situations where there are no light sources operating in the room, or situations where
the candle is burning and/or fluorescent lights in the room are operating.)
GIVES OFF LIGHT?
Key ideas: Luminous objects give off light. Light from luminous objects keeps
travelling until it hits something.
You will need:
• a series of cards that show a luminous object, or supposed luminous object, in

daylight and night–time situations.
Make up some cards (like those shown below) that show a luminous object, or
supposed luminous object, in daylight and night–time situations. The objects should
include bright and dim luminous objects, as well as non–luminous objects. Also have
situations where the object is in daylight and night–time conditions.
The objects could include:
• a candle (night and day)

• a television (night and day)
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• a mirror
• a light bulb (night and day)
• a moon
• glowing coals (night and day)
• a glow–in–the–dark sticker
• a glowbug toy (night and day)
• a movie screen.
Present these cards, in turn, to the students. Explore the students’ ideas through
asking: Does the object make light? If so, how far from the object does the light
travel? (Does light reach the person? Any further?)
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AC T I V I T Y:
SHADOW SHAPES
Key ideas: Light travels in straight lines. Shadows are areas that have less
illumination than surrounding areas.
You will need:
• a candle or torch
• matches or a lighter
• various objects of different shapes (e.g. a glue stick)
• cards that have cut–out shapes
• a screen.
Arrange an object, say a glue stick, between a screen and an unlit candle or a torch.
Predict the size and shape of the shadow produced when the candle is lit or the torch
is turned on. Predict the size and shape of shadows when the screen is moved
(forward or back), and/or the object is placed at a different level to the light source.
How is the shadow formed?
As well as using different–shaped objects, include cards with a cut–out shape. These
cards will produce an illuminated shape.
DOES LIGHT
T R AV E L ?
Key ideas: Light travels in straight lines. More light reflects off light–coloured
objects than dark–coloured objects. Light reflects in a regular way from mirrors
and in all directions from non–mirrored surfaces.
You will need:
• a torch or slide projector with a slit

• white and black sheets of paper
• a mirror.
In a darkened room, shine the torch, or a slide projector with a slit, onto a sheet of
white paper. Explain how the light is travelling. What will happen if we replace the
white paper with black? Try it. What will happen if we replace the paper with a mirror?
Try it.
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Explanatory note: If the room is quite dark, it is surprising how much more the
room lights up when light is shone onto white paper when compared with black
paper. When a light beam is shone onto the mirror the beam reflects in only one
direction so unless the students are in the path of the reflected beam the mirror
will appear dark.
Reflection from a mirror surface (called ‘specular reflection’) and a non–mirrored

surface (called ‘diffuse reflection’) is shown in the figure below.
The non–mirrored surface reflects light in all directions because it has a rougher
surface than the mirror.
Black paper doesn’t reflect as much light as white paper, as most of the light gets
absorbed by the paper. When an object absorbs light it tends to heat up slightly.
Have you ever wondered why people wear light–coloured clothing in hot
countries?
Figure 4.1 Specular and diffuse reflection
AC T I V I T Y: L E T
THE LIGHT SHINE
THROUGH
Teaching note: Students will have to record how well the light shone through
(e.g. a lot, some, none). These words (or symbols if you prefer) should be agreed
upon beforehand and written on the board for students to refer to. Discuss the
results as a class.
Key ideas: Light passes through transparent objects. Light does not pass
through opaque objects.
You will need:
• coloured and clear glass and plastic containers

• tea cups or mugs
• fabric pieces
• coloured and white paper
• opaque containers
• cardboard boxes
• torches.
Which of the items will let light shine through? Write down your prediction and draw
a picture of the item beside it. Discuss why you predicted this way.
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Working in pairs, test your predictions, first with sunlight, then with the torch. (Make
sure to turn the torches off when not in use!) When testing for sunlight, hold the item
up to the window. When testing for torchlight, hold the torch about 5 cm away from
the item you are testing.
What items let the most light through? Was there a difference between sunlight and
torchlight going through an item? When would you use material that let light pass
through? What materials would you use for a window blind, for example?
AC T I V I T Y:
SHADOW
PUPPETS
You will need:
• a slide projector
• a screen.
Make shadow puppets with a slide projector. How does it happen?
AC T I V I T Y:
S H A D O W P L AY
You will need:
• a cardboard box
• greaseproof paper
• glue
• scissors
• torches
• cardboard
• skewers, sticks or straws
• sticky tape
• a screen.
Make a shadow play. Cut a square hole in the bottom of the box and cover it with
greaseproof paper, using sticky tape to hold the paper. Choose a short story (e.g.
‘Three Little Pigs’, ‘Goldilocks’) for your puppet show or make one up. Cut out
cardboard shapes to match the characters in the story and attach a skewer, stick or
straw to the back of the character with the tape or glue. By shining the torch to the
back of the screen you can cast a shadow onto the cardboard figures and enact the
play.
Explanatory note: In this activity, the production of shadows that have the
same shape as the object is due to the key idea that light travels in straight lines.
As light streams out from the torch, or candle, it continues until it hits
something. See the figure below.
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The arrows in the figure represent the direction of the light streaming out from
the source. It gets stopped by the obstacle and the screen. Notice how this
diagram shows that the shadow will be the same shape as the object but larger.
Figure 4.2 Light streaming from the source
A shadow will form in an illuminated area if the surrounding area is more

brightly illuminated. Also, if the light source is large, or long, as in a fluorescent
tube, any shadows formed by placing objects in front of it will have fuzzy edges.
The fuzzy areas, called ‘penumbras’, are due to some, but not all, of the light
reaching the screen. The figure below illustrates how areas of no light (umbra)
and partial light (penumbra) may be formed.
Figure 4.3 Shadow shapes
The vision process

The following activities explore students’ ideas of the vision process. You may
find through these activities that few students have an idea that light needs to
enter the eye of the observer to be able to ‘see’.
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Teaching note: Students have difficulty with the idea of the eye as a passive
receiver, and this is supported by the everyday language associated with
‘seeing’: ‘cast your eye on that’, ‘her icy stare pierced his defence’. Even ‘look over
there’ has an active ring to it that acknowledges the way we attend to objects,
but misrepresents the physical nature of the visual process.
You may find that very few of the students have a scientific understanding that
light needs to enter the eye for vision to occur. Common alternative conceptions
are shown in the figure below.
Figure 4.4 Alternative conceptions of vision
AC T I V I T Y:
E X P LO R I N G
OBJEC TS
Key idea: The sense of sight is the most important sense for people.
You will need:
• a series of interestingly shaped objects.

Explore several of the objects provided and, for each observation, list the sense that
you used. Consider your data and discuss with your group the conclusions you have
drawn. For example, which sense gave you the most information? Which sense gave
you the least information? Is the dominant sense item–related?
AC T I V I T Y: A B B I E
AND THE TREE
Key idea: To see a non–luminous object, light needs to reflect off the object and
enter the eye of the observer.
You will need:
• a drawing like that shown below

• a darkened room
• a torch.
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In the figure opposite, Abbie is able to see the tree. Draw arrows to show how light
from the sun enables her to see the tree.
Abbie is in bed at night. The curtains are drawn and the lamps in the room are off so
there is no light in the room at all. Will Abbie be able to see objects in her room
without any light? Why? Her cat is also in the room. Can her cat see objects without
any light present? Why?
Allow your eyes to adjust to darkened room conditions. Pair up, so you are looking
into each other’s eyes. Turn on the lights—observe the changing size of the pupils.
Explanatory note: Light must enter the eye of the observer for vision to occur;
this applies to all animals, including nocturnal animals. For humans, improved
vision at night occurs when our pupils dilate to allow more light to enter our
eyes. Nocturnal animals are better able to dilate their pupils, allowing more light
to enter their eyes. Notice that cats’ eyes are slits during the day and circles at
night. Note that nocturnal animals still require light to see; if there is no light
they will not be able to see. Cats’ eyes have an added feature to allow them to
see well in dim light conditions. When light enters cats’ eyes, some of it will be
absorbed by the vision cells at the back of the eye. If the light doesn’t hit a vision
cell it gets reflected inside the eye; some of this reflected light may be absorbed
by a vision cell.
AC T I V I T Y: C A N
YO U F E E L A
S TA R E ?
Teaching note: These activities should expose the students’ thinking in relation
to the vision process. The staring activity exposes the alternative conception that
something emanates from the eye in the vision process. The figure below
illustrates the vision concept. The direction of the light is shown by arrows,
which in scientific circles we call ‘rays’.
Key idea: Nothing emanates from the eye in the vision process.
Think up an experiment to test whether a person is able to ‘feel’ someone who is
staring at them.
For example: Blindfold three students and place them at different positions at the
front of the classroom. On the command of the teacher, the rest of the class will stare
at one of the students (the blindfolded students will not be told which one of them is
being stared at). Can this student ‘feel’ the stares? If so, he or she should raise their
hand.
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When looking at a particular object we often notice other objects to the side of our
direct vision: this is our peripheral vision. While looking straight ahead, test your
peripheral vision for each eye separately and for both eyes together.
Figure 4.5 The vision concept
Explanatory note: If we accept that light needs to enter the eye before vision
can occur, if there is no light then vision of anything is not possible. Therefore,
we can’t see in the absence of light. Many students will say they can. This is
probably due to the fact that few people experience nil–light conditions. Even
on the darkest of nights, there is still some light that allows some vision to occur.
When you step outside on a dark night it is difficult to see, at least initially.
However, after a short time our eyes adjust to the light conditions and our vision
of objects returns. This is because our pupils dilate in dim conditions to allow
more light to enter our eyes. Nocturnal animals see well in dim conditions as
their pupils dilate very well.
Effects of two eyes and a brain on the vision process

With two eyes we receive two different views of the world, and this helps our
judgment of depth and allows us to move about effectively. The brain interprets
the two images with some surprising results. A number of the following activities
emphasise that we see a different perspective with each eye.
Teaching note: The idea of vision as a passive process does extreme injustice to
the role of the eye–brain system in interpreting the light signals falling on the
retina. While the physics can be described in terms of the eye as a receptor, what
the brain does with the signal is highly interpretive and active, and is the subject
of much ongoing research. Knowledge of how we perceive colour, for instance,
has changed radically in the last twenty years, and many optical illusions
illustrate the way the brain actively interprets, enhances and suppresses aspects
of what is seen. In these illusions, when faced with seemingly contradictory
information, the brain flips from one interpretation to another.
12
The secret of having two eyes is that the stereo effect enables us to judge
distance. Humans have in common with other primates a fully frontal set of eyes,
which enables overlapping frontal views of the world and accurate depth
perceptions. This is crucial for the hand–eye coordination that is so important for
making and using tools. With both mammals and birds, whether the animal is a
carnivore or herbivore (i.e. predator or prey) is reflected in eye position. Thus,
rabbits and cows and pigeons have eyes at the sides of their heads that enable
an almost a 360–degree view (why is this helpful?), while cats and foxes and owls
have eyes placed much more forward. A hunter needs a good sense of depth for
the chase!
Humans have a number of mechanisms to judge depth, in fact. The main

mechanism involves two eyes. With two eyes we are able to judge the angle at
which an object must be looked at (greater for closer objects ... have a friend
stare at his or her finger while bringing the hand from outstretched to close up,
and watch carefully what happens to the eyes. They angle in as they follow the
finger). We can also judge how an object sits against the background from each
eye: information which also allows depth judgment. Even with one eye we can
make some depth judgment, based on the placement of objects in front or
behind each other, or their relative size. We also have information from how we
focus on an object. All this is achieved without our conscious awareness, since
we do it constantly!
The early activities in this section demonstrate that we have two views of the
world—one from each eye—that the brain puts together to make sense. In the
case of the Hole in the hand and Merging images activities, the sense is in fact
nonsense. Jumping fingers! illustrates that the information that helps us judge
depth concerns the way an object appears at different positions against the
background, depending on how far away it is. Judging depth illustrates that our
judgment of distance is much reduced with only one eye open.
Other physical effects can be demonstrated to affect our vision. In Eye–fooling

flipper, the fish appears to be in the bowl if the flipper is twirled quickly, because
the image of each lasts a sufficient time on our retina to allow the other side to
appear before it has faded. The images coexist. This ‘persistence–of–vision’ effect
is critical to make sense of a movie, since without the effect we would be aware
of a series of disjointed still images. If the film moves too slowly, we get a
jumping sensation, as happened with early film technology.
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AC T I V I T Y: S E E I N G
IS BELIEVING
Key idea: Our eyes and brain can be misled.
You will need:
• a set of optical illusions such as those shown below.
Look at the illustrations below. Does what you see make sense?
AC T I V I T Y: H O L E
IN THE HAND
Key ideas: Our brain puts together the stereo view we have of the world. Our
eyes and brain can be misled.
You will need:
• an A4 sheet of paper.
Roll the sheet of paper into a tube with a diameter of 3 to 4 cm. Hold it in your right
hand and look through it with your right eye, with both eyes open and staring
straight ahead. Arrange your left hand beside the tube so that your left eye is staring
at it.
You can arrange to view a hole in your friend’s head instead!
Does the position of the left hand matter?
Why does the illusion require you to stare into the distance?
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AC T I V I T Y:
M E R G I N G I M AG E S
Key idea: Our brain puts together the stereo view we have of the world.
You will need:
• a picture of a bowl and fish such as the figure shown below.
Hold your eyes 20 cm from the page and stare at the fish and empty bowl.
Can you put the fish in the bowl?
Explanatory note: In the first instance, the brain uses the image from just one
eye, the dominant eye, to interpret what the person sees as each eye ‘sees’ a
different perspective of the fish and bowl. By staring at the page, the brain
begins to combine the images from each eye into one—the fish appears to be in
the bowl.
AC T I V I T Y:
JUMPING
FINGERS!
Key ideas: Each eye gives a different perspective of the world. Our brain puts
together the stereo view we have of the world.
Hold your finger in front of you, at arm’s length, in front of a distant set of objects,
perhaps at the other end of a room, or across the road.
Close first one eye, then the other. Your finger should jump from one part of the
background scene to another.
Your finger jumps because each eye is looking at it from a slightly different position
and lining it up differently.
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TO P I C 4
Can you arrange your finger and eyes so that your finger can cover both ‘buttons’
below without moving, but only by opening and closing your eyes?
Push me Push me
with your with your
right eye left eye
Why does the position of your finger affect the amount by which it apparently jumps?
AC T I V I T Y:
DETERMINING
YO U R D O M I N A N T
E YE
Key ideas: Our brain puts together the stereo view we have of the world. Our
brain most often ‘sees’ mainly the image from our dominant eye.
Line up your finger at arm’s length, against an object in the background, with both
eyes open. Holding it there, close first one eye, then the other.
Which eye did you use to line your finger up? We tend to favour one eye over the
other when our eyes are sending confusing messages to our brain.
Explanatory note: The brain doesn’t always superimpose the images from both
eyes equally. It uses the image from one eye, the dominant eye, and then fills out
the scene we ‘see’ with parts of the image from the non–dominant eye.
AC T I V I T Y:
JUDGING DEPTH
Key idea: Having two eyes is necessary for judgment of depth.
You will need:
• three pencils of different size and colour

• a blank screen
• a room full of objects.
Our two eyes are useful for judging depth.
Use a pen held at arm’s length to touch an object (the corner of a box, for instance, or
a particular pencil in a case), moving the pen in from the side.
16
Now try it with one eye closed. Is it easier or harder?
Devise a game to challenge your friends!
Hold two different–sized pencils up against a blank screen, at slightly different

distances from your friend.
Have your friend close one eye and tell which is closer. Does opening both eyes help?
Walking around a room full of objects is easy.
Try it with one eye closed. Can you explain the difference?
AC T I V I T Y: E YE –
FOOLING FLIPPER
Key idea: The brain can interpret quickly changing scenes as one merged image.
You will need:
• white card about 9 cm square

• pencil
• a tack Blu–Tack.
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TO P I C 4
Draw a bowl on one side of the square of white card and a fish on the other side.
Attach the card to a pencil using a tack and Blu–Tack. Roll the pencil in your hand so
the card spins. When you spin it fast enough, the fish will appear to be happily in the
bowl.
Images in mirrors
The following activities relate to the concept that the image in a mirror is
inverted and symmetrical with the object. The activities are appropriate for early
and middle years students. Students will tend to think that what we see in a
mirror lies on the shiny surface. In fact the image appears to exist behind the
mirror, in a ‘mirror world’ symmetrical with ours. Images in a mirror appear
inverted. Multiple images, using two mirrors, suffer alternate inversion.
Investigating mirror images can be fascinating.
Teaching note: Younger students can have fun exploring mirrors and their uses
without needing to engage with the subtleties of light travel and reflection
angles. There is a lot to explore with the inversion of images in mirrors, and the
symmetry that exists between an object and its image.
There is quite a bit of useful mathematics that can be explored in symmetry, and
the idea can also be used to explore the natural world, by looking with mirrors at
flowers, leaves, insects, etcetera—either the real thing or photographs. Axes of
symmetry can be found by ruling lines at positions where a mirror can be put to
reproduce the object faithfully.
The symmetry aspects of these activities are straightforward, and can be

extended to many objects and shapes. In terms of the optics, these activities
provide a good opportunity to encourage children to refer to what they see in
mirrors as images, and to point out they are back to front compared to the
object, and perhaps that they appear to lie behind the surface of the mirror. The
idea that the objects are reflected in the mirror could be extended to the notion
that light is reflected by mirrors.
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AC T I V I T Y: W I N K ,
WINK
Key idea: The image in a mirror is inverted, and symmetrical with the object.
You will need:
• a plane mirror.
Look into the mirror and wink. Which eye winks back?
AC T I V I T Y:
MIRROR
M E S S AG E S
You will need:
• a plane mirror and a stand to hold the mirror vertical

• a sheet of paper and a pen
• a piece of carbon paper.
Write your name on a sheet of paper and look at it in a mirror. What do you notice?
Can you make your name read back to front? Upside down?
Can you think of a word that reads correctly when viewed as an image in a mirror?
Write it down and test it out.
With a mirror standing up in front of you, write your name so it appears the right way
round in the mirror. Don’t look at your hand while you are doing this; look only in the
mirror. How do things look in a mirror?
Write your name in the normal way, but with a piece of carbon paper underneath, the
wrong way up. Look at the writing that appears on the underside of the paper. It
looks like mirror writing! Is it? How can you test? Can you use a mirror to read this
writing?
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AC T I V I T Y:
MIRROR MAZES
You will need:
• a plane mirror and a stand to hold the mirror vertical

• a maze like that shown in the figure below
• a pencil.
Make a maze that has to be followed with a pencil from one end to the other. Get a
friend to try to follow the maze, using a mirror standing up in front, and looking in
the mirror only.
When the pencil moves towards you, what does its image in the mirror do? When the
pencil turns left, what does its image do?
AC T I V I T Y: S I L LY
S YM M E T R I E S
You will need:
• a plane mirror and a stand to hold the mirror vertical.
A mirror can be used as a decoder for secret messages. It can also be used to test
symmetry. ‘Symmetry’ is a word we use to describe when things are the same on
different sides. The letter B, for instance, is symmetrical about a horizontal line
through its middle, and that can be tested by placing a mirror along the line and
seeing if the letter still looks the same. The letter A has a different symmetry line (axis
of symmetry). Can you find it? The axis of symmetry is the imaginary line dividing the
parts that are the same. Use a mirror to try to make sense of the following words:
20
BOB DID TAT BED BOD OMO MAT GENE
Can you find any axes of symmetry? Make up some longer words that make sense in a
mirror. Make up some symmetrical numbers! Use your mirror to test for symmetry in
other objects.
AC T I V I T Y:
FAC E I T !
You will need:
• a plane mirror
• photographs of yourself and faces of people in magazines.
We humans are supposed to be symmetrical about a line down our middle. But are
we really?
Find a full–faced photograph of yourself and test, using a mirror, whether you look
the same on the right and left sides. You could test for symmetry in full–face
photographs of people in magazines. You will notice that eyebrows—or wrinkles, or
mouth shape—can be different on either side of the face,, and this can make people
appear to have different personalities on each side of their face.
You can make some weird face shapes using a mirror with magazine photographs.
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If you hold your mirror upright to check for symmetry in the photograph of a face,
where does the image of the half–face in the mirror seem to be? What is happening to
the light to make the image?
Multiple mirrors, light and vision

These activities explore mirrors further to include the concepts that light reflects
off mirrors at equal angles. Multiple reflections of light from mirrors can create
interesting images.
Teaching note: The Lighting system and Seeing around corners activities work
quite well with a piece of card laid out with the box taped down, and circles
drawn to mark A and B positions, and mirrors taped to a rectangular block of
wood.
Students do not have difficulty explaining what happens to torch beams hitting
mirrors, and conversations using a bouncing–ball analogy can bring out the idea
of equal in–out angles. There’s no real need for younger students to talk about
formal angles of incidence of reflection. Younger children, however, are much
more likely to use language that ignores the idea of light (‘the torch bounces off
this mirror onto that and then shines here’). For students of all ages it is difficult
to reconcile the idea of torchlight, and the process of looking in the mirror. Thus,
in talking of the statue in the box, they tend to draw and talk about seeing along
a line into mirror B, which ‘looks at’ A, which then enables the statue to be seen.
22
The order of activity is reversed from the science view, as the mirrors become a
looking device, rather than reflectors of light from the statue.
Similarly, with the Periscope activity, students will explain that the scene (not
necessarily the light from the scene) is reflected by the top mirror down to the
second mirror, and then we look in the second mirror to see it! The science
view—that light is reflected down the periscope and then out to our eyes—
competes with the strong sensation of actively looking in the mirror.
Negotiating or modelling the language of seeing is an important aspect of
teaching about light.
In the Periscope activity, it is only partly convincing to replace the statue with a
torch, and the eye with a screen. The light from the torch that reaches the screen
is exactly the light that enters your eye if you look from where the screen is
placed. With the torch is turned off, this is exactly where you need to be to see
the unlit torch, since light scattered from the torch rim is reflected exactly as the
torchlight was. Does that make sense?
The Candle in a jar illusion uses glass or perspex rather than a mirror and allows
the position of the image to be directly perceived in relation to the real objects
behind. A common mistake is to imagine that a mirror image lies on the surface
of the mirror, almost as if it is acting as a screen.
This trick can be done by placing an unlit candle on the other side of the
perspex. From the lit–candle side, it will look like the candle is alight behind the
screen. If you have an audience in front of the screen you can fool them by:
• asking whether the (unlit) candle will go out when a glass jar is put over it
attempting to put over it
• light a piece of paper with the apparently lit candle, or
• casually leaving your finger in the ‘flame’ while discussing it.
Two mirrors allow some fun with reversed symmetries and multiple images.
These effects can be explained by tracing the path of light as it bounces off one
mirror, onto another and into your eyes. In the case where many images are
seen, the light will reflect back and forth a number of times, each time reflecting
some to the eye to create an image. It is probably easier to think in terms of
images—the image in one mirror acts as an object to be reflected in the second
mirror. This can happen many times over if the mirrors are angled correctly—an
infinite number of times with two parallel mirrors, or three mirrors forming a
triangle, as with the kaleidoscope.
In Multiple images, each successive image will have been reflected once more,
and so each alternate image will be reversed, or the right way round. Thus, every
second image of a written word will be readable!
One way of looking at this is to regard the ‘V’ between the mirrors as an object
world, which is reflected many times to create image worlds in the mirrors. Thus,
for a given angle for the V, the pen will be seen as many times as that angle fits
into 360 degrees. If the angle is 90 degrees (try it), then that is the situation with
the corner mirror, and the non–inversion of the image is because it involves a
23
TO P I C 4
double reflection. This is also the explanation for the periscope image being the
right way round.
Explanatory note: When you look into a plane mirror, do you see your face or
do you see an image of your face? Everyday language would suggest that you
would see your face, but from a scientific perspective you are seeing an image of
your face. We need to make the distinction between an object and its plane
mirror image because, while they are the same size and shape, they are in
different locations. The figure below illustrates this point.
Figure 4.6 An object and its plane mirror image
There are two observers, represented by eyes, where one observer is looking at
the top of a flower and the other observer is looking at an image of the top of
the flower.
Light from a luminous source, presumably the sun, reflects off the top of the
flower in all directions. Some of this light goes directly into one observer’s eyes.
Some of the light also gets reflected off the mirror and enters the eyes of the
other observer.
The observer who sees the flower will get the perception that light is diverging
from one particular point in space (the location of the flower), whereas the
observer who sees the image will get the perception that light is diverging from
another point in space (the location of the image). The significance of the eye in
image formation is important as the image is created when the light enters the
observer’s eye.
When directly observing an object, light from the object travels in a straight
path to the eye. However, if the light from the object is redirected by reflection
off a mirror (plane or curved) or after passing through a transparent material,
then an image is formed and the observer will perceive its location to be
different to that of the actual object. If the redirected light only appears to come
from points in space then the image formed is called a virtual image. In the case
of the plane mirror, the reflected light appears to come from an image located
24
behind the mirror; light doesn’t originate from behind the mirror. The distance
from the image to the mirror is equal to the distance from the object to the
mirror. The line between the object and image cuts the mirror axis at right
angles. This is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 4.7 The line between object and image cuts mirror axis at right angles
In the figure above, the observer on the left will not see an image of object B but
will be able to see an image of object A. Can you explain why?
The light from the object must reflect off the mirror according to the reflection
rule and enter the eye of the observer before an image can be seen.
Where an object is placed in front of multiple mirrors, light from the object
undergoes multiple reflections. Reflected light from the first reflection appears
to come from an image; if this light is reflected from another mirror it will appear
to come from somewhere else, a second image. As each new light reflection
appears to come from another point in space, multiple images can be produced
from the one object.
AC T I V I T Y:
L I G H T I N G S YS T E M
Key idea: Mirrors reflect light at an equal angle to the incoming light.
You will need:
• a torch
• a small cardboard box with a screen glued to its side
• two small (10 cm square) mirrors taped to wooden blocks to enable them to
stand
• an A3 sheet of paper with two circles marked A and B as shown in the figure
below.
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TO P I C 4
Can you use two mirrors so the torch lights up the screen on the side of the box?
Where do you have to put the two mirrors? How do the mirrors have to be angled?
Can you explain what is happening to make the torch light up the screen?
AROUND
CO R N E R S
You will need:
• a toy figure or statuette

• a small box
• two small mirrors as previous
• an A3 sheet of paper with circles marked A and B.
Mirrors can be tricky things. They are used often in shops to give a view of customers
hidden down aisles, or on ‘blind’ corners so that motorists or pedestrians can see
what is coming. They can be used by magicians to create illusions.
Place a small ‘treasure’ behind an upright screen. Why can’t you see it directly? (You
might say ‘You can’t see around corners’. But can you explain why, by talking about
what happens to the light reaching our eyes?)
Here’s a challenge: place a mirror in a position so you can see the treasure behind the
screen. How many positions can you find? How does the mirror have to be angled in
each case?
26
A small statue or figure sits in a box.
Arrange two mirrors, placed on the circles A and B, so you can see the statue in the
mirror at B, from the marked position.
How are the mirrors allowing you to see the statue round the corner?
A FIGURE IN A
MAZE
You will need:
• a small statue or figure

• a set of cardboard screens and tape
• three small mirrors taped together.
Here’s a bigger challenge: use three or four screens to hide the figure in a maze.
Challenge your friend to design a system of mirrors that will enable the figure to be
seen. What is the rule for placing the mirrors?
You could use a secret message instead of a figure. Is the writing ‘inverted’ when
mirrors are used? Does that depend on the number of mirrors?
AC T I V I T Y:
CANDLE IN A JAR
Key idea: The image in a mirror is equally far behind the mirror as the object is
in front of the mirror.
You will need:
• two birthday candles

• a glass jar with small toy figure
• a perspex or glass screen at least 30 cm x 20 cm held vertically by two large,
inverted, bulldog clips.
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TO P I C 4
Place a vertical piece of perspex or glass between a birthday candle and a small figure
in a glass jar. Light the birthday candle and look from its side of the perspex.
Can you see its reflection in the perspex? What is happening to allow you to see the
reflection?
The figure in the jar is on the other side of the perspex. Can you move the candle
around so its reflection seems to be being held by the figure in the jar?
Can you explain why the candle seems to be in the jar?
AC T I V I T Y:
M U LT I P L E I M AG E S
Key ideas: Light from an object that gets reflected by a mirror appears to come
from an image that is located behind the mirror. Multiple reflections create
multiple images.
You will need:
• two mirrors (15 cm x 15 cm, taped together along one edge)

• a pen, paper and a ruler.
Perhaps you have been in the changing rooms in a clothing shop, and seen yourself a
number of times, from the back and side, in the two mirrors supplied. Well, here’s a
way to multiply your pens (a handy thing to be able to do, if you keep losing them) or
even your 10c coins!
Join two upright mirrors together at the edge using tape, and stand a pen or a small
bottle or statue in between. How many images can you see in the mirror?
Change the angle between the mirrors. How many images can you make? What is
happening to the light scattered from your pen, to make so many images?
Rule some lines on your page, or draw some shapes or a word, and look what
happens when the two joined mirrors are placed over them. You should be able to
arrange some interesting and complicated shapes.
28
Use pictures and words from a book or magazine to create some mirror artwork.
If you use words, can their images be read? Can you work out a pattern?
As you bring the mirrors together, so that the angle between them gets smaller and
smaller, you would expect to get an ever–increasing number of images. Of course, as
the angle approaches zero, you can’t see what is happening, but if you unstick the
mirrors and stand them up facing each other with your pen in between, and peek
over the top, you will see the effect. What would you expect to see?
AC T I V I T Y: A N
INFINITY OF
I M AG E S
Key ideas: Light from an object that gets reflected by a mirror appears to come
from an image that is located behind the mirror. Multiple reflections create
multiple images.
You will need:
• two mirrors (15 cm x 15 cm) supported to stand vertically, one with a small hole
scratched in the back
• a small object such as a figurine.
Look through the small hole scratched in the backing of one of the mirrors facing
each other.
This mirror arrangement was used in a Chinese description of what ‘infinity’ means.
Can you see an infinity of images? Why do you see so many? What are the mirrors
doing?
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TO P I C 4
AC T I V I T Y:
CO R N E R
MIRRORS:
THE SURPRISING
WINK
Key ideas: The image produced from a single reflection from a mirror is
inverted. The image produced from a second reflection from a mirror is inverted
twice.
You will need:
• two mirrors as described in the An infinity of images activity above.
Look at your own image in the two joined mirrors, and change the angle until you can
see your face clearly. (If the angle is wrong, you will have a ‘mutant’ face, perhaps
without a nose, or perhaps with one, three or four eves. Don’t be shocked–it’s all done
with mirrors!)
Move your head about. Your image always remains in the centre! Wink your right eye.
Which eye winks back?
AC T I V I T Y:
K A L E I D O S CO P E S
Key idea: Multiple images are produced from an object placed within a
triangular arrangement of three mirrors.
You will need:
• three mirrors, each approx. 2.5 cm x 12 cm

• coloured paper and white paper
• scissors.
Kaleidoscopes have provided an endless source of fascination over the years. They
come in various sizes, sometimes with moving attachments to add interest, or lenses
to give a kaleidoscopic view of the world. A basic kaleidoscope is very easy to make.
Tape three long, thin mirrors together to form a triangle. Put a small object (a word,
or pieces of coloured paper) on white paper and look at it through the kaleidoscope.
30
How many images can you see? What shape are they? Are the images upside down
(can you read the word)? How are the mirrors in the kaleidoscope causing these
effects?
Make a drawing of the effects you see, to show how the images form. What is
happening to the light through the kaleidoscope to create these effects?
You can use the kaleidoscope to create some wonderful effects. Here are some ideas
to try:
• Produce coloured patterns that look particularly good through the kaleidoscope.
• Draw one or two straight lines across the page. What shapes can you make from
them in the kaleidoscope?
• Look at something moving, like a fan or a toy helicopter blade. Perhaps you
could arrange for a disk of different coloured cellophane shapes to rotate in front
of the kaleidoscope.
• Put a clear glass marble or a thick lens in front of the kaleidoscope and see the
world in a new light!
• Put a piece of paper with a slit in front of your kaleidoscope.
• Predict what would happen if you inserted a pencil inside your kaleidoscope. Try
it! (Be careful of your eye.)
AC T I V I T Y:
P E R I S CO P E
Key ideas: The image produced from a single reflection from a mirror is inverted.
The image produced from a second reflection from a mirror is inverted twice.
You will need:
• two small 8 cm mirrors

• a long cardboard tube or cereal box
• scissors or a knife
• sticky tape.
A periscope is useful if you are in a submarine, or if you want to look over a tall wall, or
even if you are in a crowd of tall people and want to see over their heads.
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TO P I C 4
Use a long tube, or cardboard box, to make the periscope. Cut slits and use tape to fix
two mirrors at the right angle to make your periscope. You may have to find a way to
get the mirror angles right. What angles should they be at?
Would you expect the image to be upside down or the right way up? Is it back to
front? If you use the periscope to look around a corner, is the image back to front?
Draw lines to show the path of light through the periscope.
Images and rays of light
AC T I V I T Y: P I N
HOLE CAMERA
Key idea: A pinhole camera creates an image of an object on a screen by light
passing through a small hole.
You will need:
• a cardboard box (long and thin) or black paper tube, or a cylindrical tin
• a pin
• a rubber band
• scissors
• greaseproof tracing paper
• a candle
• matches.
Make a pinhole camera, as shown in the figure below. It is best used in a darkened
room to create an image of a bright scene outside. Any paper would allow an image
to fall on it due to light coming through the pinhole, but the onion skin, or tracing
paper, will allow the image to be seen from the other side. It helps to wrap some dark
paper round to make a ‘tunnel’ in which the screen can be seen.
32
Where would light from the candle tip fall on the paper, if it passes through the
pinhole? Where would light from the bottom of the candle fall onto the paper? Would
the image be the right way up or upside down? Try out the camera. What would
happen to the image of a candle if it was moved downwards? Try it. What would
happen to the image of a candle as it is brought closer to the camera? Try it. What
would happen if the hole was made larger? Try it.
Explanatory note: Both the Pinhole camera, and How big is a mirror? activities
require the idea of ‘ray tracing’ to explain them fully. For the pinhole camera,
light from any point of the scene below the horizon will pass through the
pinhole to fall on the upper part of the image screen, and vice versa. The image
is inverted. The camera design involves a compromise between sharpness and
brightness. If the hole is small, within reason, the light from each point in the
scene creates an equivalent point on the screen leading to a sharp, but dull
image. If the hole is too large, the brightness is improved, but each object point
becomes a patch of light in the image, which becomes blurred.
BIG IS A MIRROR?
Key idea: To see a full image of yourself, you do not require a ‘head–to–toe’
length mirror.
You will need:
• a mirror at least as large as the size of a head

• masking tape.
How big does a mirror need to be for you to see all of yourself in it? How much of a
mirror is needed to see your face?
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TO P I C 4
Use two pieces of tape stuck across a mirror to mark the portion of the mirror needed
to see from the top of your head down to your chin.
How does the distance between the pieces of tape compare with the length of your
head from top to chin?
Perhaps you could try this with a full–length mirror, to see which part of the mirror is
needed to see from the top of your head to the tip of your toes. Would you expect the
same result?
You should find that the mirror needs to be half the length of your head, or body. This
is because you are looking at an image of yourself on the other side of the mirror.
Looking into a mirror is like looking through a window at an image world.
Another way of understanding this is to consider light coming from your toes,
reflecting from the mirror to your eye. The part of the mirror from which the light
reflects is where you look to see your toes, and this is at half the height of your eyes,
because of the way light reflects.
Explanatory note: The mirror size can be worked out by tracing a ray from the
foot, reflecting off the mirror to the eye. This is the point on the mirror at which
the foot can be seen. Any mirror section below this halfway point is not needed
to see the reflection. Refer to the figure below.
Another way of looking at this is to imagine the mirror as a window through

which an image world is viewed. Drawing lines from the eye to the image will
show that this ‘window’ must be half the size of the person.
34
Figure 4.8 Mirror size
AC T I V I T Y:
M AG I C I A N ’ S
I L LU S I O N
Key idea: Part of the light incident on plane glass will pass through; the rest is
reflected.
You will need:
• two dolls (one dressed as a skeleton)

• black paint
• cardboard box
• glass plate
• two shaded lights.
Some famous illusions performed by magicians depend on the use of mirrors. In one
illusion a man sitting at a table gradually disappears to be replaced by his skeleton!
You can make your own version of this illusion using a plate of glass diagonally across
a box painted black. The two dolls (one dressed as a skeleton) are lit by two separate,
shaded lights.
Why is a plate of glass used, rather than a mirror?
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TO P I C 4
The position of the dolls is important. Where must they be? Each light must illuminate
only one doll, and not the other. Why?
Why is the inside of the box painted black?
Explanatory note: If you illuminate the doll the glass plate will act like a
window. From the viewing entrance only the doll will be seen. However, if the
doll’s light is turned off and the light to the skeleton is turned on, the glass plate
will act like a mirror (as do your windows at night). From the entrance one will
now be able to see the image of the skeleton, located behind the mirror at the
same position as the doll.
Bending light
While a proper consideration of the way refracted light creates distorted images
is beyond primary school treatment, the powerful notions of light bending and
images distorting can be readily observed in a range of everyday phenomena.
Explanatory note: Refraction of light is a phenomenon associated with light

passing from one transparent medium into another. For example, refraction
occurs when light passes from air into water. Quite often the light changes
direction when passing from one transparent medium into another. Similarly to
images in plane and curved mirrors, each time light gets redirected an image is
formed.
The effects in each of the activities in this section can be explained by the
redirection of light that comes from the object we are looking at. The redirected
light appears to come from other points in space than the position of the object,
and so we see images of the object. Whereas in plane mirrors we observe exact
copies of the object, when we observe objects through transparent material
such as glass or water we observe distorted copies of the object. The underlying
reason for the effects is that light has changed direction in passing through
transparent materials. The phenomenon where light passes through transparent
materials is called ‘refraction’.
The reason light changes direction in passing from one transparent material into
another is because it changes speed. Light is fastest in space and slows slightly
when it enters our atmosphere. There is a significant drop in speed when light
enters water. Light is slowest in diamond (it is responsible for diamonds
sparkling).
An example of a refraction effect is observing fish in a tank. Because the light

from the fish changes direction at the surface of the water, when it enters the
eye of the observer, the light appears to come from another place than where
the fish actually is. The observer will see an image of the fish.
36
Figure 4.9 A refraction effect
AC T I V I T Y:
DISAPPEARING
CO I N
Key ideas: Light may change direction when passing into or out of transparent
objects. Light from an object that changes direction after passing through a
transparent object will create an image.
You will need:
• a clear round glass full of water

• a small coin
• a sheet of paper
• a saucer.
Your friends won’t like it when you make their money disappear but, on the other
hand, you should be popular when you make it magically reappear!
The coin can still be seen through the top surface of the water, but you might like to
place a saucer on top to stop this being seen.
Place a 5c coin on a sheet of paper. Place a glass full of water over the top. The coin
cannot be seen, looking through the sides of the glass!
37
TO P I C 4
AC T I V I T Y:
A P P E A R I N G CO I N
You will need:
• an opaque cup (china or plastic)

• a small coin
• a jug for water.
Place your 5c coin at the bottom of an opaque (china or plastic) cup, and move your
eye down so that the coin is just hidden by the rim of the cup.
Keeping your head steady, pour water into the glass. The coin comes into view!
AC T I V I T Y:
ENCASED IN
GLASS
You will need:
• biological specimens encased in perspex or glass.
A block of glass or perspex is a wonderful thing! If you look through it from different
directions you will notice some strange effects and distortions. Sides act as mirrors, if
you look through at an angle. Objects appear in strange places.
Ask a friend to hold the block up in front of their eye. It appears to float out from their
face! That is because the block appears thinner than it is, due to the bending of light
(refraction).
38
Look at and through the block. How many observations can you make?
A biological specimen encased in perspex can be seen a number of times, because of

the bending of light coming out of the sides of the block. The specimen seems to be
closer to the surfaces than it really is, and its position seems to shift as you move the
block around. You notice the same thing if you look at fish in a tank. Water and
perspex and glass all bend light as it enters or leaves the surface. Light is wonderful
for creating illusions!
AC T I V I T Y: T H I C K
THUMB
You will need:
• a narrow, cylindrical jar large enough for a finger (3 to 4 cm wide and 6 cm tall)
• water.
Partly fill a small round jar with water. The jar should be slightly larger than your
finger or thumb. An olive jar or spice jar is a good size. Stick your finger in the jar. It
blows up!
But before you call the doctor, think about what you are seeing. Where is the light
being bent?
39
TO P I C 4
Move your finger around in the jar. Is the distortion always the same?
You can create a similar effect in a glass of water, using a tube of toothpaste, a carrot,
or something of similar shape.
AC T I V I T Y:
CHANGE
DIREC TION!
You will need:
• a clear round glass

• water
• a sheet of paper and a pencil
• an upright screen.
Draw an arrow pointing left, on a piece of paper attached to an upright screen. Place
a full glass of water in front of the arrow. If you get the position right, the arrow
changes direction!
Could you use this glass to decode mirror writing?
AC T I V I T Y: G L A S S
ROD READING AID
You will need:
• a glass rod
• a line of writing.
A glass rod, sitting over the top of a line of writing, can give a magnified image. The
light from the page is bent as it passes into the glass and out again.
40
Is the image magnified or shrunk? Is it the right way up?
AC T I V I T Y:
M U LT I P LYI N G
MEASURER
You will need:
• a perspex ruler with trapezoidal cross–section

• a pen.
Do you have a problem with losing pens? Here is a possible answer to your problems!
Place a pen down on the table. Take a perspex ruler, of the type with two angled sides
and a flat centre section, and hold it between the pen and your eye. If you get the
position right, you should see not one but three pens: one in each section of the ruler!
DROPLET LENSES
You will need:
• thin, pliable wire

• water
• a large nail
• scissors to cut the wire.
Take a thin wire and twist it around a nail to form a small loop. If you dip the loop in
water, a small round drop should form inside it. (If it doesn’t, your loop is probably
too large.)
If you hold this loop close to the writing on this page, you should see it has a
magnifying effect. Very early microscopes used drops of liquid, such as honey or
water, for lenses. Some of these were capable of high magnification.
41
TO P I C 4
Explanatory note: The phenomenon of refraction, in which light is bent in

going from air to water or glass, gives rise to distortions. If the glass or light
surface is straight, then the image is not distorted in shape but appears closer to
the surface than it really is. This is the effect we notice when we look down,
standing in waist–deep water. Our legs look fat and dumpy (certainly not true in
real life!) and our feet look closer than they should be. That is, any pool of water
looks shallower than it really is.
In the Disappearing coin activity, the reason the coin cannot be seen is that light
from the coin that hits the side of the glass cannot get out to be seen. It is ‘totally
internally reflected’, and so is trapped inside the glass. This reflected light can be
seen if you look from the top. You will see an upside–down, distorted coin
reflected in the walls of the glass, as well as the coin viewed directly through the
bottom.
In the Appearing coin, the coin can be seen over the rim of the glass because the
light is bent by the water surface. The image of the coin hovers above the actual
coin position, making the water appear shallower than it actually is. This is
related to the swimming–pool effect described above.
Encased in glass involves the glass acting in a similar way to a water surface, with
the glass appearing shallower than it really is, and the insect likewise appearing
close to the surface. The effect increases with the angle of view. Extra effects are
noticed because of the reflections that occur from the inside surfaces.
When the surface is curved, distortions and inversions can occur, as the surface
acts like a lens. This is true of the Thick thumb, in which the curved surface acts
like a magnifier, and also in Change direction. The glass acts as a lens, forming a
back–to–front image of the arrow. The image is formed between the glass and
your eye!
Colour
AC T I V I T Y:
CO LO U R P U Z Z L E
Key idea: Coloured cellophane only allows certain colours of light to pass
through it.
You will need:
• various coloured sheets of cellophane

• coloured paper
• torches.
Look through the coloured cellophane at different coloured paper. What colour do
you see?
Design a method of recording and presenting your results that includes the colour of
the cellophane, colour of the paper without cellophane, and colour of the paper
looking through cellophane.
Create a ‘colour puzzle’ page by arranging coloured cellophane over coloured sheets.
Other members of the group are to identify the colour of the sheet.
42
AC T I V I T Y:
CO LO U R W H E E L
Key idea: Lights of different colour mix differently to coloured pigments in
paints, pencils and crayons.
You will need:
• circular sheets of coloured cardboard, or textas

• circular sheets of white cardboard
• pencil
• scissors
• glue.
Cut out circular sheets of coloured cardboard and divide the circles into segments.
On the white circular cardboard glue segments of two different colours, say green
and red. Alternatively, colour–in segments on the white circular cardboard with
textas.
Put a hole in the centre of the wheel and spin it on a pencil. Observe the coloured
mixture.
Construct a colour wheel which:
• looks brown when spun even though there is no brown on the wheel
• looks green when spun even though there is no green on the wheel.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO LO U R E D
PICTURES
Key idea: Coloured paints can be mixed to create lots of different colours.
You will need:
• red, blue and yellow tubs of paint

• white paper
• a brush, and water for cleaning it between colours.
Use red, blue and yellow paints to create multicoloured squares on the white paper.
How many colours can you create? Take a note of the colours and amounts of paints
you mixed for each coloured square made.
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TO P I C 4
AC T I V I T Y: M I X I N G
CO LO U R E D
LIGHTS
AND PIGMENTS
Key ideas: The primary colours of light are red, green and blue. These primary
colours produce all the colours we see on television or on computer screens. The
primary colours of pigments are cyan, magenta and yellow; these primary
colours produce all the colours we see in magazine pictures and books.
You will need:
• a computer
• a colour printer.
Coloured lights can mixed very effectively using a computer. To do this open a Word
document. Create a rectangle or circle using one of the autoshapes on the toolbar.
Now colour your shape (fill colour) using the palette on the toolbar. You have a choice
of colours or you have a choice of ‘more fill colours’. Enter ‘more fill colours’ and then
enter ‘custom’. This will allow you to create your own colour by adding various
intensities of red, green and blue. Try just mixing red and green.
What mixture do you get? Mix all the colours equally. Try different shades of colours.
Any colour is possible by mixing the right proportions of red, green and blue.
If you can get access to a coloured printer, try mixing the primary coloured pigments.
This can be done by first printing off a series of coloured strips horizontally and over
the top of this sheet reprint a series of vertical coloured strips. The intersections of
the strips coincide with the coloured mixtures. If you mixed magenta ink with green
ink what colour would you perceive when white light is shone onto the mixture?
Explanatory note: We know that to see an object, light must reflect off it and
enter our eyes. We also know that we don’t get blinded when we look at most
objects, which means that some of the light from luminous objects, such as the
sun, gets absorbed by the object. From a scientific perspective, the colour of an
object is the colour of the light that is reflected into our eyes. All the other
colours in the light from the sun gets absorbed by the object (light from the sun
is composed of different coloured light: these are the rainbow colours—red,
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet).
This view contrasts with most people’s understanding of coloured objects. That
is, objects are composed of particles that are coloured. This misconception is
reinforced often in our everyday speech. For example, to say ‘I’m wearing a red
44
jumper’ implies that the jumper is made of red particles. To be scientifically

accurate one should say ‘I’m wearing a jumper that will reflect red light’. Objects
are not composed of coloured particles. They just reflect certain colours of light
and absorb other colours. The figure below indicates how we perceive the colour
of an apple.
Figure 4.10 Colour of an apple
Just as white light can be split into the colours of the visible spectrum, coloured
light can be recombined to form white light. However, all the colours are not
needed for humans to perceive white light. Three colours are required: red, blue
and green. These are the primary colours for light. A colour television uses these
three colours. Mixing paired combinations of these colours produces the
secondary colours for light. For example, mixing red and green produces yellow.
Then mixing yellow and blue will produce white light. Thus yellow and blue are
said to be complimentary colours of light. Two primary colours add together to
produce the complementary colour of the third primary colour. Refer to the
table below.
Table 4.1 Mixing the primary colours of light
Colour mixture Resultant colour Complimentary colour
Red + Green Yellow Blue
Blue + Green Cyan (aqua) Red
Red + Blue Magenta (crimson) Green
The primary colours for pigments (ink colours in printers) differ from the primary
colours of light. The primary colours of pigments are cyan, magenta and yellow.
Newspapers, magazine and book printers use just these coloured inks in their
printing. In producing colours such as red, blue and green, consider the
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TO P I C 4
following example. A cyan ink will reflect both blue and green light when white
light is incident upon it (as suggested by the table above) and absorb red light.
Similarly, yellow ink will reflect both red and green light but absorb blue light if
white light is incident. Therefore, by mixing cyan and yellow inks, both blue and
red light will be absorbed, leaving only green light to be reflected. Cyan plus
yellow pigments make a green pigment. By mixing all the coloured pigments we
should achieve black, as none of the primary colours of light are reflected if
white light were to be shone onto the mixture.
Figure 4.11 Pigments
The table below gives all the resultant colours from mixtures of the primary
colours of pigments.
Table 4.2 Mixing the primary colours of pigments
Colour mixture Resultant colour

Cyan + Yellow Green
Yellow + Magenta Red
Magenta + Cyan Blue
This colour theory only uses six colours, but the human eye can perceive an
almost limitless number of different colours. However, televisions employ just
the three primary colours of light and printing uses just the three primary
colours of pigments in inks. (Printers also use black ink to reproduce colours.)
Therefore, various strengths and combinations of colour mixtures can produce
the variation in colours that we perceive.
46
TOPIC 5
Sound and music

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of sound and music 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of sound and music 2
Activities 2
Sound and the language of sound 2
Types of sound 6
Sound and vibration 7
Sound travels 9
Sound in our lives 15
Musical instruments and sound 16
Introduction
Why do we see lightning before we hear the thunder? How do we amplify sound
and how do we reduce it? How is it we can hear at all? Sound is all around us
every day and it is important for students to understand how and why we hear
in order to manipulate their surrounding environment.
Key concepts of sound and music

Early years
• We hear sound with our ears.
• Our sense of sound is very sharp.
• Sound travels through air.
• Sound travels through water and solid objects.
• We use two ears to judge where sounds come from.
• Sound bounces off surfaces (echoes).
• Sound is caused by vibrating objects.
Middle years
• Sound can vary in pitch (or frequency) and loudness.
• The pitch (or frequency) of sound is related to the speed of vibration of the
sound source. The more vibrations per second, the higher the pitch.
• The loudness of sound is related to the size of vibration of the sound source:
the larger the size of vibration, the louder the sound.
• Sound needs a material medium through which to travel.
• Sound travels faster through solids and liquids than through air.
• Sound is a travelling vibration that moves through a medium such as air,
water or solid objects.
• Sound can bend around corners and spread out after passing through gaps.
• Objects have their own natural vibration pattern and can give a
characteristic note when hit (or blown).
• Large or long objects vibrate more slowly, causing sounds of lower pitch (or
frequency).
• Objects can be made to vibrate in sympathy with others that have the same
pitch (or frequency).
• Sounding boards amplify sound, and are important in instruments.
• Vibrating strings form the basis of stringed instruments.
• Vibrating air is the basis of wind instruments.
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TO P I C 5
Students’ alternative conceptions of sound and music

• Students find it difficult to express a mechanism for how sound travels.

• The loudness and pitch (or frequency) of sounds are confused with each
other.
• You can hear and see a distant event at the same moment.
• Hitting an object harder changes its pitch.
• In a telephone, actual sounds, rather than electrical impulses, are carried
through the wire.
• Sound moves faster in air than in solids (air is ‘thinner’ and forms less of a
barrier).
• Sound moves between particles of matter (in empty space) rather than
matter.
• Sound can travel through space.
• In wind instruments, the instrument itself vibrates, not the internal air
column.
• The pitch of whistles or sirens on moving vehicles is changed by the driver
as the vehicle passes.
Activities
Sound and the language of sound

This topic is about making children aware of the idea of sound and what makes
sound. In order to do this we need to develop a language that allows them to
discuss sound. It is this language development that is focused on when teaching
this topic to Prep/Year 1 children. Accordingly, the following activities are
suitable for Prep and Year 1 students.
Teaching note: It is useful to explore young children’s perceptions of how sound

is made to gain an understanding of their level of conceptual engagement. In
order to do this it is instructive to get children to describe what is happening,
supported by drawings. A question such as ‘How does a drum make a sound?’
can provide insights into students’ thinking. Taken from a British research
project, the following illustration of an activity where a drum is struck shows a
variation in understanding.
2
AC T I V I T Y: ‘ W H AT
IS SOUND?’
PROBE
Key idea: Sound is caused by vibrating objects.
You will need:
• a toy drum.
Start off by banging a toy drum. What makes the drum sound? Write an explanation,
using a drawing. Discuss with the class what is happening to the drum to make a
sound.
AC T I V I T Y: P L AC E S
WITH SOUNDS
Key idea: We hear sounds with our ears.
You will need:
• pictures of locations where sound is prevalent.

Display a number of pictures, for example, city street, airport, farmyard. Ask students
to list the sounds they would hear from the pictures they see—roar of engines,
screech of tyres, etc. Ask the students to choose a sound each, and, as a group, create
a sound picture.
AC T I V I T Y:
L I S T E N I N G WA L K
Take the students on a listening walk. Groups then make a paste–up picture of the
sources of the sounds heard. Each child then chooses a sound, then the class makes a
sound picture as a paste–up picture.
3
TO P I C 5
S O U N D I S T H AT ?
You will need:
• storybook: The listening walk by Paul Showers (1963, Adam & Charles Black,
London)
• a recording of sound effects.
Read The listening walk to the class. Then listen to a record or tape of sound effects.
Ask the students to identify the sounds and guess how these sounds are made.
AC T I V I T Y: F R O M
WHICH
DIREC TION IS THE
S O U N D CO M I N G ?
Key idea: We use two ears to judge where sounds come from.
You will need:
• a blindfold.
Conduct an activity with a blindfolded person identifying the direction from which
clapping sounds appear to come. Try with one ear, then two ears. What is the
advantage of having two ears?
To lessen the sound of movements made by the person making the clapping sound,
have a group of students surround the student who is seated and blindfolded. The
teacher can then point to specific students, who will clap their hands.
Explanatory note: We have what is called ‘binaural hearing’. This means we hear
with both ears. This helps us to determine the direction of the sound source. A
source to the left of you will produce sound that reaches your left ear before it
reaches your right ear. The brain interprets this time delay as a sound source to
your left. Incidentally, you can’t, using just your hearing, determine whether a
sound is coming from directly in front of you or directly behind. Try your own
experiment.
AC T I V I T Y:
TA P P I N G B L I N D
Key idea: We use two ears to judge where sounds come from.
You will need:
• a blindfold
• a stick to be used as walking stick.
Use a blindfold to make yourself totally dependent on sound to find how to get
about. Take a stick and tap it in front of you as you walk slowly towards a wall. You
need a solid floor to do this effectively.
4
Listen carefully to the sound of the tap as you approach the wall. You need a quiet
room to do this effectively. You should find that you are able to tell when the stick is
about to hit the wall.
How would you describe the change in sound as the stick approaches the wall? Can
you suggest why the sound should change?
Explanatory note: As you get closer to the wall, the sound you produce at the
floor reaches your ears in addition to the sound that is reflected off the wall.
There is a slight delay between receiving the direct sound and the reflected
sound, so each tap on the floor will sound a little longer. Theatres are designed
to make sounds come to the audience as well as reflect off barriers. This has the
effect of increasing the quality of the sounds made from the actors and/or
musical instruments on stage.
AC T I V I T Y: E A R
TRUMPET
Key ideas: Sounds bounce off surfaces. Reflected sound can add to direct sound
to make a louder sound.
You will need:
• a sheet of A4 paper.
Fold a piece of paper into a trumpet shape, and use it as a funnel hearing aid.
How would you describe the difference it makes to sounds? Why do you think it
makes a difference?
Explanatory note: The sound entering the funnel reflects a number of times
and converges to the centre of the trumpet. In this way the intensity of the
sound increases; it becomes louder.
AC T I V I T Y:
SINGING IN A
BUCKET
Key idea: Containers make good echo chambers.
You will need:
• a metal bucket.
Put your head in a bucket and sing (or talk if you’re not confident about your singing
voice).
In what way is the sound of your voice different?
Can you get the same effect by holding the bucket near your mouth?
How do you think the bucket affects the sound?
Explanatory note: Sound from your voice reflects off the insides of the bucket
and adds to the sound from your voice. What you hear is a richer sound. The
same effect is noticed when walking into a room with a hard floor and no
furniture compared with walking into a room with furniture and carpets.
5
TO P I C 5
Types of sound
The following activities explore the sense of hearing. They also enable the
language of sound to be investigated and developed. Although, as with most of
the activities supplied, with adaptation they can be used for all age groups, the
following are most suitable for Year 2 and above.
AC T I V I T Y: W O R D S
ABOUT SOUNDS
Write down a list of words that describe different types of sound and/or the methods
of making them. Find a way of classifying these sounds under such headings as
‘sounds made by people’, ‘sounds made by machines’, etcetera.
AC T I V I T Y:
SOUNDS!
You will need:
• a tray
• a stone
• a coin
• a marble
• a pencil
• a biro
• a rubber
• a piece of paper.
Prop up one end of the tray. Look at the things you have collected. Blindfold your
partner. Roll each object, one at a time, down the tray. The blindfolded person is to
work out which object is being rolled.
AC T I V I T Y:
DESCRIBING
SOUND
You will need:
• a blindfold
• various objects that make sounds.
Blindfold a partner, then use the objects to make three sounds in turn. Have your
partner identify the sounds.
Write down two words describing one of the sounds. Have your partner identify the
sound referred to.
6
AC T I V I T Y:
LISTENING POSTS
Key ideas: We hear sounds with our ears. Sounds can vary in pitch and loudness.
You will need:
• a blindfold
• various objects that make sounds.
Sit blindfolded quietly in a room, or move outside and sit quietly for 2 minutes. Write
down a description of any sounds you hear.
Sound and vibration

Sound can be made in many different ways and is always caused by vibration.
The type of vibration results in the type of sound produced. The vibration
activities mostly give tactile or visual evidence of vibrations associated with
sound. They render visible the invisible. It is instructive to get students to
describe what is happening, supported by drawings.
AC T I V I T Y: T U N I N G
FORKS
You will need:
• a tuning fork
• a ping–pong ball suspended with a length of thread
• a transistor radio
• a balloon
• a glass of water.
Strike a tuning fork and have it touch a suspended ping–pong ball, or the surface of a
glass of water. Write a description to explain your observations.
Hold your hand against the speaker of a transistor radio. Turn the volume up. What is
vibrating?
Hold your head back and touch your throat lightly while saying ‘eeeeh’ with your
teeth together. What is vibrating?
Hold a balloon against your nose, then speak. Feel the vibration with your hands.
Have another person speak to the balloon. Describe the process by which the balloon
is caused to vibrate.
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TO P I C 5
AC T I V I T Y:
DIFFERENT
SOUNDS
You will need:
• a wooden ruler
• a dinner fork
• an elastic band
• various containers
• a drum or tambourine
• uncooked rice
• bottles or jars containing water
• a comb.
Make as many different sounds as possible with:
• a wooden ruler
• a dinner fork
• an elastic band wrapped around various containers
• a drum or tambourine (put a sprinkling of rice on it)
• a series of bottles or jars containing water
• a comb and various surfaces around the room.
Make a list of words to describe these sounds and the way they are made.
Explanatory note: For most of the objects the source of the sound is the object
itself: it vibrates. However, in addition to the object, a column of air may also
vibrate, as in the column of air within a container with an elastic band. Two types
of sounds can be made with the bottles or jars: tapping on the side vibrates the
glass and water; blowing across the top of the bottle or jar vibrates the air
column within.
AC T I V I T Y:
V I B R AT I N G R U L E R
Key idea: Sound can vary in pitch (frequency) and loudness.
You will need:
• a table
• a ruler.
Place a ruler so it lies flat and protrudes over the edge of a table. Set the ruler
vibrating by holding one end firmly against the table.
What is happening in the ruler to make the sound? What must be done to the ruler to
obtain a louder sound? What is happening in the ruler to get a loud sound?
What must be done to obtain a higher pitched sound? What is happening in the ruler
to obtain a higher pitch?
8
Explanatory note: The vibrating ruler is the sound source. The greater the
amplitude of vibration, the louder the sound will be. The higher pitch is achieved
where the ruler is shortened (the ruler extends a shorter distance over the edge
of the table). In this situation the speed of vibration is greater. The greater the
speed of the vibrating source, the higher the pitch of the sound.
Sound travels
Sound will travel through a range of materials, at different speeds. If you put
your head against a railway line you can hear the train coming because the
metal transmits sound very efficiently. Whales are able to communicate over
large distances through sea water. The String telephone and Utensil chimes
activities illustrate the passage of sound through strings. In Utensil chimes there
is an added interest because the sound is nothing like the sound through air ... it
is deep and resonant and lasts quite a while. This is because the string transmits
energy efficiently to your ear, and it also tends to favour the low–frequency
components of the sound and suppress the jangling, high–frequency
components.
With the String telephone activity in particular, it is instructive to ask students to

describe how sound is transmitted from one person’s mouth to the other
person’s ear.
The first activity, Sounds in the distance, is about the slow speed of sound travel.
Sounds travel through the air at a high speed, but not as fast as light, which is
why we see lightning before we hear the thunder during an electrical storm.
These activities are suitable for Year 3 and above.
AC T I V I T Y:
SOUNDS IN THE
D I S TA N C E
Key idea: Sound travels faster than light.
You will need:
• a drum, tree or rubbish bin

• a stick.
Have someone in the distance hit a drum, tree or rubbish bin with a stick. Is the sound
heard at the same time as the striking is seen?
Write down what you think is happening and how you hear the sound.
Explanatory note: Sound travels at about 330 m per second in air; sound travels
1 km every 3 seconds. Light, on the other hand, travels at 300 000 kilometres per
second. You can estimate how far away lightning occurs if you determine the
time, in seconds, between seeing lightning and hearing thunder. Divide the time
by three; the answer will give the number of kilometres to the location of the
lightning and thunder.
9
TO P I C 5
AC T I V I T Y:
I N V E S T I G AT I N G
DIFFERENT
ASPEC TS OF
SOUND
Key idea: Sound bends around corners and spread out when passing through
apertures. Sound reflects off objects.
You will need:
• a loudspeaker.
Design some experiments appropriate for investigating the following:
• Does sound bend around corners? How much?

• How are loudspeakers designed?
• How effective is cupping your ears to hear soft sounds?
• Does sound reflect from some surfaces better than others?
Explanatory note: Sound bends around corners very easily. You only need to
have a door to a room slightly open for sound to travel through and spread out.
Loudspeakers are designed so that the central part, called the ‘diaphragm’, can
freely vibrate. Cupping your ear increases the loudness of the sound; it is the
same explanation as given in the Ear trumpet activity. Sound reflects best off
smooth surfaces.
AC T I V I T Y: S T R I N G
TELEPHONE
Teaching note: Young children have difficulty coordinating their holding and
speaking and listening in this activity.
Key idea: Sound travels through solids. Cavities, or resonating chambers, can
amplify sound.
You will need:
• two plastic cups

• string (5 m).
10
Make a string telephone from two plastic cups and a length of string. Stretch the
string telephone tight. One student talks into one can, while the student at the other
end puts their ear to the other can.
How does the sound get from the speaker to the listener (describe the steps)?
Investigate the conditions for the sound to travel. Does the string need to be tight?
Why/why not? Does it work when someone holds the string? Why/why not?
Hold the string between your thumbnail and forefinger and scrape along it. How
does that sound? Can the sound be made to travel around a corner? (Try holding the
string with a rubber band.)
What are two questions you could ask about the string telephone that could be
answered by an investigation? Answer your questions.
Explanatory note: When you speak into the cup of the string telephone, the
cup acts as an echo chamber to amplify the sound (the phenomenon is called
‘resonance’ and the cup acts as a resonating chamber). This amplified sound
travels down the taut string as a vibration (sound is just a travelling vibration).
The string needs to be taut for the vibrations to travel any appreciable distance.
As the vibrations reach the second cup resonance occurs again. If the taut string
rests against other objects the travelling vibrations pass into these objects. This
leaves fewer vibrations to travel to the other cup and so the telephone will not
work as well (or at all!).
AC T I V I T Y:
UTENSIL CHIMES
Key idea: Sound travels through solid objects.
You will need:
• forks and spoons

• string.
Hang a series of forks and spoons from a string. Press the ends of the string against
your ears. Have a friend jangle the forks and spoons together. A similar effect can be
created by a coathanger dangling from a string. A fork tied to the string in the string
telephone, and struck, also gives the same effect.
Explanatory note: You will hear the sounds of the jangling forks and spoons
very well. This is because the vibrations are travelling along the string. Normally,
sound travels to your ears through the air from the sound source. The sound
spreads out in all directions from the source, so by the time it reaches your ear
the sound is less intense. When the sound travels along the string it spreads out,
so the intensity of the sound remains high.
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TO P I C 5
AC T I V I T Y:
S C R ATC H I N G
SECRETS
Key idea: Sound travels very efficiently through solids.
You will need:
• a table
• a wooden ruler.
Put your ear against a tabletop while someone scratches softly at the other end.
Could this be used as the basis of a communication system?
Have a blindfolded friend sit at the other end of the table, resting his/her head on the
table. One student holds up their fingers to indicate a number. Can you mentally
concentrate on that number, and send it to your friend using telepathy?
You will be able to let your friend know the number, but not by telepathy! If you
scratch very quietly under the table a number of times, your friend will be able to
hear this and count, without the rest of the class hearing. Sound travels very
efficiently through wood or metal.
AC T I V I T Y: R O L E –
P L AY:
TRANSMISSION
OF SOUND
Teaching note: This role–play model successfully explains the following:
• A disturbance can move along a material without the material moving with
the disturbance; this is called a ‘wave’. Thus energy can transfer from a
source to surrounding material, including eardrums. Sound may then be
imagined to be a travelling disturbance; a soundwave.
• The particles in the material surrounding the vibrating source vibrate at the
same frequency as the source. This incudes the eardrum; the eardrum
vibrates at the same frequency as the sound source.
• Sound cannot travel through empty space. If we run our model with no
people between the first and last person then a disturbance cannot be
transmitted. We must assume in our model that the person representing the
ruler can only move forward a short distance before moving backwards. An
interesting observation can be made when watching space movies during
scenes when spaceships get blown up in space and can be clearly heard.
• Sound travels faster in more dense materials such as water and wood. If we
‘run’ our ‘people in a row’ model over the same distance and compare a lot
of people with just a few then it is quite noticeable that the disturbance
moves more quickly with a lot of people. When comparing air to water or
wood, the particles in air are much further apart than they are in water or
wood.
12
• As the disturbance can travel much more easily in dense materials, sound
travels farther in dense materials.
• The disturbance that travels through the material is forwards and backwards
to the direction of the disturbance, not sideways to it. This forwards–and–
backwards motion of the particles in a material that produces a travelling
disturbance is called a ‘longitudinal wave’. Sound is classed as a longitudinal
wave phenomenon. However, if the particles in the material move sideways
to the travelling disturbance, as occurs in water waves, it is called a
‘transverse wave’. We shall see later that light may be imagined as a
transverse wave phenomenon.
The role–play model does not explain the following:
• The energy that is transferred in each collision is less than the previous
collision as each particle collides with a number of particles. This means that
sound only travels a certain distance. With the role–play model the students
representing the air particles may give themselves extra energy (children
will be children!) to sustain the travelling vibration.
• Be careful to note that in the model the air between people represents
space between the actual air particles. Sound must be imagined to be a
travelling disturbance caused by vibrations and collisions in the particles of
the material in which the disturbance moves. Therefore sound should not be
considered a separate entity that travels through a material. It is very much
related to the particles’ motion in the material.
• From the way we understand matter, the particles that make up matter are
in constant motion, continually colliding into each other. The travelling
disturbances we call sound are added collisions that occur constantly. The
particles in a gas, such as air, are moving around faster than in a solid such
as a piece of wood. This natural movement of particles inhibits the progress
of a travelling vibration (soundwave), which is another reason why
soundwaves travel further in solids such as wood than in gases such as air.
• Reflection of sound (although you may picture how it could be done).
Key idea: Sound is a travelling vibration through a medium.

To understand sound transmission, let us take the example of the vibrating ruler and
someone some distance away hearing the sound. To represent the transmission of
sound from the ruler to the ear, consider the following role–play model. In this model
a person who moves forwards and backwards (vibrates) represents the sound source
(in this case the ruler), another person represents the ear and is located some
distance away from the person representing the ruler. To represent the air between
the ruler the model requires a line of people. Each person represents a particle of air.
The model is shown in the figure below.
13
TO P I C 5
To ‘run’ the model the first person (student source) moves forward, thus bumping the
next person (student particle), who then bumps the person next to them
(neighbouring student particles), and so on. You will then notice that a disturbance
has moved along the entire row to the end person (student eardrum). Notice also that
while the student particles only move a short distance, the disturbance passes all
along the line of student particles. This travelling disturbance is what is termed a
‘soundwave’.
If we continue running the model, then the first person moves backwards and
forwards (vibrating ruler). This sets up a vibratory motion in the neighbouring people
(air particles) as they rebound from the person in front of them and the person
behind them. This model then predicts that the particles in the air vibrate at the same
frequency as the sound source, and the travelling disturbance (wave) through the air
will result in the eardrum also vibrating at the same frequency as the sound source. A
soundwave is just a travelling disturbance through a medium.
Role–play the transmission of sound. How does your model change when comparing
sound travel in wood versus air? What about sound travel through space? What does
this model predict about the speed of sound in air compared to the speed in wood?
AC T I V I T Y:
V I S UA L I S I N G
S O U N D WAV E S
Teaching note: With this activity, students can connect the vibration of the
sound source with the representation often given for sound in voice recognition
images seen on television programs.
Key idea: Soundwaves are travelling vibrations through a medium.

You will need:
• a long strip of the paper used in cash registers

• a texta
• cardboard
• a bench
• sticky tape.
14
Make a cardboard sleeve that the strip of paper can move through freely. The top of
the sleeve should have a rectangular window. Attach the sleeve to a bench.
The strip of paper should be fed through the sleeve at a constant rate. At the same
time, someone vibrates a texta, drawing on the paper through the window. A wave
pattern is then observed on the paper that has been fed through the sleeve. Look at
the patterns for large vibrations (these model loud sounds) and high/low frequencies
with the pen (these model high–/low–frequency sounds).
After completing a few patterns, predict the shape of the patterns formed. Connect
each pattern to the type of sound it represents: soft or loud sound and/or high/low
frequency.
FA R C A N S O U N D
T R AV E L T H R O U G H
SOLIDS?
Key idea: Sound travels very well through solids and liquids.
You will need:
• a fence or railing that has a continuous length of wood or metal

• a tuning fork.
Have one person place the base of a tuning fork at one end of a piece of metal (the
top of a metal or wooden fence or railing). Move some metres away and hold your ear
close to the fence. What do you notice? Why? You don’t need a tuning fork for this
activity; you could tap with a ruler. If you have access to a long piece of metal (not a
railway line), determine the maximum distance from the sound source for which the
sound can still be heard.
Sound in our lives

Teaching note: Sound plays a very important role in our day–to–day lives. Some
sounds are used to indicate danger or to grab our attention. This activity
explores students’ perceptions of these everyday sounds and is suitable for all
year levels, but probably works best for middle years students.
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TO P I C 5
AC T I V I T Y:
LISTING SOUNDS
Key idea: Sounds vary in pitch, or frequency, and loudness.
Construct a list of sounds we come across in our day–to–day lives, listed under such
headings as:
• sounds for communication

• sounds for pleasure
• sounds that qualify as ‘noise pollution’
• sounds indicating danger, etcetera
• organisations or institutions that need to have a policy on noise.
Musical instruments and sound

Making music is an excellent vehicle for introducing and refining ideas about
sound. These activities mainly concern the control of pitch, and vibration, but
understandings about resonance and sound intensity are also promoted.
Although musical instruments are useful for teaching sound at any level, these
activities relate properties of instruments to pitch and are therefore suitable for
middle years students. The activities involving mathematics are more suited to
the upper levels.
AC T I V I T Y:
ELASTIC–BAND
G U I TA R
Key idea: Sounding boards amplify sound, and are important in instruments;
vibrating strings form the basis of stringed instruments—the greater the tension
in the string, the higher the pitch.
You will need:
• an elastic band
• a hardcover book
• a plastic cup.
Stretch the elastic band around the book and cup. Pluck the band in various places.
Can you get three different notes with this instrument?
16
Here’s a challenge! Without changing the position of the cup, but by adjusting the
elastic band, can you make the longest section of the band give the highest note?
Can you make it play the lowest note? Which section sounds the loudest? Can you
think of a reason why?
Explanatory note: The Elastic–band guitar activity involves the following ideas:
• The tighter the string/elastic, the higher the note (and faster the vibration).
This is the principle on which guitars or violins are tuned.
• The longer the string, the lower the note, because of slower vibrations.
• The thicker the string/elastic, the lower the note (again because of slower
vibrations).
• The loudness of the sound is enhanced by a sounding box, in this case the
cup itself picks up the vibration and amplifies it out through the open
mouth; a phenomenon called ‘resonance’.
AC T I V I T Y: S T R AW
OBOE
Key idea: Vibrating air is the basis of wind instruments.
You will need:
• scissors.
Cut the end of a drinking straw into a V section. If you press your lips against the part
marked ‘L’, and blow, you should, with a bit of practice, be able to make the straw
sound a musical note.
What do you think is causing the sound? Cut pieces off the end of the drinking straw
as you blow! How does the sound change? Use your straw to make a very high
whistle. You can join a number of straws together to make one long straw. How do
you think it will sound?
If you have a wider straw to fit over your first straw, you can slide it up and down to
change the length. What instrument works like this?
Explanatory note: The straw oboe works rather like a reed instrument, with the
V section vibrating to cause the sound. The sound is picked up by the air inside
the straw, which vibrates and causes a note that depends on the length of the
straw. The shorter the straw, the higher the note. The oboe can be quite tricky to
play, but you can feel the vibration against your lips once it is sounding. You can
join two or three straws together to make a long and very low–sounding oboe.
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TO P I C 5
AC T I V I T Y:
MUSICAL
B OT T L E S
Teaching note: With older students it would be a useful exercise to extend this
activity into mathematics.

You will need:
• a row of identical glass bottles.

Line up a row of identical glass bottles. Blow across the top of each. Do they sound
the same? Tap each with a fork or metal key. Why does tapping and blowing cause
different sounds? What is causing the sound in each case?
If you fill the bottles to different levels with water, and line them up in order of water
height, then tapping them will show that the fullest bottle has the lowest pitch. But if
you blow across the necks you will find that the order is reversed.
It is possible to tune the bottles to give a series of scale notes. The following amounts
(in mL) will give the C–D–E–G notes (not concert pitch!) that will play ‘Mary had a little
lamb’.
Table 5.1
C D E G
For a 1 L milk bottle:
For tapping 520 430 360 Empty
For blowing Empty 140 290 500
For a 750 mL tonic or soda water bottle:
For tapping 535 400 300 Empty
For blowing Empty 120 205 390
18
Explanatory note: The musical bottles work differently depending on whether

you tap or blow the bottles. What you should find is:
• the bottle with the smallest amount of air should give the highest note
when you blow
• the bottle with the smallest amount of water should give the highest note
when you tap.
When you blow, the air inside the bottle vibrates and the smaller the amount,
the faster the vibrations. When you tap, the bottle with water in it vibrates, and
the water acts to slow down the vibration, causing the opposite pattern. With a
good ear and a bit of persistence, you can coax the bottles into tune either for
blowing or tapping, but not both at once.
AC T I V I T Y: PA N
PIPES
Teaching note: This activity is suitable for middle years students.

You will need:
• seven or eight drinking straws

• scissors
• masking tape
• cardboard.
Pan pipes can be made with a series of drinking straws of different lengths taped
together. Cut the straws into different lengths and, using the masking tape, attach
them to the cardboard in descending order.
Play the pipes by blowing across the tops of the tubes, which are tuned by carefully
adjusting their lengths. The shorter the length, the higher the note.
The ratio of the lengths determines the relative pitch of the notes. If two lengths are
in simple ratios such as 1:2 (an octave), 2:3 (a musical fifth) or 3:4 (a fourth), the pipes
will sound pleasing when played together.
Table 5.2 The table below shows the relative lengths necessary to make a major scale.
Interval Relative length Fraction of straw length
Unison 1.0 Whole straw

Major tone 0.89 8/9
Major third 0.80 4/5
Fourth 0.75 ¾
2
Fifth 0.67 /3
Major sixth 0.60 3/5
Major seventh 0.53 8/15
Octave 0.50 ½
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TO P I C 5
Measure the length of your longest straw. Use a calculator and the table above to find
the lengths needed for your other seven straws. For a simpler set of pipes, use the
first four straws only, or straws in a ratio 1.0:0.8:0.67:0.5. Cut these and tape them
together, using short straw lengths between them to act as spacers.
Try placing a small plug of plasticine in the ends of the straws to lower the notes by
an octave.
AC T I V I T Y:
SOUNDING
B OA R D S
Key idea: Sounding boards amplify sound, and are important in instruments.
What you need:
• a rubber hammer
• a desk
• a tuning fork.
Hit a tuning fork with a rubber hammer (or strike it against something firm but soft).
Listen to the note it makes. How long does it take for the fork to stop sounding?
Hit the tuning fork again, but then place the base of the fork against a desk. What is
the difference in the sound? What do you think causes the difference?
Does the type of surface the fork is held against make a difference? Why do you think
this is?
Explanatory note: When sounds of certain frequencies enter sounding boards,

the reflections that occur inside the boards occur so that the incoming sounds
add to the reflected sounds to produce a louder sound. The phenomenon is
called ‘resonance’ and the sounding board is called a ‘resonating chamber’.
AC T I V I T Y:
SINGING WINE
GLASS
Key idea: Objects have their own natural vibration pattern and can give a
characteristic note when hit (or blown).
What you need:
• a wine glass
• a saucer
• vinegar
• water.
Pour a small amount of vinegar or water into a saucer. Dip your finger into the
vinegar and rub it in a continuous circular motion around the rim of a wine glass,
holding the glass at the base with your other hand.
The glass should give a high, ringing sound if you have the correct finger pressure
and speed.
20
Why do you think the glass makes a sound?
Is the note it gives off the same as when the glass is tapped? Pour a small amount of
water into the glass, Do you think it will give a higher or lower note? Try it.
Explain why you think the glass gives a different note when it has water in it.
Explanatory note: In the Singing glass activity; the glass is set into vibration by
the action of the rubbing finger. With some alcohol or even water on the finger,
rubbing the glass around the edge causes a constant grab/release action which
sets the glass into vibration with a clear ringing tone. If you do this under the
table at a restaurant people will find it hard to identify where this penetrating
sound is coming from, which is just as well, because they’ll throw you out if they
discover you!
Different glasses give different notes depending on their thickness and size.
Holding the glass by the base allows a free vibration. A glass with more wine in it
will give a lower sound because the vibration is slowed.
AC T I V I T Y:
S YM PAT HY T U B E
Key idea: The tube acts like a sounding board, which amplifies sound.
You will need:
• a large measuring cylinder or bucket

• plastic pipe 3 cm in diameter and 30–40 cm long
• water
• tuning forks.
Hold a plastic pipe with its end in the water in a measuring cylinder (or bucket).
Strike a tuning fork and hold it above the end of the pipe. Listen carefully as you
lower the pipe into the water, keeping the tuning fork just above the end.
At a certain point, you should hear the pipe sound ‘in sympathy’ with the tuning fork.
When you find this position, blow across the top of the pipe. How does the note
compare with the tuning fork note?
21
TO P I C 5
Try different tuning forks.
Is there a link between the tuning fork note and the length of the pipe for which the
sound occurs?
Explanatory note: The Sympathy tube activity involves matching the natural
frequency of the tube to resonate, or vibrate in sympathy with the tuning fork.
The vibrating tuning fork sets the air in motion, and this will be amplified in the
tube at a particular length. In fact, there will be more than one length that will
resonate, since for each length there is more than one natural pitch. This is why a
bugle can sound more than one note. A player can select which note resonates
by adjusting their lip vibrations.
22
TOPIC 6
Magnetism
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of magnetism 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of magnetism 2
Activities 2
Properties of magnets 2
Introduction
Activities using magnets can feature at all levels. Students will have some
knowledge of magnets, since they are common around homes, but students
often expect magnets to attract any metal object rather than only iron and steel.
Magnets have no effect on aluminium, brass, silver or copper. Students will often
not know what metal common objects are made of, and, in fact, some
substances that look like metal are coated plastic, and some plastic–coated
objects such as paperclips have metal within them.
Magnetic effects involve transformation of energy. Energy, however, is a difficult

concept and it may well be worthwhile considering using magnetism to
illustrate the concept of force. A force can be defined as ‘anything which can
cause an object to start moving, stop moving or change its direction’.
A force cannot exist by itself: it can only be exerted by one object on another, for
example:
• Earth attracting a stone (force of gravity)

• a magnet attracting a ferrous metal (magnetism)
• a child pushing a block or kicking a ball.
Key concepts of magnetism

Early years
• Magnets push and pull some matter.
• Magnets do not push and pull all matter.
• Many toys contain magnets.
• Some magnets exert more force than others.
• Magnets have many different shapes.
• Magnets are used in many ways.
• Magnets are strongest at their ends.
• Ends of magnets may push or pull other ends of magnets.
Middle years
• Magnets act on objects made of iron or steel only.
• A magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field, of definite shape.
• Magnetic force extends into the space surrounding the magnet.
• Magnets push and pull through some types of matter but not others.
• Temporary magnets can be made from permanent magnets.
• Magnetism can be destroyed by rough handling or heating.
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TO P I C 6
• Some rocks are natural magnets.

• A freely suspended magnet lines up in a north–south direction. A compass
needle is a small magnet.
• Like poles of a magnet repel; unlike poles attract.
• Earth has a magnetic field.
• Electric currents have a magnetic field.
Students’ alternative conceptions of magnetism

• Magnets are attracted to all objects made of metal.

• Big magnets are stronger than little ones.
• The magnetic and geographic poles of Earth are located at the same place.
• Magnetic poles are only at the ends of magnets.
Activities
Properties of magnets
Teaching note: This activity enables the teacher to find out what prior
experiences and ideas students have about magnets.
Key idea: A range of ideas may come up in discussion.
AC T I V I T Y:
INTRODUCING
M AG N E T S
You will need:
• a number of magnetic gadgets (e.g. fridge magnets, small electric motors).

Introduce a number of magnetic gadgets to the students and get them to explain
what they know about them, for example, names of places where magnets can be
found, uses of magnets.
Explanatory note: To understand the properties of magnets we need to

understand what is happening on a microscopic scale. All matter is composed of
tiny particles called atoms. Every one of these atoms is a tiny magnet in itself.
Therefore, each atom has a north pole and a south pole. The power of these tiny
magnets is extremely small but magnetic power (size of the magnetic field) can
increase if the atoms align themselves so that their north poles point in the same
direction. In permanent magnets many of the atoms have aligned themselves;
the greater the alignment, the stronger the magnet. This explains why, if a
magnet is cut in half, you will obtain two magnets. Further cutting creates more
magnets.
2
Most materials do not act like magnets as their atoms are not aligned in terms of
magnetic poles. In magnets and other magnetic materials the atoms arrange
themselves into groups, called ‘domains’. The atoms in each domain have their
magnetic poles aligned. In a magnet many of these domains are aligned, but in a
piece of iron these domains are not aligned. However, if you bring a magnet near
a piece of iron, such as a nail, the domains in the nail will become aligned. This
turns the nail into a temporary magnet and it will be attracted to the permanent
magnet. Refer to the figure below.
AC T I V I T Y: T H I N G S
T H AT A R E
AT T R AC T E D T O A
M AG N E T
Key idea: Magnets only act on objects made of iron or steel.
You will need:
• a bar magnet for each student

• a record sheet for each student
• two wire coathangers
• some fishing line.
Move around the classroom quietly, selecting objects to test with your magnet. Name
and describe the objects on your record sheet. Predict whether or not the object will
‘stick’ to the magnet. Test your prediction. When you have completed the record
sheet, write down your conclusions about what things are attracted to a magnet.
3
TO P I C 6
You can then form groups to make a mobile of things that are attracted to magnets
and another one of things that are not attracted.
AC T I V I T Y:
I N T E R AC T I O N S
BET WEEN
M AG N E T S
Key ideas: Like poles repel; unlike poles attract. Magnets are strongest at their
ends. Ends of magnets may push or pull other ends of magnets.
You will need:
• two bar magnets

• a horseshoe magnet
• a record sheet
• butcher’s paper or cardboard
• a watch glass (optional).
Arrange the magnets so that the two north ends are facing each other. Slowly bring
them closer together. What happens? Do they attract or repel one another? Record
your findings.
Now try putting the south ends together. What if the north and south ends are facing
each other? What happens if a horseshoe magnet and a bar magnet are used? Record
your results.
Finally, write down your conclusions.
If you have a watch glass, you can place a bar magnet across it and the magnetic
interactions will be even more interesting.
Make up a chart to go on the wall, showing the arrangements of magnets and a

sentence to tell what happens in each case.
Explanatory note: Magnets can vary in strength, size and shape. The most
common types are bar magnets, discs and horseshoe magnets, although many
new fridge magnets are flat strips. All these magnets have poles at either end.
Two magnets interact with each other so that ‘like poles repel’ and ‘unlike poles
attract’. This is shown in the figure below.
4
AC T I V I T Y: I N D I A N
ROPE TRICK
Teaching note: This activity involves a visual illusion, and can be quite
compelling if set up in a room for students to discover. The paperclip floating is
indeed a surprising sight. It turns out that only iron or steel objects (e.g. a pair of
scissors you can use to cut the ‘invisible thread’) will affect the force, and not
paper or plastic or aluminium or copper. Iron and steel objects are attracted by
magnets also.
Key ideas: Magnetic force extends into the space surrounding the magnet.
Magnets push and pull through some types of matter but not others.
You will need:
• cotton
• a strong magnet
• tape
• a paperclip
• paper
• cardboard
• plastic
• aluminium foil
• copper, brass, iron or steel
• an adjustable stand such as a retort stand and clamp.
You can make a paperclip float in midair by attaching it to a piece of cotton thread
taped to a bench, and placing a magnet above so that the clip is almost touching the
magnet but is held by the cotton. The magnet needs to be quite strong to make this
work. The magnet can be covered by a card with a sign—’Indian rope trick’.
5
TO P I C 6
You could also do the same trick by having the cotton stretch horizontally across the
gap between two benches.
What do you think might break the magnet’s influence? Test by pushing different
materials between the magnet and paperclip. Try paper, cardboard, plastic,
aluminium foil, copper, brass, iron or steel.
AC T I V I T Y:
M AT E R I A L S A
M AG N E T I C F I E L D
W I L L PA S S
THROUGH
Key ideas: Magnetic force extends into the space surrounding the magnet.
Magnets push and pull through some types of matter but not others.
You will need:
• thin sheets of various materials (e.g. paper, plastic, aluminium foil, copper, brass,
iron or steel)
• a paperclip
• cotton thread
• a small block of wood
• a drawing pin
• a retort stand and clamps
• two large sheets of paper
• a record sheet.
6
See the figure below for how to set up the equipment.
Select a sheet of some material. Record its name and describe it. Predict whether the
magnetic field will pass through the material.
Test your prediction by passing the material through the gap between the magnet
and the paperclip. If the paperclip does not fall then the magnetic field has passed
through the material. When you have completed your record sheet, write your
conclusions on the bottom of it.
As a further exercise, get two large sheets of paper, and head these: ‘Materials
through which a magnetic field will pass’ and ‘Materials through which a magnetic
field will not pass’. Collect items that belong on each sheet and place them on it.
AC T I V I T Y:
STRENGTH OF
M AG N E T S
Key ideas: Magnets are strongest at their ends. Magnets have different shapes
and strengths.
You will need:
• three or more different magnets

• a spring balance
• a set of small masses (preferably made of iron)
• paperclips
• graph paper
• a record sheet.
Touch the hook of a spring balance to a magnet. Carefully pull the magnet away from
the spring balance until it just lets go. Record the reading on the spring balance at the
point of ‘letting go’.
Try another method. Starting with the smallest, test which masses you can lift with
the magnet. Record the maximum mass each magnet can lift. Or see how many
paperclips you can pick up, end–to–end, with each magnet. Record your findings for
each magnet on your record sheet.
7
TO P I C 6
Invent another method to compare the strength of different magnets. Try it out.
Describe your method and record the results on the bottom of your record sheet.
In addition, draw up some bar graphs to compare the different magnets. Create one
bar graph for the spring balance readings, another one to show the heaviest masses
lifted and another for the number of pins or paperclips supported. You can also create
a graph to show the results using your own method of testing magnets.
AC T I V I T Y:
EXTENDING THE
R E AC H O F A
M AG N E T
Key idea: Temporary magnets can be made from permanent magnets.
You will need:
• a strong magnet
• paperclips
• a large nail.
Hold a nail against one pole of a strong magnet. The nail is itself magnetised while it
is in contact with the magnet and can pick up paperclips or other objects.
Check whether the nail retains its magnetism when no longer in contact with the
magnet.
8
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING
M AG N E T S
You will need:
• large nails
• a bar magnet
• paperclips (or pins)
• a hammer
• insulated copper wire
• a battery
• a record sheet.
Stroke a nail with a magnet in one direction only. Test how many paperclips you can
pick up after ten strokes, twenty strokes, and thirty strokes. Record your findings. Hit
the nail with a hammer a few times. Test the nail with the paperclips again. Record
your results. What happened? Why?
Wind some insulated copper wire around a nail, leaving about 10 cm of wire at each
end. Attach the bare ends of the wire to the terminals on the battery. After a minute
or two, test the nail to see if it will pick up paperclips. You have made an
electromagnet!
Test to see if the number of coils around the nail makes any difference to the strength
of the magnet.
Recording:
Make up a wall chart to show your results (see the table below). Make a similar graph
for the number of coils on your electromagnet and the number of paperclips it will
hold.
Number of strokes Number of paperclips

10
20
30
AC T I V I T Y: M A K E A
T E M P O R A RY
CO M PA S S
You will need:
• a darning needle
• a polystyrene cube
• a bar magnet
• a shallow dish of water.
9
TO P I C 6
Stroke a darning needle until it is magnetised. Push the needle through a cube of
polystyrene and float it in a shallow dish of water. It should point north–south. (Keep
it away from magnets!)
Explanatory note: Permanent magnets have domains that have their poles
permanently aligned. However, if magnets are heated or dropped, the domains
may be knocked out of alignment. This destroys the magnet’s magnetic ability.
Therefore, magnets must not be handled roughly. A magnetic material, such as

an iron nail, can be made into a permanent magnet by placing it in the magnetic
field of a permanent magnet over an extended period of time. This can also be
achieved by continually rubbing a pole of a permanent magnet down the side of
the nail, ensuring that you always rub in the same direction. This realigns the
domains in the magnetic material.
Temporary magnets can be made from an iron nail, a long piece of wire and a
battery. After winding the wire around the nail many times, connect it up to a
battery. An electric current runs down the wire and causes a magnetic field in
the iron nail. The result is a temporary magnet called an ‘electromagnet’.
Disconnecting the wire ceases the magnetic power of the nail.
AC T I V I T Y:
M AG N E T I C
L E V I TAT I O N
Key idea: Unlike poles of magnets repel each other.
You will need:
• six or so small ring magnets

• a pencil.
Slot the ring magnets one at a time onto an upright pencil.
The magnets either stick together or are suspended in midair, depending which side
they are dropped on. The poles of a ring magnet are on the flat faces.
10
AC T I V I T Y:
M AG N E T I C
TRANSPORT
Key idea: Unlike poles of a magnet repel each other.
You will need:
• six to ten strong magnets

• wood or cardboard
• construction tools.
You can make a transport system with magnets where vehicles are suspended in the
air as they move along the system. Make a track out of wood or cardboard and
magnets whereby the magnets are secured in a line on the track in such a way that
their north poles lie face up. You can then make a small cart with two magnets with
their north poles faces down. It will float along the track. To keep the vehicle on the
track you may need to construct guiding rails to the track.
Explanatory note: The observations in this activity, and in both Magnetic

levitation and Lively dancer, can be explained by magnetic repulsion. Magnets
need to be arranged so that unlike poles repel each other.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAPPING
M AG N E T I C F I E L D S
Key idea: Magnetic fields are regions in space which apply a force to magnetic
materials.
You will need:
• a sheet of cardboard (e.g. cover paper)

• a shaker of iron filings
• two bar magnets
• a funnel
• a newspaper
• spray paint
• a container of turpentine
• paper towel
• a record sheet.
Arrange the magnets and place the cardboard on top of the magnets. Carefully
sprinkle the iron filings onto the cardboard until you see a clear pattern of lines. Draw
these lines accurately on your record sheet. Take the ‘holey’ lid from the shaker, insert
the funnel, then carefully return the iron filings to the jar. Repeat this for the
arrangements shown in the figure Magnetic fields.
Another way to record this activity is to select a favourite arrangement. Lay out the
newspaper on the floor, set up the arrangement and sprinkle it with iron filings. The
teacher should then spray paint the arrangement. After about 10 minutes, brush the
11
TO P I C 6
filings onto another piece of card and then soak them in turpentine to remove the
paint. Later you can dry them on paper towel and tip them back into the jar.
Explanatory note: A magnetic field is the area surrounding a magnet that will
affect another magnet or an object made of magnetic material. The lines drawn
on the simple bar magnet and horseshoe magnet in the figure Magnetic fields
shows the patterns formed by sprinkling iron filings around these magnets. The
arrows indicate the direction of these lines; the direction is defined as the
direction a small compass would point if placed near the magnet.
Figure 6.1 Magnetic fields
AC T I V I T Y:
M AG N E T S A N D
CO M PA S S E S
Key idea: A compass needle is a magnet.
You will need:
• a magnet
• a piece of iron
• a compass.
Investigate what happens when a magnet or piece of iron is brought near a compass.
Why is the case of the compass made of brass or aluminium?
Explanatory note: Compasses are just freely moving magnets. Permanent

magnets may be used as compasses if you allow them to swing freely in a
horizontal plane. Magnets point north because the whole Earth may be
considered to be a huge magnet. Scientists believe Earth’s iron core and currents
of liquid rock give rise to this magnetism. In the figure Earth as a magnet Earth
can be viewed as having a permanent magnet inside it. The north pole of this
permanent magnet is located at the geographic South Pole of Earth. At the
geographic North Pole of Earth is the location of the south pole of the
permanent magnet. This can be confusing, but it explains why a magnet’s north
pole points to geographical north as unlike poles of magnets attract one
another.
12
Figure 6.2 Earth as a magnet
M A NY M AG N E T S ?
Teaching note: A number of games and toys involve magnets. For example:
• a fishing game involving magnets suspended from string, picking up small

bits of metal floating in a tub
• board games involving magnetic attraction from underneath
• a mystery dip in which small objects of various materials are buried in
sawdust and a magnet is used to explore what will be picked up
• a toy train that uses magnets to link the carriages
• magnetic sculptures, or levitating objects, as can be found in science toy
shops
• toys of various kinds, with steel parts (drawing pins), that can be made to
move with a strong magnet under the bench
• toys with battery–operated electric motors that contain magnets.
Key idea: A range of ideas may come out of discussions with the students.
You will need:
• a variety of magnets—different sizes, shapes and strengths.

Observe the variety of magnets found around the house. What similarities and
differences do you find?
13
TO P I C 6
AC T I V I T Y: T H E
L I V E LY D A N C E R
Key idea: Unlike poles of magnets repel each other.
You will need:
• a stand (made of wood and wire)

• cotton thread
• cardboard
• scissors
• ape
• two ring magnets.
You can make a suspended paper doll dance unexpectedly using ring magnets. Make
a stand and a base out of wood and wire or anything else that comes to hand.
Cut out a cardboard dancing figure, with enough cardboard at the feet to conceal a
ring magnet.
Suspend the dancer from the stand using cotton thread. Tape a ring magnet
horizontally in the figure’s feet, and another on the base close to where the dancer’s
feet would settle. Arrange the magnets so they have repelling poles.
Swing the dancer gently and observe what happens.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING AND
TESTING AN
E L E C T R O M AG N E T
Key idea: Electric currents have a magnetic field.
You will need:
• insulated wire
• an iron nail
14
• a battery
• a switch.
Wind the wire several times around the nail as shown in the figure. Connecting the
wires to a battery produces the electromagnet.
Explore different magnetic effects through increasing the number of turns of the
wire.
Connect a switch to turn the electromagnet on and off.
The wire will heat up quickly if left connected to the battery for too long. The battery
will become flat quickly if the wire is left connected.
Explanatory note: Magnetism and electricity are very closely linked. The battery
creates an electric field in the wire which in turn moves electrons (a current is
produced). The current creates a magnetic field producing an electromagnet.
When the current stops, the magnetic field ceases. This phenomenon also works
in reverse. Moving a magnet near a wire creates an electric field in the wire
which in turn moves electrons (a current is produced). This is the principle by
which electric generators produce electricity.
15
TOPIC 7
Electricity
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of electricity 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of electricity 3
Activities 4
Electrostatics 4
Electrostatic effects 6
Students’ ideas about current electricity 13
Investigating current electricity 16
Electric games, toys and models 30
Introduction
Students have many everyday experiences related to electrical behaviour. Many
of the devices they and their families use on a daily basis require current
electricity to function, for example, lights, television, toaster, and so on. From a
very early age children are instructed on the dangers of household electricity.
Students will mostly be familiar with static electric effects of one sort or another,
such as hair sticking up when rubbed, shocks from metal rails or cars, and sparks
from nylon clothing. The activities in this topic show students the key idea that
underpins many of the electrical effects they experience.
The activities in this topic are related to two areas in electricity: ‘electrostatics’ (or
static electricity) and ‘current electricity’. Electrostatics relates to electrical
phenomena where there has been a separation of electric charge (usually
associated with electrons) within objects or between objects. Current electricity
relates to electrical phenomena where there are moving electric charges (again,
associated with electrons) that travel along wires and through electrical devices
such as globes and buzzers.
Key concepts of electricity

Electrostatics
Early years
• Friction can cause static electricity.
• Objects can become electrically charged by rubbing them.
• Charged objects can attract uncharged objects.
• Charged objects may attract some charged objects and repel other charged
objects.
Middle years
• Electrons are part of all atoms that make up all substances.
• Objects can be charged by rubbing.
• Some materials are charged more easily than others.
• An object becomes charged when it loses or gains electrons.
• Objects can carry either a positive or negative charge, depending on what
they are made of and what they are rubbed with.
• A negatively charged object has gained electrons; a positively charged
object has lost electrons.
• Objects with the same electric charge repel each other; objects with
opposite charge attract each other.
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• If electrons that are added to an object spread out all over the object, the
object is called a ‘conductor’.
• If electrons that are added to an object stay on the object where they were
placed, the object is called an ‘insulator’.
• Charged objects will attract uncharged objects.
• Charged objects will discharge (lose their charge) over time as charge leaks
to the atmosphere.
• Sparks are the movement of electrons through the air from one object to
another. Lightning is a sparking effect.
• ‘Earthing’ is where charge is shared between a charged object and a large
conductor (usually the ground).
Current electricity
Early years
• Electricity can move or flow.
• Electrical devices such as globes require two connections with wire to a
battery to function.
• The two connections provide a complete path, or loop, around which
electricity can flow.
• The strength of the electricity depends on the number of batteries (and
their size in volts).
• Electricity makes a lot of things work, for example, globes, televisions,
toasters, etcetera.
• Household electricity is dangerous.
• Some materials allow electricity to pass through them and other materials
do not. Those which do allow electricity to pass through them are called
conductors.
Middle years
The concepts listed below were developed by Summers, Kruger and Mant
(1997), who believe that such concepts can be acquired readily by primary–
school teachers and taught effectively to their students.
• An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) pathway.

• Electricity is made up of electrons.
• Electrons are very, very tiny particles.
• An electric current consists of a flow of electrons.
• Electrons are part of all atoms that make up all substances.
• The electrons are in the wires all the time.
• Conductors have free electrons, which can move.
2
• The battery provides the push to move the electrons.

• The battery voltage is a measure of the push.
• A chemical reaction in the battery creates an electric field, which produces
the push.
• All the electrons move instantaneously.
• The size of the current in a circuit depends on the resistance.
• A series circuit has all the components in a line. There is only one pathway.
• The current is the same all around a series circuit.
• In a series circuit, adding more globes increases the resistance and
decreases the current. The globes are dimmer and equally dim.
• A parallel circuit has branches. There is more than one pathway.
• Identical globes in parallel are as bright as one globe alone. The current in
each branch is the same.
• The current in the battery leads is the sum of the currents in the separate
branches.
• In a globe, moving electrons collide with fixed atoms in the filament,
causing them to vibrate.
• The vibrating atoms emit light and heat.
(Summers, M, Kruger, C & Mant, J 1997, Teaching electricity effectively: a research–based

guide for primary science, Association for Science Education, Hatfield)
Students’ alternative conceptions of electricity

• The terms ‘electricity’, ‘current’, ‘power’ and ‘energy’ mean the same thing.
• In a circuit that contains wires, a battery and a globe, the battery stores
lectricity/power/current which flows to the globe where it is consumed.
• The globe in an electric circuit takes what it needs from the battery.
• Energy is used up by a working globe.
• The thing that gets used up in an electric circuit is current.
• For a circuit that contains a battery and a globe, the globe lights up because:
– the current from each end of the battery clashes in the globe to
provide the light (clashing–currents model)
– some of the current from one end of the battery is lost as it passes
through the globe (consumption model)
– current from one end of the battery is all used up in the globe, making
the second wire unnecessary (source–sink model).
• Batteries store a certain amount of electricity or charge.
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Activities
Electrostatics
Teaching note: For electrostatics experiments (such as those described in this
topic) to work, the equipment must be dry. If the weather is humid, the
apparatus should be dried in front of a heater or with a hair dryer. Static
electricity experiments should allow students to discover that friction generates
static electricity, a charged object will attract other objects and that like charges
repel while unlike charges attract.
Explanatory note: The following notes explain electrostatic behaviour in terms

of the electrostatic concepts listed earlier in this topic. Electrostatic effects
involve the transfer of charge, in the form of electrons, between objects. All
matter is composed of small particles called ‘atoms’ that consist of a positively
charged centre and negatively charged electrons, some of which are only
loosely held by the atom. It is these loosely held electrons that are responsible
for most electrostatic behaviour.
When two objects come into contact with each other, electrons can transfer
from one object to another. This transfer of electrons, which can be heightened
through rubbing the materials together, occurs when one of the objects has a
propensity to attract electrons from the other object. If an object gains extra
electrons it is negatively charged, but if it loses electrons it becomes positively
charged. For example, when PVC is rubbed with wool, electrons are transferred
from the wool to the PVC. In this circumstance the PVC gains a negative charge
while the wool gains a positive charge. However, if perspex is rubbed with wool,
electrons are transferred to the wool, leaving the perspex positively charged and
the wool negatively charged.
When objects become charged they may repel or attract other charged objects.
In addition, charged objects may attract uncharged objects. Charged objects
that repel or attract can be explained by the rule that ‘same charged objects
repel each other and oppositely charged objects attract each other’. This is
shown in the figure below using charged balloons.
Figure 7.1 Charged balloons
4
When charged objects attract uncharged objects, such as when a negatively

charged balloon attracts paper, the negatively charged balloon repels some of
the electrons in the paper. This will redistribute charges in the paper so that one
side of the paper is slightly more negative than the other side. The net effect is
that the paper is attracted to the balloon. The principle is the same with the
balloon attracted to an uncharged wall (see the figure below) or the balloon
attracting water from a tap (see the figure below).
Figure 7.2 Charged balloon attracted to a wall
Charge is easily lost through this same mechanism if the day is humid. In this
case, small invisible water droplets are attracted to the balloon or other charged
object and, on touching it, some of the charge is transferred to the droplets. At
this point, since the balloon and droplets both have the same charge, the
droplets are repelled, taking some of the charge with them.
Some complicated effects can be caused with static charge, and it is sometimes
difficult to work out what is going on because the level of humidity can make a
large difference to what happens, and also the objects being rubbed can pick up
unexpected charges if the cloth or woollen jumper used had been previously
charged.
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Electrostatic effects
AC T I V I T Y: C A N
YO U P I C K I T U P ?
Key ideas: Friction can cause static electricity. Charged objects can attract
uncharged objects.
You will need:
• pieces of paper
• plastic rulers
• combs
• ballpoint pens PVC strips
• perspex strips
• glass rods
• balloons
• various materials for rubbing the objects (e.g. cotton cloth, silk, wool, hair, etc.).
Try to pick up pieces of paper with unrubbed rulers, combs, and so on. Then
determine whether rubbing them with various materials makes any difference.
Explanatory note: Students will find that while the plastic ruler or balloon could
attract pieces of paper, the material that was used to rub the objects could not,
even though it too became charged. Where there is a transfer of electrons, one
object gets a negative charge and the other object gets an equal but opposite
positive charge.
In the case of an object such as a plastic ruler, its surface is smooth and so the
charge is concentrated over a small area. The rubbing material, such as wool, has
many fibres and so the charge is distributed over a wider area. The greater the
concentration of charges, the bigger the effect it can produce. Therefore, the
charge produced on the wool will not be concentrated enough for it to pick up
pieces of paper.
AC T I V I T Y:
M O V I N G WAT E R
Key idea: Charged objects will attract uncharged objects.
You will need:
• a PVC strip, ruler or balloon

• a thin stream of water from a tap or syringe.
Charge a PVC strip, ruler or balloon. Bring the object near to a stream of water from a
tap or, alternatively, let a stream of water from a syringe flow down and bring it near
to the charged object. Describe what you see and explain what you think is
happening.
6
B A L LO O N S
Key idea: Charged objects will attract uncharged objects.
You will need:
• a balloon
• wool or fur.
Inflate a balloon and rub it with wool or fur. If the weather is dry enough, the rubbed
balloon should stick to the wall. Ask children to explain why the balloon sticks to the
wall.
AC T I V I T Y:
U N F R I E N D LY
B A L LO O N S
Key idea: Unlike charged objects repel.
You will need:
• two balloons
• cotton thread
• wool.
Charge two balloons and hang them on a piece of cotton thread. Bring them
together—they will repel! This happens with two objects with the same charge.
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AC T I V I T Y:
CHARGED
AT T R AC T I O N
Key idea: Charged objects attract uncharged objects.
You will need:
• balloons
• wool
• bits of paper
• aluminium foil
• a thin stream of water from a tap or syringe
• pepper
• salt.
The charged balloon will attract uncharged objects as though it was a magnet (but it
isn’t—the force between charges is different to a magnetic force). Try this with your
balloon:
Arrange tiny bits of paper, and aluminium foil, on a table surface. The balloon will
make them flutter about or even pick them up.
Bring the balloon near a slow and smooth stream of water from a tap or syringe. Can
you explain what is happening to the water?
Bring the balloon close to a friend’s hair. It stands on end! It is a strange, prickly
sensation.
Sprinkle pepper on a piece of paper. The balloon will pick it up. Does it do the same
with salt?
8
Explanatory note: The explanations for attracting uncharged objects such as

paper and water are given earlier in this topic. Rubbing hair gives the same
charge to the strands. The hair stands up because the strands repel each other.
AC T I V I T Y: I S I T
AT T R AC T I V E ?
Key idea: Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
You will need:
• a plastic strip Blu–Tack

• a test tube
• a needle or firm wire
• a base made of wood or cork
• wool or fur.
Figure 7.3 Charge tester
Set up the apparatus as in the figure above. Determine whether a PVC strip rubbed
with wool attracts or repels the PVC strip on the test tube.
Repeat the procedure, but this time remove the PVC strip and rub it with wool before
re–attaching the strip to the test tube. Repeat the procedure with other substances
such as perspex. Try combinations of substances, for example, PVC and perspex,
rubbed and unrubbed, both rubbed, etcetera. What deductions do you think can be
made?
Explanatory note:Given that the perspex becomes positively charged when

rubbed with wool, you can deduce the charge given to the plastic strip or other
material placed on the charge tester. Anything that repels the charged perspex
will also be positively charged, whereas anything that attracts the charged
perspex will be negatively charged.
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TO P I C 7
AC T I V I T Y: LO S I N G
CHARGE
Key idea: Charged objects will discharge over time as charge leaks to the
atmosphere.
You will need:
• balloons
• a piece of plastic
• pepper
• wool or fur
• a spray bottle and water.
Work out a way of measuring how strong the charge is on a balloon or piece of
plastic. Perhaps you could measure the distance the balloon is above the pepper
before the pepper starts to jump, or the distance between two ‘unfriendly’ charged
balloons held together.
Investigate the method of rubbing that gives the most charge. Measure the strength
of charge each minute to see how quickly it is lost.
Charge the balloon, then spray around it with a fine mist of water. How much does
this reduce the charge? Does this tell you anything about the effect of humidity on
charge?
Explanatory note: The droplets of water in the fine mist come in contact with
the balloon and, in doing so, collect some charge from the balloon. Because the
droplet has the same charge as the balloon, it will be repelled. As different
droplets come in contact with the balloon and then get repelled by it, charge on
the balloon becomes less and less—it discharges.
AC T I V I T Y:
CHARGED FLIGHT
Key idea: Charged objects can attract uncharged objects.
You will need:
• aluminium foil
• cotton thread
• a stand
• a balloon
• a woollen cloth
• polystyrene.
Suspend a piece of aluminium foil shaped as a plane from a thread. Bring a charged
balloon close to make the plane fly towards it. Notice what happens when the plane
touches the balloon. It is pushed away as the plane picks up a charge of the same sign
as the balloon. Can you hear the click as the charge transfers?
With a bit of practice, you may be able to keep a small aluminium foil plane in the air
by moving the charged balloon above it.
10
The balloon will work well at attracting small pieces of polystyrene on a piece of
cotton.
Explanatory note: The plane will be attracted to the balloon when it comes
near the plane. This is because there is charge redistribution in the plane so that
one side becomes positively charged and the other side becomes negatively
charged. When the plane comes very close or touches, electrons will jump from
one object to another—this is the spark which may be heard as a click. Now
both the balloon and the plane will have the same charge and so will repel each
other.
AC T I V I T Y:
P L AYI N G
DETECTIVE WITH
CHARGES
Key ideas: Charged objects can attract uncharged objects. Charged objects
share charge with other uncharged objects they contact.
You will need:
• a balloon or plastic ruler

• a cloth or fur
• aluminium foil
• cotton thread
• a stand.
Suspend a small ball of scrunched–up aluminium foil from a thread. Try the following
sequence of activities and see if you can explain what is happening in terms of the
charge on the aluminium ball.
Bring a charged balloon or plastic ruler close. The ball is attracted even though it is
uncharged.
Let the ball touch the balloon. What happens? Why?
Take the balloon away and bring your finger close to the ball. What happens? Why?
Touch the ball. Now bring your finger close again. Bring the balloon close again. The
ball is uncharged! How did that happen?
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TO P I C 7
With the balloon close to the uncharged ball but not touching, touch the ball with
your finger and then let go. Does the attraction to the balloon change? What do you
suppose happened when you touched the ball?
Take the balloon away. Bring your finger close to the ball. Can you explain what you
observe now?
You might like to test your ideas by hanging two identical aluminium balls side by
side, but try different sequences with them.
Explanatory note: Let us assume that the balloon or ruler is initially positively
charged. The ball is initially attracted as there is charge redistribution on the ball;
negative charges move to the side of the balloon while positive charges move to
the other side.
• When the positively charged balloon touches the ball, positive charge
evenly distributes itself over the ball from the balloon. The balloon and the
ball are now both positively charged and so will repel each other.
• If you now bring your finger to the ball (now positively charged), it will
attract it. There is charge redistribution in your finger.
• If you touch the ball, positive charge flows from the ball into the larger
conductor, which is your body. There will be very little positive charge left
on the ball (it has been ‘earthed’). The positive charge moves from you into
the ground so you are also left without a charge.
• Now if you are touching the ball when the positive balloon is brought
nearby there is charge redistribution on the ball. However, as you are
holding the ball, negative charges move near the balloon while positive
charges flow into your finger. If you now let go of the ball, it will be left with
a negative charge. The negatively charged ball will attract the positively
charged balloon.
• If you now bring your finger to the negatively charged ball it will attract your
finger (charge redistribution).
AC T I V I T Y: S TAT I C
E L E C T R I C R AC E !
Key idea: Like charges repel.
You will need:
• balloons
• cloth or fur
• a small racing object made out of paper.
12
You can make small racing objects out of paper, and use the balloon to attract them
along a straight track, keeping the balloon just ahead and not touching the racers. A
roll of paper made from a thin strip works quite well as a racer. Experiment to find the
best racer.
Students’ ideas about current electricity

Students of all ages deal with electricity everyday. They will therefore have a
number of ideas of how electrical devices work. Students are also familiar with
some of the science terms used in electricity: terms such as ‘power’, ‘electricity’,
‘voltage’, and so on. It is important to probe the students’ ideas about electricity
and the following activities are designed to do so.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKE A LIST
Key idea: Electricity makes a lot of devices work.
What things do we have in our homes that use electricity? Make a list on the board of
the items. The list can be made under the headings: kitchen, bathroom, laundry,
bedroom, garage, other. Who uses the items? Where do most of the items get the
electricity from to make them work?
AC T I V I T Y:
ELECTRICITY IN
THE CLASSROOM
AND THE HOME
Key ideas: Electricity makes a lot of devices work. Electrical cords have at least
two wires to carry current into and out of the device. Household electricity is
dangerous.
Investigate what uses electricity in the classroom, How does the electricity get from
the power point to the item? Identify the parts that would carry the electricity.
Discuss safety.
What uses electricity in the home? How would you be affected in your daily life if
there was no longer any electricity?
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TO P I C 7
Where does electricity come from? How is electricity made? What is the difference
between electricity from power points and batteries? How does a switch work? How
fast does electricity travel?
Explanatory note: Household electricity requires a conducting path that forms

a loop. The loop contains the generator, wires and electrical devices.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N C E P T M A P
Key idea: Science words have specific meanings in science and may vary
considerably from everyday use of the words.
You will need:
• poster paper
• textas.
Construct a concept map to link the following words and ideas:
• electricity
• circuit
• conductor
• battery
• energy
• insulator
• voltage
• electrons
• current.
AC T I V I T Y: G LO B E –
LIGHTING
CHALLENGE
Teaching note: The key idea to this activity is that a complete conducting path
loop is required for the globe to light up.
A good follow–up activity would be to break open a globe to show the students
that there is a continuous conducting path from the base of the globe, up
through the filament, and then to the side of the globe (a normal household
light globe will be best for this activity, but be careful when breaking the glass).
The other material at the base of the globe is insulating material that acts to
separate the base wire from the side wire.
Another good activity is to have students draw what they think the inside of a
torch looks like. Dismantle an old torch to show the students how a complete
conducting path is obtained when the switch is closed.
In the globe–lighting challenge, students will often assume that, as long as they
have a wire connecting the battery to the globe, it will light. This presumption
reflects a view that the battery is a source of energy, the globe is a receiver, and
connecting them is all that matters. This view, which ignores the role of electric
current, is sometimes called the ‘source–receiver’ model, and it is easy to see
14
where it comes from. Household circuitry involves what seems to be a simple

lead from the plug to an appliance, and one can think of flicking the switch as
simply allowing the energy to pass into the appliance. In fact, within those leads
are two wires, (three, if there is an earth connection): one to supply current and
one as a return path. The switch completes a circuit.
Another common incorrect idea is that the current is used up in the globe and is
less in the return wire. In fact, the globe uses the energy carried by the current,
but the current is the same all the way around the circuit (and that’s not an easy
distinction to argue). One way of challenging this idea is to wire up two globes
in series. Each is of equal brightness (if they are identical), because the same
current passes through both.
The other common incorrect model is known as the ‘clashing currents’ model,
whereby current is thought to come out of both ends of the battery and meet at
the globe. The clash causes the globe to light. It is not so easy to refute this with
direct evidence.
It is important to separate the ideas of energy and current when explaining how
a complete conducting loop is required. The battery supplies chemical energy
which is transformed at the globe as heat and light energy. The energy is
transferred from the battery to the globe through the movement of electrons.
The electrons don’t come out of the battery; they are already in the wire. The
battery can be considered to have the role of pushing the electrons in the wire.
The moving electrons represent the current; they move in a direction away from
the negative terminal of the battery toward the positive terminal of the battery.
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) pathway that forms a loop.
You will need:
• student prediction worksheets

• a globe holder
• a globe
• electrical wire
• a battery
• an elastic band.
Make a globe light up using only one globe in a holder, a battery and a single piece of
electrical wire. Complete the prediction sheet (see the figure below) before you
begin. Discuss your predictions and underlying reasons. Test your predictions.
15
TO P I C 7
Figure 7.4 Prediction sheet
Predictions
Predict which of the arrangements (A to L) below will make the globe light up.
Write ‘Y’ for yes, or ‘N’ for no for each picture. Complete the sheet on your own.
The reason(s) for my selection(s) is (are):

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Investigating current electricity

Teaching note: The following activities provide students with a series of
observations that can then be used to explain how electric circuits work. Some
of these observations include:
• a battery, globe and wires need to be part of an unbroken path for the globe
to glow
• wherever a switch is placed in circuit, if it opens the globe will not glow
• batteries have a set voltage, and markings that designate a positive and
negative end
• there can be more than one conducting path from the positive terminal of
the battery to the negative terminal. Such paths are called parallel branches
of a parallel circuit. A series (single loop) circuit and a parallel (double loop)
circuit are shown in the figure below.
16
Figure 7.5 Series circuit and parallel circuit
• where more globes are added in a series circuit, each globe is less bright.
This means that less energy is being transformed at each globe. Each globe
in the circuit is about the same brightness
• where more globes are added in a parallel circuit, each globe remains at the
same brightness
• where more batteries are added to the circuit, the globe will be brighter
• adding some materials to the circuit makes the globe less bright or not glow
at all. Materials that keep the globe glowing are called ‘conductors’ and
those that make it not glow are called ‘insulators’.
Explanatory note: We will now explain how electric circuits work, using the
current electricity concepts we encountered earlier..
Consider a simple arrangement (circuit) that contains a battery, globe and

connecting wire. The circuit forms a single loop (called a series circuit) and the
globe glows. The globe circuit is shown in the figure below. It uses symbols for
electrical devices. The arrangement is called a ‘circuit diagram’.
Figure 7.6 Simple circuit
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TO P I C 7
When the globe circuit is in operation, the globe gives off light and heat; these
are two forms of energy (light energy and thermal energy). This energy has been
transformed from the battery in the form of chemical energy. The battery
contains substances that undergo chemical reactions when the torch circuit is
complete. The chemical reaction lasts for the life of the battery.
To sustain the chemical reaction in the battery, electrons (small particles in all
matter) need to travel from one of the reacting substances to the other. This
can’t happen inside the battery as the substances are separated, but it can
happen when the circuit is complete. In this situation, the electrons in the wire
that are near the positive terminal of the battery will move into the battery; at
the negative terminal of the battery, electrons move off the terminal and into
the wire. For the chemical reaction to continue, the movement of electrons onto
and off the battery needs to occur at the same time.
To imagine the movement of electrons, think of a single–looped toy railtrack

with railcars connected all the way around the track. The railcars represent the
electrons. The battery is represented by you. You push on one of the cars at a
specific place on the track. All the cars move at the one time. If you keep pushing
the cars that come in front of you, all the cars will keep moving around the loop.
The railcar analogy illustrates the key concept that the battery provides the push
to move the electrons. The battery voltage is a measure of the push. The greater
the voltage, the greater the push on the electrons. The reason behind the push
comes from ideas in electrostatics. The battery initially separates charges so that
it has a negative charge on the negative terminal (excess of electrons) and a
positive charge on the positive terminal (deficiency of electrons). When the
circuit is connected, electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal and
repelled from the negative terminal. The attractions and repulsions represent
the push of the battery. In scientific terms, the battery sets up an electric field
(force field) that acts on electrons in the wire.
In the globe, the moving electrons collide with fixed atoms in the filament,
causing them to vibrate. The vibrating atoms emit light and heat. The moving
electrons also collide with atoms in the wire (the wire heats up a little) but not to
the same extent as the collisions with the atoms in the filament. The filament has
a greater resistance to the movement of electrons than does the wire. Materials
with a low resistance are called ‘conductors’; those with a very high resistance
are called ‘insulators’.
The number of electrons moving past a point in a circuit every second is a

measure of the electric current. As the electrons move instantaneously when the
battery is connected, the current is the same at all points of the series (single–
loop) circuit. The size of the current depends on two things: the size of the
battery voltage and the total resistance in the path of the electrons. A higher
voltage means the electrons gain a larger push, whereas the larger resistance
means the current is less. We can imagine this with the railcar analogy. Pushing
harder (greater voltage) on the cars results in more cars passing each point in
the loop every second (greater current). To imagine a resistance in the railcar,
imagine that the track now has a hill in it. Pushing on the cars now results in less
cars moving past each point each second (less current), as part of the push
needs to go into pushing the cars over the hill (resistance). The more hills
(greater resistance), the less speed of the cars (less current).
18
The energy given by the battery to the electrons is transferred to atoms within
the torch circuit. The battery voltage gives a measure of how much energy is
given to each electron that is free to move; the electrons transfer this energy in
collisions with atoms. In the globe circuit, most of the energy of the electrons is
transferred to atoms in the filament of the globe which produces heat and light
energy.
A continuous loop is required for the globe to glow because the chemical
reaction in the battery requires electrons to jump onto the positive terminal at
the same time that electrons jump off the negative terminal. The electric field
within the wire will not be set up until the wire is connected to both terminals of
the battery.
An open switch placed anywhere in the circuit breaks the electric field in the
wire and so the electrons will not move. There will be no current.
Electrons jump onto the positive ends of batteries and jump off negative ends.
The voltage is a measure of the push, or amount of motion energy, given to each
of the free electrons in the wires.
Where more globes are added in a series circuit, each globe is less bright. The
brightness of the globes gives a measure of amount of energy being
transformed. If there are three globes in a series, as in the figure Series circuit and
parallel circuit, the electrons will have collisions in each of the filaments. The
energy is shared (each globe will be of approximately the same brightness). In
addition, the extra globes mean that the resistance of the circuit is increased.
Therefore, the current will be less. The lower current means there are less
electrons moving around the circuit per second.
Where more globes are added in a parallel circuit, each globe remains at the
same brightness. This circuit needs to be considered as two independent loops
where each loop contains a battery and a globe. The battery sets up electric
fields in each loop to push the electrons (give energy to the electrons). The
electrons transfer their energy to each part of the loop that they travel and so
the current and brightness of each globe is the same as the globe in a single–
globe circuit. As the battery pushes electrons in both loops, the current into and
out of the battery will be more than through each globe. As no electrons are lost
in moving around the circuit, the current in the battery leads is the sum of the
current in the separate branches of the parallel circuit.
We have used a railcar analogy to explain electric circuits. There are other
models we can use to think about how circuits work. These are described in the
later activity Models of electric circuits.
AC T I V I T Y: U S I N G
T WO WIRES
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) pathway that forms a loop.
A switch breaks the current pathway in an electric circuit.
You will need:
• a battery
• connecting wire
19
TO P I C 7
• a globe
• a cork
• paperclips
• drawing pins.
Using two wires, a globe and a battery, construct a simple circuit. Once you have a
simple circuit operating, try to make a switch to turn the light off and on by using the
cork, paperclips and drawing pins. Does it matter where you put the switch?
AC T I V I T Y: S H O R T
CIRCUIT
Key idea: A short circuit is a parallel circuit that contains one looped path with
only a battery and wire.
You will need:
• a battery
• connecting wire
• a globe.
While the globe is glowing, create a ‘short circuit’ by connecting another wire across
the battery terminals.
Explanatory note: By adding a wire across the terminals, you create a parallel
circuit. The resistance in the wire–only loop is much less than the resistance of
the loop with a globe. This will create a large current through the wire loop and
significantly decrease the current through the loop with the globe. The globe
will no longer glow.
Figure 7.7 Short circuit
The electrons flowing in the wire–only loop lose their energy to the atoms in the
wire. This results in the wire heating up quite quickly. The large currents created
by the short circuit make the battery use energy quickly and become flatter
more quickly.
20
AC T I V I T Y: T W O
B AT T E R I E S
Key ideas: Batteries provide the push to move the electrons. The battery voltage
is a measure of the push.
You will need:
• two batteries
• connecting wire
• a globe.
Use two batteries in the three different arrangements below, to light one globe.
Explanatory note: The battery provides the push to move the electrons in a
circuit. The electrons move in a direction away from the negative terminal and
towards the positive terminal. In arrangement 2, one battery will tend to push
electrons in one direction, whereas the other battery will tend to push the
electrons in the opposite direction. If the two batteries have the same voltage,
the electrons don’t move. There will be no current and the globe will not glow.
Arrangement 1 doubles the voltage compared to a single–battery circuit. The
double push on the electrons doubles the current. This leads to more collisions
with the filament atoms, which make the globe glow brighter (more light and
thermal energy). Arrangement 3 is equivalent to having one battery in the
circuit. The globe will glow but not as brightly as in arrangement 1. In this
arrangement the left–hand battery will tend to push electrons down through
the globe as well as push electrons down through the right–hand battery.
Similarly, the right–hand battery will tend to push electrons down through the
globe and the left battery. The mutual pushing of electrons through the
batteries lessens the effect each battery has on the globe. This is why one
doesn’t get a double push on the electrons through the globe as seen in
arrangement 1.
AC T I V I T Y:
LIGHTING
CO N T R O L C E N T R E
Key idea: Series circuits have a single loop. Parallel circuits have multiple loops.
You will need:
• three globes
• connecting wire
• three switches
• two batteries.
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TO P I C 7
Here are some tasks for you to try. There are no right answers, but each task can be
solved in a number of ways.
Make circuits in which:
1 all three globes are equally very bright

2 all three globes are equally very dull
3 one globe is very bright and two are dull
4 all three globes are turned on and off by the one switch
5 each globe is controlled by its own switch
6 one switch controls one globe, a second switch controls the other two globes,
and the third switch controls all three globes
7 two globes are on, but a switch turns one light off when it is pressed ‘on’.
Explanatory note: The tasks contained in this activity are intended to tease out
the operation of switches, and the distinction between parallel and series
circuits. In a parallel circuit, the current splits down parallel paths, and the
battery voltage is directly across each component. This is the wiring design for a
house.
In a series circuit, the current passes through each component in turn. Each
component therefore has the same current, and the battery voltage is divided
amongst the components. One switch will operate all the appliances. This would
not be helpful in a household supply.
The solutions to the challenges are shown in the figure below. Standard
scientific symbols, as shown in the figure below, have been used to represent
the batteries, globes, connecting wires and switches.
Figure 7.8 Standard symbols
22
Figure 7.9 Solutions to lighting control centre
AC T I V I T Y: B E L L S
AND LIGHTS
Key idea: Series circuits have a single loop. Parallel circuits have multiple loops.
You will need:
• a battery
• connecting wire
• two switches
• a globe
• a bell or buzzer.
Construct a circuit to make the bell ring and_the globe light at the same time.
Arrange switches to control them separately.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING A FUSE
Teaching note: This activity may be best for the teacher to demonstrate, as the
steel wool will heat up very fast and catch alight.
Key idea: Fuses are parts of a circuit that will melt or break if the current
becomes too large.
23
TO P I C 7
You will need:
• steel wool
• a battery
• connecting wire
• a light globe.
Use the steel wool to make a ‘fuse’. Connect it into a circuit that contains a globe. What
happens? Use a piece of wire to make a parallel path around the globe. What happens
to the fuse?
AC T I V I T Y: W H I C H
B AT T E RY L A S T S
LO N G E S T ?
Teaching note: Children will need to break the circuits at the end of the school
day and connect them again in the morning.
Key idea: Batteries die after the chemical reactions inside them are complete.
You will need:
• a selection of D–cell batteries

• other equipment designated by the students.
Design an experiment to investigate which D–cell battery will last the longest.
Explanatory note: Batteries give the same amount of energy to each ‘free’
electron in the circuit (moving ‘free’ electrons constitute the current). Batteries
transform more energy when the current is larger. This results in the chemical
reaction inside the battery being completed in a shorter time.
AC T I V I T Y: W H AT ’ S
I N S I D E A TO R C H ?
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) pathway in a loop.
You will need:
• a torch that can be readily dismantled.

Bring a torch from home. Draw what you think is inside a torch and label the different
parts. Then carefully take the torch apart, making sure no parts are lost. Describe
three things that were different from you expected.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING A TORCH
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) pathway in a loop.
You will need:
• Materials that might be used to construct a torch (e.g. strips of metal, aluminium
foil, cardboard, coloured cellophane, batteries, wires and globes).
Design a torch, using a range of materials.
24
Explanatory note: A torch is a very simple electrical circuit. In most torches, a

metal strip and the spring take the place of wires. The switch has a piece of metal
attached to it so that in the ‘on’ position it bridges the gap between the two
strips of metal inside the torch. The metal spring at the base of the torch ensures
that the batteries continue to touch each other and the base of the globe
causing good connections. A complete conducting path (in the form of a loop)
should be able to be traced from the batteries to the globe and back to the
batteries. The path leads up through the base of the light globe through the
filament and out the side of the globe.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N D U C TO R S
A N D I N S U L ATO R S
Teaching note: Some materials, such as water, are considered to be conductors,
but in this activity the globe may not light up if water is used. This is because
water is not as good a conductor as metal. A better way to test materials is to
include an ammeter into the circuit. The ammeter measures the amount of
current in the circuit. By using the ammeter you can order the conductors from
good to poor.
Key idea: Most materials can be classified according to whether current passes
through them (conductors) or not (insulators).
You will need:
• a battery
• connectors
• a globe
• an ammeter (optional)
• three wires
• a switch
• a variety of insulators and conductors.
Construct a circuit and test a variety of materials to see whether current passes
through them or not. If it does, list them under a heading ‘conductors’. If not, list them
under ‘insulators’.
You can test metal parts, painted metal, plastic, pencil leads, aluminium foil, plastics,
paper, skin (use different points on your finger), fresh water, salt water, a globe, wood
(green or dry), silvered parts on toys or pens or appliances, plastic–coated paperclips,
rusted metal or burnished copper wire.
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TO P I C 7
Explanatory note: Conductors are substances that contain free electrons. Free
electrons are not rigidly connected to any particular atoms that make up the
substance and so are free to move within the material. It is these free electrons
that create the current when the substance is connected up to a battery.
Different substances have different levels of free electrons: those with lots of free
electrons, such as metals, are called good conductors, whereas those substances
with low levels of free electrons, like water, are poor conductors. Substances
made of plastic have no free electrons and are considered insulators.
Salt water is a better conductor than normal water as the salt crystals break up
into charged particles, called ions, when they dissolve in the water. Ions are
atoms that have either lost or gained electrons. An electric circuit that contains
salt water not only has electrons moving but ions as well; each contribute to the
current in the circuit.
AC T I V I T Y:
MODELS OF
ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
Teaching note: There is no single model that can explain all the behaviour of
current electricity. The students should not only know where the model fits the
observations but also where the model breaks down. For example, how does the
student electron ‘know’ which path to take in a parallel circuit? A hole in the
water pipe will leak water but a break in the electric circuit will not leak
electrons. It is difficult to imagine how the bicycle chain model can represent a
parallel circuit.
Key idea: Models are used to represent electricity concepts.

The railcar model we used earlier helped to explain a number of concepts. Here are a
few more.
26
The following role–play captures some of the features of circuits. Working out what
aspects are useful, and where the model breaks down, is a productive activity in itself.
You will need:
• students
• tokens
• tables and chairs
• a barrier.
Table 7.1 Role–play
Analog (role–play) Target

Looped pathway, or tables and chairs Wire
Students Electrons
Token Energy
Student Light globe
Student Battery
Barrier to stop movement along the path Switch
Make a looped pathway by rearranging the tables or chairs in the classroom or a

designated path outside. This represents the wire. Gather all the students around the
pathway. They represent electrons. A switch can be represented by a barrier that
stops the student electrons from moving around the path.
One student stands at one location on the pathway. They represent the battery. As
the student electrons move past the battery, they are given an energy token. The
student light globe stands at another place on the pathway. Each student electron
gives their energy token to the student globe. No energy is required to move around
the circuit if there is no resistance. The student globe does some action (e.g. raises a
hand) for every energy token taken. This represents a transformation of energy.
EXTENSIONS
You can expand the Models of electric circuits activity in the following ways:
• model two batteries in series (two tokens are given)

• model two light globes in series (each charge gives half their energy to each)
• model a parallel globe arrangement
• explore what happens when the switch is placed at different points
• model a resistance, perhaps using some stools that the electrons need to
manoeuvre around and which slow them down and for which they need to
expend energy
• discuss how each electron might ‘know’ as it leaves the battery how many globes
it needs to distribute its energy to (this is where the model is inadequate, since it
does not capture the operation of the electric field, which is the real source of
energy transfer).
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TO P I C 7
You can further extend the activity by considering:
• a delivery truck model

• a water pipe model
• a bicycle model.
Discuss how well the models explain:
• a switch
• a parallel circuit
• a series circuit
• a large resistance
• a short circuit.
Table 7.2 Role play and delivery truck models compared
Analog (role–play) Target Analog (delivery truck)

Students Electrons Delivery trucks
Student holding tokens Battery Warehouse with parcels
Tokens Energy Parcels
Laid out path in classroom Conducting wire One–way streets
Student (when receiving a Bulb Shops
token will undertake some
action, e.g. jump)
Table 7.3 Water pipe and bicycle models compared
Analog (water) Target Analog (bicycle)

Water particles Electrons Chain links
Pump Battery Cyclist
Gravitational potential Energy Kinetic energy (movement
energy of wheel)
Pipes Conducting wire Chain loop
Vertical pipes Bulb Wheel
Flow rate Current Speed of chain motion
Flow–rate meter Ammeter Speedometer
Width of pipe Resistance Wheel friction
28
Figure 7.10 Water pipe model
When you explain the water pipe model, make the following points with the
analogical interpretation:
• The pipe system is entirely enclosed so that there is no leakage of water. Thus no
electrons are lost as they move around the conducting loop.
• All the pipes contain water and the pump does not provide water. The entire
conducting path contains electrons; the battery does not supply electrons.
• The pump raises the water and, in doing so, gives the water gravitational
potential energy. The battery gives electrical energy to the electrons.
• The vertical pipes are places where water falls, thus converting from
gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy and heat energy. One needs to
assume that the speed of the water at the top of the pipe is the same as at the
bottom, like a waterfall. The loads in the circuit are where the electrical energy is
converted into other forms of energy.
• The vertical pipes can be of varying thicknesses and so will restrict the flow of
water through them and the amount of energy that is transformed in them. The
loads have varying resistance that restrict current and transform energy.
• The flow rate of water in any one loop is determined by the restrictions on that
loop in terms of the widths of the pipes. The electric current in a loop is
determined by the resistances in that loop.
The figure below shows the water pipe model for a series and a parallel circuit.
Figure 7.11 Water pipe model for series and parallel circuits
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TO P I C 7
When you explain the bicycle chain model, make the following points with the
analogical interpretation:
• The globe does not glow if there is a break anywhere in the circuit. The cogwheel
does not spin if there is a break anywhere in the chain.
• Current is the same everywhere in the circuit. No links get lost and the number of
links moving past a particular part of the chain is the same all along the chain.
• The globe lights almost instantaneously when the battery is connected. The
wheel turns at the same time there is a push on the pedals.
• Energy travels from one location to another for the electric circuit and the
bicycle. However, in the electric circuit energy is transformed, whereas in the
bicycle, energy is transferred.
• A switch turns the globe off. The brake stops the wheel. However, whereas the
globe turns off almost instantaneously when the switch is opened, the wheel
may take some time to stop when the brake is applied.
The figure below represents a single–globe circuit and a two–globe series circuit. To
represent the second globe in the series circuit, a tube of thick bristles surrounds the
chain. This slows down the chain (reducing current).
Figure 7.12 Bicycle chain model
Electric games, toys and models
AC T I V I T Y: N E R V E
TESTER
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) path that forms a loop.
You will need:
• a coathanger (or thinner but stiff wire), bent into a crazy wave shape and
fastened into a wooden board
• a buzzer
30
• a battery
• connecting wire.
Construct a circuit, designed so that a player’s nerve is tested as they attempt to pass
a loop along this wire without touching. A buzzer rings if the loop touches the wire.
The circuit is completed when the loop touches the wire.
The game becomes more difficult if the loop is made smaller. There are commercial
variations to this game.
AC T I V I T Y: Q U I Z
GAME
Teaching note: The connections at the back of the board may be made
permanent by soldering the connections. Alternatively, by using double alligator
clip wire, the connection can change with each new set of questions. A box
arrangement for the back may be required so that the player will not be able to
work out the connections.
Key idea: An electric circuit is a complete (unbroken) path that forms a loop.
You will need:
• a wooden board
• nails
• cards, for questions and choices
• connecting wire
• alligator clips
• a battery
• a light globe.
Make a game so that a player attaches a wire to a choice (A, B, C or D) for each
question shown on the board. Make cards that give the questions and choices. The
light must go on if the answer is right. The circuit is shown in the figure below.
31
TO P I C 7
The dotted lines show the connections at the back. Each choice (A to D) and each
question has a nail connector to attach a clip to. The player must attach one wire to
the question number, and the other wire to the chosen answer.
AC T I V I T Y:
ELECTROMAGNETIC
CRANE
Key idea: Electric currents create magnetic fields.
You will need:
• a 6 V battery
• thin insulated wire
• an iron nail, or iron or steel rod
• a switch
• paperclips.
You can make a toy crane that uses an electromagnet to lift metal objects. Make the
electromagnet with a 6 V torch battery and many turns of thin wire around a large
nail or iron or steel rod. When a switch is turned on, the nail or iron rod becomes
temporarily magnetised and will lift paperclips.
32
AC T I V I T Y:
LIGHTING AND
A L A R M S YS T E M S
Teaching note: A variety of electronic devices can be bought at commercial
outlets that enable flashing lights and sensors to be used as part of circuitry.
Key idea: A series circuit contains one looped path. A parallel circuit contains
more than one looped path.
Make models and toys using circuits, for example:
• model buildings with lights and switches which control each room individually
• model cars or robots with switched lighting systems
• a model torch
• switch arrangements that turn on a light, or which sound an alarm, when a door
is opened to a model or real house or refrigerator or security building
• an alarm system to warn when water in a bath reaches a certain level
33
TOPIC 8
Force and motion

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of force and motion 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of force and movement 2
Activities 2
Force 2
Force and movement 5
Inertia 7
Balance 8
Key concepts of balance 8
Balance oddities and illusions 9
Standing upright 14
Balance rules (OK?) 17
Centre of mass 18
Introduction
The topic of force and motion involves some quite counter–intuitive ideas.
Informal conceptions of force are held by children and adults alike. Force and
motion activities provide some rich opportunities for different representational
modes: diagrams, graphs and charts, and metaphors to do with human action.
This topic overlaps considerably with other topics in these resource materials,
such as ‘Air and flight’, ‘Floating and sinking’ and ‘Magnets’.
Key concepts of force and motion

Early years
• Forces can be thought of as ‘pushes’ and ‘pulls’.
• Forces can make things move or stop or hold things up or squeeze things.
• Friction is a common force that stops things moving or slows things down.
• Gravity is a force that makes things fall.
Middle years
• Forces cause changes in motion, and are not (unlike momentum and
energy) associated with motion itself.
• Forces are our way of describing the way effects such as pushes, pulls or
gravity can influence the motion of things.
• A force is an effect on an object, not a property of the object or its motion. It
is something that is done to, or acts on, things.
• A change in motion (speeding up, slowing down, swerving) is caused by an
external effect and not by the object itself or something inside it.
• Forces occur in action–reaction pairs. Thus if you push on something it will
push back on you. Your standing body pushes down on the ground, and the
ground pushes back up on you.
• Pairs or sets of forces will add together to affect motion, but the addition
must take into account direction. Forces can cancel each other.
• Common forces include contact forces (physical pushes, support or traction
from the ground, friction, air or water resistance opposing motion, force
from wind) and field forces (gravity, magnetic forces, electric field forces).
• Motion can be described by representing the distance something travels in
a time interval.
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TO P I C 8
Students’ alternative conceptions of force and movement

• Forces are associated only with living things (i.e. people can apply force but
things like gravity or friction are not forces).
• Force is thought to be the property of a moving object, rather than
something acting on it from outside. Thus, constant motion requires or
involves a constant force (rather than a net force causing speeding up or
slowing down or deflection).
• The amount of motion is proportional to the amount of force (i.e. faster
moving objects are thought to have a greater force).
• If an object is not moving there is no force acting on it, and if a body is
moving there is a force acting on it in the direction of motion. (This is not
true. For instance, there is no forward force on a rolling or sliding object—
friction will act in a direction opposite to the motion. A stationary person
standing in a room is subject to two forces.)
Activities
Force
AC T I V I T Y: F O R C E S
O N P L AYD O U G H
Key ideas: Forces cause change in shape, or movement. Force can be
represented by arrows.
You will need:
• playdough
• photographs of activity (e.g. sport, games).
Discuss with students what they might do to change the playdough. Let them
experiment with different ways they can act on it. Get students to talk about the
different things they did; for instance, twisted it, squeezed it, thumped it, rolled it.
As they talk, represent the pushing and pulling that they did with arrows. Collect
different diagrams of forces on playdough on the board. Challenge students to use
this arrow representation to think about what is happening when you squeeze a ball,
sit on a soft chair, or push a chair across the floor.
Students can then use the arrow representation for other forces they can imagine.
Distribute some sporting or game–playing photographs and get them to draw arrows
to show the forces.
2
AC T I V I T Y:
PUSHING AND
P U L L I N G A TA B L E
Key ideas: Forces can add together or be opposed. Friction opposes movement
and can be represented as a force.
You will need:
• a table
• a sheet of felt
• stockings.
Up–end a table on the floor, with a sheet of felt beneath it. Discuss with students
what would be needed to move it. Challenge a student to pull it. Is it harder if
someone stands on it? Use a stocking to pull. The stretch can provide an informal
representation of the amount of force.
What difference does it make if two people both pull? What happens if one person
pulls and the other pushes from the other end? What happens if two people push at
opposite ends?
Using the arrow notation, represent the forces needed to move the table. Challenge
students to represent the effect of the drag from the floor, and imagine what would
happen if the table had rollers on it.
AC T I V I T Y:
M A K I N G A YAC H T
Teaching note: Help students with the construction and probe their ideas about
what makes the best floater, and also what is likely to move the best in a wind
and why. A class trial will require a trough with a fan at one end.
Key idea: Wind provides a force that depends on the shape and size of sails.
You will need:
• polystyrene
• cartons
• plastic bottles
• drinking straws
• icy–pole sticks
• sticky tape
• plasticine
• paper
• wooden skewers
• cotton material for sails
• a trough
• a fan
• a bucket of water and jugs.
3
TO P I C 8
Construct a boat with a mast and sail. Work with a trough of water to trial its floating
and sailing capacities. The aim is to construct a boat that will move fast in a wind. You
can either blow or use a fan to make the boat move during trials.
Draw a diagram of the boat and write about why it went well, or why it didn’t. What
makes a good yacht work well?
AC T I V I T Y: B R I C K
FRICTION
Teaching note: Organise comparisons of the various methods before the
students record their findings. After they record, demonstrate the effect on the
force of having two bricks or three bricks under the same conditions.
Use lengths of a streamer to compare the amount of stretch. Stick these on the
board like a bar chart.
Key ideas: Different surfaces have different amounts of friction. Force can be
measured. Rollers reduce friction.
Each group will need:
• a brick with a hook attached

• elastic bands
• various surfaces (two of each) to sit the brick on: plastic, paper, sandpaper, silk
and wool cloth, aluminium foil
• an enamel tray
• an aluminium tray
• two wooden dowels
• four hexagonal pencils
• six marbles
• ten wooden skewers
• a coloured streamer.
Move a brick using as small a pulling force as possible. Use an elastic band to pull. The
stretch on the band can be measured, to represent the force with which the elastic
band is pulling. Demonstrate the fact that the elastic band will stretch more as the
pull gets greater.
Discuss some possible ways of making the brick move with as little pull as possible.
Use the streamer to measure the stretch of the elastic band just as the brick begins to
move.
How did you move the brick with only a little pull? Why did this work?
4
Force and movement
AC T I V I T Y: R A M P
ROLL
Teaching note: This activity is discussed in some detail in Chapter 3 of Teaching
primary science constructively (Keith Skamp 2004, Thomson, Melbourne), which
includes a discussion of the science.
Key idea: The shape and size of a roller affect its motion down a ramp and along
a floor.
You will need:
• a ramp
• two identical jam jars (one full and one empty)
• a range of cylindrical and spherical rollers, some solid and some hollow (e.g. bits
of plastic pipe, batteries, dowelling, toilet rolls, tennis and golf balls, marbles and
ball bearings, carts).
Find out what makes things roll best down a ramp and along the floor.
Compare a full and an empty jam jar. Which reaches the bottom first? Which goes
along the ground furthest? Do you think it is weight that makes a difference, or size,
or being hollow or solid?
Try with the different rollers (cylinders and balls, hollow or solid) to find out. Draw
what you found and write what you think is happening.
AC T I V I T Y: C A R T S
T H AT W O R K
Key ideas: Large wheels reduce friction on rough surfaces. Friction acts to slow
things down. Aspects of the design process: investigate, design, make, evaluate.
You will need:
• a ramp
• cartons
• wheels
• wooden skewers
• straws
• sticky tape.
Use cartons, wheels, skewers and straws to make a cart that rolls down a ramp and
furthest along the floor. What are the factors that make the cart go best? Weight? Size
of wheel? Type of axle?
Draw and label what you made and write about why it works well.
5
TO P I C 8
AC T I V I T Y: S P E E D
AND TIME
Teaching note: This activity asks students to think of speed in terms of distance
travelled in a timed interval. This is a challenge for middle years students.
Key idea: Speed is distance travelled in a unit of time. Motion can be

represented by measuring distance travelled in successive time intervals.
You will need:
• a long table raised at one end to make a slope

• a ball
• a stick
• scissors
• a streamer.
Galileo used a ball rolling down a slope to study motion. The figure below represents
a ball about to roll down a slope. Consider the following questions and design an
experiment to investigate them.
• How much longer do you think it takes the ball to roll to D, compared to A?
• Design a timing device to check your prediction.
• Where is the ball going fastest?
Roll a ball down the sloped table. Have someone clack a stick at regular intervals, so
that three or four clacks occur while the ball is rolling down the slope. Lay a piece of
streamer down the slope to mark the position of the ball. Mark on the streamer where
the ball is at each clack (i.e. at equal time intervals). Cut the streamer up to represent
the distance travelled by the ball during each clack. Arrange the pieces of streamer
side by side.
What does this ‘graph’ tell you about what happens to the speed of the ball as it rolls
down the slope?
6
Inertia
AC T I V I T Y: C A R D
FLICK
Key idea: Objects will tend to resist changes to their motion, to a degree
influenced by their inertial mass.
You will need:
• a 20c coin
• a playing card in good condition.
Balance a 20c coin in the middle of a playing card, on top of your index finger. Having
achieved this balance, use your other hand to flick the card horizontally off your
finger. The coin stays in place!
AC T I V I T Y:
REMOVING THE
TA B L E C LOT H
Key idea: Objects will tend to resist changes to their motion, to a degree
influenced by their inertial mass.
You will need:
• paper (A4 or larger)

• a sturdy glass full of water
• a table with a smooth surface and edge.
A similar trick involves sitting a glass of water near a table edge, with a strip of paper
under it projecting out from the table. For this trick the glass and table must be quite
dry.
Hold the other end of the paper with one hand, and bring your other hand down on
the paper in a karate chop motion to pull the paper from under the glass. The glass
should stay in position because of its inertia. If the motion is too slow, the friction
between the paper and the glass will be sufficient to pull the glass off the table.
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TO P I C 8
Explanatory note: ‘Inertia’ is a word that is used to describe the tendency of

objects to stay where they are, or to keep on going if they are moving. The Card
flick and Removing the tablecloth activities both rely on the idea that a really fast
pull or flick will not allow the coin or glass to be forced into motion by friction. A
slow movement would allow friction to accelerate the coin with the card, but the
acceleration of the card is far too great for the coin to stay with, since not that
much friction is available. It stays where it is as the card slips out.
Balance
There are many intriguing visual illusions and unexpected situations associated
with balance. These activities can be explored in terms of intuitive ideas about
the distribution of weight in an object, or they can be studied more formally in
terms of the centre–of–mass concept. Expressions like ‘most of the weight is ...’ or
‘the heaviest part is here, and balances that part ...’ can be quite explanatory at
an informal level, if the formal centre–of–mass concept is beyond the reach of
students. Centre of mass is a concept, however, quite accessible to middle years
students.
Key concepts of balance

• Objects have a balance point, which depends upon the distribution of
matter in the object.
• An object can be made to balance around a pivot point if the distribution of
weight in the object is adjusted.
• The centre of mass of an object represents where the mass seems to be
concentrated.
• The centre of mass can lie in midair.
• The position of the centre of mass can be altered by adding mass to an
object.
• An object will hang so that the centre of mass lies directly below the
suspension point.
• An object will be stable as long as its centre of mass lies above its base;
otherwise it will topple.
• Objects with wide bases are more stable.
8
Balance oddities and illusions
AC T I V I T Y: F O R K
AND SPOON
HOVER
Key ideas: When an object hangs, the weight is distributed so that the bulk is
directly below the pivot point. The centre of mass of a system of connected
objects lies directly below the pivot point.
You will need:
• a fork
• a spoon
• a glass
• matches.
Put the round end of a spoon into the prongs of a fork. Use a match inserted in the
prongs and resting on the edge of a glass to suspend the fork and spoon in midair.
Why do they hover like that?
The secret is in the way the weight is distributed. Where is most of the weight of the
fork and spoon? Where do you think the centre of mass is?
If you want some extra excitement, light the match at both ends. What do you predict
will happen?
Explanatory note: The Fork and spoon hover can be explained once you realise
that most of the weight of the fork and spoon are in the handles, and that
despite the fact that visually they seem to project out into space, in fact, as a
unit, the bulk of the mass lies back below the pivot point as one might expect.
Formally, we can identify that the centre of mass of the fork–spoon system (the
match has negligible mass) lies in midair somewhere between the handles, and
exactly underneath the point at which the match sits on the rim of the glass.
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TO P I C 8
AC T I V I T Y:
HAMMER HANG
You will need:
• a hammer
• a ruler
• Blu–Tack
• string, or an elastic band.
Loop a piece of string (or an elastic band) around a hammer and a ruler as shown in
the figure below. You may find Blu–Tack useful for stopping them sliding apart.
Where is most of the weight of the hammer? Where, roughly, is the weight of the
ruler–hammer arrangement concentrated? Can you find where the centre of mass of
the model is? Can you adjust your model to make the ruler slant upwards from the
support point? Can you explain how the ruler is supported in midair, out from the
bench?
Explanatory note: The Fork and spoon hover explanation also applies to the
Hammer hang. The centre of mass of the ruler–hammer system is located close
to the head of the hammer, where most of the mass is. The illusion of projection
is achieved because the ruler and hammer handle contain only a minor part of
the total mass of the system.
AC T I V I T Y:
BALANCE
I L LU S I O N S
You will need:
• a cork
• a potato
• two forks
10
• plasticine
• wire
• pliers
• a plastic soft–drink bottle
• a polystyrene ball
• plastic knitting needles
• matches
• a piece of cotton thread.
Make a few balancing puzzles to surprise students. Where does the weight have to be,
for a successful balance?
The figure opposite shows two forks stuck in a potato (a cork will also work), with
their handles mostly below the pivot point. You can improve the illusion if you have
large, light objects such as paper wings sticking up and sideways out of the potato
(e.g. using knitting needles).
A variation on this arrangement involves using a cotton thread to balance this

arrangement. Replace the wire with a matchstick with a V cut in the bottom end to sit
on the thread. The match will slide along the thread if it slopes, like a tightrope
walker.
AC T I V I T Y: M R
TRIX
You will need:
• a plastic squeezy bottle or similar

• wire (thinner than a coathanger, but stiff)
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TO P I C 8
• a cork
• plasticine.
Make the toy shown in the figure below, and experiment with what happens when
you modify the weight and position of each of the plasticine hands and the angle of
the arms. Predict in each case what will happen to Mr Trix.
AC T I V I T Y:
TIGHTROPE—
WA L K E R
You will need:
• plasticine
• cotton thread
• string
• balsa wood
• a knife
• a small polystyrene ball
• wire or a pipe–cleaner
• coloured paper.
Make the model doll shown. Shape the doll from one piece of wire so it is rigid, and
shape the balsa wood shoes so they are also rigidly supported and have a groove to
sit along the taut string. The plasticine needs to hang centrally below the doll, as
shown in the figure below.
12
Can you work out a rule that tells us how to make the doll balance?
AC T I V I T Y:
BUT TERFLIERS
A N D AC R O B AT S
You will need:
• two coins (or pieces of Blu–Tack)

• lightweight cardboard
• sticky tape or Blu–Tack
• a pencil
• plasticine
• scissors.
Cut the shape you want out of thin card. A butterfly shape works well! Stick two coins
(Blu–Tack should work as well as coins) on the underside as shown in the figure
below. Make a stand (a pencil stuck in plasticine will do) and balance the butterfly on
its head.
Try some other shapes. Where does the balance point have to be in relation to the
coins? Can you make some shapes different to those shown here?
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TO P I C 8
Explanatory note: The principle that was used to explain the Fork and spoon
hover and Hammer hang activities applies to all these illusion tricks, including Mr
Trix, Tightrope–walker and Butterfliers and acrobats. In each case, the bulk of the
mass lies below the pivot point even though the most obvious features seem to
lie above, projecting into space. Formally, if you were to locate the centre of
mass, it would lie directly below the pivot.
AC T I V I T Y: P O P–
UP DOLL
Standing upright
Key idea: In a balance situation where objects are standing, the weight will be
distributed to be above the base on the floor. The centre of mass must be over
the base if the object is not to fall over.
You will need:
• a half ping–pong ball

• plasticine
14
• an icy–pole stick
• coloured paper.
Make the pop–up man in the figure below, using a half ping–pong ball and plasticine,
and an icy–pole stick or matches for the body.
Where is the weight of the toy concentrated? Explain why he pops up again when you
push him.
Can you arrange it so that he pops up when you push him, but stays down if you push
him right over?
Explanatory note: The pop–up doll is a stability trick. The secret is that most of
the weight of the doll is in the base, and that gives stability. More formally, the
centre of mass of the doll is about one–third of the way into the plasticine. If the
doll is on its side, the centre of mass is on the base side of the pivot point, which
is the rim of the ball, and will up–end the doll to right it.
An interesting challenge is to make the doll so that it lies down if pushed totally
over, but rights itself for anything less than that. This can be done by adjusting
the level of plasticine in the base, or by adding plasticine to the head of the doll.
In either case it is a matter of adjusting the position of the centre of mass within
the base.
AC T I V I T Y: DA R E
TO P I C K U P, DA R E
TO S TA N D U P
You will need:
• a coin
• a chair
• a wall.
Challenge a friend! He must put his heels against the wall, and bend over to pick up
the coin you put near his feet. He must not fall over! He cannot bend his knees.
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TO P I C 8
Can you stand up from a straight–backed chair without leaning forward? You must
not use your arms. Your back must be kept touching the chair. How do you usually get
up from a chair?
Explanatory note: These Dare to ... challenges depend on the fact that you can’t
be stable unless your weight distribution, or your centre of mass, lies above your
shoes (your baseline).
In the first challenge, leaning forward projects your weight outside the line of
your toes and makes you unstable. You could do it if the wall were not there,
because your bottom would inevitably move backwards (left in the diagram) to
compensate for the movement forwards by the upper body. We have spent a
lifetime learning to do this sort of thing without thinking about it!
In the second challenge, standing straight up will have the weight of the upper
body above the chair and not above the feet. What we normally do in getting
out of a chair is to move our feet backwards and lean forwards so that in every
part of the action the weight (i.e. the centre of mass) lies directly above where
the feet are planted, or at least is outside in a way that allows a controlled
topple!
AC T I V I T Y:
METRE–RULE
M AG I C
You will need:
• a metre rule or stick with flat surfaces

• weights
• a coin
• a greeting card
Take a metre rule, or any metre–length stick with flat surfaces, and balance it on your
two outstretched index fingers at each end. Now move your hands smoothly
together, still letting the rule sit on your fingers. It does not fall!
16
Try it again, moving one hand only. Try it again, this time putting weights near one
end of the rule. Again, you should be able to achieve a perfect balance without trying!
What is happening?
A more subtle balancing act can be done with a 20c or 50c coin. Place the coin on the
V of a greeting card standing on a flat surface. Carefully open out the card until it is
straight. The coin is still balanced!
Explanatory note: In the metre–rule trick, the rule doesn’t topple because once
the weight distribution becomes a bit imbalanced it puts pressure on the finger
nearest the middle of the rule, and reduces the pressure on the finger near the
end. The reduced pressure reduces the friction between the rule and that finger,
which will slide along the ruler until it is closer to the centre than the other
finger and pressure on it will increase. Any tendency to tip will cause an
adjustment in terms of which finger moves next, without our having to think
about it!
Balance rules (OK?)
AC T I V I T Y:
M AT H E M AT I C A L
MOBILE
Key idea: Objects will balance if the product of distance multiplied by weight is
the same on either side of the balance point.
You will need:
• a box of identical nuts, bolts or small weights

• cotton thread
• lightweight sticks.
17
TO P I C 8
Make as big and as complicated a mobile as you can, using the weights. Use
combinations of one, two or three weights at different points along the length of the
sticks.
Can you find a rule to describe the point on each stick at which the next stick and set
of weights must be hung?
AC T I V I T Y:
BALANCING THE
BUDGET
Key idea: Objects will balance if the product of distance multiplied by weight is
the same on either side of the balance point.
You will need:
• a ruler (30 cm)

• a pencil
• twenty small coins.
Use the pencil (on its side) as a pivot to balance the ruler on its own.
Where must the ruler go? What is special about the place on the ruler needed to
balance it?
Place one coin at one end of the ruler. Challenge a friend to place two coins
somewhere on the ruler, on the other side of the pencil, to make the ruler balance
again. Where must the two coins be put?
Repeat the process, but this time give your friend three coins to balance. What is the
rule that tells your friend where to put the coins? Where is the centre of mass for the
balanced ruler, in each case?
Try some more difficult challenges. Put two coins down at the end of the ruler and ask
your friend to balance them with three coins. Ask if it is possible to balance this
arrangement using one coin.
Put one coin at the end and one halfway on the ruler and challenge your friend to
balance this using three coins. Don’t allow your friend to experiment... they must
predict where the balancing coins should go!
Explanatory note: There are simple mathematical rules that govern the way
objects are arranged round a pivot point if they are balanced, and that
determine the position of the centre of mass. The rule with both the
Mathematical mobile and Balancing the budget activities is that, on either side of
the pivot, a single mass placed two or three or four or more units from the pivot
can be balanced on the other side by two or three or four or more units of mass
placed one unit from the pivot point. Mathematically, balance will be achieved if
the distance and mass multiplied together is the same on both sides.
Centre of mass
These activities locate the centre of mass explicitly, in contrast to the more
intuitive activities above.
18
AC T I V I T Y:
SPINNING SHAPES
Key ideas: The centre of mass always lies directly beneath a pivot point. The
centre of mass follows a simple path through the air even if the object is
spinning in a complex way.
You will need:
• a sheet of cardboard
• a compass fitted with a thick pen or marker
• Blu–Tack
• cotton thread
• a nail
• a weight (e.g. a nut).
Find the ‘centre’ as shown, of a piece of crazy cardboard. To do this, make a hole at two
different points on the cardboard, and for each, hang the cardboard from a nail
poked through the hole. Hang a piece of cotton with a weight on it from the nail (a
‘plumb–bob’), and draw a line along the cardboard where the thread hangs. Where
the two lines meet, we shall call the ‘centre’ of the cardboard shape.
Mark the ‘centre’. Balance the cardboard on the tip of a pen, as best you can. Is the
balance point the same ‘centre’ point you just found?
With a compass, draw a series of circles centred on the ‘centre’. You will need to draw
the circles accurately, and in thick pen or marker, for effect. On the other side of the
cardboard, draw another set of circles, centred around a different point.
Throw the piece of card, spinning, into the air. What do you notice about the circles?
The cardboard spins about its ‘centre of mass’ and those circles appear not to wobble.
Can you attach a piece of Blu–Tack to the cardboard to make the point your other
circles are drawn around the new balance and spin–centre point?
19
TO P I C 8
AC T I V I T Y: E M P T Y
CENTRE
Key idea: The centre of mass will always lie directly below the pivot point. The
centre of mass may be in a part of the object where there is no mass.
You will need:
• a coathanger
• a sheet of paper
• sticky tape
• a nail
• cotton thread
• a weight (e.g. a nut).
Where would the centre of mass for a coathanger be?
Use sticky tape to attach a sheet of paper across the gap in a coathanger, so that you
can mark the centre of mass on it. Use the ‘plumb–bob’ method as used in the
Spinning shapes activity to find the centre of mass.
Explanatory note: With the Spinning shapes and Empty centre activities, the
centre of mass is located by using the principle that it always hangs directly
below the pivot point. There are other examples in previous balance illusions
where the centre of mass is in midair (Fork and spoon hover, Mr Trix ...). Can you
identify where the centre of mass is in all those previous illusions? Spinning
shapes uses the principle that an object will spin around its centre of mass. Try
spinning a hammer in the air—you will find it spins around a point in the head.
Adding Blu–Tack of course changes the position of the centre of mass (it shifts
towards the Blu–Tack).
20
AC T I V I T Y:
F U N N E L S T H AT
ROLL UPHILL
Key idea: Gravitational energy changes can be traced by treating an object as
though all its mass is at the centre of mass.
You will need:
• two metre rules or long straight pieces of wood, joined at one end
• two identical, large funnels (glass, or plastic, or shaped out of card)
• a block or books to raise the end of the rulers.
Tape a pair of funnels together (you can make the funnels out of card). Arrange two
rulers as shown, to make a track for the funnels to run on. If you get the angles right,
the funnels will run uphill. But look carefully at what is happening to the centre of the
funnels. Is the centre running uphill?
Explanatory note: Funnels that roll uphill is based on a visual illusion. If you look
carefully at what happens to the centre of mass of the funnels (which is at the
centre of their joining circle), you will find that in this case it runs downhill even
though the rulers are sloped upwards. The geometry is misleading!
21
TOPIC 9
Earth in space
Contents
IIntroduction 1
Key concepts of Earth in space 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of Earth in space 2
Activities 3
Exploring Earth in space 3
The solar system and beyond 8
IIntroduction
Ideas about Earth’s place in space have interested people since ancient times.
Children love to learn about space, so motivating students should not be a
problem for the teacher. However, while there is plenty of scope for children to
engage in library research and Internet activities, this should not be overdone.
This topic provides a range of hands–on activities that focus on key concepts to
do with Earth in space.
Key concepts of Earth in space

Early years
• Earth is the shape of a ball.
• ‘Down’ refers to the centre of Earth (in relation to gravity).
• Earth spins, or rotates, to cause day and night.
• The Moon changes shape over a month.
• Planets go around the Sun.
• Stars have different brightness and colour.
• Humans group stars into constellations.
• The planets in the solar system differ in size.
Middle years
• The universe is extremely large.
• Instruments such as telescopes and binoculars can be used to view objects
in the universe.
• There are many different types of objects in the universe.
• The Moon appears in the sky due to reflected light from the Sun.
• The position of the Sun with respect to Earth gives us night and day.
• Stars are still there during daylight.
• The Moon’s gravity is much less than gravity on Earth.
• Earth rotates, which makes the Moon, Sun and stars appear to move.
• Earth’s tilt in orbit causes seasons.
• The Sun is higher in the sky in summer at midday, than at the same time in
winter.
• The Sun rises and sets at different places and at different times in summer
compared to winter.
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TO P I C 9
• The solar system is a big place.

• Space travel is very difficult.
Students’ alternative conceptions of Earth in space

• The Earth we live on is flat, not round like a ball.

• The Sun moves to cause day and night.
• The Moon emits its own light.
• The phases of the Moon are caused by Earth’s shadow.
• There is no connection between mass and gravity.
• Stars and constellations appear in the same place in the sky all the time.
• The Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west everyday.
• The Sun is directly overhead at 12 midday (even taking into account
daylight saving!).
• We experience seasons because of Earth’s changing distance from the Sun:
closer in summer, farther in winter.
• Earth is the centre of our solar system.
• The Moon is only visible at night.
• The Moon does not rotate on its axis as it revolves around Earth.
• The phases of the Moon are caused by other things in the solar system
either getting in the way or casting a shadow on it.
• The phases of the Moon are caused by Earth’s shadow.
• Earth is the largest object in the solar system.
• The solar system is crowded.
• Meteors are falling stars.
• All the stars in a constellation are near each other.
• Stars are evenly distributed throughout the universe.
2
Activities
Exploring Earth in space
AC T I V I T Y: ‘ O U R
P L AC E I N S PAC E ’
PROBE
Key ideas: The solar system is a big place. There are many different types of
objects in the universe.
You will need:
• storybook: My place in space (R Hirst & S Hirst 1988, Five Mile Press, Fitzroy, Vic.).
Read the storybook My place in space. After reading the storybook, discuss some of
the objects found in space and what people know about them. For example, people
know that stars produce their own light but planets and satellites are seen because
they reflect starlight.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N C E P T
MAPPING
Key idea: Interrelationships between concepts of Earth in space. For example,
our own galaxy, which is a collection of many stars near each other, is called ‘the
Milky Way’.
Create a concept map using the following words:
• sun
• planets
• star
• earth
• solar system
• moon
• galaxy
• satellite
• atmosphere
• gravity
• comets
• constellations
• Milky Way.
3
TO P I C 9
CHANGING
SHAPES OF THE
MOON
Key ideas: The Moon changes shape over a month. The Moon reflects light from
the Sun.
The Moon reflects light from the Sun to Earth. The phases of the Moon are produced
by its orbit around Earth. Observe the Moon shapes you see on days 1, 8, 15, 22 and
29 of any month.
Explanatory note: The shape of the Moon depends on the relative positions of
Earth, the Moon and the Sun. The changing shapes of the Moon provide a good
case for disputing the view that the Moon gives off its own light; if it did it
should always appear as a disc.
Looking at the figure The changing shapes of the moon below, assume that the
Sun is located at the top of the figure. The outside ring of circles represents the
different positions of the Moon with respect to Earth (at the centre). Notice that
for all positions of the Moon the Sun illuminates exactly half of the Moon.
However, when the Moon is observed from Earth we don’t always see the full
illuminated side. The inside ring of circles shows what the Moon will look like at
the positions indicated by the outer circles.
Figure 9.1 The changing shapes of the moon
4
AC T I V I T Y: P H A S E S
OF THE MOON
Key idea: The Moon changes shape over a month.
You will need:
• a shoe box
• a Stanley knife
• a polystyrene ball
• wire
• black and grey paints
• a torch.
• suspended polystyrene ball
This activity produces a model that demonstrates the phases of the Moon.
Paint a shoe box black inside and out; alternatively, it could be covered with black
cardboard. The model of the Moon is to be painted dark grey; this is the colour of the
Moon. Suspend the Moon so it is located in the centre of the box using the wire.
On one end of the box cut out a hole large enough for the head of a torch to fit
through. Then, cut out small observation holes around each side of the box. Turn on
the torch and observe the phase of the Moon inside the box.
AC T I V I T Y: DAY
AND NIGHT
Teaching note: A key idea of modelling day and night is to use a sphere for
Earth. Why do we believe Earth is spherical? Wherever and whenever possible,
students should be encouraged to make and interpret the following
observations:
• the way ships disappear over the horizon

• circumnavigation of Earth; it is possible to fly around Earth
• the curved edge of the shadow of Earth, for example, during eclipses
• photos of Earth—we now have photos of Earth taken from the Moon and
from Earth satellites in space.
Key idea: Earth spins, or rotates, with respect to the Sun, to cause day and night.
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TO P I C 9
You will need:
• a globe of Earth
• a torch
• a darkened room.
Ask the students how we get day and night. Demonstrate day and night through
shining torchlight onto a globe of Earth.
How much of Earth is in daylight (illuminated)? Where should the torchlight be

shining if it is midday in Melbourne? Where should it be shining if it is midnight in
Melbourne?
Which way does Earth spin? (Hint: the east coast of Australia experiences sunrise
before the west coast.)
Discuss with the students what time it would be in other locations on Earth when it is
midday in Melbourne.
Explanatory note: The regular observations of day and night are due to Earth’s
rotation about its axis every 24 hours. This is termed ‘diurnal motion’. Earth is
(approximately) spherical (it’s actually flattened at the poles), so the Sun will
always illuminate half of Earth. As Earth rotates on its axis observers on the
surface of Earth will experience regular periods of day (illumination) and night
(darkness). By using a globe of Earth and a torch in a darkened room you can
simulate when particular locations on Earth will be in daylight. Earth rotates
from east to west so in this simulation the east coast of Australia will be
illuminated first. Try it!
AC T I V I T Y: W HY
DON’ T WE SEE
S TA R S D U R I N G
T H E D AY ?
Key idea: Stars are present in the sky always—day and night.
You will need:
• a torch
• a bright window.
6
Shine the torch into a dark corner or onto a dark surface (e.g. the blackboard).
Encourage the children to explain what they see (i.e. the bright light of the torch).
Now shine the torch onto the bright window. What has happened? The bright
starlight (i.e. the torchlight) can be seen again as it moves away from the window—
why? This is what happens to stars in the sky!
Explanatory note: The Sun is a star that is very close to Earth. When the Sun is
shining brightly the light from stars that are further away are very hard to see.
That is because these stars are so far away that their light is not strong enough
to be seen during the day. So the other stars are always there but they just can’t
be seen very easily. Incidentally, some people believe that one can see stars
during the day from deep in a well. This is not true!
AC T I V I T Y:
EXPLAINING THE
SEASONS
Key idea: The seasons are due to Earth’s tilt and its yearly orbit of the Sun.
You will need:
• a globe
• a torch
• a protractor.
Ask students for their ideas about why we have seasons.
Explanatory note: The reason for seasons is not that Earth is closer to the Sun in
summer than in winter. How can this reason be disputed? (Hint: does
everywhere on Earth have summer at the same time?)
The reason is that Earth is tilted to the plane of its orbit around the Sun. As Earth
revolves around the Sun there will be one part of the year when the North Pole
of Earth is tilted towards the Sun and another part of the year when it is tilted
away from the Sun (see the figure opposite).
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TO P I C 9
For observers in Australia this will result in the midday sun being high in the sky
during summer and low in the sky during winter. This makes the days longer in
summer—more time to heat up Australia.
Also, during summer the concentration of the Sun’s rays is higher than in winter.
To show this effect, shine a torch at an angle of 75° to the horizontal onto a sheet of
white paper. This represents the midday summer sun shining down on a location in
Melbourne. Draw around the outline of the illuminated shape (ellipse) made by the
torchlight. Now move the torch so that it shines onto the paper at a 28° angle to the
paper (keep the torch the same distance from the paper as before). This represents
the midday winter sun shining on a location in Melbourne. Draw around the
illuminated shape on the paper made by the torchlight. Compare the size of the two
illuminated shapes.
The solar system and beyond
AC T I V I T Y: O U R
MOON
Key idea: The Moon has gravity because it has mass. Objects with mass are
attracted to each other; this is called ‘gravitational attraction’ or simply ‘gravity’.
The Moon’s gravity is much less than Earth’s gravity, which means there is no water or
atmosphere on the Moon. This in turn means there is no weather or sound on the
Moon. Gravity can also be referred to as ‘Earth–pull’ or ‘Moon–pull’. To get across the
idea that gravity is less on the Moon, ask students to make a standing jump and put a
mark against a wall at their highest reach when they jump. Measure these marks and
multiply them by six. If the same jump was done on the Moon that is how high the
jump would take you.
Explanatory note: A common alternative conception is that there is no gravity

in outer space and no gravity on the Moon. On the Moon the gravitational force
is about one–sixth that of Earth. Gravity is just the force of attraction between
two masses; the size of this force is related to the total mass of objects that are
attracted and how far apart the masses are from their centres (this is called the
‘separation distance’). The greater the mass, the greater the force; however, the
greater the separation distance, the less the gravity. Gravity on the Moon is less
than gravity on Earth because the Moon weighs less than Earth.
In space stations and shuttles there is still a significant amount of gravity

because the separation distance is only marginally increased (a few hundred
kilometres from Earth’s surface). However, astronauts do feel weightless as if
there was no gravitational force pulling them to the floor of the space station.
The gravitational force from Earth pulls both the space station and the
8
astronauts continually sideways to their forward motion. This results in the space
station and the astronauts moving into circular orbits around Earth. In a sense,
the space station and the astronauts are continually falling sideways: they are in
continual free–fall. This effect can be experienced on Earth in a freely falling lift:
as the lift falls to the ground you feel weightless.
Another way to understand weightlessness as similar to free–falling is to

imagine sitting on a chair on top of a very high mountain. As you sit on the chair
your can feel the chair underneath you. Now imagine being pushed sideways off
the mountain with some speed. As you fall you will not feel the chair underneath
you and you and the chair will trace out a curved path before you and the chair
hit the ground (see the figure below). The greater your initial sideways speed,
the greater the distance you will travel away from the top of the mountain (see
the middle picture in the figure below). However, if you and the chair are given
an enormous initial sideways speed then you and the chair will keep falling right
around the entire Earth. If there is no mountain to get in the way on the return
journey and there is no air resistance (no atmosphere) then, given the right
altitude above Earth’s surface, and the right speed, an object can continually
free–fall around Earth. In practical terms, to send spacecraft into orbit around
Earth you need to send them to an altitude of a few hundred kilometres with a
speed of around 30 000 kilometres per hour. Without this speed you cannot get
away from the surface of Earth into space.
AC T I V I T Y: R O L E –
P L AY: E A R T H ,
MOON AND SUN
Key idea: Earth rotates each day on it axis and revolves around the Sun each
year.
Choose a student to represent the Sun, another student to represent Earth and
another student to represent the Moon.
First establish the motion of Earth on its axis. Discuss with the students how the role–
play acts out situations that replicate day and night.
A further discussion may be undertaken to replicate the motion of the Moon around
Earth with respect to the Sun. One side of the Moon always faces Earth—this can be
modelled by the student Moon always looking at the student Earth as it orbits Earth.
What arrangements of the Sun, the Moon and Earth give rise to a half moon, full
moon and new moon?
Explanatory note: Does the Moon spin on its axis if one side of it always faces
Earth? Yes it does; it completes one full turn every complete orbit of Earth. To
understand this idea, act out being the Moon. As you revolve around the student
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TO P I C 9
Earth, look behind this student to the walls of the classroom. As you complete a
full revolution you will have seen all four walls of the classroom once. One side of
the Moon always faces Earth because the Moon has slightly more of its mass on
its Earth–facing side than on its other side. The gravitational pull of Earth on the
Moon is greater for the side with the heavier mass. If the Moon was balanced by
having equal mass on both sides it would spin freely and we would get to see
the other side of the Moon.
AC T I V I T Y: S O L A R
S YS T E M
Key ideas: Earth rotates each day on it axis and revolves around the Sun each
year. Then Moon revolves around Earth every month. Earth revolves around the
Sun every year.
You will need:
• a basketball
• a slightly smaller but still large ball (e.g. a soccer ball)
• a tennis ball.
Using the materials provided, devise a demonstration of Earth, the Moon and the Sun
with respect to each other for:
• day and night

• one month
• one year.
AC T I V I T Y: S I Z E O F
PLANETS AND THE
SUN
Key idea: The planets of the solar system differ in size.
You will need:
• butcher’s paper
• cardboard
• scissors
• a compass.
To get some idea of the true scale of the solar system, cut a circle 12 mm in diameter
out of butcher’s paper to represent Earth. Compared to this, how big is the Moon?
How big is the Sun? (One is only 4 mm, while the other is 1.382 m in diameter.)
Cut out the other planets to this scale as well: Mercury (5 mm), Venus (12 mm), Mars
(7 mm), Jupiter (139 mm), Saturn (115 mm), Uranus (51 mm), Neptune (50 mm) and
Pluto (6 mm).
Lay the solar system down on the floor to get some idea of how the planets differ in
size.
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AC T I V I T Y: E A R T H
AND MOON
S YS T E M
Teaching note: This activity is designed to test students’ perceptions of the
relative sizes of the Moon and Earth as well as their separation compared to their
relative sizes.
Key idea: Earth is about fifty times the volume of the Moon and is thirty Earth
diameters away.
You will need:
• modelling clay (handful)

• a ruler
• a calculator.
Take a handful of modelling clay and divide the clay into two spheres so that one
approximates the size of Earth and the other the size of the Moon, so that both are in
relative proportions to the actual Earth and the Moon.
In terms of actual volume, Earth is fifty times that of the Moon. Therefore, to
approximate the relative sizes of Earth and the Moon, divide the handful of
modelling clay into fifty equal parts. One part is used to form the Moon, while the
other forty–nine parts are combined to form Earth. Compare this model with the
initial attempt.
Now predict the ratio of Earth’s diameter to that of the Moon, based on your
observation of the models of Earth and the Moon. Based on the actual diameters
(Moon 3500 km and Earth 12 800 km) the ratio is approximately 4:1 (or, more
accurately, 3.7:1).
Using the models of Earth and the Moon (50:1 ratio), place them at a distance to
represent the actual distance between Earth and the Moon. The actual distance is
about thirty times Earth’s diameter. Place the models at this distance and compare
them with the estimated distance. Most students are amazed at the relative sizes of
Earth and the Moon and their separation. The students should now appreciate that
eclipses are rare events.
Where would the nearest planet (Venus) be in relation to the model formed? At its
closest approach, Venus is about 3000 Earth distances away!
S YS T E M
D I S TA N C E S
Key idea: The solar system is a big place of mostly space.
You will need:
• a metre rule or tape measure

• a ball of string
• markers showing the names of the planets
• two or three rolls of toilet paper.
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Various models can be made to represent planetary distances and sizes. This activity
suggests just a few.
Using the distances between the planets and the Sun in Astronomical Units (AU) (in
the table below, 1 AU = distance from Earth to the Sun), produce a distance model
where 1 m = 1 AU. Fix the end of the string in a suitable position and place the Sun
marker over this position. Using the values in the table below, measure the distances
of the planets from the Sun along the string. Mark the positions of each planet. In this
model the nearest star would be 260 km away (it is actually over forty million million
km away).
Another model can be made out of units of toilet paper. On this scale one sheet of
toilet paper = ten million km. Using the table below, mark the Sun and measure the
distances from the Sun along the toilet paper. In this model one would require more
than four million sheets of toilet paper—that is, 10 000 rolls!
planet Sun distance Sun distance scale distance scale distance

(million km) (AU) (m) (sheets of toilet
paper)
Mercury 57.9 0.40 0.4 6
Venus 108.2 0.70 0.7 11
Earth 149.6 1.00 1.0 15
Mars 227.9 1.50 1.5 23
Jupiter 778.3 5.20 5.2 78
Saturn 1 427.0 9.50 9.5 143
Uranus 2 869.6 19.20 19.2 287
Neptune 4 496.7 30.0 30.0 450
Pluto 5 899.0 39.50 39.5 590
S YS T E M
D I S TA N C E S A N D
SIZES
Key idea: The solar system is a big place consisting mostly of space.
You will need:
• two marbles
• two tennis balls
• a ping–pong ball
• a volleyball
• a basketball
• two baseballs
• a measuring tape
• aluminium foil.
To determine how spread–out the solar system really is, cut a circle 5.5 cm in diameter
12
out of silvery paper and stick the circle at the end of a corridor or hall. Take 475 steps
away from this circle. This is how Earth looks from the Sun.
Use different types of balls to put this into perspective against the other planets. For
example:
• Mercury is a marble and 1 m from the Sun

• Venus is a tennis ball and 2 m from the Sun
• Earth is a tennis ball and 2.5 m from the Sun
• Mars is a ping–pong ball and 4 m from the Sun
• Jupiter is a basketball and 13 m from the Sun
• Saturn is a volleyball and 24 m from the Sun
• Uranus is a baseball and 50 m from the Sun
• Neptune is a baseball and 77 m from the Sun
• Pluto is a marble and 100 m from the Sun.
AC T I V I T Y: LU N A R
LANDINGS
Key idea: You will not reach the Moon if you point your rocket in a direction
where the Moon is at the start of your journey.
You will need:
• a bucket or wastepaper basket

• a metre rule or tape measure
• a globe of Earth
• a ping–pong ball.
Place the globe of Earth on a table and spin it slowly with your hand. Earth spins 365
times in one year: this is why there are 365 days in a year. Pretend to be the Moon and
walk around Earth by walking around the table with the globe on it: the Moon moves
around Earth once every month. Now walk around like the Moon while you spin
Earth—make sure you always face Earth. This gives you an idea of the movements of
Earth and the Moon.
Using a ping–pong ball as a rocket, fire a ‘rocket’ and try to land it on the Moon by
pretending you are Earth and another student holding the bucket is the Moon. Then
ask the student holding the bucket (the Moon) to move 3 m away from you (Earth).
Have ten tries to land the ball (rocket) in the bucket. Count the number of times the
rocket lands safely on the Moon.
Try to do this another ten times, but this time the Moon must move slowly around you
as you throw (remember to keep a distance of 3 m at all times). Count the number of
safe landings.
To make it a little more real, try again while the Moon is moving and you are spinning
around on the spot. (Don’t forget that distance of 3 m.) Again, count the number of
safe landings.
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AC T I V I T Y: S PAC E
T R AV E L A N D
L I V I N G I N S PAC E
Key idea: Space travel and living in space are very difficult.
What do astronauts need to keep them alive in space? How does a spacecraft escape
Earth’s gravity? There is a limit to the weight that the spacecraft and its contents can
have in order for it to escape Earth’s gravity. Each astronaut can take one item of
personal value. What would you take?
AC T I V I T Y:
RESEARCH
S TAT I O N O N T H E
MOON
Key idea: Space travel and living in space are very difficult.
Imagine you are chosen to form a team to establish a research station on the Moon.
Plan your mission. Address these questions to get started:
(a) The following people have applied to go: astrophysicist, doctor, minister of
religion, nursing aid, teacher, butcher, student of geology, wise woman,
politician, comedian. Only five can fit in the spacecraft. Who will you choose and
why?
(b) What materials would you use for the astronauts’ clothing and to construct the
space station? Which properties will make them most useful?
(c) The Moon’s atmosphere is inhospitable. How will you create an environment to
meet the astronauts’ needs?
AC T I V I T Y:
TIMELINES
Key idea: Space travel has been undertaken by humankind for around fifty
years.
Explore past, present and future events significant to you on a time line. For example:
• when you were born

• your next birthday
• when you will finish formal education
• when you expect to retire.
Include significant events in space exploration as listed below (add to the list
important milestones in space travel since 1989).
1957 Sputnik 1, first artificial satellite, successfully launched by Russia 1961 first
person (Yuri Gagarin, Russian cosmonaut) orbits Earth
1964 Mariner 4 sends the first pictures of the cratered, moon–like surface of
Mars
1969 first person (Neil Armstrong) steps on the moon
1971 Pioneer 10 sends close–up pictures of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter
14
1973 Mariner 10 has first multiple planet encounter, sending full–disc pictures of
Venus; Mercury Pioneer II sends pictures of Jupiter’s polar regions before
travelling on to photograph Saturn
1977 Voyager 1 films time–lapse movie of volcanic action on one of Jupiter’s
moons
1981 Voyager 2 discovers five new satellites around Saturn
1986 Voyager 2 has first encounter with Uranus, recording ten new moons, two
new rings and a tilted magnetic field
1989 Voyager 2 encounters Neptune.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N S T E L L AT I O N S
Key idea: A constellation is a group of stars in the same region in the sky when
viewed from Earth.
You will need:
• aluminium foil
• black cardboard
• coloured textas or pencils
• star charts
• glue or sticky tape
• white chalk, pencil or crayon.
Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians and Greeks divided the sky into regions
containing distinct groups of stars. These groups, called ‘constellations’, were given
names, and stories were attached to them, perhaps to aid in remembering them.
Research a particular constellation for its graphic interpretation and mythology.

Contrast the interpretations of the constellations held by different civilisations.
From star charts, select the prominent stars within a constellation and construct your
own graphic interpretation. Make up a story to match the graphic interpretation.
Make models of constellations with black cardboard, aluminium foil and white pencil,
chalk or crayon. Select a constellation and make 3–D stars out of foil by rolling pieces
into spheres; ensure that the brighter stars are larger than the less bright. Stick the
stars to the cardboard and label them with the name of the constellation. With a
white pencil, chalk or crayon, draw lines joining the stars so that the constellations
can be more easily identified.
Explanatory note: While the constellations are defined as groups of stars close
to each other, this is only when viewing from Earth. The individual stars within a
constellation may be quite large distances apart from each other.
The zodiacal constellations (Libra, Cancer, Taurus, etc.) are located in a band in
the sky that encircles Earth. Throughout the year the Sun passes in front of each
constellation. In astrology the zodiacal constellations have specific dates in the
year. These dates match periods of time when the Sun will be directly in front of
the constellation. This means that you will not be able to go out at night on your
birthday to see your birth sign in the stars overhead (you will have to wait six
months before this can happen!).
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TO P I C 9
AC T I V I T Y:
FINDING NORTH
Key idea: Shadows from the Sun are shortest when the Sun is at its highest
point in the sky. The shortest shadow will line up in a north–south direction.
You will need:
• a straight rod about 50 cm long, connected to a base to hold it vertically on a flat

area of horizontal ground (concrete or bitumen)
• chalk.
From Victorian latitudes the Sun is always in a northerly direction to the observer.
Even the midsummer Sun is never directly overhead but in a northerly direction. This
phenomenon allows us to determine ‘true north’ by observing shadows formed by
the Sun.
Place a straight rod vertically on a flat area of horizontal ground (concrete or

bitumen). When the Sun is at its highest point in the sky it will create the shortest
shadow from a vertical stick placed in the ground.
Around midday (12 midday on non–daylight saving time days and 10 pm on daylight
saving time days), mark the shadow end–points regularly over, say, a two–hour
period. Draw a smooth curve through the shadow end–points to determine the
closest point to the rod. Then draw a line from this closest point to the rod. This will
be the north–south line. This method only works if over the observation period the
shadows get shorter and then get longer. Refer to the figure opposite.
Using this approach, how can you work out south, east and west directions?
AC T I V I T Y:
ORBITING
S AT E L L I T E S
Key idea: Satellites orbit because of a gravitational pull to the central body, and
a sideways speed.
You will need:
• two paperclips
• 1 m of fishing line
• a handful of plasticine
• a large cotton reel.
16
Explanatory note: The natural satellites of the solar system are the planets and
their moons. The planets are the satellites of the Sun and, likewise, the Moons
are the satellites of the planets. Earth has many artificial satellites, some only a
few hundred kilometres from the surface of Earth and others as much as 50 000
km away.
Each satellite orbits the central body because of two factors: a gravitational pull
and a sideways speed. If the satellite didn’t have a sideways speed it would fall
into the central body. Alternatively, if the satellite had a sideways speed that
increased it would move into a larger orbit; if the speed decreased the satellite
would move into a smaller orbit. This activity demonstrates these points.
Slip the fishing line through the cotton reel and tie a paperclip to each end.
Stick a lump of plasticine around each paperclip (twisting the paperclips will create a
better grip for the plasticine).
Make one of the lumps of plasticine about four times as large as the other.
Hold the cotton reel with the smaller lump of plasticine on top and spin the top lump
around.
Swing the top lump of plasticine in a circle at a speed so that the top lump moves in a
circle without you having to hold onto the lower lump (see figure above).
This activity shows that all that is needed to keep the top lump of plasticine in circular
motion is to give it a sideways speed and pull it to the centre of its circular motion—
just like satellites
17
TOPIC 10
Rocks and soil

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of rocks and soil 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of rocks and soil 2
The rock cycle 2

Igneous rocks 4
Weathering, erosion and deposition 4
Sedimentary rocks 5
Metamorphic rocks 6
Activities 6
Properties of rocks 6
Rock and soil formation 11
Properties of rocks, metals and mining 14
Introduction
It is by no means necessary to be a geological expert to implement a worthwhile
study of rocks and soil at primary school level. Rocks and soil are not difficult to
collect, and are a very good vehicle for outdoor activities while at camp or on
excursions, collecting and classifying, or making rocks in the classroom.
Students can be fascinated by rocks and soil. A simple rock collection, showing a
variety of shapes, sizes, colours and textures, is a good resource. Rocks and soil
can be collected during trips to the country, at building sites around the city, or
in the back garden.
Mining and metals are very closely related to rocks and soils as a topic. We have
included some interesting activities that could be covered under the topics of
rocks, soil and mining.
Key concepts of rocks and soil

Early years
• Earth is covered with rocks, soil, water and ice.
• Rocks can vary in shape, texture and mass.
• Rocks can be a single colour or contain many colours.
• Some rocks contain fossils.
• Humans make rocks to help them live more easily.
• Rocks slowly change by wearing away.
• Crumbled rocks form part of soil.
• Some rocks are harder than others.
Middle years
• Rock layers are located under soil, water and ice.
• Natural rocks are made in many different ways.
• Rocks that we find at a particular place may have been made elsewhere.
• Some natural rocks became solid very quickly, while others took a long time
to become solid.
• Rocks are made of minerals.
• Rocks can be made of one or more minerals.
• Minerals can form crystals.
• Crystals can have straight edges and flat slides.
• Some rocks act as magnets.
• Some rocks are conductors of electricity.
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• Soils are produced, in part, from the weathering of rocks.

• Soil can be made up of organic (animal and plant) material, inorganic (grains
of rock) components, and water.
• Eroded rock material can be deposited in layers to form sedimentary rocks,
such as sandstone, limestone and mudstone.
• Igneous rocks, such as pumice and granite, are formed by magma from
inside the Earth rising to the surface and cooling.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks that are subject to heat and pressure form
metamorphic rocks, such as marble, quartzite and slate.
• Minerals are constituents of rocks.
• Some minerals (e.g. gold and diamonds) are highly valued by humans.
• The ornamental use of rocks is determined by their colour, mineral content
and markings.
• The varying hardness of rock is an important factor in its usage.
• Humans’ knowledge of rock formation helps them to find oil and precious
stones (e.g. gold, opal, emeralds, etcetera).
Students’ alternative conceptions of rocks and soil

scientific ideas:
• Pebbles and stones are thought of as ‘not rocks’.

• All rocks are thought to be hard.
• Rocks stay the same for ever.
• Rocks must be heavy.
• Soil must have always been in its present form.
• Earth is molten, except for its crust.
The rock cycle

Earth’s crust is not stationary as one may think; it is constantly moving. The
dynamic nature of Earth’s crust means that as new rock is formed at one location
it deteriorates at other locations; this is the rock cycle. There is an enormous
variety of rocks and their constituent minerals present in Earth’s crust, but all
rock varieties are classified as one of three basic types: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic. These basic types of rock relate to the manner in which the rocks
were formed. The mining of rocks and minerals from Earth’s crust has provided
humankind with many benefits, including building materials, fossil fuels (oil, coal
and gas), and precious metals and minerals for cosmetic and industrial uses.
A rock is an aggregate of minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic,

crystalline solids that have definite physical and chemical properties. There are
2
two exceptions to this definition: these are naturally occurring glass, called
obsidian, and sedimentary rock coal. More than 3500 minerals have been
identified and described but only about a dozen make up the bulk of the rocks
in Earth’s crust.
All rocks in Earth’s crust, with the exception of meteorites, were formed from
magma (molten rock material) pushed up from the mantle (interior layer of
Earth). While the original rock material comes from the mantle, geologists
(scientists who study rocks) distinguish three distinct processes of rock
formation: every rock is then generally classified according to its mode of
formation. The three major groups of rocks are igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
The interrelationships between Earth’s internal and exterior processes of rock

formation and disintegration are described by the rock cycle. The rock cycle is
shown in the figure below. The rock cycle:
• relates the three rock types to each other

• shows surface processes such as weathering, transportation and deposition
• shows internal processes such as magma generation and metamorphism.
Figure 10.1 The rock cycle
Movements in Earth’s crust are the mechanisms responsible for recycling rock
materials; they therefore drive the rock cycle.
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Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed through the crystallisation of magma as it cools either
in the mantle or on the surface after a volcanic eruption. The components of
rock are minerals and each mineral forms, or crystallises, under a certain
temperature and pressure. The variation in pressures and temperatures is great
when one extends from the mantle to the surface, so it is not surprising that a
huge variety of minerals exist. Crystallisation is the process by which the mineral
particles form tight bonds in a well–defined three–dimensional shape.
AC T I V I T Y:
C RYS TA L S H A P E S
Look at the crystal shapes of sugar and salt under a magnifying glass. The size of the
crystal is determined by the time that it takes to cool. If cooled slowly, the crystal
shapes are large.
As magma cools, minerals crystallise, and the resulting rock is characterised by

interlocking mineral crystalline grains. Magma that cools beneath Earth’s surface
produces intrusive igneous rocks (also called plutonic rocks), while magma that
cools at Earth’s surface produces extrusive igneous rocks (also called volcanic
rocks) (refer to Figure 1). Igneous rocks that cool slowly have a coarse–grained
texture characterised by large mineral crystals, whereas rocks that cool quickly
are fine grained and have small mineral crystals. Generally, intrusive rocks are
coarse grained, whereas extrusive rocks are fine grained.
Common volcanic rocks include tuff, rhyolite, andesite and basalt. Common
plutonic rocks include granite, diorite and gabbro.
Weathering, erosion and deposition

Weathering is the physical breakdown (disintegration) and/or chemical
alteration (decomposition) of rocks on Earth’s surface. These changes are caused
by the weather—by air and water. There are two types of weathering:
mechanical and chemical; usually taking place at the same time.
Mechanical weathering is the breaking up of rocks and mineral into smaller

pieces. This can occur in various ways:
• trees and other plants send down roots into cracks in rocks, wedging them
apart
• water and wind erode the surface of rocks
• temperature changes in the environment expand and contract rock to
create cracks
• liquid water gets into cracks and as it freezes it expands, and wedges apart
rocks (water expands about nine per cent when it freezes)
• animals burrow and help break up the rock.
Chemical weathering includes all the chemical changes that take place when air
and water attack the rocks. Chemicals in the water break down the rocks. As
4
mechanical weathering breaks apart the rocks, there is more surface area on the
rocks for chemical weathering to occur.
Weathering yields the raw materials for both soils and sedimentary rocks. The
small particles of rock are called ‘sediment’, which is generally transported to
another site where it accumulates. The method of transportation varies. Glaciers
can move any sized particle, whereas wind transports only sand–sized and
smaller sediment. Waves and marine currents also transport sediments, but by
far the most common method of transportation is by running water (rivers and
streams). Any geographical area in which sediment is deposited is a depositional
environment.
Soils are sediments that combine with humus. Humus gives many soils their dark
colour and is derived from bacterial decay of organic matter.
Sedimentary rocks
Following the weathering of rocks, the sediment formed is transported and
deposited at a depositional environment. These deposits may become
compacted and/or cemented and thereby converted into sedimentary rock. The
process by which sediment is transformed into rock is called ‘lithification’.
About ninety–five per cent of Earth’s crust is composed of igneous and

metamorphic rocks, but sedimentary rocks are most common at or near the
surface. Approximately seventy–five per cent of the surfaces exposed on
continents consist of sediments or sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are generally classified as detrital or chemical. Detrital

sedimentary rocks consist of solid particles of pre–existing rocks. The fragments
might be tiny or large. The following table gives the name of the original
sediment, the lithification process and the rock type produced.
Table 10.1 Sediment to rock
Sediment Lithification process Rock
Gravel (greater than 2 mm) Compaction/ cementation Conglomerate (rounded

particles) Breccia (angled
particles)
Sand (2 mm to 0.06 mm) Compaction/ cementation Sandstone
Silt (0.06 mm to 0.004 mm) Compaction/ cementation Siltstone
Clay (less than 0.004 mm) Compaction Shale
Chemical sedimentary rocks originate from the weathering process where rock
material is dissolved into water and transported to lakes and oceans. Here
chemical processes take place that result in the accumulation of minerals.
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Organic material may also be involved in the chemical processes. The rocks
produced are called biochemical sedimentary rocks. For example, coal is
composed of the compressed, altered remains of organisms, mainly plants.
Another example is a type of limestone called coquina that consists entirely of
broken seashells cemented by calcium carbonate.
Areas on Earth’s surface where sedimentary rock is found are characterised by

distinctive layers and the presence of fossils. Rivers transport sediment from one
location to another deposit in layers. Over many years different layers build up.
Sometimes dead animals and plants get immersed into the sediment layers.
Therefore, following lithification, the sedimentary rock produced is in layers that
quite often contain the remains of ancient organisms, called fossils.
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks result from the transformation of other rocks by
metamorphic processes that occur below Earth’s surface. Through heat and
pressure, igneous and sedimentary rocks are transformed into metamorphic
rocks. In the metamorphic process the change in the rock may be minor and the
features of the parent rock are still recognisable. The change may also be major
and result in the formation of new minerals and/or a change in texture of the
rock. In this situation any features of the parent rock may be unrecognisable.
Activities
Properties of rocks
AC T I V I T Y:
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
Key idea: Natural rocks have a range of properties and appearances.
You will need:
• a collection of rock samples.

This activity is best done in pairs or small groups.
Choose one of the rock samples supplied and write a description of it. Your partner
should do the same. Then exchange descriptions and see if you can each identify the
sample the other one described.
Group a number of rock samples according to one characteristic and see if your
partner can identify the characteristics used.
One member of the group chooses a rock sample from a group of rock samples. The
other members then ask questions which enable them to identify the sample chosen.
The person who has chosen the sample should only answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the
questions. How many questions are required to find the sample chosen?
6
AC T I V I T Y:
TESTING ROCKS
Key idea: Natural rocks have a range of properties and appearances.
You will need:
• a collection of rock samples

• measuring scales
• sketching paper and a pencil
• a hammer
• a magnifying glass
• a copper coin
• a pin
• a penknife
• a drop of vinegar
• some water
• a piece of metal
• a bathroom tile.
This activity is best done individually. Choose a rock from the collection and try the
following tests on it:
• Is your rock light or heavy? Estimate its weight, then check your answer.
• Sketch your rock.
• Describe your rock. Is it single or multi–coloured, bright or dull? Has it got layers?
Does it look like it has small rocks stuck together?
• Rub the rock with your finger. Does any rub off?
• Hammer off a portion. Can you crush it? Look at the particles with your eye or a
hand–lens. Are the particles fine or coarse?
• Are the particles single or multi–coloured? What is the colour of the inside
remaining rock?
• Try a hardness test with a fingernail, copper coin, pin, and penknife.
• Are there layers to be seen?
• Does a drop of vinegar (acid) cause bubbles? If so, the rock contains lime.
• Does it absorb water? Easily?
• Knock a piece of metal against your rock. What sort of sound is produced? High
pitch, low pitch or metallic?
• What is the colour of its streak on the back of a bathroom tile?
Explanatory note: The following tables, when read from left to right, represent
rock–type identification keys. The first table gives a clue to the rock type in
general, whereas the following tables provide extra information to determine
the name of the rock.
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Table 10.2 What rock type is it?
Rock types
No alignment of Igneous
Interlocking grains grains
Grains visible to Some grains aligned Metamorphic
the naked eye
Bubbles with acid Metamorphic
Grains do not interlock Separate grains held together Sedimentary
by finer material
Texture Sedimentary Sedimentary

Bubbles with acid—may have Sedimentary
Can be scratched with fossils
a knife
Fossils present—no acid Sedimentary
Grains not
reaction
obvious
Can be split into thin rock Metamorphic
Cannot be scratched sheets
with a knife Cannot be split into thin rock Igneous
sheets
Table 10.3 What is the name of this igneous rock?
Igneous rocks key
Light coloured Large crystals/speckled Granite

Small crystals/layered Rhyolite
Large crystals Black Grabbo
Visible crystals
Dark coloured
Green Peridotite
Small crystals Black/grey Basalt
Texture
Black/glassy Obsidian
No visible crystals White/porous (floats on water) Pumice
Red/black porous Scoria
Rock and mineral
fragments Layered Tuff
8
Table 10.4 What is the name of this sedimentary rock?
Sedimentary rocks key
Angular Breccia
Over fragments
Rock and mineral 2 mm size Round fragments Conglomerate
fragments
Visible fragments Sand–size 0.6 mm to Sandstone
2 mm
Plant fragments Black or brown Coal
Texture Plant and animal
fragments
Animal fragments Shell or Coral Limestone
Reacts with acid Limestone

Breaks into layers Shale
No visible
particles. Very No reaction with acid Uniform Siltstone Mudstone
fine structure, not
layered
Table 10.5 What is the name of this metamorphic rock?
Metamorphic rocks key
Texture very fine. Dark, dull surfaces Slate

Grains not visible to
naked eye Light, shiny surfaces Phyllite
Mica grains and layers Schist

Shows layers, smooth visible
parallel surfaces Texture coarser. Grains
visible to naked eye
Banded Gneiss
appearance
Appearance
Reacts with acid Marble
Not scratched with Dark in colour Homfels

No layers, no smooth knife Light in colour or Quartzite
parallel rock surfaces quartz grains visible
Scratched with with acid knife. Reacts Marble
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AC T I V I T Y:
BREAKING UP
ROCKS
Key idea: Sedimentary rocks are made through crushing soil or sediment.
You will need:
• a collection of rocks including sandstone, mudstone, limestone and granite

• some samples of soil types
• a hammer.
Crush some sandstone, some mudstone and some limestone. Examine the materials
formed. In what ways are they similar? In what ways are they different?
Compare your crushed samples with soil. In what ways are they different?
Examine a small piece of coarse–grained granite. How many different minerals are
present? Estimate the relative amounts of the three main components.
Crush the granite with a hammer to pieces about rice–grain size, and separate into
the different mineral components (quartz, feldspar and a little mica).
How close was your initial estimate?
Explanatory note: The sedimentary rocks, when broken up, reverse the process
by which they were formed. Sandstone and mudstone were originally small rock
particles that were crushed, whereas the limestone was tiny rock particles that
underwent chemical processes in addition to being crushed. The coarsegrained
granite was formed by slowly cooling magma to form an igneous rock.
AC T I V I T Y: R O C K S
T H AT F LOAT
Key idea: Some rocks are light and may float.
You will need:
• samples of pumice, en–tout–cas, basalt, coal, coke, toffee and honeycomb

• a bowl of water.
Examine a piece of pumice (pumice is aerated rock foam that has been rapidly
cooled). Try floating it in water.
Can you find other rocks with air bubbles? Do particles of en–tout–cas (from a tennis
court) float?
Describe the common difference between toffee/honeycomb, coal/coke and

basalt/pumice.
Explanatory note: These types of igneous rocks were formed by volcanic

eruptions that have cooled very quickly in the air. In cooling, bubbles of air were
trapped.
10
Rock and soil formation
AC T I V I T Y: S O I L
FAC TO RY
Key ideas: Crumbled rocks form part of soil. Weathering of rocks creates soil.
You will need:
• soil from different parts of the garden

• water in a container with a lid
• crushed sedimentary rock
• compost
• a bottle to mix the water and soil in.
Mix the soil with plenty of water, shake and let settle. Note the sand/silt/clay/humus
composition. Which particles settle out first?
Can you make some soil to match, using crushed sedimentary rock and compost?
AC T I V I T Y:
SEDIMENTS IN
LAKE AND RIVER
WAT E R
Teaching note: This activity, and Breaking up rocks and Soil factory, gives the
students insight into the processes by which sedimentary rocks are formed.
Key idea: Sedimentary rocks are formed from crushing existing rock particles.
You will need:
• a bottle of water collected from a nearby lake or river

• a magnifying glass or microscope.
Ideally, water should be collected from moving water near the shore of the lake or
from the current in the river. Don’t stir up the bottom sediment when collecting the
samples.
Let the sample of water stand. How long does it take for the sediment to settle and
the water to clear? Is there any scum or pollution collected on top of the water?
If possible collect water from a stream after it has rained and collect water when there
has been a dry spell. Which samples had more sediment? Why? Pour off most of the
water, and let the rest evaporate. Study the sediment under a magnifying glass or
microscope. What do you see?
AC T I V I T Y: R O C K
FAC TO RY
Teaching note: The classification keys outlined in the Testing rocks activity
provide a means of classifying rocks. Determine whether the artificial rocks
match the descriptions in these classification keys.
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TO P I C 1 0
Key idea: Rocks are made in different ways, both by nature and by humans.
You will need:
• a collection of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks

• water
• plastic
• crushed sandstone
• clay
• sand
• cement.
Survey the classroom, the building and the grounds for a list of material
manufactured by humans from mineral/metal origins and now used in construction.
Include the gardens, nature strip and road in your list.
Classify the artificial ‘rocks’ as sedimentary, metamorphic, conglomerate, etcetera.
Make a sedimentary rock, using crushed sandstone and water.
Investigate what works as binding (plaster? clay?).
Make some concrete blocks (conglomerate) using screenings, and different

proportions of sand and cement (e.g. 1:2, 2:1, 3:1).
Devise a test to determine the strongest concrete. Compare your samples with
samples of commercial concrete. Make bricks using clay (metamorphic). Try adding
various materials which could affect the strength, for example, straw.
AC T I V I T Y:
FOSSILS
Key idea: Some rocks contain fossils.
You will need:
• limestone rocks
• a hammer
• a leaf
• a petri dish
• petroleum jelly
• plaster of Paris.
Break up some limestone with a hammer. You should be able to find some fossils to
investigate.
Make a fossil using the following steps:
• choose a leaf or flat object

• grease it and a petri dish with petroleum jelly
• cover with plaster of Paris and allow to set.
12
AC T I V I T Y:
M A N I P U L AT I N G
MUD–
S C I E N T I F I C A L LY
Key idea: There are different types of soil.
You will need:
• samples of different soils

• a teaspoon
• water.
Place a teaspoon of soil in the palm of your hand. Add water drop by drop until it is
thoroughly wet but there is no excess water on your hand.
Record what happens when you try to:
• use your finger to press the soil flat on your palm

• roll it into a long thin ‘worm’
• mould it into a tiny bowl
• make it into a cube.
Explanatory note: Soil scientists operating in field locations describe soils as
‘sands’, ‘loams’ or ‘clays’ according to whether they fall apart (sand), hold together
in blocks but do not roll into a thin ‘worm’ (loam), or roll out well to a thin ‘worm’
(clay), when moistened and then manipulated as you have done.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N C E P T M A P
Key idea: Rocks are formed through different processes.
You will need:
• poster paper
• a list of ideas related to rocks and soil.
Construct a concept map on poster paper to link the following ideas:
• mineral
• soil
• stone
• bedrock
• bricks
• water
• volcano
• crystal
• sand
• sedimentary rock
• concrete
• metamorphic rock
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TO P I C 1 0
• granite
• igneous rock
• erosion
• quartz
• layering.
Properties of rocks, metals and mining
AC T I V I T Y: F E E LY
B OX
Key idea: Metals are minerals that make up rocks.
You will need:
• a ‘feely’ box that contains various metals (iron, lead, zinc, brass and aluminium),
wood and other non–metallic objects.
Feel the objects in the feely box. Which are metal? What properties are you using to
decide?
Using the objects in the feely box, distinguish between wood, lead, zinc, brass and
aluminium.
All but one of the metal objects in the feely box are made of the same metal. Which is
the odd one out?
AC T I V I T Y:
TESTING FOR
ELECTRICAL
CO N D U C T I O N
Key idea: Metals are good electrical conductors.
You will need:
• a battery
• a light bulb
• connecting wires
• rods made of different metallic and non–metallic materials.
Use the battery, bulb and connecting wires to check how well the rods provided
conduct electric current. That is, the brighter the bulb, the better the conductor.
What appliances around the home make use of the conduction of metals?
HARD IS IT?
Key idea: Metals have different hardnesses.
You will need:
• a collection of different metal surfaces

• a ball bearing.
14
Compare the hardness of various metals by dropping a ball bearing onto the surface
and measuring the height of bounce. The balls will bounce higher from harder
surfaces.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N D U C T I O N O F
H E AT
Teaching note: A simple test of electrical conductivity can decide whether an
object is metallic.
Key idea: Metals are good conductors of heat.

You will need:
• a candle
• a metal rod.
Use the candle to place drops of wax along the length of a metal rod. Now place the
rod horizontally. Light the candle and heat up one end of the metal rod—take a note
of the time it takes each drop of wax along the length of the rod to melt.
Does the heat travel at a steady speed along the length of the rod? Do all metals
conduct heat equally well?
In how many ways can you prevent a drop of wax melting at one end of an aluminium
rod when the other end is heated?
Can you think of ways in which the property of heat conduction is useful?
IS IT MADE
FROM?
Key idea: Metals have a range of properties.
You will need:
• a collection of objects that are metallic or have some metallic components (a

variety of metals).
For each object, determine whether it is metallic, or contains some metallic
components.
What criteria are you using in your determination? Are you able to name the type of
metal found?
15
T O P I C 11
Physical changes to matter

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of physical changes to matter 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of physical changes to matter 2
Activities 3
Solids, liquids, gases 3
Melting 4
Evaporation 8
Water cycle diagrams 12
Condensation 13
Dissolving 16
Introduction
Many of the activities in this topic focus on counter–intuitive effects, or at least
effects that have an element of surprise and charm. Sometimes they are
common phenomena, but students are challenged to look at them in new ways.
Melting, evaporation and condensation are examples of physical change, or
change of state, and are distinct from changes that cause new materials to form
through a chemical reaction. Distinguishing between physical and chemical
changes is not always easy, particularly if you do not have access to the concept
of atoms and molecules. Some curricula talk of physical changes as being
reversible, and chemical change being irreversible. Examples of irreversible
chemical changes would be the burning of wood, or a candle, or the reaction of
vinegar and baking soda to form carbon dioxide, water and a salt. However,
while the notion of reversibility is important when discussing changes of state
(solid to liquid, liquid to gas, and vice versa), some physical changes are not
reversible (such as the separating of butter into its different constituents on
heating, or the physical change to a car in an accident), and some chemical
changes are reversible (although usually these would require a professional
chemist to perform).
Key concepts of physical changes to matter

Early years
• Substances can be solid, liquid or gas, or mixtures of these.
• Solids hold their shape, liquids flow and settle in containers, gases take up
space in containers.
• Melting involves a change from a solid to a liquid, caused by heating.
• For a pure substance such as wax or ice, melting is reversible.
• Some substances, when heated, burn rather than melt, or melt but cannot
be changed back (e.g. dairy products).
• Melting is distinct from mixing or dissolving, which involve adding a liquid.
• Water, when it boils and evaporates, changes to steam.
• Water will evaporate at ordinary temperatures, going into the air as a vapour
(gas).
Middle years
• Liquids differ in a range of properties, including viscosity (runniness),
density and transparency.
• Substances tend to melt at particular temperatures. For pure substances, the
temperature is well defined. For substances that are mixtures, the transition
may take place over a range of temperatures.
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TO P I C 11
• Evaporation involves a change from the liquid to gas state, and

condensation is the reverse of this.
• Fog or water appearing on cold surfaces is due to condensation of water
vapour from the air.
• When substances dissolve in a liquid, their molecules intersperse amongst
those of the liquid.
• Different substances will dissolve in different liquids.
• When substances form a mixture in a liquid rather than dissolving, they may
remain as small solid particles (as with dust).
• The forms that substances can take are complex and varied, including
suspensions and colloids, mixtures, etcetera.. As such they can be hard to
classify.
Students’ alternative conceptions of physical changes to matter

Ideas about changes to matter are influenced by quite fundamental views about
the nature of matter. Students’ concept of ‘matter’ can be very different to adult
views. Young children will not, for instance, be very committed to the idea of
matter having a continuing existence during changes, and will quite happily talk
about clothes ‘drying up’ without being very interested in what has happened to
the water in that case. They are more attuned to effects than to charting the
changes to matter that accompany these effects. Similarly, they will put entities
such as heat, or properties such as coldness, in the same category as dampness
or fog. They can say things like ‘the coldness turned to fog’, which avoids the
need to consider where the material that makes up the fog may have come
from.
The task of the adult, therefore, in engaging students in these activities, is to

learn to listen for these ambiguities in language, and to ask questions that
challenge the children to focus on what is happening in terms of changes to
matter, and to model through the discussion the language of these changes.
• Only objects that are ‘hard’ and cannot be changed in shape are solid.
• Substances can disappear or be interchangeable with entities like heat.
• Melting involves substances turning to water.
• Melting and mixing with water are confused.
• Water can simply ‘dry up’ in the sun, or can be ‘overcome by the strength of
the heat’.
• Water in puddles evaporates into the sun.
• Water appearing on cold bottles is simply coldness turning to fog, or it may
be water leaching through.
2
• The smell of liquids such as perfume is separate from any physical material.
• Dissolving is confused with melting.
Activities
Solids, liquids, gases
AC T I V I T Y:
S U B S TA N C E L I N E –
UP
Teaching note: Many words in the language are associated with ‘solid’, such as
‘hardness’, ‘heaviness’, and also ‘melting point’, and these confuse the simple
judgment about whether a thing is solid or not.
Powders also give difficulty. The trouble with the language is that in science we
talk of substances as being solid, whereas in common everyday language we
might think of objects as having solid properties. Thus, while the substance sand
might be solid, a jar full of sand is runny. Young children find it difficult to
separate an object from the material it is made of. Thus, they may think that a
candle, when ground, is different in substance.
Where the dividing line between solid and liquid should go is complex. Is flour a
solid? (Yes.) Is toothpaste? Glass is a liquid in some senses because over a long
period of time it will run. An old window will be thicker at the bottom than the
top because of this. It can be difficult to decide if a substance is a mixture rather
than a pure substance.
Key idea: Substances have a variety of properties and mixtures can be difficult
to classify, but all pure substances can exist as solids, liquid or gases. Solids
maintain their shape, liquids flow and settle in a container, and gases fill the
container.
You will need:
• a number of labelled clear–plastic containers that enclose a variety of materials

(e.g. Vegemite, water, hundreds and thousands, shaving cream, aluminium foil,
wood, wool, plastic beads, etc.).
Line up the samples provided from ‘most solid’ to ‘most liquid’. Attempt to decide
what criteria to use to establish where the line between solid and liquid should go.
Discuss how to define ‘solid’ and ‘liquid’.
LINE–UP
Teaching note: Examples of properties are degree of colour, runniness, smell,
transparency, where used, mixability with water. In the last exercise students
should be encouraged to devise measurement procedures and criteria such as
for surface tension, measuring the number of drops that fit on a coin, or looking
carefully at the shape of a drop—the angle at the surface is a measure of the
surface tension.
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TO P I C 11
Key idea: Liquids can be classified according to a range of properties.

You will need:
• a series of clear containers with a variety of liquids inside (detergent, oil, water,
glycerine, methylated spirits).
Put the liquids provided into groups according to their properties.
How many criteria could you use?
Choose some properties (e.g. runniness, transparency, surface tension) for which you
can set up a measurement. Carry out measurements and set up a table showing the
difference between the liquids.
R AC E
Teaching note: For the speed down the tile, the easiest method is to put a drop
of each liquid along one edge of the horizontal tile, and tilt it for a set time.
Measure how far each liquid has flowed. Think about what controls are needed.
Key idea: Liquids have different degrees of ‘runniness’ that can be measured in
different ways.
You will need:
• a tile
• a chinagraph pencil or other marker
• a set of different liquids (e.g. water, methylated spirits, honey, detergent)
• a small funnel.
Devise a way of comparing the viscosity (runniness) of the liquids using a
measurement process that will enable you to enter numbers in a table. Some
suggestions of method:
• the speed at which the liquid flows down a tile

• the rate at which it flows through a funnel
• the time it takes for the liquid to settle when the container is turned upside
down.
AC T I V I T Y:
TESTING
T E M P E R AT U R E S
Melting
Key idea: Appreciation of the temperatures we encounter in everyday life.
You will need:
• thermometers
• strips of paper
• sticky tape.
4
Tape a strip of paper to an ungraded thermometer, and over the period of a lesson
construct a temperature scale based on temperatures you come across (hot water, ice,
near window, etc.). Mark and label each point on the temperature scale with its
sample situation.
AC T I V I T Y:
M E LT I N G I C E
Teaching note: The trick in melting the ice is to get heat into it as quickly as
possible. Immersing it in hot water is very quick, but too easy, and it’s best not to
allow that option. Interestingly, heating in a frying pan is not as quick because
the heat in that case is applied to the bottom surface only. Smashing the ice,
then heating it in some way (e.g. putting it in a few mouths), works well because
the fragmentation increases the surface area of the ice exposed to heat (think of
all the surfaces opened up to let heat in that were embedded in the ice before).
Pressure also works. The trick with the warm cloth and foil is that these act as
insulators and actually slow down the melting. Students will think of blankets as
supplying warmth but that is an overextension of their experiences as bodies
with internal heating sources.
A variation on this challenge involves students needing to present you with the
melted ice water as proof of the completion of the process.
You will need:
• ice cubes
• aluminium foil
• a cloth
• water
• a wooden mallet.
The challenge is to plan for and test ways of making an ice cube melt quickly. You
must be able to demonstrate that all the ice has melted.
As part of the planning you might discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
following strategies:
• wrap it in aluminium foil

• wrap it in a piece of warm cloth
• put it in your mouth
• put it in the sun
• put it in room–temperature water and stir
• pass it from person to person to squeeze in the palm of your hands.
• smash it with a mallet.
You will be given two ice cubes to compare two strategies. Decide on your plan. Get
your materials together. Be clear about your reasons. On your blocks ... ready ... GO!
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TO P I C 11
AC T I V I T Y:
LIFTING AN ICE
CUBE ON A PIECE
OF STRING
Key idea: Salt and other additives can lower the temperature of ice.
You will need:
• ice cubes
• a bowl of water
• string
• salt.
Float ice cubes in a bowl of water and cut some string about 20 cm long. Challenge a
friend to use the string to get the cubes out of the water without touching them.
Here’s how you do it:
• Moisten one end of the string and rest it on the surface of the ice cube. Sprinkle
some salt on it. Wait a little while for the ice to melt around the string and then
freeze over again, trapping the string.
• Lift the ice cube gently out of the water.
AC T I V I T Y:
A D D I N G S A LT TO
ICE
Key idea: The details of the freezing process.
You will need:
• salt
• a bowl of crushed ice
• test tubes
• orange juice
• water
• a thermometer
• a timer.
Add salt to a bowl of crushed ice. Check what happens to the temperature. Take (a) a
test tube of orange juice, and (b) a test tube of tap water, and place them in the
crushed ice. Observe what happens to them over time as they begin to freeze.
What happens first? What is the sequence of events as they freeze? Design a sheet by
which you can record (serial recording) the freezing process. Take the test tubes out at
intervals, and describe the changes that take place. (Where does it freeze first?)
6
AC T I V I T Y:
M E LT I N G
DIFFERENT ICES
Key idea: Different mixtures will have different properties when frozen, and
different melting rates.
You will need:
• containers of different liquids such as milk, black coffee, lemonade, brine, orange
juice
• a freezer.
Put the liquids in a freezer for a day.
Devise a method to compare their hardness. Do they differ in hardness?
Predict which will melt first. Take them out of the freezer to compare their rate of
melting. Were you correct?
B I G M E LT
Teaching note: In this activity, do not allow the substances to mix together in
the frying pan, since they can interact and spit. There are many things to discuss
about this activity, but a main issue is the order of melting, which will line up the
substances in order of melting point, from lowest to highest. They should solidify
(freeze) in the reverse order. This judgment is best made according to when the
substance first starts to melt rather than when it is completely melted, since
other factors such as size or heat conduction will affect that. The observations
will be complicated because, for instance, the chocolate softens in interesting
ways but does not become ‘runny’ like the butter. The language can be
misleading here.
The butter and cheese will melt, but because they are mixtures of substances
(water, fats, milk solids) the melting point is not clean and they tend to separate
out somewhat. The cheese burns easily. The sugar caramelises to form a toffee,
which is a chemical burning reaction. The question of reversibility thus becomes
an obvious talking point.
Younger students can argue that the wax and copha, when they have solidified,
are different because the shape is different. Part of the conceptual agenda here
is to encourage them to think about the substance itself being distinct from the
object it forms. Children do not readily make this distinction.
Key idea: Substances have different melting points, which are also the
temperatures at which they freeze.
You will need:
• aluminium electric frying pans (or conduct the activity one substance at a time in
a single frying pan, but do not mix the substances)
• small aluminium containers with 1 cm cubes of chocolate, butter or cheese,
copha, ice, candle wax and sugar.
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TO P I C 11
Place each of the different substances in a separate small aluminium frying pan. If
they are heated in a frying pan, which do you think will begin to melt first?
Predict the order of melting. Now try it.
Predict which order you think they will turn to solid when the heat is turned off. Can
they all become the same as they were before when they cool down?
What happens to a substance when it melts? Some of them change colour. What has
happened to them?
Why can’t they be made to go back to the same as before?
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING BUT TER
Key idea: The composition of butter and its relationship to cream.
You will need:
• thickened cream
• a glass marble
• a glass jar.
Put 60 mL of thickened cream and a glass marble in a glass jar or vial. Shake until
butter forms.
What else do you notice?
Does the temperature of the cream make any difference?
Does the butter taste the same as commercial butter? Why?
Evaporation
Every day evaporation is taking place around us and water falls from the sky in
the form of rain, hail or snow. These activities focus on the water cycle and the
role of evaporation.
Teaching note—concerning evaporation activities: Students will explain

evaporation phenomena at various levels. You will find they will give different
explanations depending on the activity. For instance, a child may say that the
disappearing handprint dried up into the towel, that the puddle went up to the
sun, and that the clothes dripped on the ground to make the flowers grow. Each
circumstance triggers different images, and other ideas creep in. We worked
with the teacher of a preparatory class to run the puddle activity. The students
were astounded by its disappearance.
• Walter thought the puddle had gone into a cloud because when he looked
up later in the day he saw a cloud with the same shape as the puddle.
• Kaye told us a year later about having to draw chalk lines wider and wider as
she poured the water and it spread on the asphalt.
• Rosalie thought the heat from the sun was stronger than the puddle and it
dried up.
8
• Amy thought the water floated round in a shady spot and then went to the
sky to make rain in a place away from the sun. She also thought it went into
a drain under the school.
The idea of the water cycle is often taught to young children, but they tend to
misinterpret it, often thinking that water rises straight to the sun which passes it
to the clouds, or at least not having any idea about the role of the atmosphere in
the process. We found that young students had difficulty with evaporation
largely because they were not particularly interested in tracing what happened
to water once they could no longer see it, and also because they did not have a
clear understanding that air surrounds us, let alone that it can support water
vapour. Their understanding of how the atmosphere, clouds, the sun and Earth
relate to each other was also a problem.
Even older children can have ambiguous views about material water, and can
think of the dampness of clothes as somehow distinct from the water they might
contain. The explanations below illustrate different levels of understanding of
evaporation:
• the water has dried up

• the water has soaked into the ground (or clothes, or cloth)
• the water has gone up to the sky to form clouds
• the water has gone into the air
• the water has changed to vapour (or moisture or steam) in the air.
AC T I V I T Y:
WATC H I N G WAT E R
BOIL
Teaching note: Watching water boil might seem like the equivalent of watching
a fly crawl up a wall. Don’t bet on this activity, but there are surprises! The
bubbles appear in stages and in interesting ways. The first bubbles appear
quickly at the edges, and these are actually dissolved air coming out of the
solution. Water always tastes flat when it has been boiled because of the lack of
dissolved air. Nor would it be a good idea to use boiled water in your fish tank!
The next phase will be bubbles that are small and appear where the heat is
applied from below. These grow and detach, then disappear before hitting the
surface. What is in these bubbles? Steam! The water changes to pockets of
vapour as it is heated at the pan bottom. Most students (and adults) will claim
there is air in the bubbles. Not true. Some will also argue there is hydrogen and
oxygen in the bubbles from the dissociation of the water, but it would take
much more energy than supplied in the frying pan to cause this to happen. This
is a liquid–to–gas change.
Gradually, the bubbles become bigger and burst to the surface, releasing the
vapour to the atmosphere. The water level drops as the water changes to steam.
Young students, while they recognise the steam, do not associate it with the
dropping water level. They may argue that the water simply boiled away. One
teacher we worked with challenged her Year 6 students to work out how to get
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TO P I C 11
the water back. They came up with a suggestion to put cans around the room
with ice in them, so the vapour could collect on the can surfaces!
Key idea: When it boils, water changes to water vapour in the air. The bubbles
are steam.
You will need:
• a small pan and a hotplate or an electric frying pan

• a mirror.
Put a small pan of water on a hotplate or put water in an electric frying pan. Watch
carefully what happens. Where do the bubbles come from?
Put a mirror over the boiling water. Why does the mirror fog up?
What happens to the water when it boils?
Draw a picture to show what is happening to the water.
AC T I V I T Y:
DISAPPEARING
HANDPRINT
Key idea: Water evaporates and becomes vapour in the air in the room.
You will need:
• a small chalkboard, or paper towel

• a pen.
Wet your hand and lay it on a piece of chalkboard, or a paper towel.
Leave it for a while, and observe what happens.
What happens to the water?
Where does the water go?
AC T I V I T Y:
PUDDLES ON THE
SCHOOL GROUND
Key idea: Evaporation of water to become vapour in the air.
You will need:
• a depression in asphalt or concrete

• water
• chalk.
Rory’s class was doing a science experiment about puddles of water in the school
grounds. After a shower of rain the sun came out, but there was still a big puddle on
the asphalt near the classroom. Rory drew a chalk line around the puddle to trace its
shape. The students went inside to write down their prediction of what would
happen to the puddle. When they came out again they found that the puddle had
shrunk. Later in the day when Rory looked, the puddle had disappeared. Rory’s
teacher told him that puddles always shrank and eventually disappeared, even on
hard surfaces like concrete.
10
What has happened to the water in Rory’s puddle?
Where does the water from the puddle go?
Try this yourself with a puddle and some chalk.
I N T H E TA N K
You will need:
• a bowl of water
• a texta
• a jar with a lid
• some plastic wrap
Annabelle has a fish tank that she looks after carefully. She noticed that even before
she put fish in it, the water level went down each week so that she had to top it up.
She checked carefully for leaks, but there were none. She asked her older sister, who
said ‘The level of water in a tank will always go down even if it does not leak’.
What happens to the water in Annabelle’s fish tank? Where does the water go?
Try this yourself by putting water in a bowl and marking the level with a texta. Leave
it for a week in a place you are sure it won’t spill, and the cat won’t drink it. To help
check what happens, you might try the same thing with a jar with a lid, or a bowl with
some plastic wrap over the top.
AC T I V I T Y: W H I C H
E VA P O R AT E S
FA S T E S T ?
Key idea: Substances evaporate at different rates. Evaporation rate is affected by
temperature, wind, etcetera.
You will need:
• water and methylated spirits

• ceramic or glass tiles
• a hairdryer
• a fridge.
Place drops of different liquids (e.g. meths and water) onto a ceramic tile and see how
quickly each evaporates under various conditions (e.g. open air, hairdryer, fridge,
under a cover).
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TO P I C 11
AC T I V I T Y:
E U C A LYP T U S J A R
Key idea: When they evaporate, substances disperse as vapour in the air in the
room. Mostly the dispersal occurs through convection currents.
You will need:
• a bottle of perfume or eucalyptus oil, or a can of air freshener.

Open a bottle of perfume or eucalyptus oil (or spray air freshener) and trace the
development of the smell through the room by asking people to put their hand up
when they can smell it.
How do we smell things? What happens to enable us to smell the oil or the perfume?
Draw what the oil must look like, in the room, in order for people to smell it. Use the
idea of molecules if it makes sense to you.
What do we mean by a ‘gas’? How is it different to a ‘liquid’?
Water cycle diagrams

The figure below shows diagrams of a type commonly found in textbooks to
illustrate the water cycle. The diagrams contain a number of ambiguities or
inaccuracies.
Figure 11.1 Water cycle diagrams
12
Condensation
AC T I V I T Y: CO L D,
WET CAN
Teaching note: Condensation phenomena are more difficult for students to
explain than evaporation, possibly because condensation requires a clear
commitment to the idea of air as holding water in some form. The idea of water
coming out of the air is more challenging than that of air soaking up the water.
In this activity, students will commonly refer to the water that appears on the
outside as coming through the can from the ice, or as the coldness coming
through and changing to dampness. Younger students will argue that the can
leaks, and will need to be convinced that the fog that appears is in fact water
and not some visible correlate of coldness. We have done this with a cold bottle
taken out of a refrigerator, only to have students argue that the water followed
from the refrigerator!
At the lowest level, students will commonly associate dampness with coldness,
and leave the explanation at that. Older students will also argue that fog or
steam is caused by clashes of hot and cold. It is important to establish that the
question ‘what causes the fog?’ is really the question ‘where does the water
come from?’, and the prior existence of that water is a matter of interest.
Key idea: Condensation is caused by water vapour in the air turning to water on
the cold surface.
You will need:
• a steel can with a shiny surface, and preferably a lid

• ice cubes
• cold water.
Put about ten ice cubes and some cold water into a dry can, and put the lid on.
Predict what will happen to the outside of the can.
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TO P I C 11
Leave it for a while, but check what is happening. What happens? Why does it
happen?
You can also try this with a cold bottle taken out of a refrigerator.
AC T I V I T Y: CO L D
MIRROR
Key idea: Condensation is caused by water vapour in the air turning to water
droplets on the cold surface.
You will need:
• a mirror
• a freezer.
Put a mirror in the freezer for half an hour.
Take the mirror out, and look carefully at what happens as you pull it out (you’ll have
to observe closely, as it happens very quickly). What is on the mirror surface? Where
did it come from?
Breathe on the mirror. Can you explain what happens now?
F R O M L E AV E S
Key idea: As part of the photosynthetic process, water evaporates from plants’
leaves to become water vapour in the air.
You will need:
• a plastic bag
• a leafy tree.
Place a plastic bag over a group of leaves on a tree and tie the bag in place. Return
after about one hour. What can you see? Explain your observation.
Would you collect more water during the day or during the night?
14
STILL
Key ideas: Leaves contain water which evaporates to become vapour in the air.
The vapour can change to water on meeting a cold surface.
You will need:
• fresh leaves
• a pan
• plastic wrap
• a support structure.
Create a solar still; designs can be found in many books, and on the Web (e.g.
<http://www.aris.com.au/sciweb/activity/AC/conservwat4.html>,
<http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/rtmss/3.52.html>). The essential features
are plant material, plastic wrap arranged above for the vapour to condense on, and a
pan to collect drips from this.
Where does the water that collects come from?
Draw a picture of the cycle.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO N S T R U C T I N G A
TERRARIUM
Key idea: Water from plants is converted to water vapour in the air, which
condenses on the cold sides of the terrarium. There is a water cycle within the
terrarium.
You will need:
• a small glass aquarium or large glass container

• potting soil
• plastic wrap to seal the terrarium
• small plants.
Set up the terrarium with the lid covered, without watering the plants. Starting with
moist soil is enough.
Predict what will happen to the plants.
Observe over time what happens in the terrarium. What is causing the water drops on
the inside of the glass?
Draw a picture of what is happening to water in the terrarium.
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Dissolving
Children are often confused about what constitutes dissolving (one substance
combined with another) and melting (a change of state as a result of heating).
This confusion is embedded in some metaphorical language (‘She dissolved into
tears’). Children will be familiar with many instances of dissolving, mixing and
melting which can be drawn on to clarify the distinction and sharpen their
understanding of what is happening.
AC T I V I T Y: D R O P S
ON SUGAR
Teaching note: Young children will sometimes say something like sugar has
‘disappeared’ into water when it dissolves. This is taken at face value by some,
but it is likely that they simply mean it can no longer be seen. One way of
heading off this ambiguity is to use coloured solutes such as raw sugar or jelly
crystals so that the continuing presence of the substance is obvious. In this
activity you can see that the sugar is still present in the pool of water because of
its oily texture and viscosity, obvious when a drop lands on the surface. It also
tastes sweet.
Key idea: Sugar dissolves gradually in water.

You will need:
• an eyedropper
• water
• a sugar cube
• a small dish.
Allow drops of water from an eyedropper to fall on a sugar cube, ten drops at a time.
Use a serial drawing technique to record what happens (draw what has happened
after each ten drops).
Taste the liquid at each stage.
Where has the sugar gone?
Discuss the difference between dissolving and melting.
Explanatory note: When a substance dissolves in water or another liquid

(formally called ‘the solvent’) it breaks down into its component molecules and
disperses completely amongst the water molecules. If children do not have a
view of matter being made up of particles they will not have access to this
model, but the idea of matter breaking up and dispersing into water can be
talked about even with young children. For the middle years, it may be
appropriate to role–play the break–up of matter into particles, or to make
drawings of they way they might appear in a ‘really, really powerful microscope’.
16
AC T I V I T Y:
D I S S O LV I N G A N D
MIXING
Key idea: Dissolving is not the same as mixing. With dissolving the solution is
clear or translucent. Mixtures are cloudy since the substance is often still in solid
form, suspended in the liquid.
You will need:
• small quantities of sugar, salt, cornflour, chalk, vegetable oil, starch, talcum
powder, candle wax, naphthalene flakes or mothballs
• spoons
• water and jars
• methylated spirits
• small heating pans and a hotplate (or electric frying pan).
Predict whether the different substances will dissolve in water.
Try a small quantity (about a quarter of a teaspoon) of each substance in 50 mL of

water. Will meths dissolve any of the substances that did not dissolve in water? Stir
and observe for each substance. Record your observations.
Note that a solution is always translucent (see–through, but possibly coloured), while
a mixture, consisting of undissolved grains, is cloudy.
Now predict what will happen if these are gently heated in a pan. Observe and record
your results. Which of these were reversible reactions?
Explanatory note: When flour is mixed with water it does not dissolve, but the
individual flour particles disperse into the water. A microscope would make this
clear, but the visual effect is that the mixture is cloudy rather than clear, or at
least translucent, as is the case when substances dissolve.
The effect of heat on dissolving rates, and the amount that will dissolve, is
dramatic for some substances. Sugar can be used to explore this. Another factor
is the size of the grains. Smaller grained sugar will dissolve quicker because it has
more surface area exposed to the water, for the same amount of substance.
(Icing sugar does not follow this trend because it contains more than sugar. Read
the label!)
AC T I V I T Y:
D I S S O LV I N G
SUGAR IN
DIFFERENT
LIQUIDS
Key idea: Solids may dissolve in some liquids but not others, depending on
molecular factors.
You will need:
• sugar
• a teaspoon
• jars with the following liquids: water, vegetable oil, vinegar, lemonade.
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TO P I C 11
Will sugar dissolve in the different liquids? (Use very small amounts.) Predict, test and
record.
Explanatory note: Whether a substance will dissolve in water or other

substances (such as alcohol) depends on the molecular properties of the solvent
and solute.
AC T I V I T Y: S U G A R
S O LU B I L I T Y
Key idea: This activity is suitable for Year 2 upward.
You will need:
• five different types of sugar (e.g. brown, coffee, white, cube, castor, icing, etc.)
• an eyedropper
• five petri dishes
• water
• drinking glasses, beakers or saucers.
Place a small amount of sugar into a petri dish. Count the number of drops of water it
takes to cause the sugar to dissolve.
Put the same amount of sugar into the same amount of water in each of five glasses.
Time how long each takes to dissolve.
What needs to be controlled? Will you stir the water? Is there any difference between
using warm or cold water?
Is there a link between size of crystal and dissolving speed? Can you generate a
reason for such a link?
Explanatory note: All other things being equal, the sugar with the finest grains
should dissolve fastest because for the same amount of sugar there is much
more surface area for the water to interact with sugar molecules.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING
MARMALADE
Key idea: Food preparation can involve many types of change to materials.
You will need:
• 1 kg fruit (oranges and lemons)

• saucepan and hotplate (or electric frying pan)
• 1 kg sugar
• water
• jars.
This activity will need to be already set up at the beginning of the session to allow
enough time.
Cut up 1 kg of fruit (lemons and oranges). Place the fruit and 1 L of water in a
saucepan and boil for one hour. Allow to stand for several hours. Reheat. Add 1 kg
18
sugar and simmer. Take samples regularly to test for setting. When the marmalade is
ready, place in jars.
Throughout the cooking process take test samples and observe the constitution of
the mix. Discuss the concepts that are essential in understanding the jam–making
process: dissolving, mixing, breaking down cellular structures.
AC T I V I T Y:
M A K I N G J E L LY
Key ideas: Jelly involves the dissolving of jelly crystals. The consistency of the
jelly depends on the ratio of jelly and water.
You will need:
• jelly crystals
• a saucepan or bowl
• a spoon
• a source of hot water (safety precautions are essential)
• jars for jelly
• a fridge.
Dissolve jelly crystals in hot water to make jelly. Refrigerate until set. Discuss what
happens.
Compare what happens when you use half, and twice, the recommended amount of
water.
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING
C RYS TA L S
Teaching note: Some of the substances that work for making crystals are salt,
Epsom salts, sugar, borax, alum (aluminium potassium sulphate), photographer’s
hypo, baking soda (bicarbonate of soda), laundry soda.
Key idea: Dissolved material still exists in the solution. It can be retrieved.
You will need:
• a heat source to heat the beaker
• a crystal substance
• a small piece of cotton.
Heat a small beaker of water. When it is boiling, dissolve as much crystal substance as
possible in it.
Suspend a small piece of cotton with a knot in the end in the solution, and put aside
to let cool. Observe the growth of crystals.
Discuss what happens.
Many ideas for growing crystals can be found by searching the Web for ‘crystal
growing’.
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TO P I C 11
AC T I V I T Y:
C H R O M A–
TO G R A P HY
Key idea: Inks are made from different dyes that have different rates of
dissolving in water.
You will need:
• textas
• strips or circles of absorbent paper
• water in a container (or petri dishes).
Place dots of texta of various colours in a line across a strip of absorbent paper, about
2 cm from the bottom. Suspend the paper with the bottom in water. You will observe
the different water–soluble dyes that make up the pen colours.
As a variation, you could try circles of paper in a petri dish, or you could staple
cylinders of paper to stand in a beaker. What interesting patterns can you make?
Try food dyes, inks, various biros, pens, etcetera. Try various solvents such as vinegar
or meths.
EXTENSION
Figure 11.2 Concept map: states of matter
Consider the following diagram:
Write appropriate statements that link each concept to each other concept, and back
to the most inclusive concept presented: matter.
20
TOPIC 12
Chemical change
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of chemical change 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of chemical change 1
Activities 2
Gas and bubbles 2
The burning candle 10

Acid–base indicators 13
Kitchen science 14
Effects of heating, in cooking 15
Introduction
You can get a number of surprising effects from chemical reactions. In the early
and middle school years, only simple reactions are appropriate, such as that
between sodium bicarbonate (baking powder) and vinegar (or any mild acid) to
produce carbon dioxide. This reaction is the basis for many intriguing activities,
with effects that depend on the gas production.
Cooking provides some excellent examples of change and is a useful and

popular activity in classrooms. In the ‘kitchen science’ section of this topic you
can focus on techniques for observing and understanding the changes that
occur in cooking, and use some novel recording strategies.
Key concepts of chemical change

• Changes to materials can be physical (dissolving, melting, evaporating),

involving changes in existing substances, and chemical (bicarb reactions,
burning), involving the production of new substances.
• Substances can react together to form new substances that are quite
different in their properties.
• A gas is a possible product of a chemical reaction. Combustion is a chemical
reaction.
• A flame needs oxygen to keep burning, as the oxygen reacts with the
burning substance.
• Substances can be grouped (e.g. acid/base) according to their chemical
properties.
Students’ alternative conceptions of chemical change

• Phenomena such as bubbles are simply effects: they are not seen in terms of
the formation of substances. Thus, the categories of ‘substance’ and ‘effect’
can be interchangeable. ‘Mixing things makes them fizz’—end of story.
• A chemical reaction is not an interaction of ingredients, but one ingredient
that plays an active role.
• Substances have an ongoing history, so that a gas formed in a chemical
reaction is thought to have been present in some form in the initial
ingredients, and that carbon formed from burning is in fact a burnt form of
the original substance.
• A candle, when it burns, simply melts, or changes to vapour in the air. Thus,
there is a tendency to think of reactions in terms of physical change.
1
TO P I C 1 2
• Oxygen or air is an enabling ingredient in the burning process, but is not

consumed in the process.
• Reactants retain their identity in a chemical reaction. Gases have negative
weight.
• Effects that are due to gases, such as carbon dioxide extinguishing flames,
are due to more visible effects such as bubbles.
Activities
Gas and bubbles

Key ideas: In a chemical reaction substances change to new substances, with
entirely different properties. Substances can totally change in a chemical
reaction. A gas can be formed in a chemical reaction
Teaching note: Clip–lock sandwich bags are ideal for showing gas production as
they can be quickly sealed.
The Where did the sugar go? activity is merely included to emphasise that the
bicarb soda effect is very different to a dissolving phenomenon. Students should
be encouraged to use the word ‘dissolve’, and to think of this as total breakdown
of the sugar grains and dispersal of the sugar into the vinegar. This is a physical
change, and in principle reversible.
The Froth and bubbles activity demonstrates a chemical reaction between the
baking soda and the vinegar. The quantities suggested inflate the bag nicely, but
you may have to deal with demands to try the experiment again using much
larger quantities. It is quite possible to blow a hole in the bag with greater
amounts, and no real harm will be done. This is an acid–base reaction to form
water and a salt (sodium acetate) and carbon dioxide. The questions are
designed to draw attention to the fact that the substances are no longer the
same. Students might try, after the fuss has settled, to add more bicarb to see if
any vinegar is left. Or add more vinegar to see if any bicarb is left. If they smell
inside the bag they will notice the vinegar smell has almost gone. What is left is a
salt dissolved in water. The vinegar and sodium bicarbonate no longer exist, but
their constituent atoms now form the basis of quite different materials.
Students understandably will have trouble with this idea. Younger students (up
to age ten or so) tend to say ‘The baking soda caused the bubbles’ or ‘The
vinegar caused the bubbles’, treating the reaction as the result of their action in
adding the active substance. It is important to emphasise the idea of the
substances interacting to cause the effect. They will also need convincing that
the vinegar and baking soda are now gone. They will argue that the blowing up
of the bag was due to the bubbles, rather than a gas as such with a material
presence. The confident grasp of the gas concept is difficult for students even
into upper levels of primary school.
2
AC T I V I T Y: W H E R E
DID THE SUGAR
GO?
Key idea: Substances can dissolve in liquids with no visible trace of their
presence.
You will need:
• a clip–lock sandwich bag

• vinegar
• sugar
• a cup measure
• a teaspoon.
Measure a quarter of a cup of vinegar into a clip–lock sandwich bag. Add a flat
teaspoon of sugar, and shut the bag. Mix the sugar and vinegar around.
What did you find? Where has the sugar gone?
AC T I V I T Y: F R OT H
AND BUBBLES
Key idea: Substances can dissolve in liquids with no visible trace of their
presence and gases may also be created.
You will need:
• a clip–lock sandwich bag

• vinegar
• baking soda
• a cup measure
• a teaspoon.
Measure a quarter of a cup of vinegar into a clip–lock sandwich bag. Add a flat
teaspoon of baking soda, and quickly shut the bag. What happens to the baking
soda? Where has it gone? What has happened to the vinegar? Has it changed?
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TO P I C 1 2
AC T I V I T Y:
B A L LO O N
B LO W O U T
Teaching note: This activity allows further exploration of how a balloon full of
carbon dioxide might behave compared to a balloon of air. The carbon dioxide is
more dense than air, and the balloon is heavier. It falls more quickly to the
ground than an equivalent air–filled balloon.
Key idea: Carbon dioxide and air have different properties.

You will need:
• a small plastic soft–drink bottle

• a balloon
• a spoon
• a funnel
• vinegar
• baking soda.
Pour vinegar into a small plastic soft–drink bottle, to a depth of 2 to 3 cm. Put a
teaspoon of baking soda into a balloon (you could use a funnel) and fit the mouth of
the balloon tightly over the mouth of the bottle. Up–end the balloon to allow all the
baking soda to fall into the vinegar.
What causes the balloon to blow up? What has happened to the baking soda, and the
vinegar? What is in the balloon?
Take the balloon carefully off the bottle, sealing it and tying it. Blow up another
balloon to the identical size. Both balloons are not full of gas, and you can compare
them.
Do they feel the same? Do they drop at the same rate?
4
AC T I V I T Y: CO R K
ROCKET
Teaching note: This activity causes quite a stir. You need to have a good cork
with no imperfections, so that gas won’t fizz out before the pressure builds up
sufficiently to blow the top. Don’t point it at anyone, and keep your eyes out of
the way! Safety goggles would be a good idea.
Key idea: Gases produced from a chemical reaction can create a large pressure
in a confined space.
You will need:
• a glass soft–drink bottle

• a tight–fitting cork
• a teaspoon
• a tissue
• vinegar
• baking soda
• safety goggles.
Pour vinegar into a glass soft–drink bottle to a depth of 2 to 3 cm.
Wrap a teaspoon of baking soda in a small amount of tissue. Place it in the bottle and
quickly put the cork in tightly.
What do you think will happen? Can you explain why the cork flies off?
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TO P I C 1 2
AC T I V I T Y: C R A Z Y
CURRANTS
Teaching note: All the activities with baking soda are based on the same
principle, but the bubbles are used for different purposes. The Crazy currants
activity will go for quite a while, and is great for close observation. Bubbles
formed by the reaction adhere to the currant surface and act as rafts which float
the currants to the surface. Once they reach the surface the bubbles pop,
releasing the carbon dioxide to the air, and the currants fall again.
In the Saline and Sherbert activities, the active ingredients are the citric acid and
the baking soda, which create carbon dioxide once they dissolve in water and
are able to react. Students will not readily associate the fizz of the sherbet with
the production of a gas.
Key idea: Gases may be a product of a chemical reaction.

You will need:
• a small jar or glass

• a spoon or icy–pole stick
• vinegar
• currants
• baking soda
Fill the small jar with vinegar, so it is three–quarters full. Put in six currants. Do they
sink or float?
Use an icy–pole stick or spoon to put in a small amount of baking soda, and stir. Look
carefully at what is happening to the currants. Why are they going up and down?
What is causing the bubbles? What is in the bubbles? What has happened to the
baking soda? Is it still there? What has happened to the vinegar?
Once the bubbles stop, how can you get them started again?
6
AC T I V I T Y: S A L I N E
You will need:
• icing sugar
• citric acid crystals
• baking soda
• drinking glasses
• a teaspoon
• water.
Make up a powder of:
• a teaspoon of icing sugar

• half a teaspoon of citric acid crystals
• a quarter of a teaspoon of baking soda.
Mix these together, and stir a teaspoon into a glass of water. What happens? Where
has the powder gone?
Try a small amount of each of the ingredients in some water by itself. What happens
in each case? Which combination of powders causes the fizz?
AC T I V I T Y:
SHERBERT
You will need:
• icing sugar
• citric acid crystals
• baking soda
• icy–pole stick.
7
TO P I C 1 2
Make up a powder of:
• a teaspoon of icing sugar

• half a teaspoon of citric acid crystals
• a quarter of a teaspoon of baking soda.
Mix these together and use an icy–pole stick to put a small amount on your tongue.
What do you think is causing the fizz? Do any of the powders on their own cause a
fizz?
Explanatory note: The mixture will fizz on the tongue because of the reaction
between the bicarb and citric acid, once saliva dissolves them. The fizz is caused
by the release of the carbon dioxide. Investigate which combination causes the
fizz.
AC T I V I T Y: A L K A–
S E LT Z E R AC T I O N
Key idea: Carbon dioxide extinguishes a flame and is heavier than air.
You will need:
• a small jar, with a candle that comes to just (1 cm) below the rim, and water in the
bottom.
• an Alka–seltzer tablet
• matches
• water.
8
Light the candle that is standing in the jar. Break an Alka–seltzer tablet into four
pieces and carefully drop the pieces into the water.
What do you see? What is causing the bubbles? What is in the bubbles? Why does the
candle go out?
Explanatory note: In this activity, carbon dioxide is produced once again. If you
look on the ingredients description of Alka–seltzer you will see that they include
citric acid and sodium bicarbonate, which react when dissolved in water. The
trick can also be done with baking soda and vinegar, and using vinegar instead
of water with the tablet hastens the reaction. The carbon dioxide produced is
heavier than air, and gradually builds up in the jar until it snuffs out the candle.
This trick also works with bicarbonate of soda, if the candle is standing in
vinegar. The carbon dioxide in the jar can be poured onto another lit candle, to
snuff it.
Students, of course, will have other ways of explaining this. We worked with
teachers of Years 1/2, 3/4 and 5/6 students to run a unit on bubbles which
included some of these activities. A couple of months later we ran this Alka–
seltzer trick with the same students and asked them to write down their ideas.
The table below gives the percentage of each year level giving different
explanations.
Table 12.1 Different explanations for candle going out
Explanation for candle Year 1/2 Year 3/4 Year 5/6

going out n = 24 n = 26 n = 22
Carbon dioxide was produced 0 0 18
Reference to gas produced 0 12 32
Because of the air in the bubbles 4 23 9
Because of the bubbles, wetness, vinegar, 96 65 41

powder, other ...
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TO P I C 1 2
It is clear that the younger students focus on the perceptual features of the
activity, and it is only the upper–primary students who have a reasonably
confident grasp of the idea of a gas being produced.
The burning candle
DOES A CANDLE
S TAY A L I G H T ?
Key idea: Burning is a chemical change involving the production of new
substances.
You will need:
• a dinner candle
• a knife
• wax from a chopped–up candle
• string
• matches.
Make as many observations as you can to answer the questions:
• How does a candle stay alight?

• What is burning?
Look at the candle carefully. Make a list of the things you can see.
Light the candle. What is changing? Can you notice any clues in the flame? What is the
wax doing?
Light a match. Blow out the candle and quickly bring the burning match close to the
wick. What do you notice?
Is it the wick that is burning? Hold a piece of string upright and light the top end.
Does it keep burning?
Is it the wax burning? Break off a piece of candle wax with a knife. Light it with a
match. Does it burn?
Is it a combination of factors? Wrap a piece of string in wax, like a wick, and light it.
Watch carefully what happens to the flame as the wax starts to melt. Does it keep
burning?
AC T I V I T Y:
CANDLE IN A JAR
Teaching note: In this activity students may refer to the oxygen running out or
being used up. Sometimes they think the oxygen has been driven out of the jar
by the candle. Questions such as ‘What has happened to the oxygen ... Where
has it gone?’ can produce some interesting responses. The essential science
understanding is that oxygen has reacted with the wax under the high–
temperature conditions in the flame, and is used up.
10
The time taken for the candle to extinguish is complicated by the fact that it will
go out not when the last oxygen in the jar is gone, but when the flame no longer
has access to oxygen because of its replacement with carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide, although it normally is more dense than air, rises to the top of
the jar because it is hot. The jar fills with carbon dioxide from the top down.
Therefore the tallest candle in the jar will go out first. The time taken for a candle
to go out will be roughly proportional to the volume of the jar if a short candle is
used.
You will find that the candle will go out eventually, provided the rim of the jar
sits slightly lower than the flame. The carbon dioxide collects in the jar even
though it is open to the air.
The last part of the activity is sometimes done with the jar standing in water.
Water is drawn up into the jar as the candle goes out. The heated air from the
candle flame expands, taking up space. However, when the flame is
extinguished the air cools and contracts. The water fills the contracting space.
The simple answer to the question ‘Why does the candle go out?’ is that the
oxygen is used up. Test the details of this hypothesis by investigating the time
taken for a candle to go out under different conditions.
Key idea: The burning reaction requires oxygen as one of the reacting
substances.
You will need:
• candles of various heights

• matches
• glass jars of various sizes
• a mat to place the candle on.
Light a candle and put the lit candle on the mat. What do you think will happen if you
put a glass jar over the top of the candle? Try it and see. Why did the candle go out?
Look at the bottom of the upturned jar. What can you see? What caused the
blackening? What is the black stuff? Where does it come from?
What does a candle need to keep burning?
Vary the volume of the jar. Does a candle stay alight twice as long if the jar volume is
doubled? Try three candles of different heights in the same jar. Predict if they will go
out at the same time. Try it—observe. Explain.
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TO P I C 1 2
Does the jar need to be sealed at the bottom? Hold the jar above the surface, with the
rim just below the flame. Does the candle still go out?
Explanatory note: The candle is an elegant example of many science ideas

involving both physical and chemical change. Very few adults will be able to
explain the process straight off, but the sequence of challenges in the candle
activity give some good evidence for what is really happening. This activity
shows the detective work in much science investigation. It involves looking for
evidence to support or refute views of what is happening.
Students will often claim that the wax in the candle is simply there to hold it up
or slow down the burning of the wick. The notion of the wax as a fuel is not
apparent. They will also argue that the amount of wax that drips accounts for all
the wax that was in the candle to begin with. They need to be talked through
the idea that the wax is used up as the candle goes down, and this has to do
with what is burning.
Even though the wax is the fuel, the wick is critical in the process. But the wick
will not burn by itself, as trying to burn an upright string will show. If the string is
touching a lump of wax, the flame springs to life and attains a different character
once it burns down to touch and begin to melt the wax. The wax first melts
when the candle is lit. It is then soaked up the wick by a process of capillary
action. Spreading out in the flame, it will vaporise. We thus have a solid–liquid–
gas transition. It is the unburnt wax vapour around the candle that will relight if
a match is quickly brought close immediately after the candle is blown out.
The wax vapour is heated in the flame to the point that it reacts with oxygen in
the air. It burns. The products of burning are carbon and carbon dioxide and
water vapour. The carbon and condensed water vapour can be seen on the
inside of the jar put over the top of the candle in the following activity.
AC T I V I T Y:
CANDLES AND
WAT E R
Key ideas: Air expands on heating. The products of burning include oxygen and
water vapour.
You will need:
• a candle
• matches
• a dish of water
• a jar.
Stand a lit candle in a shallow dish of water. Place an upturned jar over the candle
quickly, standing it in the water.
Observe carefully the sequence of events. What is happening?
Explanatory note: The candle goes out once the oxygen in the air is consumed.
Why does the water rise up in the jar? The traditional explanation is that it rises
to replace the 20% of air that is oxygen, now consumed by the flame. However,
12
this cannot be correct since carbon dioxide is one of the products, and replaces
the oxygen by volume.
The water rises due to these factors:
• The initial expansion of air due to heating from the flame forces air to
bubble out the bottom. Once the candle goes out and it cools, it contracts
again, reducing the pressure and the water is drawn up into the jar.
• One of the products of the reaction is water, which is formed as vapour and
the pressure from this gas forces air out. Once the air cools as the candle
goes out, this water vapour condenses on the side of the jar, reducing the
pressure and drawing the water up.
• Depending on the acidity, the water may absorb carbon dioxide and that
would reduce the pressure also.
You will notice that the sequence of events and the height the water rises will
differ depending on how quickly the jar is put over the candle. If it is left above
the flame before being lowered, the air inside will heat up. Can you use this idea
to explain the difference you observe?
Acid–base indicators
AC T I V I T Y:
C A B B AG E CO LO U R
CHANGE
Teaching note: A different type of surprise event can be engineered using acids
and bases and an indicator that changes colour. Red cabbage can be boiled up
to produce a good amount of indicator that varies in colour from red, if an acid is
put in, to blue–green for a base. Household products (such as cleaners and
washing products, cooking powders, fruits and their juices, spices, hair products,
salt, vinegar, tea and coffee) can be tested using this indicator.
Key ideas: Substances can be classified on an acid–base scale. An indicator is

used to measure acidity. Acids and bases can react to neutralise each other.
You will need:
• red cabbage
• water
• a saucepan and a stove or hotplate, or an electric frying pan
• a variety of household products (e.g. cleaners, washing products, cooking
powders, fruits and their juices, spices, hair products, salt, vinegar, tea and
coffee)
• jars or plastic cups.
Make some indicator by boiling red cabbage. Place the substance (household
product) to be tested in a plastic cup or a jar and add indicator. Record the resultant
colour change on a table.
Can the indicator colour be changed back to its original shade? Leave students to
attempt to solve this problem.
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TO P I C 1 2
Have each student test a substance and then share their information with others in a
group.
TO W I N E
You will need:
• three identical drinking glasses

• red cabbage juice
• water
• lemon juice
• baking soda.
Try the following magician’s trick. Take three drinking glasses: one with diluted red
cabbage juice, one with a drop of dissolved baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and
the other with a few drops of lemon juice. Pour the cabbage juice into the glass with
the hidden baking soda. It goes green! Act surprised. Now pour this into the glass
with the lemon juice drops. It goes red! Act totally astounded. You can drink this ‘red
wine’ if you like cabbage juice!
Kitchen science
Cooking can introduce a wealth of observations and interpretations of changes
to materials. Generally, activities involving heating are not appropriate for
students in the early years. However, for young children it is possible for the
teacher to demonstrate the cooking process and distribute results to groups for
investigation and display. Thus, bread can be baked with a early years school
class observing and commenting on each stage, and taking samples of the
ingredients and the mixture away to explore and write about.
14
For most of the cooking activities involving a ‘freeze–frame’ technique, it is

better for groups to explore the changes and displays themselves. These
activities are suitable for the middle years.
As a general principle, in these cooking activities we are wanting students to

consider the underlying science, so that what is normally thought of as a
generalised effect (‘cakes rise in the oven’) becomes explainable in terms of
changes to substances (‘gases are produced by a yeast reaction to make cakes
rise, the evidence of which can be seen in the texture’). One major question that
might be asked of most of these activities is ‘why do we heat foods?’. There is no
single answer to this question, but each activity provides its own perspective.
The effects of heat include:
• breaking down cell walls to soften food

• killing bacteria (not addressed in these activities)
• allowing yeast to become active
• speeding up chemical reactions
• evaporating water from food.
Effects of heating, in cooking

Consider the following general points:
• What are the reasons for the various effects observed during the session?
• What are some of the scientific principles we would want to bring out in
these activities?
• Why do we heat food?
AC T I V I T Y: YE A S T
AND SUGAR
Key ideas: Yeast causes bread to rise by producing carbon dioxide. Variables
need to be controlled to establish causes.
You will need:
• test tubes or small jars or containers

• a teaspoon
• yeast
• sugar
• cold and lukewarm water.
Yeast is a living organism that produces carbon dioxide. The production of carbon
dioxide can be observed as the presence of bubbles.
Explore the action of yeast by mixing a small amount of it with a small amount of
sugar, in water. This can be done in a small test tube or glass jar.
15
TO P I C 1 2
Set up a controlled experiment to test the effect of sugar and the temperature of
water on the rate of production of carbon dioxide by yeast. (Compare cold with warm
water—don’t make the water too warm).
AC T I V I T Y:
S PAG H E T T I
Teaching note: You will need to consider what methods of time keeping would
be appropriate for different year levels.
When you compare the strands some possible features that could be described
are length, texture, colour, width and thickness. The cellular tissue in the
spaghetti breaks down on heating. Water is absorbed and the strand expands. A
starch substance leaches from the spaghetti into the water.
Key ideas: The effect of heat and water to soften carbohydrate tissue. The use of
a ‘staged removal’ or freeze–frame strategy to track change over time.
You will need:
• a saucepan
• fifteen spaghetti strands
• paper and pencils
• timers
Immerse fifteen identical strands of spaghetti (5 to 10 cm in length) in boiling water.

Set one strand aside as the ‘zero cooking time’ standard.
Take out one each minute and stick the strands alongside each other on a sheet of
paper, with their bottom end on a horizontal line, appropriately labelled (to duplicate
a bar graph of change over time).
What changes have occurred?
Allow to dry. Does the spaghetti return to its original state?
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING
D R O P S CO N E S
Key ideas: The many physical and chemical changes involved in cooking
(mixing, dissolving, evaporation, burning, changes to texture). The use of a
freeze–frame technique for investigating change over time.
You will need:
• a table or worksheet and pens

• a timer
• a sieve
• basins
• a wooden spoon
• a frying pan and hotplate, or electric frying pan
• a beater
16
• a spatula
• a measuring spoon and cup
• 2 tspn sugar
• 1 egg
• 1 cup (126 g) self–raising flour
• ¾ cup milk
• fat or oil for cooking.
Mix up the ingredients according to the recipe below. As you proceed, note the
changes that are occurring in each ingredient. What happens to the fat? Is the flour
mixing or dissolving?
Start cooking four to six dropscones of identical size at the same time. Turn and
remove them in sequence so that you end up with freeze–frame samples with each
side cooked for thirty seconds, one minute, two minutes, four minutes, etcetera.
As the cooking proceeds, note what changes are visible at the top surface of the
dropscone. You could remove one with only one side cooked to ‘freeze’ this process in
time.
Construct a table or worksheet to provide a clear record of what happens at the

stages of preparation and cooking. Record the changes that occur. Describe these as
completely as possible and explain in terms of what is happening to the material. For
instance, is the mixing a physical or chemical change? What is causing the bubbles?
What is the black stuff?
Dropscone recipe
Makes approximately 12. Use half quantities if possible.
Utensils Ingredients Instructions
sieve 2 teaspoons sugar 1 Beat sugar and egg
basins 1 egg together until
creamy.
wooden spoon 1 cup (126 g) self–raising
flour 2 Pour creamed
frying pan and hotplate, or
mixture over the
electric frying pan ¾ cup milk
sifted flour and stir
beater fat or oil for cooking in the milk, a little at
spatula time, beating until
measuring spoon and cup smooth.
3 Heat a little fat in
frying pan.
4 Drop spoonfuls of
mixture into hot pan
and turn with spatula
when mixture begins
to bubble.
Explanatory note: The changes to materials you will notice include the mixing
of flour to form a paste, the change in consistency of the materials, the
dissolving of the sugar and the mixing together of the yolk and egg white, the
beating of air into the sugar and egg mixture. For the cooking: the melting of fat,
the formation of bubbles of steam as the water evaporates and carbon dioxide
17
TO P I C 1 2
from the flour being heated, the hardening of the mixture as it lightly burns, the
drying of the mixture on the inside of the drop scone as heating proceeds.
AC T I V I T Y:
M A K I N G S CO N E S
You will need:
• a scone recipe
• a timer
Table 12.1 Example of a worksheet
Changes caused by cooking
Hardness Size Colour
Ingredients Harder (H) Smaller (S) Lighter (L) Comments

No change (N) No change (N) No change (N)
Softer (S) Bigger (B) Darker(D)
Carrot S N L
Barley S B L
• utensils
• ingredients
• a knife
• an oven
• pencils and paper for sketching.
Make scones and remove one from the oven every three minutes. Observe the
changes that have taken place in shape, texture and colour. Use a knife to expose a
cross–section of each scone, and sketch this with labelling to clarify what is
happening as the cooking occurs.
Construct an illustrated ‘story’ that describes in detail what happens to the scone
after it is put in the oven.
18
AC T I V I T Y:
MAKING SOUP
Teaching note—recording strategy: How appropriate is the worksheet format
in the table below for the recording of data in the early years? How could you
improve this table for use in the middle years?
What design features should we look for in a worksheet? What role does
descriptive writing play?
Key ideas: Changes to vegetables over time, due to heating. Freeze–frame

method of exploring change over time.
You will need:
• a saucepan and heat source, or electric frying pan

• a timer
• water
• oil
• cooking utensils
• a range of vegetables: onion, carrot, potato, celery, parsnip, beans.
Cut the vegetables into 1 cm cubes (at least ten of each). Chop the onion. Fry onion
gently in oil. Describe the changes that occur.
Add water and boil. Predict the order in which the vegetables will soften. Add them to
the water at the same time.
Take out a piece of each vegetable at appropriate intervals (e.g. one minute) and lay
out for display.
Document changes over time in the vegetables’ texture, colour and size, and compare
with your predictions. At what point did each soften sufficiently for eating? Was the
change slow or sudden?
AC T I V I T Y:
P O P P I N G CO R N
Teaching note: The corn pops as the enclosed water evaporates and expands,
causing the corn to effectively turn inside out. Heating gently allows the water to
evaporate and escape without the violent rupture of the corn.
Key idea: Evaporation of water.

You will need:
• popping corn
• a frying pan or saucepan
• oil
• a glass lid or heatproof beaker.
Fry the corn in oil. Use a glass lid over the frying pan or saucepan, or place a
heatproof beaker over them. Observe the popping corn.
19
TO P I C 1 2
Compare the properties of corn before and after heating. Fill a container with popped
corn. How many pieces of popped corn are there? Now compare this total with how
many pieces of unpopped corn fill the same container.
Try heating some corn gently, before attempting to pop. Any difference?
AC T I V I T Y: D RYI N G
FRUIT
Key ideas: Moisture content of fruit. Evaporation.
You will need:
• apples
• a knife
• an oven.
Prepare dried apple by placing thin slices in an oven. Remove at intervals. How will
you record the changes? Do thin or thick slices work best? Why?
AC T I V I T Y:
C H O CO L AT E
C R AC K L E S
Teaching note: It is best to work in groups, with each group investigating the
difference between normal crackles and a different missing ingredient.
Key idea: Cooking ingredients have a purpose related to their properties.

You will need:
• a chocolate crackle recipe

• a mixing bowl and stirrer
• paper cups
• cake containers
• butter
• copha
• cocoa
• sugar
• rice bubbles
• a refrigerator.
Make a few chocolate crackles using a conventional chocolate crackle recipe.

Investigate the result of leaving each ingredient out of the recipe in turn.
Alternatively, replace one ingredient at a time with something you think will serve as
well (e.g. Weet–bix instead of rice bubbles).
20
TOPIC 13
Bodies and skeletons

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of bodies and skeletons 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of bodies and skeletons 2
Activities 3
Measuring ourselves 3
Student worksheet: finding out about myself 7

Dominant thumb 7
Dominant hand 8
Reaction time 8
Dominant eye 10
Superimposed images 11
Testing your thinking powers 11
How big are your hands? 12
Agility test 12
Fingerprints 13
The human senses 14
Hearing 15
Smell 17
Skeletons and bones 17
Introduction
Much of this material is based on the book Ourselves stages 1 & 2: a unit for
teachers, from the Science 5/13 Series (Roy Richards 1976, Macdonald
Educational, Hemel Hempstead). Children are always interested in their bodies—
in their weight, height, eye colour, leg length and in who can do something
more quickly or more skilfully than others. In order to satisfy this interest they
will have to question one another, take measurements, get one another to
perform certain tasks, carry out tests, record information and make their findings
intelligible to others. A number of these activities can be linked up with simple
issues of health.
Key concepts of bodies and skeletons

Through studying bodies, students can be introduced to a range of
measurement skills, and they can gain an idea of the normal range of human
traits and an increased understanding of their bodies and how they function.
However, one problem concerns the effect of comparisons on the obviously
different child.
Early years
• People vary a lot in each characteristic.
• Breathing is necessary for life.
• We need to breathe more when we exercise.
• Sight is an important sense.
• Having two eyes is necessary for judgment of depth.
• We use our ears to hear.
• Bones give our bodies shape.
• Bones provide places for muscles to attach.
• Bones protect important organs from damage.
• Bones and muscles allow us to walk, run and move, and to change our facial
expressions.
Middle years
The body contains numerous organs that function together to maintain life.
The body contains organs that work together in systems (e.g. the skeletal,
respiratory and excretory systems).
• Our breathing rate and pulse increase with physical activity.

• Fingerprints are unique.
• We use both ears to locate the source of sounds.
1
TO P I C 1 3
• To be able to smell the presence of an object, bits of that object must enter
your nose.
• Genes from parents can determine some characteristics you have. Many
animals have skeletons.
• Some animals have skeletons on the outside (exoskeletons) while other
animals have skeletons on the inside (endoskeletons).
• Some skeletons are made up of bones.
• The shape of a bone can be used to identify its likely position in the
skeleton.
• It is possible to gain information about how an animal may have moved by
looking at the skeleton.
• The skeletons of particular types of animals are very similar to each other.
• It is possible to gain information about what the animal may have eaten by
looking at the teeth in the skeleton.
• It is possible to gain information about the possible shape of an animal by
looking at the skeleton.
• By comparing the skeletons of other animals to the human skeleton, it is
possible to gain information about how the animals may have differed from
or been similar to humans.
• The brain is essential for all human behaviours.
Students’ alternative conceptions of bodies and skeletons

Research into student’ ideas about this topic has identified the following non–
• Young children give egocentric explanations for parts of the body, as in ‘my
hair is for washing’.
• Young children imagine their bodies as hollow skin bags that are all
‘stomach’ (a reservoir in which blood, food and wastes are somehow
contained).
• For young children, the stomach is related to breathing, blood, strength and
energy.
• For young children, food vanishes after it is eaten. Young children don’t
associate the ear with hearing.
• Young children don’t think of the brain being needed for overt behaviour,
such as physical actions or for telling a story, or that it is concerned with
emotions or sensations.
• The brain is not essential for all human behaviours.
• Young children believe that skeletons are only to give us shape.
• Muscles are not related to meat.
2
• Light does not need to enter an observer’s eye to see something.

• We see because we look; it has nothing to do with light.
• The scent or odour from an object is something different to the particles
that make up the object.
• The fingerprints on each finger of one’s hands are identical.
• Daughters inherit their characteristics from their mothers and sons from
their fathers.
Activities
Measuring ourselves
AC T I V I T Y:
MEASURING
O U R S E LV E S
Teaching note: Many of the following activities are suitable for Kindergarten to
Year 6. However, informal units should be used when working with young
students.
Teaching note: The streamer represents an informal length unit for young
students. A graph can be readily produced if the streamers are hung on the wall
where one end of each streamer begins at the same level.
Key idea: Humans vary in each characteristic they have.

You will need:
• streamers
• rulers
• graph paper
• a table for recording data.
Measure height of students using streamers; these can be hung on a wall. Measure
foot length, height, and arm span (when two arms are outstretched) and enter the
measurements on the table. Plot the measurements for the whole class on a graph.
Analyse the data to answer the following questions: Do tall people have the longest
feet? Is your arm span the same as your height?
AC T I V I T Y:
M E A S U R I N G LU N G
V O LU M E
Teaching note: It is not possible to expel all the air from our lungs. In this
activity, to calculate the actual lung capacity, add 20% to the results for males,
and 26% for females. What would be the possible causes of the variation in
capacity?
Key idea: People breathe in different amounts of air.
3
TO P I C 1 3
You will need:
• a bucket or measuring cylinder

• water
• plastic tubing
• a clear plastic bottle.
Fill a bucket of water or a measuring cylinder to the brim with water. Insert one end of
the plastic tubing into the water. Now breathe in deeply and blow into the other end
of the tubing. Measure the amount of water that is left; this will give some indication
of the student’s lung capacity.
(Note: it might be useful to do this in a sink or a bucket to catch the excess water.)
AC T I V I T Y:
MEASURING FEET
You will need:
• paper and pens for drawing

• rulers.
Measure one foot of each student by drawing around the foot on a piece of paper.
Work out the size (length) of the students’ feet, starting at the smallest and going to
the biggest.
Is the order of ‘foot size’ (length) the same order as ‘height’? What do you predict? Test
by measurement.
AC T I V I T Y:
MEASURING
HEIGHT
You will need:
• rulers and string for measuring.
4
Measure the height of each student sitting in a chair. Will the students line up in the
same order as their standing height? Test the prediction by lining up students in
order of their sitting heights.
What tentative generalisation can you make about your data? How accurate was your
original prediction?
AC T I V I T Y:
CO U N T I N G
B R E AT H S
Key idea: Breathing is necessary for life.
You will need:
• a watch or clock
• a stethoscope.
Count the number of breaths you take in one minute. What can you do to change
your breath rate?
Find your pulse and count how many beats there are in one minute. Now put the
stethoscope over your heart and count again. Is the answer the same? How can you
change your pulse rate? How long does it take to return to normal, after you have
increased or decreased it?
Record the pulse rates of the students in the class. Does pulse rate depend on age, or
sex?
AC T I V I T Y:
MEASURING HAIR
Teaching note: Human hair varies in width from 40 to 120 microns (one micron
= one–thousandth of a millimetre).
Key idea: The thickness and strength of human hair varies with colour.
You will need:
• hair of different colours

• a yoghurt container
• metal washers.
Find a way of measuring the width of a human hair. Compare with the hair of other
people in the room. Record your results.
Inspect hairs under a magnifying glass. Put them into groups. What keys could you
use to classify hairs?
Are hair colour and eye colour related? How could you find out?
The strength of a hair can be measured by hanging a yoghurt carton with washers off
it. Test the strength of different coloured hair. What colour hair is strongest?
5
TO P I C 1 3
AC T I V I T Y:
FINGERPRINTS
Key idea: Fingerprints are unique.
You will need:
• ink pads
• paper.
Using the ink pads, make a record of fingerprints. What similarities and differences
can you find:
• between people
• between fingers
• between thumbprints?
AC T I V I T Y:
S K E TC H I N G FAC E S
You will need:
• a projector
• drawing pens or pencils.
Sketch the faces of the students in the class and sort them into groups. What keys
could be used?
Use the projector to obtain a silhouette of a number of people—sketch each one.

Then try to identify who is who.
AC T I V I T Y:
GENETIC
DIFFERENCES
Key idea: Some characteristics of parents are passed on to their children.
Compare:
• your ability to roll your tongue

• right or left–handedness
• which thumb dominates in clasping hands
• eye colour
• number of teeth.
How many in your class have the same ability? How many in your family have the
same ability?
6
AC T I V I T Y: W H O L E
B O DY
Key idea: The body contains organs that work together in systems.
You will need:
• textas.
Get a student to lie on their back on a large piece of butcher’s paper. Ask another
student to trace around their outline with a texta. Then fill in the outline by drawing
and writing in the major organs of the body in the correct locations.
Draw in and label the skeleton, inferring details from moving and feeling your bones.
AC T I V I T Y:
FINDING OUT
A B O U T M YS E L F
You will need:
• a stopwatch
• a metre rule
• ten film canisters
• a pack of playing cards
• a container of marbles
• graph paper
• an ink pad
• paper.
Use the student worksheet that follows. Complete the tasks.
Student worksheet: finding out about myself

My name is _________________________________________________
My age in days is ___________________________________________________
Dominant thumb
Clasp your hands together so that the fingers on one hand are between the
fingers on the other. Which thumb (left or right) is uppermost? ______________
Now reclasp your hands so that your other thumb is uppermost. Does this feel as
comfortable as before? _______________________________________________
Your dominant thumb is the one that is uppermost when you clasp your hands
together in the most comfortable way. My dominant thumb is ______________
7
TO P I C 1 3
Dominant hand
Your dominant hand is the one you can do most things better with. For example,
handwriting. What is you dominant hand for handwriting? __________________
Trial Time for right hand Time for left hand
Now, have your partner record the time it takes you to write the numbers from
one to twenty for each hand. Place your results in the table above. Do this twice
for each hand. Is there a big difference in times between your left and right
hands?
__________________________________________________________________
How do your results compare to those of your partner? ____________________
__________________________________________________________________
A person who can write fairly well with both hands is ‘ambidextrous’. Was there
anybody in the class you could describe as ambidextrous? __________________
__________________________________________________________________
Reaction time
You will need a metre rule and a table to record reaction time versus distance
conversion. The goal of this activity is to work out your reaction time. That is, the
time it takes between you seeing something happen and you reacting to it.
Follow the procedure below:
1 Hold a metre rule by the top out in front of you, with the 100 cm end at the
top. Have your partner place their thumb and fingers on either side of the
ruler at the bottom, without touching it. The partner needs to have their
hand resting on the tabletop.
2 Let go of the ruler and have your partner catch the ruler as soon as you let it
go. Record the mark in centimetres where your partner catches the ruler.
3 Convert the distance in centimetres to a time in seconds using the
conversion table below.
4 Repeat this three times for both hands. Convert the distances into times and
record in the table below.
8
Left hand Right hand
Trial Distance Reaction Time Distance Reaction Time

(centimetres) (seconds) (centimetres) (seconds)
Did your reaction time improve with each new trial? ____Why do you think this?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Are your reaction times around the same value for each hand? ______________
Is there a connection between your dominant hand and your reaction times?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Conversion table: dropping distance and reaction times

Dropping distance Reaction time Dropping distance Reaction time
(centimetres) (milliseconds) (centimetres) (milliseconds)
1 45 26 230
2 64 27 235
3 78 28 239
4 90 29 243
5 101 30 247
6 111 31 252
7 120 32 256
8 128 33 260
9 136 34 263
10 143 35 267
9
TO P I C 1 3
11 150 36 271
12 156 37 275
13 163 38 278
14 169 39 282
15 175 40 286
16 181 41 289
17 186 42 293
18 192 43 296
19 197 44 300
20 202 45 303
21 207 46 306
22 212 47 310
23 217 48 313
24 221 49 316
25 226 50 319
Dominant eye
Few people use both eyes equally. Unconsciously, they depend more heavily on
one eye, which is known as the dominant eye. You can identify your dominant
eye in the following way.
Use a sheet of paper to make a tube 3 to 4 cm in diameter, and look through it

with both eyes at some object across the room. Keeping the tube steady, close
first one eye, then the other.
Which is your dominant eye? __________________________________________
How do you know? __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Is there a relationship between your dominant eye and dominant hand? Ask ten
other students if their dominant eye is the same side as their dominant hand.
What do you conclude? _______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10
Superimposed images
Since each eye receives a separate image, one function of the brain is to fuse
these two images into a single image. Make a tube about 3 to 4 cm in diameter
using a piece of paper. Hold the tube close to your left eye. Hold your right hand
palm open and facing you next to the tube in front of your right eye. Keep both
eyes open.
What do you see? ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
How can you explain this phenomenon? ________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Now hold your hands at arm’s length, palms towards you and fingers touching
but slightly spread. Look through the spaces between your fingers and focus on
a distant object. How do your fingertips look? ____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Explain your observation. _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Testing your thinking powers

The goal of this activity is to determine the time it takes to perform a number of
tasks of varying difficulty. You will require a pack of cards and a stopwatch. Work
in teams of two. One person performs the task and the other records the time.
Task 1: Shuffle the pack of cards. Hold the pack of cards with the face up for this
task and all others. Deal the pack of cards into two piles (one card at a time),
alternating between the piles. Record the time it takes to do this task._________
Task 2: Shuffle the pack of cards. Repeat the task, dealing into two piles (one
card at a time), one pile with red cards and one pile with black cards. Record the
time it takes to complete this task. _____________________________________
Subtract the result of Task 1 from Task 2 to obtain discrimination time.
Record this value.
My discrimination time is
Task 3: Shuffle the pack of cards. Now deal the deck of cards into four piles
without regard to suit (i.e. hearts, clubs, spades and diamonds). Record the time
to complete this task ________________________________________________
11
TO P I C 1 3
Task 4: Shuffle the pack of cards. Now deal the deck of cards (one card at a time)
into four piles with regard to suit (i.e. one pile hearts, another diamonds, another
spades and another clubs). Record the time. _____________________________
Subtract the time it took to do Task 3 from the time for Task 4 to obtain the
discrimination time.
My discrimination time is _____________________________________________
How does the reaction time differ for the four tasks? ______________________
__________________________________________________________________
Why are there differences? ___________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
How big are your hands?

You will need a container of marbles, and graph paper.
Place your hand flat (fingers closed) on graph paper and trace around the
outside of your hand. Estimate the area of your hand (in square centimetres) by
counting the squares inside the tracing of your hand.
The area of my hand is _______________________________square centimetres.
Now using just one hand, determine how many marbles you can hold in your
hand.
The number of marbles I can hold is ____________________________________
Do you expect bigger hands to pick up more marbles? ____________________
Ask five other students their results. Is your answer to the previous question
true?
__________________________________________________________________
Agility test
You will require ten film canisters and a stopwatch per pair of students. Place
each of the film canisters in a line so that they each stand vertically with the lid
on top. Have your partner find the time it takes for you to turn each canister (one
at a time) upside down. You are to use only one of your hands. Repeat the task
again. Now try it two more times using your other hand. Record your
measurements in the table below. Were your times for the left hand different
from the times for your right hand?
Trial Time for left hand Time for right hand

1
2
12
Can you give any reasons why? ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Fingerprints
You will need an ink pad. In the space below, use the ink pad to make a
fingerprint of your thumb and several of your fingers.
The major features of a fingerprint are described as arches, loops, whorls or

composites (as shown in the figure below).
Are your fingerprints all the same ______________________________________
How would you describe your fingerprints? (Use the features described in the
figure below.) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
13
TO P I C 1 3
My fingerprints:
The human senses
Sight
AC T I V I T Y: U S I N G
SIGHT
Key idea: Sight is our most important sense.
You will need:
• ‘feely’ bags of objects

• blindfolds.
Explore objects with and without sight. A good way to do this is by using ‘feely’ bags
or boxes containing the objects, or by blindfolding students.
AC T I V I T Y: F I S H I N
THE BOWL
Key idea: The brain combines the images it receives from each eye.
You will need:
• two pieces of cardboard

• a stick
• sticky tape or glue.
14
Draw a fish on one piece of cardboard and a bowl on the other. Join the two pieces of
cardboard together with the stick in between. By rapidly rubbing the stick back and
forwards between your hands, the fish should appear to be in the fishbowl.
Explanatory note: We retain images of things we see for a short amount of time
before a new image is processed. Spinning the stick provides the eye with a
series of images that the brain combines into one image.
AC T I V I T Y: L I N I N G
UP T WO OBJEC TS
Key idea: Having two eyes is necessary for judging depth.
You will need: two pencils.
Hold a pencil in each hand in front of you. Now, close one eye, and see if you can
bring the pointed ends of the pencils together. Now try the same thing again but with
both eyes opened. What did you find? Now change the background to another colour
or pattern. Does this change things?
AC T I V I T Y:
CO LO U R V I S I O N
Key idea: People with colour blindness can’t distinguish between certain
colours.
You will need:
• colour vision test books.
See if you can read the numbers and letters in colour vision test books. Assess
yourself or other students if they are willing.
Explanatory note: Different types of vision cells are present in the retinas of our
eyes. Some cells react to colour (for daytime viewing) and others react to shades
of grey (for night–time viewing). There are three types of colour vision cells. Each
react to red, green and blue. However, for some people the same colour vision
cells react to different colours. Red–green colour blindness is the most common
issue among colourblind persons.
Hearing
AC T I V I T Y:
SINGING IN A
BUCKET
Key idea: The bucket acts like an echo chamber to enhance the sound.
You will need:
• a bucket.
Sing into a bucket. What can you hear? Why does it sound so loud?
Explanatory note: The reflected sound from the bucket (echoes) adds to the
incoming sound to make a louder sound.
15
TO P I C 1 3
AC T I V I T Y:
TA P P I N G U P T O A
WA L L
Key idea: We use two ears to locate where sounds come from.
You will need:
• a blindfold
• a stick or a metre rule.
Blindfold a student and give them a stick or metre rule to tap the ground. Point them
in the direction of the wall and ask them to listen to the tapping sound the stick
makes. Does the tapping sound change as the student gets closer to the wall?
Explanatory note: As you get closer to the wall, the sound you produce at the
floor reaches your ears in addition to the sound that is reflected off the wall.
There is a slight delay between receiving the direct sound, and the reflected
sound, so each tap on the floor will sound a little longer. Theatres are designed
to make sounds come to the audience as well as reflect off barriers. This
increases the quality of the sounds made by the performers or the musical
instruments on the stage.
AC T I V I T Y:
LO C AT I N G
SOUNDS
Key idea: We use two ears to locate where sounds come from.
You will need:
• a blindfold
• a stick or a metre rule.
Blindfold a student, and get them to identify the direction from which tapping
sounds appear to come. Try with one and then two ears. What is the advantage of
having two ears?
Explanatory note: We have what is called ‘binaural’ hearing. This means we hear
with both ears. This helps us to determine the direction of the sound source. A
source to the left of you will produce sound that reaches your left ear before it
reaches your right ear. The brain interprets this time delay as a sound source to
your left. Incidentally, you can’t, using just your hearing, determine whether a
sound is coming from directly in front of you or directly behind. Try your own
experiment.
16
AC T I V I T Y:
M YS T E R I E S I N A
TIN
Key idea: We use the sense of hearing to understand interactions we have in the
world.
You will need:
• tin cans with lids

• rice
• beads
• blocks and other small, common objects.
Place different objects (e.g. rice, beads, blocks, etc.) into different tins with lids. See if
you can determine what is inside the tins simply by shaking them.
Smell
AC T I V I T Y:
R E CO G N I S I N G
SCENTS
Teaching notes: Students commonly think that the scent or odour they smell is
something different to the matter that makes up the source of the scent or
odour. If you smell perfume, then actual perfume particles are entering your
nose and activating smell (olfactory) receptors. These are connected to nerves
which lead to the brain.
Key idea: The odours or scents we smell are small pieces of the source of the
odour or scent that go up our nose.
You will need:
• small unlabelled containers that contain various scents (essential oils such as
peppermint, jasmine, rose, lavender, etc., or you could use camphor, cinnamon,
rosemary, basil, pepper, etc.).
See if you can pick what the scents are in four unlabelled bottles.
Skeletons and bones

Children are naturally interested in skeletons and bones. Such interest is a great
resource that you can use in the classroom.
The following activities will help students to develop skills in:
• classifying
• drawing
• inferring
• measuring.
17
TO P I C 1 3
AC T I V I T Y:
QUESTIONS
Teaching note: A great deal of insight can be gained from allowing students to
ask questions, from finding out what they know, and don’t know, about a topic,
and tapping into their areas of interest.
These are examples of questions asked by primary students:
• How much pressure can bones take without breaking?

• What’s inside bird’s bones?
• What’s inside bones?
• What are bones made of?
• How many bones are there in a human skeleton?
• Do spiders have bones?
• Which insects have bones?
• How do joints work?
• What living things do not have bones?
• What makes bones grow?
• How many bones do fish have?
• Do head lice have bones?
• Which is the thickest bone in your body?
• What keeps the backbone together?
• What happens when you dislocate a bone?
• What points do jaws have?
• Do snakes have bones?
• What is the weakest bone in your body?
• How do you know when a bone is broken?
• Do snails have bones?
• How do babies’ bones come together?
• Do bones ever wear out?
• How do all of your bones grow at once?
• How many bones do birds have?
• How do broken bones ‘stick’ back together again?
• What use is cartilage?
• Are your teeth bones?
• Why does a nose have cartilage instead of bone?
• How many ribs do you have?
18
Questions may also arise after getting students to look at pictures and a human
skeleton model.
For example, the following questions were asked by primary school students:
• Why are there cracks on the skull?

• Which animal has the fewest bones in its skeleton?
• How many bones in a skeleton of a human being?
• How long does it take the flesh to go off the skeleton?
• Why doesn’t the heel part, which sticks out, show up on your skin?
• How can you tell if a skeleton is a girl or boy?
• What happens to the eyes when a person dies?
• How many bones are there in the spine?
• How come there is no nose on the skeleton?
• Which part of the body has the smallest bones?
• What happens to the skin?
Key idea: Bones have a number of functions. They allow us to move, they
protect our organs, and they give us shape.
You will need:
• a model skeleton
• pictures of bones.
Think up questions you would like to know about bones.
AC T I V I T Y:
FUNC TION OF
SKELETONS
Teaching note: The following answers were given by primary–school students
for reasons why animals have skeletons:
• Support
– Because if they didn’t they’d be all jelly and wouldn’t be able to stand.
– To hold their bodies together in place.
– If they didn’t have a skeleton they would go plop!
– To hold them up.
– Keeps most of the body stronger.
– To hold the body in shape.
– If they were wool they would look like a rug because they would
collapse.
– To help them stand up.
19
TO P I C 1 3
• Movement
– Because if they didn’t have a skeleton they wouldn’t be able to move
around.
– They would not be able to walk.
– To help them bend.
• Protection
– To help protect them when they have a hard fall.
– To protect organs of the body.
Key idea: Skeletons have three functions: giving the body shape, assisting in
movement, and providing protection for internal organs.
You will need:
• a model skeleton
• pictures of skeletons and animals.
Why do animals have skeletons?
IN A HAND?
Key idea: Your hand contains many bones connected by joints.
You will need:
• a sheet of paper and pens.
Trace around your hand and wrist, fingers outstretched, on a sheet of paper. Feeling
the bones of your hand carefully, draw the bones inside your outline.
AC T I V I T Y:
MODELLING
BONES
Key idea: Your hand contains many bones connected by joints.
You will need:
• modelling clay.
Model the bones in one or more of your fingers, using modelling clay.
YO U R H A N D
WORKS
Key idea: Bones connect together through joints. Muscles are attached to bones
to allow the hand to move and grip.
Write a brief description of how your hand ‘works’ (stays together, grips, etc.)
20
AC T I V I T Y: YO U R
HEAD AND NECK
Key idea: Your neck contains a series of connected bones called ‘vertebrae’.
You will need:
• paper and pens for drawing.
Have a partner draw an outline of your head and neck in profile. Fill in your skull and
neck bones.
AC T I V I T Y:
D R AW I N G A
SKELETON
Key idea: Your skeleton consists of many connected bones.
You will need:
• a body outline on a sheet of A4 paper.

• a model skeleton.
Draw a skeleton within the body outline. Make it as complete as you can. Compare
your drawing with the model skeleton. How did you go? Correct any errors you have
made on your diagram.
AC T I V I T Y:
SKELETON
J I G S AW
Key idea: The skeleton consists of many connected bones.
You will need:
• a skeleton puzzle sheet, as shown below.

• scissors
• sticky tape.
Cut out the pieces of the skeleton and see if you can piece the skeleton back together
properly. Stick the pieces in place once you have put the jigsaw together.
21
TO P I C 1 3
AC T I V I T Y: J O I N T S
Key idea: Joints are devices that connect bones.
You will need:
• finger splints
• sticky tape.
Carry out the following activities in the table below:
1 with a splint taped to your forefinger

2 with a splint taping two of your fingers together
3 with your thumb taped to your palm.
Predict which of these activities you could do, record your prediction, test and record
your observations. How did you go?
22
Table 13.1
Action Trial Prediction Observation
Do up a button. 1
Trace a line. 1
Turn a page. 1
Use a pair of scissors. 1
Pull out a drawing pin from a 1

board.
2
Thread a needle. 1
Turn on a tap. 1
Write your name. 1
Hold a mug. 1
3
Comb your hair. 1
2
3
23
TO P I C 1 3
Tie up shoelaces. 1
2
3
Do up a buckle. 1
2
3
Take coins from a purse 1
2
3
Play marbles. 1
2
3
Do up a necklace. 1
2
3
Pick up a teaspoon of sugar. 1
2
3
Undo a screw lid. 1
2
3
Hold a racket. 1
2
3
AC T I V I T Y:
PLASTICINE
MODELS
Teaching note: Probably one of the best sources of bones is the countryside
where animals have died, the carcasses have rotted and the bones have been
bleached by the weather. Some bones may be obtained from the butcher (sheep
bones seem an appropriate size for primary school children to handle).
Children should be encouraged to collect, display and classify bones of various

kinds. Sorting trays are useful for this purpose to keep bones safe and intact.
These can be improvised from cartons, boxes or household trays. For those
bones that children may not be able to identify, a ‘mystery box’ can be provided.
Key idea: Bones have a hollow centre.
24
You will need:
• a collection of animal bones

• plasticine.
Make a plasticine model of one of the bones. Will it be heavier or lighter than the
actual bone? Try it. What is the result?
AC T I V I T Y:
C L A S S I F YI N G
BONES
Key ideas: Animal bones can vary in shape. The shape of the bone assists the
animal in some way (e.g. to move a limb, protect an organ and/or provide
shape).
You will need:
• a collection of animal bones

• a system of classifying bones, such as in the table below.
One system of classifying bones

Long bones have distinctive shaft and a slight curve to help them support a load better than if
they were perfectly straight.
Short bones are about as wide as they are long.
Irregular bones are irregular in shape.
Flat bones are basically flat in shape but do not curve.
Try to use this classification on the bones in your collection. Is it a classification you
can use?
AC T I V I T Y:
DESCRIBING
ANIMAL BONES
Key idea: Animal bones can vary in shape.
You will need:
• a collection of animal bones.
Select one bone from the collection and write a description of it. See if someone can
use your description to choose the bone you have described. Would you change your
description in any way? How?
AC T I V I T Y:
D R AW I N G B O N E S
Key idea: Animal bones can vary in shape.
You will need:
• a collection of animal bones.
25
TO P I C 1 3
Draw a different bone from the collection (than you described previously) and then
see if someone can use your drawing to choose the bone you have drawn. Was your
drawing effective for this purpose? Why?
AC T I V I T Y:
SKELETONS ON
D I S P L AY
Key idea: The bones of an animal form an interconnected system to protect
organs, enable movement and give shape to the animal.
You will need:
• an animal skeleton, or a collection of skeletons.
What can you tell about
• how the animal moved

• what the animal ate
• other aspects of the animal’s lifestyle?
AC T I V I T Y:
DESIGNING AN
ANIMAL
Key idea: The bones of an animal form an interconnected system to protect
organs, enable movement and give shape to the animal.
Design an animal that lives in a swamp on a planet where gravity is weak, and that
eats plants only.
26
TOPIC 14
Plants as living things

Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of plants as living things 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of plants as living things 2
Activities 3
Probing conceptions of ‘alive’ and ‘plant’ using ‘instances’ 3
Plant structures and function 4
Studying plants in the local environment 6
Other plant investigations 15
Introduction
Key concepts of plants as living things

Broad concepts of living things

• There is no absolute definition of what we count as a living organism. The
definition has changed over time. A living organism generally has a cellular
structure, but viruses are currently counted amongst living things, and they
do not.
• Living things have a variety of characteristics that will be displayed to
different degrees: they respire, move, respond to stimuli, reproduce and
grow, and are adapted within a complex of living things within an
environment.
• When a plant is picked or cut, or an animal dies, some basic life process will
continue to occur. There is no universally agreed answer to the question ‘Is it
alive?’.
• The way living things are classified has changed over time. Animals and
plants are the main ‘kingdoms’, but fungi, mosses and viruses have their own
separate kingdoms.
• Animals are ‘consumers’ in that they ingest food to survive. Food provides
the energy for life processes.
• Plants are ‘producers’ and grow through the photosynthetic process by
which carbon dioxide and water are used to produce starches (of which the
plant material is made). Sunlight provides the energy to drive this process.
• Animals and plants are further divided. A major category of plants is
‘flowering plants’ or angiosperms. These differ from conifers and ferns, for
instance, in the way they reproduce. Animals include a multitude of
organisms, from microscopic creatures, through insects, reptiles, mammals,
and so on. These different organisms are all interconnected through an
evolutionary history.
Structure, function, adaptation of living things

• Living things have various ‘structures’ that enable them to survive: transport
structures in plants by which water and trace elements move; digestive
structures and respiratory structures in animals; and reproductive structures.
• Organism structures and behaviours should be seen in terms of their
survival purposes.
• Each organism is adapted to a particular ecological niche involving
interdependence with other living organisms as well as dependence on
non–biotic factors.
1
TO P I C 1 4
Flowering plants, seeds

• The majority of plants on earth are flowering plants (this includes trees,
grasses, cacti and other small plants, as well as the more obvious examples).
• All flowering plants have a similar reproductive cycle.
• The reproductive cycle is an important adaptation, and the formation and
dispersal mechanisms for seeds (contained in fruit, pods or nuts) are varied.
• Fruits are the outcome of a fertilised flower and contain seeds. Conifers do
not have flowers but produce seeds in cones.
• Seeds:
– need water to germinate
– need the right temperature to germinate
– vary in their rate of germination
– form a significant part of the world’s food supply
– are living.
Students’ alternative conceptions of plants as living things

• Students associate life with movement or action, so that a bicycle may be

alive when it is being ridden.
• Students associate life with power or effectiveness, including such things as
the sun, fire, lightning, etcetera.
• Students think that the purpose of flowers is to please or support other
organisms, for instance bees, or humans (to make them look pretty).
• Students do not understand the different reproductive (flowers, fruit, seeds),
respiration (roots, leaves, stalk) or other structures of plants and can think of
parts of the plant as the plant itself (e.g. a carrot is not thought of as the root
of a carrot plant that may be flowering).
• Students have a restricted view of which plants are flowering plants.
• Students believe that plants take in food through their roots.
• Students have a narrow concept of plants as things in pots, that may not
include trees or grass.
2
Activities
Probing conceptions of ‘alive’ and ‘plant’ using ‘instances’
AC T I V I T Y: I S I T
ALIVE?
Teaching note: As a group, attempt to establish a definition of what it is to be
alive. What are some of the necessary criteria for saying something is alive? This
activity can be done using drawings of the things above, or cutting photos and
drawings out of magazines. A variation on the exercise involves having two
hoops on the floor, one labelled ‘alive’ and one ‘not alive’, into which children
place their pictures. It may be interesting to explore having a third hoop, or the
crossover between hoops, labelled ‘once alive’. This could contain things like
wood, or lemon juice. Note that children will sometimes juxtapose ‘alive’ against
‘dead’, and this can cause confusion.
Key idea: What is a ‘living thing’ has a particular meaning in science.

Which of the following are ‘alive’:
• a cow munching grass

• a bushfire
• a tree growing in your garden
• a plank of wood
• the sun
• a seed in a packet in a shop
• a picked carrot
• a river
• bacteria
• a battery–operated doll?
Why have you made these choices?
IS A PLANT?
Key idea: Exploring students’ understandings of what a plant is.
Which of the following are plants?
• grass
• a carrot
• a gum tree.
Develop a definition of a plant that the class agrees upon.
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AC T I V I T Y: I S I T A
PLANT?
Key idea: Plants are a definite and important category of living thing. They can
have a variety of forms.
You will need:
• a set of cards with examples of plants and non–plants (e.g. a tree, a fire, a carrot,
a lion, etc).
Look at the cards showing a range of objects. Which ones are plants? What tells you
something is a plant?
Come to an agreement in your group about the characteristics that define what a
plant is, in a way that other students can understand. You could start two lists of
characteristics: ‘Most plants ... ‘ and ‘All plants ...’.
Plant structures and function
AC T I V I T Y:
THINKING ABOUT
P L A N T PA R T S
Teaching note: In this activity, praise the student who:
• makes the most observations

• makes the most counts (e.g. of petals, stamen, leaves, etc.)
• formulates the most questions
• makes the most accurate drawings
• attempts to indicate scale
• cuts up the most types of flowers
• attempts generalisations based on findings
• modifies generalisations in light of new findings.
Key idea: Raising questions about the different reproductive and other
structures of plants.
You will need:
• a variety of native seeds and fruits (banksia, eucalypt, cones)

• a dandelion
• flowers
• magnifying glasses—mainly to illustrate the variety of reproductive structures.
Look at the plant parts supplied, and discuss them. As a group, write down ten
observations and/or insights. Write down five questions about plants that the
discussion raised in your minds.
What variation in reproductive strategies can you identify? (e.g. seed dispersal
mechanisms).
4
AC T I V I T Y:
LO O K I N G AT
F LO W E R S
Key idea: Flowers have a recognisable structure related to their reproductive
function.
You will need:
• a variety of flowers to cut up

• scissors
• razor blades
• tweezers
• magnifying glasses
• tiles for cutting on
• pencils for drawing.
Cut up a variety of flowers, including some Australian natives such as grevillea and
eucalyptus, and some complex flowers such as a daisy or dandelion. You should use a
razor blade, scissors and tweezers and work on tiles. A magnifying glass can be useful
for identifying parts in a small flower.
Identify the ovules in the ovary. Where is the stigma found compared to the stamens?
Decide which flowers have a structure to assist cross–pollination. Carefully draw and
label three of the flowers, to illustrate the reproductive structures.
What is the function of flowers? Discuss as a group.
Figure 14.1 Flower of a plum
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Studying plants in the local environment

Teaching note—student’s observation skills: The distinction between
observations, inferences (where an interpretation is added to the ‘pure’
observation) and experiments is often not easy to make. What is a good
observation?
Criteria by which we might assess observation skills

Does the child:
• use senses other than sight?

• observe detail, rather than gross features only?
• make statements that incorporate information other than that observed?
• note unexpected occurrences rather than always confirm preconceived
notions?
• in comparing situations, note similarities as well as differences?
• in making sense of a set of observations, rank them in some priority order?
• use observation as part of a process of testing ideas?
• plan observations as a sequence that focuses on the most relevant issues?
Developing the skill of observation

• Draw the object (or event), to encourage closer attention to detail.
• Describe the object and develop a vocabulary of description.
• Children play in pairs; one child identifies the object from the other’s
description.
• Children have to identify their particular object from a drawing they have
made of it, from a container full of similar objects.
• Encourage children to make as many observations as possible, using as
many senses as possible.
• Go around the class asking each child to make one more observation of, say,
a tree.
• Structure the observations by providing definite categories, for example,

look at a leaf and describe
– its edges (smooth or rough)
– the type of veins
– texture of surface (shiny or rough).
• Give enough background knowledge for students to base their
observations on (e.g. the basic parts of a flower).
• Provide a purpose for the observations (e.g. give them a question they must
use the observations to answer).
• Ask for five questions about the object or process being observed.
6
Teaching note—environmental activities/trails: The following is presented

courtesy of the Gould League of Victoria.
Environmental trailing is one way in which we can develop a child’s awareness of

the human–modified and natural environment. ‘Trails’ are simply a series of
planned walks along certain set routes that highlight certain aspects of the local
environment. They have the advantage of:
• taking students out of the classroom into their local environment to focus
on things that may otherwise go unnoticed; it may also develop a respect
and pride in their local environment
• enabling records to be kept of what has been seen at points along the trail
• giving flexibility in planning to cater for the broadest ranges of interest and
levels of achievements
• making a change to the surrogate experiences of the classroom and
covering most subjects of the curriculum: art, language, science,
mathematics.
Environmental trails fall under two categories:
1 Joined location trails.

• A joined location trail can be developed in a number of ways. It can be
used simply as a series of observation points with similar characteristics,
to reinforce a certain theme or concept. It can be used as a
developmental trail with each location point becoming more complex
as the trail progresses, in other words, a series of graded lessons at each
observation station. Each station reinforces and extends the previous
station. At the end of the trail the child should emerge with a specific
field skill and concept.
• Alternatively, the trail location could be used as a monitoring station to
enable children to observe and measure changes over time.
2 Continuous experience trails
• The continuous experience trail is one that emphasises a particular
topic along the whole trail walk. It need not have a series of observation
stations, but rather the possibilities for incidental experiences related to
one particular idea or theme.
If you devise a trail, these four elements should be incorporated on a trail card:
• method—the way of doing the projected activities

• identity of things to be observed
• map of trail
• data table to record observations.
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These elements apply particularly to joined location trails.
Some examples of trails:
• a ‘look under things’ trail

• a ‘feeling’ trail a pollution trail
• a ‘moving things’ trail.
The success of an environmental trail depends upon the teacher’s awareness of

possibilities that the local area offers.
AC T I V I T Y: P L A N T
TRAIL
Key idea: Plants have many structures that help them survive.
You will need:
• manila folders
• small plastic bags
• a stapler
• specimens of plants.
Construct a means of collecting specimens of plants in an orderly array. This might
consist of, for instance, a manila folder with small plastic bags stapled into it. Each
manila folder could be dedicated to a particular plant, for instance.
Walk around the local environment with the aim of setting a trail for students.
Identify plants with interesting features and select one feature to place in the folder.
The features might include new and old leaf, bark, fruit, seed or flowers in different
stages.
Swap your folders with another group.
As a group, use the folder supplied to locate each plant, and collect (if appropriate ...
keep in mind the need to preserve the environment) parts that build a profile of the
plant (e.g. bark, old leaf, bud, flower, fruit, seed).
Discuss the adaptive characteristics of the plants you found on the trail.
AC T I V I T Y:
WORKING WITH
P L A N T PA R T S
Key idea: Plants have a variety of structures, each with a purpose.
You will need:
• a variety of native plant parts, or a strategy for collecting them

• pencils for drawing.
Collect, or work with, a variety of parts from native plants from the local environment,
including leaves, gumnuts or banksia fruit, tea–tree seed, a variety of seed pods,
cones, flowers, bark and buds.
8
Identify the function of each plant. What is its role in the plant’s survival? Draw
carefully the details of selected plant parts. Generate a set of questions that arise
from the activity.
AC T I V I T Y:
L E AV E S
Key ideas: Observation of adaptive structures of trees. Investigative design.
Work out a strategy to find answers to the following questions:
• Are the leaves that fall from an evergreen tree all at the same stage of
development?
• Do younger or older leaves release more water to the air during the day?
• Do leaves continue to release water to the air after sunset?
AC T I V I T Y: B A R K
RUBBINGS
Key idea: Observation of adaptive structures of trees.
You will need:
• ‘Dura’ crayons
• paper
• trees.
Make a bark rubbing of selected trees.
AC T I V I T Y: P L A N T
TA B L E
Key idea: Supporting close observation of adaptive structures of a tree.
You will need:
• a plant table (see the figure Plant table below)

• pencils
• trees.
Build up a profile, by sketching, of a number of trees in the local environment.
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Table 14.1 Plant table
Drawing of leaf Sketch shape of tree Describe bark Comment on

bud/flowers/ fruit
Close clusters of pink

flowers (4 cm across) with
five petals. Unscented.
AC T I V I T Y:
CHANGE IN
PLANTS
Key idea: Methods of representing growth and change in plants.
You will need:
• a tree displaying new leaf growth

• a plant showing different stages of development of flowers and fruit
• pencils and paper
• something to mark leaves on a tree (e.g. an overhead marker pen, or texta).
10
Locate a tree that displays new leaf growth. Arrange a display showing new, old, dead
and dried leaves from the one tree. Where does the new growth occur?
Find a plant that shows different stages of development of the flowers or fruit on its
branches. Sketch the stages.
Mark fifty leaves on an accessible tree. Follow the history of these leaves over a
period of two months.
AC T I V I T Y: LO N G –
T E R M S T U DY O F A
TREE
(This study was developed by David Symington of Deakin University.)
Objectives:
• That students become aware of the changes which occur in the tree as the
seasons change
• That students realise that to discover patterns in the natural world often
requires persistence.
Some important decisions:
1 Evergreen or deciduous
Deciduous
Over the year there are obvious and dramatic changes in deciduous trees such as oaks, elms, apples and plums.
Evergreen
1. Bud–flower–fruit
Evergreen trees undergo changes too, but they are not always so obvious. Students can discover changes related
to reproductive function
The shape and size of flower buds change considerably as the bud develops and produces the flower, which in
turn yields the fruit.
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Evergreen
2. Leaf observations
In some trees (for example, the lemon) students can detect changes in the number of leaves, the average size of
the leaves, the colour of leaves, and the feel of the leaves over the seasons.
2 Quantitative or qualitative
Sometimes students are involved in measuring. At other times students describe the nature of the
This graph shows changes to the number of flowers on changes they observe:
a lemon tree ‘The colour of the leaves changed through the year
from a dark shade of green in summer to a gradually
lighter shade of green in winter and spring.’
‘During summer, autumn and winter the leaves were
quite rough, while in the spring observation they felt
smoother. No growth or markings on the leaves were
observed in summer, but these were most obvious in
autumn. From autumn to spring these markings were
fewer.’
12
3 Methods of recording
Sketches
Of trees at different times of the year.
Samples
Of trees at different times of the year.
Tables
Showing times of the year when changes occur.
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4 Graphs
Of length of
Length of branches over a year branches over
a year, and size of leaves over a year.
5 Worksheets
What colour are the leaves?

Summer Autumn Winter Spring
14
6 Photographs of cycle
Other plant investigations
AC T I V I T Y:
GROWING
SEEDLINGS
Teaching note: You can investigate factors such as light, amount of water, open
air or closed room, fertiliser. If you put seeds in a dark cupboard, they will grow
quickly because energy is stored in the seed, but they will be pale, and not green
like plants exposed to the sun. If you use a glass jar, with cotton wool or soil, and
put the seed between the side of the jar and the cotton wool, the growth of
shoots (initially down but they curve up) can be investigated in the initial stages.
Key idea: Seedling growth depends on light and water.

You will need:
• seeds (e.g. lentils)

• soil
• containers
• cotton wool
• water.
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TO P I C 1 4
Grow seedlings by placing a seed in wet cotton wool or soil in a container.
Investigate the best methods and plants to use in growth experiments from seeds.
• What could be observed and measured in charting the growth?

• What would be a relevant recording method?
• What factors that might affect growth could be investigated?
• What design considerations should be kept in mind?
AC T I V I T Y:
TA L K I N G T O T H E
GREENGROCER
Teaching note: Follow up the excursion to the market by putting together a
book. Each child should decorate a page of the book, including writing a brief
sentence or two about what they saw and liked best, relating this back to the
parts of the plant.
It would be an advantage to take along a camera and take photographs of the

produce and the children’s responses to what they see. These photographs can
then also be included in the class book.
Key idea: The plant parts we eat have a variety of functions.

You will need:
• access to a local market

• paper
• materials and pens for decorating
• something to bind the book with
• a camera.
Visit a market and look at the different vegetables and fruits on display. Identify
which are seeds, flowers, fruits, roots or stems, etcetera.
Explanatory note: Examples of plant parts are:
• Root: carrot, beetroot, turnip

• Stem: celery
• Leaf: lettuce, parsley, bok choy, spinach
• Fruit: banana, apple, tomato, snow peas, beans, pineapple
• Flower: cauliflower, broccoli
• Seeds: peas, sunflower seeds.
Mushrooms are not classified as plants as they do not photosynthesise.
16
AC T I V I T Y:
DANDELION
STUDIES
Key idea: Structures in plants have an adaptive function.
Explore the following questions about the figure Dandelion.
Seeds
• What is the average number of seeds per seed head?

• If all seeds produced plants and their seeds all produced plants, what would the
population of dandelions be during the fourth generation?
• How long would it take a dandelion seed to germinate?
• Do they all germinate at the same time?
• Why is the seed so shaped?
• Can you find other plants with similar seeds?
Leaves
• A plum flower produces only one seed. Why does this yellow flower produce so
many?
• How does the leaf shape and leaf pattern assist this plant to survive in lawn
areas?
• This dandelion has five leaves. Is this the usual number?
• In how many different habitats will this plant grow?
Roots
• In what kind of soil do you find the longest dandelion root?

• Is the latex (milk) that appears when you break open a root useful as a glue?
• What is the use of this latex to the plant?
• If the root is removed will the remainder of the plant produce another root?
• How much of the root is required to produce a new plant?
• What are the functions of the root?
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Figure 14.2 Dandelion
(JD Leach 1963, Australian nature studies, 3rd edn, Macmillan, Melbourne, pp. 165–7)
18
TOPIC 15
Animals
Contents
Introduction 1
Key concepts of animals 1
Students’ alternative conceptions of animals 2
Activities 3
Working with ‘mini beasts’ 3
Divergent questioning strategies 3
Urban birds 12
Introduction
Key concepts of animals

The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following
key concepts:
• The scientific definition of ‘animals’ is that they are organisms

that ingest food for survival. They are ‘consumers’ in contrast
to plants which are ‘producers’, building and storing material
through the photosynthetic process.
Structure, function, adaptation

• Animals have various ‘structures’ that enable them to
survive: skeletal structures for support; limbs and jaws for
ingesting and collecting food; structures for movement and
defence; structures for flight or predation; structures for
digestion and respiration; and structures for reproduction.
Each organism has particular forms of these structures that
are essentially solutions to the survival ‘problem’.
• Organisms’ structures and behaviours should be viewed in
terms of their survival purposes. Students should be
supported to take this view.
• Each animal is adapted to a particular ecological niche,
which involves interdependence with other living organisms
as well as dependence on non–biotic factors.
Animal behaviour
• Animal behaviour must also be understood in terms of its
adaptive function. Animals behave in ways that maximise
their survival chances.
• Each species has unique behaviours that can be studied
using a range of techniques.
Teaching note: For schools, it is most fruitful to study the

behaviour of simpler life forms since their behaviour is not so
complex and students are less likely to anthropomorphise.
Animal life cycles

• Some animals change from one form to another during their
life cycle.
• Each type of animal has its own life cycle.
• Even during stages at which the animal appears inactive, the
animal is alive.
TO P I C 1 5
• The changes in the life cycle of an animal have specific

environmental requirements.
• Some animals, once they hatch, have the same form for the
remainder of the life cycle.
Teaching note: Life cycles should really be called ‘reproductive

cycles’. In animals and plants, life cycles have unique details that
are adaptive to the particular environment, including the
number of offspring (or seeds) and the timing, frequency and
mechanisms of reproduction.
In animals, the reproductive cycle can coincide with the life cycle
of an organism if the adult dies after fertilisation (as with
butterflies, and also some mammals, such as the male
antechinus). However, most animals will go through many
reproductive cycles in a lifetime.
Students’ alternative conceptions of animals

Research into students’ ideas about this topic has identified the
following non–scientific conceptions:
• Students (and adults) will often associate the category

‘animal’ with mammals only, and not include insects, fish,
etcetera.
• Students will tend to think of organisms only interacting
with the physical environment and plants, without
appreciating the complex interdependence of species.
• Younger students will have a view that animal structures are
chosen by animals for adaptive purposes, and could be
changed if the environment was altered. Thus, a snow
leopard actively decides to be white as a camouflage
strategy.
• Students will often view ‘adaptation’ as a short–term
individual response, like suntanning over summer, rather
than in terms of species survival.
• Younger students tend to think of animals as individual
rather than focusing on populations or interactions.
• Younger students interpret animal behaviour in
psychological terms (the spider is scared, the rabbit likes to
live in burrows, the bird protecting its nest is angry), rather
than seeing it as adaptive.
• Students will not appreciate that life–cycle diagrams are
simplistic models that take no account of numbers of
offspring and mortality, ongoing life of an adult animal,
adaptive aspects of seasonal timing, etcetera.
Activities
Working with ‘mini beasts’

‘Mini beast’ is not a scientific classification but is a term common
in primary schools in particular to describe small animals: insects,
spiders, garden snails and slugs, crickets, slaters, centipedes and
millipedes, and small pond creatures.
Studying mini beasts can be productive because of their variety

in structures, their simple behaviour patterns compared with
mammals, and the possibility of keeping them without too much
trouble in the classroom.
A nature ramble or scavenger hunt can often generate a variety

of classroom activities.
A variety of ideas can be found in Gould League publications

involving trails and trailing.
Divergent questioning strategies

The teacher’s skill in asking open–ended or divergent questions
is fundamental to the development of curiosity and willingness
to generate and evaluate ideas.
Open–ended questions can be used to:
• encourage several answers or possibilities

• stimulate exploration of concepts and ideas
• facilitate creative and critical thinking processes
• promote open mindedness
• consciously value individual differences
• provide challenge for all students.
In direct contrast, closed questions usually have a single or

predetermined answer, and often centre on factual, literal levels
requiring little thought from the child. The closed question is a
tool by which teachers control or dominate the outcome.
With a little thought we can change closed questions to open–

ended questions so that students cannot simply respond with a
single word, or ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
Examples of open–ended questions

The following question types, illustrated by insect questions,
have been found very useful as guidelines to help teachers ask
different kinds of divergent questions and help students think
creatively and critically in different ways.
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Questions about insects

Quantity questions
• List all the different insects you can think of.

• How many different ways do insects survive in the ‘big wide
world’?
Change questions
• How would things change if all bees laid eggs, instead of

only the queen?
Prediction questions
• Just suppose the killer bee from South America invaded

Australia. What are all the things that might happen?
• Just suppose all insects were wiped out because of the
excessive use of insecticide. What would all the
consequences be?
Point–of–view questions
• Flies are considered pests by humans. Provide a point of

view that justifies ‘your’ existence as a fly.
• Tell the story of your life from the point of view of an insect.
Personal–involvement questions
• You are a beetle that has been caught by a human and put
in a matchbox. What will you do?
• You are a caterpillar about to turn into a butterfly. Tell how
you feel and all the things you want to do.
Comparative–association questions
• Compare the stages in a butterfly’s life to those in a human

life.
• Compare the ant community with the human community. In
what ways are they alike? In what ways are they different?
Valuing questions
• Which insect do you believe has the greater right to life on

Earth—a bee or a butterfly? Look at what each contributes
and give reasons for your decision.
AC T I V I T Y:
CO L L E C T I N G A N D
S T U DY I N G M I N I
BEASTS
Key ideas: Particular animals are found in specific places in a
habitat. Animals have features that help their survival.
You will need:
• a stereo microscope
• a digital camera.
Go on a nature ramble and locate two or three interesting ‘mini
beasts’ found under something. Take careful note of where each
animal was found.
Carefully examine your animals using:
• your eyes alone

• a stereo microscope
Draw diagrams and make notes about how the animal looks, how it
moves, etcetera. Share your findings with other students.
What similarities and differences can you discover between the mini
beasts you have found (e.g. insects, spiders, millipedes, slaters,
harvestmen, etc.)?
How would each of the features you have identified for your mini
beast contribute to its survival?
Construct a dichotomous key that could be used to identify the

different mini beasts found by a class.
AC T I V I T Y:
E CO LO G Y
Teaching note: Keith Skamp’s Teaching primary science
constructively (2004, Nelson Thomson Learning, Southbank, Vic.)
includes a chapter on the ecology of ponds.
You will need:
• pens and pencils
• information source (e.g. books, the Internet).
Work in larger groups to construct a representation of a micro–
habitat (e.g. a tree, leaf litter, a pond, etc.) and the animals that live
there. Include predator–prey relationships involving the animals and
the habitat. You could gather information from books, or the
Internet, and draw up your representation on butcher’s paper.
TO P I C 1 5
Construct a key that will be useful to identify what is in your chosen

habitat. What sort of drawings and descriptions are best?
Present your habitat to the rest of the class.
AC T I V I T Y:
CHECKING OUT
SNAILS
Key ideas: Studying animals requires close observation. Snails
have specific and reproducible behaviours that are adaptive.
You will need:
• snails
• a glass plate.
Get students to collect a snail from home to bring to class (have
some around in case they forget!).
Look carefully at the shell. How many colours can you see? How
many whorls does your snail’s shell have? Is the shell smooth?
Let the snail move along your hand. How does the snail’s skin feel? Is
it cold/dry/moist? Can you find the mouth? The eyes? How many
holes are under the shell?
Look carefully at the tentacles. How does the snail use them? Do they
work together? How are they similar? How are they different?
Put a snail on a plate of glass. Lift the glass up and watch how the
snail moves from underneath. How do you think the snail moves?
Look at the glass. Can you see where the snail has been? How long is
the foot of the snail? Does it change as the snail moves?
AC T I V I T Y:
D R AW I N G S N A I L S
Key idea: Students’ observation of details in animal structure.
Choose a snail to focus on. Draw it carefully, including the patterns
on the shell. Put the snails in a box overnight. In the morning, find
your snail using the drawing as identification.
AC T I V I T Y: S N A I L
S U R FAC E
PREFERENCE
Key idea: Animals have habitat preferences that are adaptive. We
study animal behaviour by setting up clear choices for the
animal.
You will need:
• a cardboard box with lid

• different materials (e.g. hessian and sandpaper)
• scissors
• glue.
Which surfaces do snails prefer? How can we find out?
Line a cardboard box with two types of surface (e.g. hessian and
sandpaper). Put the snails in and leave for some time.
Open the lid—which surface did snails prefer? How can you tell? How
can you get a measure of this preference?
If the surfaces differ in both texture and colour, how do you know
whether the snail preference was for the colour, or texture? How
could you find out?
AC T I V I T Y: S N A I L
HUNT
Key idea: A particular animal will be found in habitats with
similar characteristics.
List the places at school where you think snails live. Now go and
check ... But don’t bring any back with you.
Display your results in a number of ways, for instance:
• on a map
• as a list of places
• in a table, giving numbers in each type of place, for instance ‘in
amongst plants’ and ‘underneath wood or rocks or pots’, ‘in dark
places’ and ‘out in the open’, ‘in dry places’ and ‘in moist places’
• on a grid for each set of snails, with a tick or a cross against
whether the place was dark, moist, had food, etcetera
• write a statement saying what you learnt about snails by finding
where they live.
AC T I V I T Y:
WEBS
Key idea: Identifying spider behaviour and the nature of webs.
You will need:
Investigate how strong spider webs are.
Take a camera, a notepad and pencil and go looking for spider webs
around the school grounds. This is best done early in the morning as
spiders tend to destroy their webs.
TO P I C 1 5
Photograph the various different webs that are in the school grounds
and write down where they were so that you can check to see if they
are in the same place over a period of days.
If a web is unattended you can collect some web material by winding

it around a stick to take back to the class. Your group can feel how
strong the web material really is.
AC T I V I T Y: M A K E
YO U R O W N W E B
Key idea: Observing closely design in nature.
You will need:
• coloured cotton thread

• assorted colours of paper
• paste or spray–on glue
• grey lead pencils
• a selection of other materials if the students want to make a
spider for their web.
Make your own web using a design from photographs or from real
life (you can take photos of webs early in the morning). Work in
groups, with each group specialising in a different type of spider.
Decide on the design of the web and sketch it in pencil onto the
coloured paper. Coat the coloured thread with paste and lay it on the
drawn lines. Continue until the web is completed and let it dry. Now
you can add your spider.
AC T I V I T Y: M A K E A
P H O OT E R
Key idea: Small creatures are difficult to pick up and need careful
handling. Using a phooter can help.
You will need:
• straws (large are best)

• pantyhose or fine gauze
• screw–lid containers.
Cut a strip of pantyhose 3 cm x 14 cm and fold in half lengthwise,
then again (four thicknesses). Place folded pantyhose over one end
of straw. Push the covered end of the straw into another straw. Check
that the stocking is not stretched too much, making mesh holes
wider. You can test it on a grain of rice. If it works, tape the straws
together.
Now you can test your phooter by placing one end of the straw over
an animal and sucking it up. Put your captured animal into the
screw–lid container.
Figure 15.1 Phooter
AC T I V I T Y: S L AT E R
PREFERENCES
Key ideas: Animals have preferences for habitat that relate to
their survival. Animal behaviour can be studied by arranging a
‘forced choice’.
You will need:
• at least six slaters

• cardboard boxes and cardboard
• scissors
• sticky tape.
Where do slaters like to be? One way of answering this question is to
set up a habitat and observe where slaters spend most of their time.
Another way is to identify what factors might be important, and set
up a forced choice for the slaters. Do they prefer dark or light? Do
they prefer dry or damp?
Construct different environments inside cardboard boxes. For

example, one side is damp and dark while the other side is dry and
light. Other boxes may try other combinations. For example, one side
is light and damp and the other side is dark and dry. Ensure that the
different combinations (dark, light, dry, damp) are represented. Put
the slaters in, and allow time for them to settle.
Count how many slaters made each choice.
TO P I C 1 5
AC T I V I T Y: L I F E
C YC L E G A M E
Key idea: All animals go through a life cycle.
You will need:
• an A3 sheet of paper
• four A3 sheets of thick cardboard
• four dice
• four counters.
Make a board game by drawing up forty–two squares on an A3 sheet
of paper (fourteen squares across and nine squares down). On
random squares, write in something that could happen to the young
animal as it goes through its life cycle (e.g. ‘Weather is warm. Egg
grows quickly. Move forward two spaces.’, ‘Egg hatches. Rest for one
turn.’, ‘Young cannot find more food, so it dies. Go back 4 spaces.’).
On the inside of the board game, leave four blank squares for the
students to draw the major aspects of the animal/plant life cycle.
Divide the class into groups of about four. Make a copy of the game
for each group and get the group to trace or paste the game onto
thick cardboard.
Students can then draw pictures from the life cycle of any
plant/animal into the squares in the middle. Each group could do a
different insect, for instance.
Give the students a counter each or get them to make one. Each
group will need a die.
Now play the game ... perhaps think of a prize for the winner of each
group.
AC T I V I T Y: L I F E
C YC L E
O B S E R VAT I O N S
O F M E A LW O R M S
Key idea: Mealworms have a four–stage life cycle, with the adult
in beetle form.
You will need:
• mealworms
• a bottle to keep mealworms in
• bran
• apple peelings
• observation sheet
• a tray
• pencils and paper for drawing.
Set up a colony in a bottle of bran, with apple peelings on top to

keep moist. Put in a small number of insects, all at the one stage.
Prepare an observation sheet as shown in the figure below.
Table 15.1 Observation sheet
Date No. of larvae No. of pupae No. of adults Special observations
Tip the contents of the bottle onto a tray for census taking, every two
days for three weeks. Compare your results with other groups.
Produce large–scale drawings of each of the stages. Write descriptive

observations of the mealworms and their behaviour. Write about
mealworm movement.
Explanatory note: Different numbers of stages in life cycles:
• One–stage growth: baby similar in form to adult (humans,

kittens, etc.)
• Two–stage growth: egg to adult (grasshoppers, spiders, etc.)
• Three–stage growth: egg to nymph to adult (some insects:
e.g. dragonfly)
• Four–stage growth: egg to larva to pupa to adult (most
insects: e.g. butterfly).
TO P I C 1 5
Figure 15.2 Frog life cycle models
AC T I V I T Y:
B E H AV I O U R O F
M E A LW O R M S
Key idea: Mealworms have certain behaviours depending on
their environment.
You will need:
• mealworms
• a container with edges
• a container with sides
• a variety of coloured paper.
Can you make a mealworm back up? What colours does a mealworm
prefer? Do mealworms always find an edge? What happens when
you slowly take a ‘wall’ away? Does the worm follow?
Urban birds
Students enjoy watching wildlife, and particularly birds. Given
that they are plentiful around any schoolyard, birds are a
wonderful way to explore the natural world.
Key concepts of birds

The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following
key concepts:
• Birds have different ways of moving.

• Birds communicate with one another in a variety of ways.
• The shape of a bird’s beak is related to how it eats.

• Each sort of bird has a distinct flight pattern.
• Birds eat a variety of foods including seeds, nectar from
flowers, and small animals.
• The shape of a bird’s feet is related to the way the bird lives.
• Most birds are active only in the daytime.
• Some birds are more active at night than in the daytime.
• The times at which the majority of birds are most active are
the hours after sunrise and the hours before sunset.
• Where you see birds depends on the location of suitable
food, nesting sites and safety.
• Many birds have characteristic songs.
• Many birds communicate by sound.
• Birds communicate with one another by body movements.
• Birds behave according to patterns.
AC T I V I T Y: B I R D
F E AT U R E S
Key idea: The basis of bird classification.
You will need:
• a bird identification book.

Work with a bird identification book or similar. Discuss what features
are common to all birds. What is the essential distinguishing feature
of birds?
S I M I L A R ? W H AT ’ S
DIFFERENT?
Key ideas: Diversity in animal structures, and behaviour.
Observation can be aided by a recording strategy.
You will need:
• time to observe birds in your local environment

• a ‘bird profile’ chart.
Spend time observing birds in your local environment. Observe
similarities and differences between bird features and bird
behaviours. Compare notes with others in your group.
Design a ‘bird profile’ chart that will enable you to record differences
in features, and differences in behaviour.
TO P I C 1 5
Table 15.2 Bird profile chart
Movement Parts Sounds Food gathering Habitat

Gliding tail Whistle scratching nest
Diving beak Screech pecking tree
soaring bill Croak seeds fork
flapping claw Twitter grass branch
hovering toe Pitch insects hollow
hopping wing chirp fruit egg
walking feather harsh roots
swimming metallic nectar
paddling loud
wading musical
swift soft
deliberate raucous
AC T I V I T Y:
LISTENING POST
Establish a ‘listening post’ and develop a classification system for
bird calls. The figure Listening post worksheet provides a possible
layout.
Principle
Birds, like humans, are vocal, social and territorial creatures and
soon reveal their presence in an area by call note or song. Birds
will only allow non–competitors in a feeding or shelter area, and
therefore, tend to move in particular zones. This activity will give
you an estimate of the numbers and diversity of bird species
using a habitat and a measure of their activity.
Method
Select a suitable spot and seat yourself, making use of whatever
cover is available. Keep as close to ground level as possible. Avoid
sudden movements. Note and record, using the table below, all
calls audible for a period of five minutes. For one minute after
you finish recording, try attracting some birds to you by making
buzzing and sucking noises with your teeth and lips. Imitating a
call will also bring birds to you.
If you are unable to identify the calls, list them under the
headings below and check these in your Gould League Field
Guide.
Make a tape recording of your five–minute stay and analyse the

findings at a later date. This is an excellent test of your
perception.
Figure 15.3 Listening post worksheet
Table 15.3
Call Type 1 2 3 4 5 Call Type 1 2 3 4 5
piping/whistle screech
sweet song cough/bark
chatter/click hoot/clang
seedy/buzz laugh
trill/warble grunt/moan
up–call monotonous
down–call carolling
squeak/chirp bell–like
loud high pitch
soft low pitch
raucous mournful
AC T I V I T Y:
TERRITORIAL
B E H AV I O U R
Key idea: Animal behaviour serves a survival purpose.
You will need:
• time to observe birds in your local environment.

Observe birds around the school grounds and in the local
environment. What sort of territorial behaviour do different species
TO P I C 1 5
of birds display? Are the same birds seen in a particular tree, or wider
area, regularly? Under what circumstances does aggression occur
between birds?
AC T I V I T Y:
E X P LO R I N G
F E AT H E R S
Key idea: Diversity in animal structures.
You will need:
• a variety of feathers
• pens and paper to draw a classification scheme.
Collect, as a class, a variety of feathers. Develop a classification
scheme for feathers.
AC T I V I T Y:
F E AT H E R S A N D
OIL
Key idea: Environmental degradation can disrupt animal life.
You will need
• oil (motor or cooking)

• a plastic dish
• water
• bird’s feathers.
Half fill the dish with water. Add drops of oil until a greasy film can be
seen on the surface. What can you see is happening to the oil?
Immerse the feather in the oily water and stir it around. Remove the
feather and observe it carefully. What effect do you think oil may
have on birds?
Add detergent to the oily water. Re–immerse the feather and stir it
around. What can you notice? (Note: the detergent itself can be
harmful to life.)
AC T I V I T Y: CO U N T
B I R D S A LO N G A
PAT H
Principle
The number and kinds of birds in an area is an excellent indicator
of habitat quality. The diversity or lack of diversity within an
urban school ground can be established by counting the
number and kinds of birds along a trail. By repeating the count at
several different times, daily or seasonal patterns may be
revealed or there may be indication of permanent changes over
a period of time.
Method
Walk around the boundary of the school ground and look for
birds. Use the table below to record the kinds and numbers of
birds that you see. Repeat your bird observations and counts at
different times of the day, at daily, weekly or monthly intervals, or
along a similar path at different locations.
Gould League Urban Bird Stickers or books may help you to

identify the birds. Binoculars will help identification of birds that
you cannot get close to.
Table 15.4
Count number
Birds 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Magpie
House Sparrow
Raven
Blackbird
Spotted Dove
Domestic Pigeon
Starling
Indian Myna
Welcome Sparrow
Goldfinch
Silver Gull
Nankeen Kestrel
Primary Science Education
Cat. No. ESS340QX1

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ESS340

FACULTY OF ARTS AND EDUCATION

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© Deakin University 2005

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Topic 1 Working scientifically

Topic 2 Air and flight

Topic 3 Floating and sinking

Topic 4 Light, vision and colour

Topic 5 Sound and music

Topic 8 Force and motion

Topic 9 Earth in space

Topic 10 Rocks and soil

Topic 11 Physical changes to matter

Topic 12 Chemical change

Topic 13 Bodies and skeletons

Topic 14 Plants as living things

Ideas for teaching science: Years P–8

graphical, multimedia and other representational forms. Support for asking

Development of students’ testing capabilities 3

Detailed discussion of working scientifically in primary schools can be found in

Key concepts of working scientifically

• ‘Working scientifically’ involves particular forms of reasoning with evidence

Students’ alternative conceptions of working scientifically

• Students will not immediately see the task of an investigation as exploring

It should be noted, however, that these investigations, because they mostly

Skills and understandings of consumer science

• how to formulate useful, investigable questions

Things to consider when completing activities

• what criteria are relevant for the evaluation

Development of students’ testing capabilities

Examples of appropriate tests include comparing the sweetness of cereals, the

Years 5 and above

Exploring consumer science

• a variety of brands of potato chips

(a) Test for salt content

Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips.

(c) Taste test

(d) Testing the packaging

• a variety of cereal packages.

(a) The bounciest ball

(b) Do surfaces make a difference?

(c) A case of different criteria for different purposes

• a grey lead pencil

• the type of paper

• a variety of brands and types of tape

Which sticks best to different types of surfaces (rough, wet, cloth)?

Are there other relevant criteria?

• a variety of paper towels

(a) Which absorbs the most water?

(b) Which is the strongest?

• a variety of paper glues

Make up solutions of the different detergents and water, of comparable strength.

(a) Compare the foaming actions.

• a variety of mugs or cups

Design a series of experiments to investigate their effectiveness in keeping tea or

• a variety of types of fabric