Received: 15 December 2021 Revised: 12 January 2022 Accepted: 12 January 2022

DOI: 10.1111/ijac.14028

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review on the porous geopolymer preparation for

structural and functional materials applications

Haoyang Yu1 Meng-xue Xu2 Chaoni Chen1 Yan He1 Xue-min Cui1

1 Guangxi Key Lab of Petrochemical

Resource Process and Process Abstract

Intensification Technology, School of
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
Guangxi University, Nanning, P. R. China
2 Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning,
P. R. China
Correspondence
Xue-min Cui, Guangxi Key Lab of Petro-
chemical Resource Process and Process
Intensification Technology, School of
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
Nanning, 530004, P. R. China.
Email: cui-xm@tsinghua.edu.cn
Funding information
Chinese Natural Science Fund,
Grant/Award Number: 51772055; Guangxi
Natural Science Fund, Grant/Award Num-
ber: 2016GXNSFGA380003
Geopolymer (also called inorganic polymers) is a kind of amorphous gel mate-
rial with a 3D structure consisting of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra. It has drawn
international attention due to its environmental friendliness and excellent per-
formance. This review covers raw materials, preparation methods, and appli-
cations of porous geopolymer materials with micropore, mesopore, or macrop-
ore. The preparation methods can be divided into five categories: (i) self-forming
method, (ii) direct foaming method, (iii) adding filler method, (iv) particles stack-
ing method, and (v) other methods. In this paper, different raw materials and
applications were combined with the preparation methods, and some general
conclusions of porous geopolymer were summarized. The applications of porous
geopolymer materials in building materials, adsorbents, porous ceramics, mem-
brane separation, catalyst, pH regulator, and other fields were introduced as well.
KEYWORDS
geopolymer, porous, preparation, structural and functional materials

1 INTRODUCTION materials of the geopolymer, but its rationality is justi-

The term geopolymer was introduced by Davidovits in 1978
to describe a cementitious material made from a mixture
of dolomite, limestone, metakaolin, and alkaline solution,
initially describing the formation process of such materi-
als similar to the geological diagenesis.1–3 In accordance
with the theories of Davidovits,2,4 the formation5 process
of geopolymer can be divided into four stages: (i) alumi-
nosilicate mineral powder dissolves in alkaline solution;
(ii) the silicon tetrahedral and the aluminum tetrahedron
diffuse from the surface of the solid particles to fluid; (iii)
the silicon tetrahedra and aluminum tetrahedral polymer-
ize to gel; (iv) the remaining reactants dissolve in the gel
phase and the gel phase solidifies into geopolymer after
rearrangement of particles and dehydration. The polymer-
ization mechanism has some limitations, for instance, it
fails to explain the real structure of geopolymer, nor can
it demonstrate the existential structure of the unreacted
fied by the comprehensive analysis of leaching experi-
ments, nuclear magnetic resonance and scanning electron
microscope.6,7
The raw materials used for preparing geopolymer
could be natural, synthetic aluminosilicate minerals
like metakaolin, clay, bentonite clay, volcanic ash, tuff,
diatomaceous earth, illite, and montmorillonite, or indus-
trial byproducts such as fly ash, slag, biomass fly ash,
red mud, waste-glass, bottom ash, and catalyst residue.8–10
During the reaction, the mechanical property, thermal sta-
bility, acid, alkali resistance, and so forth of the geopolymer
material improved owing to the unceasing occurrence of
depolymerization-condensation reaction, many outstand-
ing performances also gradually manifest. Because of its
excellent mechanical, structural, chemical, and thermal
properties, geopolymer has received extensive attention
during the last decades, widely used in ceramics, cement,
concretes, fireproof materials and high thermal shock

Int J Appl Ceram Technol. 2022;19:1793–1813. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ijac © 2022 The American Ceramic Society. 1793

1794
refractories, building materials, adhesives, radiation, and
toxic waste solidification.10–13
Porous geopolymer is a type of geopolymer, and it has
specific preparation methods and application fields own-
ing to its internal pore structure. Porous materials are pro-
posed relative to dense materials, a material with a net-
work structure composed of interpenetrating or closed
pores and skeletons. It is characterized by low density, low
thermal conductivity, large specific surface area, high spe-
cific strength, large porosity, and light weight. Its poros-
ity is based on the original material to play the unique-
ness of the porous structure.14 In this paper, the prepara-
tion methods of porous geopolymer can be divided into
five types: (i) self-forming method (SFM), (ii) direct foam-
ing method (DFM), (iii) adding filler method (AFM), (iv)
particle stacking method (PSM), and (v) other methods
(OM). The characteristics and applications of different
preparation methods were analyzed. In turn, the prepara-
tion methods in different applications were analyzed and
so were the effects of different preparation methods on
the properties of materials. Currently, porous geopolymer
is used in constructions15–17 as an alternative to cement
because it can reduce the CO2 emission in cement man-
ufacturing by 80%.18,19 Porous geopolymers are produced
at temperatures lower than 100◦ C but has the same prop-
erties as porous glass and porous ceramics which are pro-
duced at temperatures higher than 900◦ C.20 It can also
be applied to adsorbents,21–23 porous ceramics,24,25 mem-
brane filtration,26,27 catalysts,28,29 pH regulators,30,31 and
other fields.
There have been many reviews of geopolymers in recent
years,32–36 and some of them focus on the porous geopoly-
mer. However, the existing reviews of porous geopolymer
are mostly based on the foam concrete37,38 or the adsorp-
tion and immobilization of heavy metals.39–43 Bai et al.44
summarized porous geopolymer (porosity ≥ 50 vol%) thor-
oughly, but mainly analyzed foam geopolymer. So far, the
preparations of porous geopolymer and their porous appli-
cations have not been reviewed.
2 RAW MATERIALS OF POROUS
GEOPOLYMER
2.1 Metakaolin
Metakaolin is a pozzolanic material which had been used
since 1962 when it was incorporated into concrete for Jupia
Dam in Brazil.45 It is generated by the calcination of kaoli-
nite clay at temperatures ranging from 500–800◦ C depend-
ing on the purity and crystallinity of the precursor clay.46,47
When metakaolin is the only source of aluminosilicate
reactive materials, there are many ways to prepare its
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
porous structure, such as SFM,48–51 DFM (H2 O2 ),26,52–54
DFM (Others),55,56 AFM,57–59 and so forth. Its appli-
cations involve adsorption mental ions,23,60 building
lightweight,56,61 building insulation,62,63 adsorption
ammonium,64,65 and so on. Metakaolin can also be com-
bined with fly ash,66,67 biomass ash,30,68 waste glass,69
slag,70,71 and zeolite72 to prepare porous geopolymer
materials.
2.2 Fly ash
Fly ashes are fine residues from the combustion of coal
during the operation of thermal power plants.73,74 Note
that 50% of fly ash produced was globally utilized, with the
rest dumped into the sea or landfills.28 The particle sizes in
fly ash vary from < 1 µm up to more than 100 µm and the
surface area is typically 300–500 m2 /kg.75,76
When fly ash was the only source of aluminosili-
cate reactive materials, there were many methods to
prepare its porous structure, such as SFM,77–80 DFM
(Al),81–83 DFM (H2 O2 ),84,85 PSM,86,87 and so forth. Its
applications involve building lightweight,20,88 adsorp-
tion mental ions,89,90 building insulation,91 perme-
able concrete,92 and so on. Fly ash can also be used
with slag,93,94 metakaolin,95,96 red mud,97 biomass
ash,98 and zeolite 99 to prepare porous geopolymer
materials.
2.3 Slag
Slag is also called granulated blast furnace slag, which is
a glassy granular material formed when molten blast fur-
nace slag is rapidly cooled, usually by immersing in water
and then ground to improve its reactivity.100,101 It shows
primarily cementitious performance (latent hydraulic
activity) but may show some pozzolanic traits (reaction
with lime) as well.102 Slag is often used as the admix-
ture to replace part of cement to produce blast furnace
slag cement,103,104 and has a major market share in many
countries.105
Slag is rarely used as the only source of porous geopoly-
mer materials. Its porous structure is mainly formed by
SFM106,107 and DFM (H2 O2 ),108,109 which can be used for
adsorption mental ions110,111 and building lightweight.112,113
Slag is often used with other geopolymers, such as fly
ash,114–116 metakaolin,117 red mud,16,118 clay,119 and so on,
especially with fly ash. This is because the fly ash slag
geopolymer system will form aluminum modified cal-
cium silicate hydrate gels, coexist with aluminum silicate
hydrate gels,120,121 and improve mechanical properties and
microstructures.122,123

YU et al.
2.4 Biomass fly ash
Biomass ash is the residual ash after biomass combus-
tion, including rice husk ash,21,98 wood forest ash,68,124
coconut ash,125 palm oil fuel ash,126 and so on. Soltan-
Hassan et al.125 used only coconut ash by DFM (Al) to pre-
pare porous geopolymer insulation material. In other stud-
ies, the biomass ash was used with metakaolin,17,127,128 fly
ash,98,129 volcanic ash,130 and the other geopolymer to pre-
pare porous materials, which possibly caused by the fact
that they are difficult to prepare materials with good prop-
erties separately.
2.5 Others
Other aluminosilicates raw materials include natural,
synthetic aluminosilicate minerals such as chamotte
clay,131 clay,73 bentonite clay,132 tuff,133 diatomaceous
earth,134 illite and montmorillonite,55 and industrial
byproducts such as red mud,16,135,136 waste glass,137,138 vol-
canic ash,139,140 bottom ash,141,142 catalyst residue,143,144
and mining tailing waste sludge residue,137,145,146 The
sources and types of raw materials are continuously
widened by scientific studies.147 The selection of suitable
raw materials is very important for the properties.18 In gen-
eral, suitable materials are characterized by the content of
a sufficient amount of reactive silica and alumina.148 In
some cases, a combination of two minerals, as well as vari-
ous preprocessing such as energetic grinding or preheating
of the starting materials, would be beneficial to improve
the reactivity and achieve desired properties.149,150
3 PREPARATION OF POROUS
GEOPOLYMER
There are five methods to prepare porous geopolymer, as
schematically illustrated in Figure 1: (i) SFM, (ii) DFM, (iii)
AFM, (iv) PSM, and (v) OM. The pores sources are respec-
tively, between the particles themselves, the introduction
of gas, the addition of materials, free space after accumu-
lation, and so forth.
SFM, as shown in Figure 1A, is called SFM because
its porous structure is self-contained and no substance is
added. The porous geopolymer prepared by this method is
difficult to directly observe its porous structure due to its
small pore size. When observed by electron microscopy, it
can be seen that the material is composed of many regu-
lar or irregular particles. Deng et al.152 used field-emission
scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) to observe the
mesoporous structure in the geopolymer material, and
Tang et al.108 also compared the geopolymer before and
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1795
after foaming by FE-SEM and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller.
In the photo, the geopolymer is transformed into NaA
zeolite, and the cubic zeolite particles and the zeolite
itself are porous.151 Many geopolymer materials have their
own porous structure, and porous geopolymer prepared
by OM usually still own the porous structure.26 However,
due to the addition of other substances, more and larger
pores are produced and carried out relevant applications,
while ignoring the porous structure of the geopolymer
itself. The porous geopolymer prepared by this method
has low porosity and small pore size and is often used in
adsorption,110,153 and membrane filtration applications.154
DFM, as shown in Figure 1B, has a porous structure due
to the direct addition of foaming agents or surfactants or
both of them, producing or retaining foam inside it, so
it was called DFM. The pore diameter prepared by this
method is relatively large and can be directly observed.155
Because of surface tension, the surface has a small number
of circular pores. The internal bubbles may be different in
size and shape due to the squeezing of each other.85 For dif-
ferent foaming agents, DFM is divided into chemical foam-
ing and physical foaming methods. The chemical foaming
method is divided into DFM (H2 O2 ), DFM (Al), and DFM
(Others) because of the different substances added, which
respectively represent H2 O2 , Al, or other substances to pro-
duce gas. The physical foaming method is represented by
DFM (Physics), which means that foam or surfactant is
added instead of producing a gas substance and the foam
or gas mixed by physical stirring is retained in the mate-
rial. The porous geopolymer prepared by DFM has a lower
density, larger porosity, and smaller thermal conductivity,
and is often used in building insulation,70,156 and building
lightweight.113,157
AFM, as shown in Figure 1C, has a porous structure
because of added porous filler or materials, so it was called
add filler method. The porous structure in this method is
the pores structure of the filler itself, rather than the forma-
tion of geopolymer or between the filler and geopolymer.
The method can select different fillers with excellent prop-
erties and mix them with geopolymer to improve proper-
ties. It is widely used in different fields because of the dif-
ferent properties of mixed fillers.158,159
PSM, as shown in Figure 1D, its porous structure is
formed due to the stacking of particles; geopolymer can-
not occupy all space outside the aggregate. The porous
structure is formed in geopolymer or between aggre-
gate and geopolymer. The pore diameter is related to
the size of aggregate added, which is generally large and
can be observed directly.87,160 Aggregates can be large
or small, one kind or more, and the amount of aggre-
gate can affect the structure of the pore. The porous
geopolymer prepared by this method is generally with
good permeability and good mechanical properties and
 17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1796 YU et al.

FIGURE 1 Schematic diagram and photos of the preparation method of porous geopolymer26,63,87,151

is mostly used in porous pavement161 and permeable

concrete.118
In addition to the traditional preparation methods of
porous geopolymers mentioned above, the methods that
have emerged in recent years are classified as OM, includ-
ing 3D printing technology,24,162 adding water-soluble
pore-forming agent,163 the mixing of several methods,164
and so forth. Note that 3D printing technology can be
used to generate complex, non-random pore structures,
adding a water-soluble pore-forming agent can easily form
an open pore structure, which cannot be obtained by tra-
ditional techniques.
Preparation of porous geopolymer spheres has become
a new alternative to bulk porous geopolymer.14,165 Porous
spheres have the advantages of large specific surface area
and low flow resistance due to their unique structure.108 F I G U R E 2 Raw material and room temperature process to
Compared with the difficulty of separation of powder and reduce energy consumption125
the small specific surface area of bulk, microspheres have
more application advantages in adsorption. The prepara-
tion method of porous spheres is mainly based on the used primary power, and 75% of electric power genera-
suspension and solidification method, and the main for- tion come from the building industry,167,168 which brings
mation of the porous structure is SFM and DFM. Shan resources, energy, and environmental issues and becomes
et al.166 used amino acid as a pore-forming agent to prepare a serious obstacle to sustainable development. Contrary
enzyme-loaded porous geopolymer spheres, and its degra- to the manufacturing of traditional Portland cement, the
dation rate for Congo Red reached 94.78%. At the same production of geopolymer is not energy-intensive and con-
time, the geopolymer spheres exhibited good reusability in sumes minimal natural resources.169 Raw materials are
the degradation cycles. Novais et al.30 pored geopolymer usually selected from landfill waste materials170 and natu-
spheres by DFM and used it as pH buffer material. ral minerals, and the manufacturing process is conducted
at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, with great
4 POROUS GEOPOLYMER potential to reduce CO2 emissions and natural resources
APPLICATIONS consumption,171,172 as shown in Figure 2.
In construction fields, the main preparation methods are
4.1 Building field DFM, AFM, and PSM. Application in the field of build-
ing, air pores of porous geopolymer significantly reduce
Traditional Portland cement is widely used in the build- the thermal conductivity and sound velocity through the
ing field. Note that 50% of total CO2 emissions, 40% of walls and act as a thermal and sound insulator.173 Lighter

YU et al.
F I G U R E 3 Thermal conductivity-compression strength for
building insulation56,62,63,66,68,70,85,91,112–114,125,129,137,139,143,144,156–158,169,
178,181–185
building decreases the dead load of the building and
reduces the construction periods and costs.173–175 Com-
bined with the aggregate, the porous geopolymer contains
continuous pores and has high water permeability to form
permeable concrete.
Globally, buildings constructions should be responsi-
ble for approximately 40% of total world annual energy
consumption.176 Space heating and cooling are the main
energy end-uses.177 An attractive option is the incor-
poration of thermal insulating materials which signifi-
cantly reduces energy consumption and improves energy
efficiency.178 Polymer materials such as polystyrene and
polyethylene are very popular materials for insulation and
make up almost half of the market.137 The lower ther-
mal conductivity of organic materials such as polystyrene
(0.029 W/(m•K)) and polyurethane (0.026 W/(m•K)),179
has limited the application of inorganic insulating mate-
rials. However, organic materials have a long service life
and limited options for reuse. They are usually land-filled
or incinerated63 to decompose toxic components and pol-
lute the environment.
Geopolymer thermal insulation material is usually pre-
pared by DFM or AFM. According to the Knudsen effect,180
the smaller the pore sizes are, the lower the thermal con-
ductivity is. Generally, the air thermal conductivity is 0.002
W/(m•K) within the pore sized <50 nm, 0.015 W/(m•K)
within the pore size between 50 nm and 50 µm, and 0.026
W/(m•K) within the pore sized >50 µm 85 .
It is generally believed that H2 O2 has better performance
than other foaming agents.91 Therefore, DFM (H2 O2 ) has
been mentioned in many articles, and its thermal conduc-
tivity is less than 0.5 W/(m•K). In Figure 3, the data of
DFM (H2 O2 ) are widely distributed and irregular. Decom-
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1797
F I G U R E 4 Thermal conductivity-density for building
insulation56,62,63,66,68,70,85,91,97,112–114,125,129,137,139,143,144,156–158,169,178,181–187
position of H2 O2 can be an unrestrained reaction in a
highly alkaline environment of geopolymer resulting in
a porous matrix with undesirable coarse voids,62 which
affects the durability, mechanical properties, and thermal
insulation properties of samples. Therefore, many papers
have explored the pore size distribution and uniformity
of DFM (H2 O2 ).128,188 Because the foam will be layered
according to density, the foams on the top are lighter and
the pores are larger, while the foams at the bottom are heav-
ier and the pores are smaller. The ultrasonic pulse velocity
in different directions of cubic samples is used to compare
the uniformity of pore distribution.62 In Figure 4, the data
of DFM (H2 O2 ) are basically distributed near the yellow
line. It means that when H2 O2 is used as a foaming agent,
the thermal conductivity and density have a greater corre-
lation. Pores increase will reduce the density and affect the
thermal conductivity. But different materials, opening and
closing pores, and the size of pores also influence the ther-
mal conductivity which indicates that density is not the
only variable affecting it.
DFM (Al) has no obvious rule in Figure 4. There
are many data above and below the yellow line, which
is widely distributed. However, in the red box area of
Figure 3, many DFM (Al) test data are distributed. On the
one hand, it means that many DFM (Al) samples have
high thermal conductivity. On the other hand, it means
that many samples do not have good compressive strength
when the thermal conductivity is high. However, Lynch133
found that DFM (Al) found better pore size distribution
than DFM (H2 O2 ) for zeolite-based geopolymer. The pore
structure of DFM (Al) is similar to that of DFM (H2 O2 ), and
there may be different choices from different perspectives.
Aluminum powder is commonly used in traditional con-
crete. Compared with concrete, in the geopolymer system,
the reaction is faster and more efficient, and more bubbles

1798
are entrapped in the fresh material.144 Adding aluminum
powder can reduce the time of reaching the peak temper-
ature and cure faster, which is important for production,
transportation, and storage.178 Due to the high environ-
mental and economic impact of aluminum powder, a ton of
pure aluminum requires 15 000 kWh of heat and electrical
energy and produces 5 tons of residues, so residual metallic
aluminum is chosen as a substitute to further reduce CO2
emissions.143,144 Aluminum powder and residual metallic
aluminum are classified as DFM (Al).
In addition to H2 O2 and Al, foaming agents such as Si,
SiC, silica fume, and sodium silicate can also be used to
prepare porous thermal insulation materials by chemical
reactions. A few articles have used them and they are rep-
resented in DFM (Others) in Figures 3 and 4.
In Figure 3, the two green box areas are obviously dis-
tributed with a lot of test data prepared by DFM (Physics).
The green box areas indicate that the samples prepared
by DFM (Physics) have lower compressive strength or
higher thermal conductivity than those prepared by OM.
In Figure 4, many samples prepared by DFM (Physics)
are distributed in the green box areas, which means that
the thermal conductivity of the samples prepared by DFM
(Physics) is higher than those of OM and may be less suit-
able for the preparation of thermal insulating materials.
In DFM (Physics), surfactants with a typical amphiphilic
structure are used, which reduces surface tension and pro-
motes interfacial formation.189 A large amount of gas is
mixed into the interface by mechanical stirring. The bub-
ble size formed by this method is changed by slurry den-
sity, interfacial tension, amount of introduced gas, and
other factors, most of which are closed pores with uniform
size.190 However, due to the demand for more water, the
performance is relatively poor and the strength is low.91
AFM is used to prepare thermal insulation materials
by adding some aggregates, such as cork,158 sawdust,97
polystyrene particles,181 expanded polystyrenes,63 highly
porous siliceous materials,134 and so on. The lowest ther-
mal conductivity geopolymer insulation material is pre-
pared by AFM,181 as shown in Figure 5. The insula-
tion materials produced by AFM have better compressive
strength at the same thermal conductivity, shown as the
data in the pink circle in Figure 3. This is because the added
aggregate itself may have excellent thermal insulation
properties. Expanded polystyrene has low thermal con-
ductivity, high durability, and low cost. Waste expanded
polystyrene is difficult to decompose and recycle but can
be reused as filler.63 In the case of using cork as aggregate,
the thermal conductivity of the heat insulation material is
only 0.072 W/(m•K).158
The density of lightweight porous materials is usu-
ally 10–50 % of that of compact materials.157 Lightweight
porous materials not only have low density but also with
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
superb workability and lighter weight of building struc-
tures. The less amount of binder and fillers used, the
lower transportation costs and construction time is.134
Lightweight porous cement materials have been used as
substitutes for normal weight concrete for more than
100 years.113 At present, large-scale lightweight building
materials and components prepared by lightweight porous
cement have been widely used in many civil and structural
engineering fields.157 Compared with lightweight porous
cement-based materials, geopolymer lightweight materials
should have more promising application prospects because
of the low production energy consumption and CO2 emis-
sions.
The main preparation methods of making Lightweight
geopolymer are DFM (H2 O2 ), DFM (Al), DFM (Others),
DFM (Physics), and AFM.63,129,158,181 As shown in Figure 6,
DFM (H2 O2 ), DFM (Al), and DFM (Physics) are densely
distributed in black, red and green boxes, which mean that
the density and compressive strength of samples prepared
by their methods increase gradually in general. The sam-
ples prepared by AFM are greatly influenced by aggre-
gates, but the compressive strength of samples prepared
by appropriate lightweight aggregates is higher than that
of samples prepared by OM with the same density, shown
in the pink box.
There are many factors affecting the density of materials.
On the one hand, it depends on the nature of raw materials
of geopolymer. On the other hand, the density of materi-
als can be changed to some extent by the means of differ-
ent kinds and quantities of activators, DFM and AFM. In
DFM, the addition of foam decreases the density owing to
the pore volume.129 Sanjayan found that using more liquid
alkali activators could make the material achieve a lower
density.194 DFM (Physics) can be used for the load-bearing
wall because of its low bubble volume and relatively high
strength. Therefore, the lightweight geopolymer material
is not the lower density, the better, and should be com-
bined with compressive strength and application. Accord-
ing to the actual needs, materials with different densities
and compressive strength are selected. In AFM, the selec-
tion of lightweight aggregates such as recycle lightweight
block,195 expanded polystyrene,63 cold bonded lightweight
aggregate,196 and oil palm shell197,198 can effectively reduce
the density. The density and compressive strength of the
materials prepared by different methods are analyzed.
Pervious concrete is a special concrete prepared by PSM
that contains continuous voids and possesses high water
permeability compared to normal concrete 160 . Generally,
it consists of a binder, water, and coarse aggregates. The
size of connected pores is 2–8 mm, with void content
between 15% and 35%, and compressive strength ranges
from 2.8 to 28.0 Mpa.160 Geopolymer binder can replace
cement that releases a large amount of greenhouse gas

YU et al.
FIGURE 5 Prepare thermal insulation materials by adding filter method (AFM)
F I G U R E 6 Density-compressive strength for building
insulation produced using different preparation method15,16,56,
62,63,66,68,70,85,91,97,112–114,125,126,128,129,137,139,141,143,144,156–158,169,178,181–187,191–194
to the atmosphere to prepare a geopolymer-based per-
vious concrete. The relationships between the density-
void content, compressive strength-density, and compres-
sive strength-void content were formulated and similar to
those of the conventional pervious concrete, and could
be used for fabricating pervious concrete with geopoly-
mer binder.87 Replacing natural aggregates with recycled
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1799
aggregates, the relationships are similar to those of conven-
tional pervious concrete, but there are significant losses in
strength.160
Pervious material is applied to the road by PSM to
reduce the risk of flash floods199 and is initially treated
by filtration to improve the quality of rainwater. It can
be used as a part of an effective stormwater management
strategy200 to collect, store, treat, redistribute and recycle
water.201 Compared to cement pervious concrete, the 28d
compressive strength of the geopolymer-based ones was
only lower by 5%, while the removal of heavy metal ions
increased by 33%–120% by good adsorption.118 As a novel
and environment-friendly surface material, the rainwater
is preliminarily treated through filtration which is trans-
ferred to the underground, and conduct secondary treat-
ment below the surface phytoremediation via the extensive
rooting systems of trees,161 as shown in Figure 7.
When a porous geopolymer material is used for sound
adsorption after sound waves enter into it, diffuse reflec-
tion or refraction is enhanced and the vibration of the
pore wall increases, so the sound waves are attenuated
effectively.202,203 Therefore, the higher the open void ratio
is, in general, the greater sound adsorption coefficients
in the whole range of frequencies.204 It can be prepared
by DFM, AFM, and PSM. Interlocked needle-like mul-
lite crystals not only enhance the porosity but also enable

1800
FIGURE 7 Preparation of pervious geopolymer pavers161
the pores to constitute a good network structure and
improve the sound-adsorption performance of the porous
materials.205 After the addition of silica fume, the bubbles
were formed and attempted to escape from the paste to
the air, resulting in expansion, producing a porous struc-
ture, improving the open void porosity, and increasing the
sound adsorption. Increasing the temperature can shorten
the solidification time, increase the porosity and improve
the sound adsorption.205 Using a coarser aggregate, its
irregular surface develops a more tortuous internal struc-
ture, forms tortuous paths, dissipates sound energy, and
increases the sound adsorption effect.86
4.2 Adsorbent field
4.2.1 Adsorption metal ions
Heavy metal pollution has been at a critical level with
the rapid development of industrial society.206 Excess
heavy metals in water and soil can enter the human body
through food and water207 and accumulate, causing dam-
age to the kidney, liver, and nervous system.208 In practical
processes, it is necessary to remove excessive non-heavy
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
metal ions in water, so this part is about the adsorption
of metal ions by geopolymer. The methods of removing
metal ions in water include precipitation as hydroxides,
electro-dialysis, coagulation-sedimentation, reverse osmo-
sis, ion-exchange, ultra-filtration, and adsorption.209,210
The adsorption method has been widely used because of
its low cost, ease to use, simple equipment, high efficiency,
and environmental protection.211,212 However, the most
widely used adsorbent, activated carbon, has the shortcom-
ings of limited adsorption capacity and high cost.213 There-
fore, researchers are looking for low-cost adsorbents with
high adsorption capacity.214,215 In recent years, more and
more attention has been paid to effective adsorption90,206
and immobilization216,217 of metal ions by geopolymers.
In Figure 8, recent studies on metal ion adsorption by
geopolymer are summarized. It is found that the adsorp-
tion of metal ions by geopolymers is more concentrated
on Cu and Pb ions. But in general, the adsorbed ions
are widely distributed in the main-group I, II, IV, and
V, sub-group I, II, VI, VII and eight-group of the peri-
odic table of elements. It shows that geopolymer mate-
rials can be widely used to adsorb different ions, but it
also means that geopolymer adsorbents may not have good
adsorption selectivity. Because of the great difference in the
 17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al. 1801

F I G U R E 8 Adsorption of metal ions with different FIGURE 9 Adsorption of metal ions with different shapes
pore-forming methods13,23,60,71,72,90,108,110,111,115,132,140,146,153,210,218–234 13,23,60,71,72,90,108,110,111,115,132,140,146,153,210,218–234

relative atomic mass of different atoms, the elements have

a great influence on the adsorption quality. Therefore, the
molar adsorption capacity is used to compare different ele-
ments in Figure 8. Although there are great differences in
raw materials and environments used in different articles,
there are still no obvious rules for several ions with larger
adsorption moles, such as Ca, Mg, Cu, Pb, and Ni, which
also indicates that geopolymer adsorbents may not have
good adsorption selectivity.
As adsorbents for porous geopolymer, there are two
methods to form the porous structure in the literature,
SFM and DFM (H2 O2 ), as shown in Figure 8. Most of
them use SFM to adsorb, and a few articles use DFM. The
adsorptive properties of different pore-forming methods
vary greatly and show no distinct disciplines.
Adsorption capacity is affected by many factors, such as
the amounts of adsorbents, pH, temperature, time, con-
centration, the flow rate of dynamic adsorption, and so
on. Apart from these factors, how can we prepare adsor-
bents with larger adsorption capacity? Fly ash90,146,222 and
slag108,110,111 are often used as raw materials in the reference
with large molar adsorption. Different sizes of geopoly-
F I G U R E 1 0 Porous geopolymer microspheres for the
mers were obtained by ball milling. Beniz et al.222 found
adsorptive removal of Pb2+108
that the smaller the particle size of geopolymer is, the
higher the surface activity and the better adsorption perfor-
mance are. However, in Figure 9, through the summary of lem of continuous wastewater treatment, but as a result
the adsorptive moles of different shapes of adsorbents, no of the contact with wastewater during membrane filtra-
rule was found that the smaller the adsorbent is, the greater tion, a large number of active sites cannot be used.234
the adsorptive capacities are. It is estimated that due to Tang et al.108 prepared microspheres by suspension disper-
many factors affecting adsorption, the same materials will sion solidification method, which can be used for contin-
have a better comparison in the same environment. For uous treatment of wastewater and have good adsorption
different forms of adsorbents, in practical applications, the performance, and the Desorption ratio and regeneration
powder samples cannot be treated continuously because of ratio of adsorbents were 62% and 51% for EDTA-2Na. as
their small particle size, which is difficult to separate and shown in Figure 10. Ge et al.206 compared porous geopoly-
recover.108 Membrane materials are used to solve the prob- mer spheres with other commercial adsorbents and found

1802
FIGURE 11 Adsorption of dye with different pore-forming
methods
that geopolymers showed stronger adsorption capacity for
Cu(II).
Through the studies of different geopolymer raw mate-
rials and metal ions, scholars generally believe that
the adsorption kinetics accords with the pseudo-second-
order kinetic model.23,71,108,111,206,210,226,230 It means that
the adsorption rate is controlled by the adsorption
mechanism.108 The adsorption isotherm conforms to
the Langmuir isotherm model.23,108,206,210,226,230,233 This
means that the adsorption process can be described
as a monolayer surface adsorption, all adsorption sites
are the same, and the adsorbed ions are completely
independent.236 For desorption of adsorbents, the solution
containing Na ion has a better desorption effect.60,108,210
4.2.2 Adsorption of dye
Dyes are widely used in textiles, pharmaceuticals, food,
plastics, tires, automobiles, electroplating, and other
industries.237 When dye-containing wastewater is dis-
charged improperly, the wastewater will pass through the
water treatment stations and pollute natural waters. Toxic
and usually carcinogenic dyes will cause extensive damage
to the human body.238 Removal methods of dyes include
aerobic and anaerobic microbial degradation, coagulation
and chemical oxidation, membrane separation, electro-
chemistry, softening and reverse osmosis, filtration, and
adsorption.239 Adsorption is considered to be one of the
most effective, simplest, and most economical methods.124
In Figure 11, recent studies on dye adsorption by
geopolymer are summarized. Geopolymers have good
adsorption for methyl violet,21 methylene blue,240 crys-
tal violet,241 basic violet, and malachite green oxalate
dyes.242 Barbosa et al.21 found that the adsorption capac-
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
F I G U R E 1 2 Adsorption capacity and removal rate after
multiple regeneration cycles124
ity of methyl violet 10B dye was 276.9 mg/g, the adsorp-
tion capacity of other materials for different dyes was
10–60 mg/g. Novais et al. found that when the porosity
increased, the adsorption capacity could even be increased
by three times. The adsorbent could be regenerated cycli-
cally without affecting the performance.124
The formation of dyes adsorbed by porous geopolymer
is similar to that of metal ion adsorbent, mostly SFM or
DFM (H2 O2 ). Shu Yan et al. used AFM to improve the
adsorption performance by adding porous gangue micro-
spheres, but the adsorption capacity of methylene blue was
only 24.6 mg/g.243 However, Yi Liu et al. applied fly ash by
DFM (H2 O2 ) to prepare samples, and the adsorption capac-
ity of methylene blue reached 50.7 mg/g.192 For different
forms of geopolymers adsorbing different dyes, this part
includes powder, bulk, sphere, and cylinder adsorbents.
Novais et al. used fly ash as raw material by DFM (H2 O2 )
as bulk and spherical materials to adsorb methylene blue
dye. The adsorption capacity of spherical geopolymer was
30.1 mg/g244 was significantly higher than that of bulk
geopolymer, which was 15.4 mg/g124 and the adsorption
removal rate is not lower than 83% in nine cycles, as shown
in Figure 12.
The results of adsorption kinetics and isotherms are con-
sistent with those of metal ion adsorption. The adsorption
kinetics accords with pseudo-second-order kinetic model
and adsorption isotherm accord with Langmuir isotherm
model.240,241,243 Salehi and Kani242 found that the higher
the degree of order of Si-O-Si bond in its molecular struc-
ture is, the lower the negative charge density is, and the
higher adsorption selectivity for OH– is, the stronger the
adsorption capacity of geopolymer materials for cationic
elements and cationic dyes is. The regeneration of geopoly-
mer adsorbents after the adsorption of dyes shows that
they still have good adsorption capacity. Even if the maxi-
mum adsorption capacity of recycled material is 20.5 mg/g,

YU et al.
it is larger than the adsorption capacity of 15.4 mg/g when
used the first time.124 The authors believe that the heat
treatment in the process of regeneration will lead to an
increase in permeability, porosity, and active sites. At the
same time, Salehi and Kani242 believe that the higher
adsorption capacity after regeneration is related to the pore
structure and the Si-O-Si bond of the materials. At present,
there is still no convincing evidence about the structure of
geopolymer and their influence on adsorption.
4.2.3 Adsorption of other substances
Fossil fuel combustion increases atmospheric CO2 and
produces the greenhouse effect, so it is necessary and
urgent to take actions to reduce CO2 emissions or cap-
ture CO2 in the atmosphere.245 Capturing CO2 is a fea-
sible measure to reduce the greenhouse effect because
it can be accomplished downstream without substantial
changes to existing processes and facilities.246,247 Geopoly-
mer has been applied to CO2 adsorption because of its low
cost and excellent adsorption performance. The adsorp-
tion capacity of metakaolin-based geopolymer for CO2 is
obviously better than that of other light gases. The selec-
tivity of adsorption is CO2 /N2 = 200 and CO2 /CH4 = 100
in the adsorption test.245 Composite materials were pre-
pared by mixing metakaolin with zeolite Na13X. Due to the
huge interaction between phases, the adsorption capac-
ity of CO2 was larger than the average adsorption capac-
ity of the two components.159 The blocks with sufficient
mechanical strength, retractable, porous, and easy to han-
dle are prepared by the same method, which can adsorb up
to 3.1% CO2 .248
Nitrogen is the main factor of water nutrition.249 Aque-
ous nitrogen generally exists in the form of ammonium
(NH4 + ), which is likely to be the most serious kind of nitro-
gen from the viewpoint of eutrophication.65 Using fly ash
as raw material to synthesize P1 zeolite, the adsorption of
NH4 + can reach 22.9 mg/g.250 Luukkonen et al.65,249 took
advantage of metakaolin-based geopolymers to remove
ammonium from water, as shown in Figure 13, even in con-
tinuous small-scale field experiments of landfill leachate,
further demonstrated that the material removed NH4 + in
the presence of competitive ions and at low temperatures.
4.3 Porous ceramics field
Porous ceramics display good insulating properties, resis-
tance to aggressive environments,251 and organic solvents.
Furthermore, they demonstrate high-temperature resis-
tance, excellent mechanical strength, and good structural
stability,252 making them the first choice for a wide vari-
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1803
ety of applications.139 However, the cost of raw materi-
als of porous ceramic is high, and almost all the tradi-
tional fabrication methodologies involve high-temperature
treatment.253 Therefore, the high cost limits the applica-
tions. The natural porosity of geopolymer and the simplic-
ity of synthesis methods254 make geopolymers an econom-
ical porous ceramic material.255,256
Geopolymer has the advantages of low-temperature cur-
ing and no sintering, but in high-temperature applica-
tions, high-temperature sintering is still needed to pre-
pare geopolymer-based porous ceramics. Because chem-
ical reaction (alkaline activation) and consolidation can
partially replace the sintering process, the preparation
temperature of porous geopolymer ceramics may be lower
than that of ordinary materials.139 Geopolymer itself has
a pore structure, and there is no need to add any addi-
tives or fillers in the preparation of its porous ceram-
ics. However, pore size or porosity can be increased by
adding pore-forming or other materials. By adding pore-
forming agents, the geopolymer-based porous ceramic
has a pore size of 300–500 µm,25 which is much larger
than 10–30 µm without any pore-forming.69 By combin-
ing with organic polymer materials, geopolymer ceram-
ics can obtain more morphology and porosity, and also
broaden the applications of heat treatment by adding
ceramic fillers,252 as shown in Figure 14. Romero24 found
that the alkali ions in the porous ceramics can affect its
chemical and thermal stability, and its function can be fur-
ther improved by ion exchange. The alkali ions can also
be ion-exchanged with ammonium ions to form alkali-free
ceramics.
4.4 Membrane separation field
Membrane separation processes have found wide appli-
cations in various fields, using the membrane to selec-
tively separate two or more components through driv-
ing force (pressure, concentration, temperature, or elec-
trical potential gradient).107 It holds many advantages,
such as simple operation, high efficiency, no phase tran-
sition, energy conservation, convenient use, small equip-
ment size, low pollution, and continuous operation.257–259
Compared with organic membranes, inorganic ones are
capable of withstanding high temperature, chemical corro-
sion, organic solvents, long service life, high strength, and
good antimicrobial properties. However, due to the unfa-
vorably high manufacturing cost and difficulties in han-
dling, the industrial utility of inorganic membranes is rare
in water treatment.260 The geopolymer membrane has the
advantages of inorganic ones and is easy to prevail at a
larger scale for their low raw material cost and mild prepa-
ration conditions.26

1804
F I G U R E 1 3 The landfill leachate ammonium removal field tests. (Solid line-removal%; Dashed line-NH4 + concentration) (Site
A-higher organic matter and metal concentrations; Site B-lower than Site A)
FIGURE 14 Preparation of porous ceramic foam using commercial polyurethane foam252
There is an obvious porous structure inside the geopoly-
mer, which provides a food channel for the permeation
of water.234 Metakaolin and sodium silicate as raw mate-
rials, a green liquor treatment separation membrane with
internal porous structure was prepared at 60◦ C. Its amor-
phous gels have a strong ability to immobilize heavy metal
ions. When the concentration of Ni2+ is 300 mg/L and
pH at 5, because of the combined actions of the adsorp-
tion and rejection, membranes can effectively remove 96.37
% of Ni2+ , from low-concentration wastewater, as shown
in Figure 15. Their structures are zeolite-like, a class of
aluminosilicate materials, and can obtain zeolite struc-
ture with small molecular size and uniform pores by
hydrothermal processes.27 Took slag as raw material, a sim-
ple method was used to fabricate zeolite membrane for per-
vaporation separation of ethanol/water mixture (90%), and
the maximum selectivity was 2579.48.107 Some polymer
fibers are easily degraded by alkaline hydrolysis, allow-
ing them to be removed chemically without heat treat-
ment. The diameter and interconnectivity of the pore can
be controlled by the amount and diameter of the fibers
to provide higher permeability.59 The resistance of self-
supporting homogeneous membrane is excessively large.
Therefore, a developed composite membrane can have the
separation performance of the separation membrane and
low resistance, thus producing a larger volume of output
economically.26,151
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
4.5 Catalyst field
Porous geopolymers prepared by SFM or AFM can be
used as a porous heterogeneous catalyst after grinding,
and applied in photocatalytic degradation of dyes,29,145
Friedel−Crafts benzylation reactions of benzene and
other substituted aromatics,28 cleaning of tar in biomass-
derived gas,261 solar photoproduction of hydrogen,29 Beck-
mann rearrangement reaction (cyclohexanone oxime ɛ-
caprolactam),262 nitrogen oxides by ammonia and total
oxidation of volatile hydrocarbons.117 There is only one
study addressing porous geopolymers for biodiesel synthe-
sis by OM.263
4.6 pH regulator field
The geopolymer framework contains leachable free
alkalis,264 which can be used as pH buffer by control-
ling alkali leaching and pH regulator during anaerobic
digestion. In this application, porous geopolymers were
prepared by DFM. Novais et al.30,31,135 prepared geopoly-
mer blocks or spheres using metakaolin, fly ash, or red
mud as raw materials, measured the release of OH– over
time to evaluate its pH buffer capacity and found that the
use of porous geopolymer showed high alkali leaching,
up to 0.0317 mol/dm3 •g. Ascensao et al.265 found that

YU et al.
FIGURE 15 Energy spectrum analysis of the upper and lower surfaces of membranes after Ni adsorption234
the larger the opening pore size, the less pH fluctuation.
Therefore, porous geopolymer is more suitable as a pH
regulator.
4.7 Other applications
There are many other applications of porous geopoly-
mer, moisture management,266 evaporative cooling,51,127
air purification,99,267 and so forth. There are relatively few
studies and references.
5 SUMMARY
This paper summarized the raw materials, preparation
methods, and applications of porous geopolymer. Raw
materials involve metakaolin, fly ash, slag, and biomass
fly ash. The methods and applications of preparing porous
geopolymer from different raw materials and the mixing
methods with other geopolymers as raw material were ana-
lyzed. Preparation methods of porous geopolymer mainly
include SFM, DFM, AFM, and PSM. The morphologies,
pores, and applications prepared by different methods
were analyzed. The applications of porous geopolymer in
building, adsorbent, porous ceramics, membrane separa-
tion, catalysts, and pH regulators were reviewed. Accord-
ing to different applications, the advantages, preparation,
and factors affecting the properties of porous geopoly-
mer are analyzed. For the parts with more literature,
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1805
such as building insulation, building lightweight, and
adsorption mental ions, we summarized the following
conclusions. AFM can provide porous geopolymer with
excellent properties by adding filler with better perfor-
mance. The material prepared by DFM (Physics) has rela-
tively high thermal conductivity, poor thermal insulation,
high density, and relatively good compressive strength,
so it can be applied to load-bearing walls. In general,
the density of lightweight geopolymer prepared by DFM
is DFM (Physics) > DFM (Al) > DFM (H2 O2 ). Porous
geopolymer can be used to adsorb a variety of metal
ions, but its selective adsorption is poor. Due to the dif-
ference in adsorption ions, raw material, morphology,
and environments, no obvious adsorption discipline was
found.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
This work was supported by the Chinese Natural Science
Fund (grant: 51772055) and the Guangxi Natural Science
Fund (grant: 2016GXNSFGA380003).
ORCID
Xue-min Cui https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1818-8470
REFERENCES
1. Davidovits D. Geopolymer - room-temperature ceramic matrix
for composites. Ceram Eng Sci Proc. 1988;9:835–41.
2. Davidovits J. Geopolymers. J Thermal Anal Calorim.
1991;37(8):1633–56.

1806
3. Wang K-t, He Y, Song X-l, Cui X-m. Effects of the metakaolin-
based geopolymer on high-temperature performances
of geopolymer/PVC composite materials. Appl Clay Sci.
2015;114:586–92.
4. Davidovits. Geopolymers: man-made rock deosynthesis and
the resulting development of very early high strength cement.
J Mater Educ. 1994;16:91–139.
5. He PY, Zhang YJ, Chen H, Han ZC, Liu LC. Low-cost and
facile synthesis of geopolymer-zeolite composite membrane
for chromium(VI) separation from aqueous solution. J Hazard
Mater. 2020;392:122359.
6. Duxson P, Fernandez-Jimenez A, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Palomo
A, van Deventer JSJ. Geopolymer technology: the current state
of the art. J Mater Sci. 2007;42:2917–33.
7. Barbosa VFF, MacKenzie KJD, Thaumaturgo C. Synthesis and
characterisation of materials based on inorganic polymers of
alumina and silica: sodium polysialate polymers. Int J Inorg
Mater. 2000;2:309–17.
8. Cui X-M, Zheng G-J, Han Y-C, Su F, Zhou J. A study on electri-
cal conductivity of chemosynthetic Al2O3-2SiO(2) geoploymer
materials. J Power Sources. 2008;184:652–6.
9. Duxson P, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Van Deventer JSJ. The role
of inorganic polymer technology in the development of ‘green
concrete’. Cem Concr Res. 2007;37:1590–7.
10. Juenger MCG, Winnefeld F, Provis JL, Ideker JH. Advances in
alternative cementitious binders. Cem Concr Res. 2011;41:1232–
43.
11. Rahier H, VanMele B, Biesemans M, Wastiels J, Wu X.
Low-temperature synthesized aluminosilicate glasses .1. Low-
temperature reaction stoichiometry and structure of a model
compound. J Mater Sci. 1996;31:71–9.
12. Cui X-m, Liu L-p, He Y, Chen J-y, Zhou J. A novel aluminosili-
cate geopolymer material with low dielectric loss. Mater Chem
Phys. 2011;130:1–4.
13. Tang Q, Ge Y-y, Wang K-t, He Y, Cui X-m. Preparation and
characterization of porous metakaolin-based inorganic poly-
mer spheres as an adsorbent. Mater Design. 2015;88:1244–9.
14. Zhang X, Bai C, Qiao Y, Wang X, Jia D, Li H, Colombo
P. Porous geopolymer composites: a review. Compos Part A.
2021;150:106629.
15. Khater HM. Development and characterization of sustainable
lightweight geopolymer composites. Cerâmica 2019;65:153–61.
16. Lemougna PN, Wang K-t, Tang Q, Cui X-m. Study on the devel-
opment of inorganic polymers from red mud and slag system:
application in mortar and lightweight materials. Constr Build
Mater. 2017;156:486–95.
17. Murri AN, Medri V, Papa E, Laghi L, Mingazzini C, Landi E.
Porous geopolymer insulating core from a metakaolin/biomass
ash composite. Environments 2017;4:86.
18. van Deventer JSJ, Provis JL, Duxson P. Technical and commer-
cial progress in the adoption of geopolymer cement. Miner Eng.
2012;29:89–104.
19. White CE, Provis JL, Bloomer B, Henson NJ, Page K. In
situ X-ray pair distribution function analysis of geopolymer
gel nanostructure formation kinetics. Phys Chem Chem Phys.
2013;15:8573–82.
20. Ducman V, Korat L. Characterization of geopolymer fly-ash
based foams obtained with the addition of Al powder or H2O2
as foaming agents. Mater Charact. 2016;113:207–13.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
21. Barbosa TR, Foletto EL, Dotto GL, Jahn SL. Preparation of
mesoporous geopolymer using metakaolin and rice husk ash
as synthesis precursors and its use as potential adsorbent
to remove organic dye from aqueous solutions. Ceram Int.
2018;44:416–23.
22. Fardjaoui N-E-H, Wicklein B, Aranda P, Sobrados I, El Berrichi
FZ, Ruiz-Hitzky E. Modulation of inorganic matrices for func-
tional nanoarchitectures fabrication: the simultaneous effect
of moisture and temperature in the preparation of metakaolin
based geopolymers. Bull Chem Soc Jpn. 2018;91:1158–67.
23. Kara I, Tunc D, Sayin F, Akar ST. Study on the performance of
metakaolin based geopolymer for Mn(II) and Co(II) removal.
Appl Clay Sci. 2018;161:184–93.
24. Romero AR, Elsayed H, Bernardo E. Highly porous mullite
ceramics from engineered alkali activated suspensions. J Am
Ceram Soc. 2018;101:1036–41.
25. Cilla MS, Colombo P, Morelli MR. Geopolymer foams by gel-
casting. Ceram Int. 2014;40:5723–30.
26. Xu M-x, He Y, Liu Z-h, Tong Z-f, Cui X-m. Preparation of
geopolymer inorganic membrane and purification of pulp-
papermaking green liquor. Appl Clay Sci. 2019;168:269–75.
27. He Y, Cui X-m, Mao J, Liu L-p, Liu X-d, Chen J-y. The
hydrothermal transformation of solid geopolymers into zeo-
lites. Micropor Mesopor Mater. 2012;161:187–92.
28. Alzeer MIM, MacKenzie KJD. Synthesis and catalytic proper-
ties of new sustainable aluminosilicate heterogeneous catalysts
derived from fly ash. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2018;6:5273–82.
29. Zhang YJ, He PY, Yang MY, Kang L. A new graphene bottom
ash geopolymeric composite for photocatalytic H-2 production
and degradation of dyeing wastewater. Int J Hydrogen Energy.
2017;42:20589–98.
30. Novais RM, Seabra MP, Labrincha JA. Porous geopolymer
spheres as novel pH buffering materials. J Cleaner Prod.
2017;143:1114–22.
31. Novais RM, Buruberri LH, Seabra MP, Bajare D, Labrincha JA.
Novel porous fly ash-containing geopolymers for pH buffering
applications. J Cleaner Prod. 2016;124:395–404.
32. Khale D, Chaudhary R. Mechanism of geopolymerization and
factors influencing its development: a review. J Mater Sci.
2007;42:729–46.
33. Lemougna PN, Wang K-t, Tang Q, Nzeukou AN, Billong N,
Melo UC, Cui X-m. Review on the use of volcanic ashes for
engineering applications. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2018;137:177–
90.
34. Singh B, Ishwarya G, Gupta M, Bhattacharyya SK. Geopolymer
concrete: a review of some recent developments. Constr Build
Mater. 2015;85:78–90.
35. Yun-Ming L, Cheng-Yong H, Al Bakri MM, Hussin K. Structure
and properties of clay-based geopolymer cements: A review.
Prog Mater Sci. 2016;83:595–629.
36. Lemougna PN, Wang K-t, Tang Q, Melo UC, Cui X-m. Recent
developments on inorganic polymers synthesis and applica-
tions. Ceram Int. 2016;42:15142–59.
37. Zhang Z, Provis JL, Reid A, Wang H. Geopolymer foam con-
crete: an emerging material for sustainable construction. Con-
str Build Mater. 2014;56:113–27.
38. Amran YHM, Farzadnia N, Ali AAA. Properties and appli-
cations of foamed concrete: a review. Constr Build Mater.
2015;101:990–1005.

YU et al.
39. Ji Z, Pei Y. Bibliographic and visualized analysis of geopolymer
research and its application in heavy metal immobilization: a
review. J Environ Manage. 2019;231:256–67.
40. Rasaki SA, Zhang B, Guarecuco R, Thomas T, Yang M.
Geopolymer for use in heavy metals adsorption, and
advanced oxidative processes: a critical review. J Cleaner
Prod. 2019;213:42–58.
41. Singh NB, Nagpal G, Agrawal S, Rachna. Water purification
by using adsorbents: a review. Environmen Technol Innov.
2018;11:187–240.
42. Siyal AA, Shamsuddin MR, Khan MI, Rabat NE, Zulfiqar M,
Man Z, et al. A review on geopolymers as emerging materials
for the adsorption of heavy metals and dyes. J Environ Manage.
2018;224:327–39.
43. Tran Huyen V, Gowripalan N. Mechanisms of heavy metal
immobilisation using geopolymerisation techniques - a review.
J Adv Concr Technol. 2018;16:124–35.
44. Bai C, Colombo P. Processing, properties and applica-
tions of highly porous geopolymers: a review. Ceram Int.
2018;44:16103–18.
45. Pera J. Metakaolin and calcined clays. Cem Concr Compos.
2001;23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(00)00098-6.
46. Rahier H, Wullaert B, Van Mele B. Influence of the degree of
dehydroxylation of kaolinite on the properties of aluminosili-
cate glasses. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2000;62:417–27.
47. Zhang ZH, Zhu HJ, Zhou CH, Wang H. Geopolymer from
kaolin in China: an overview. Appl Clay Sci. 2016;119:31–41.
48. Krol M, Rozek P. The effect of calcination temperature on
metakaolin structure for the synthesis of zeolites. Clay Miner.
2018;53:657–63.
49. Tang Q, He Y, Wang Y-p, Wang K-t, Cui X-m. Study on synthe-
sis and characterization of ZSM-20 zeolites from metakaolin-
based geopolymers. Appl Clay Sci. 2016;129:102–7.
50. Wang Y, Chen J, Wu H, Lei X. Controllable preparation of zeo-
lite p1 from metakaolin-based geopolymers via a hydrothermal
method. Clays Clay Miner. 2017;65:42–51.
51. Okada K, Ooyama A, Isobe T, Kameshima Y, Nakajima A,
MacKenzie KJD. Water retention properties of porous geopoly-
mers for use in cooling applications. J Eur Ceram Soc.
2009;29:1917–23.
52. Bai C, Ni T, Wang Q, Li H, Colombo P. Porosity, mechanical
and insulating properties of geopolymer foams using vegetable
oil as the stabilizing agent. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2018;38:799–805.
53. Bai C, Colombo P. High-porosity geopolymer membrane sup-
ports by peroxide route with the addition of egg white as sur-
factant. Ceram Int. 2017;43:2267–73.
54. Bai C, Franchin G, Elsayed H, Conte A, Colombo P. High
strength metakaolin-based geopolymer foams with variable
macroporous structure. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2016;36:4243–9.
55. Prud’homme E, Michaud P, Joussein E, Peyratout C, Smith
A, Rossignol S. In situ inorganic foams prepared from various
clays at low temperature. Appl Clay Sci. 2011;51:15–22.
56. Peyne J, Gautron J, Doudeau J, Rossignol S. Development
of low temperature lightweight geopolymer aggregate, from
industrial waste, in comparison with high temperature pro-
cessed aggregates. J Cleaner Prod. 2018;189:47–58.
57. Zhang L, Zhang F, Liu M, Hu X. Novel sustainable geopolymer
based syntactic foams: an eco-friendly alternative to polymer
based syntactic foams. Chem Eng J. 2017;313:74–82.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1807
58. Okada K, Imase A, Isobe T, Nakajima A. Capillary rise proper-
ties of porous geopolymers prepared by an extrusion method
using polylactic acid (PLA) fibers as the pore formers. J Eur
Ceram Soc. 2011;31:461–7.
59. Rasouli HR, Golestani-fard F, Mirhabibi AR, Nasab GM,
Mackenzie KJD, Shahraki MH. Fabrication and properties
of microporous metakaolin-based geopolymer bodies with
polylactic acid (PLA) fibers as pore generators. Ceram Int.
2015;41:7872–80.
60. Wang K, Wang F, Chen F, Cui X, Wei Y, Shao L, et al. One-
pot preparation of NaA zeolite microspheres for highly selec-
tive and continuous removal of Sr(II) from aqueous solution.
ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2019;7:2459–70.
61. Henon J, Alzina A, Absi J, Smith DS, Rossignol S. Porosity con-
trol of cold consolidated geomaterial foam: temperature effect.
Ceram Int. 2012;38:77–84.
62. Hajimohammadi A, Ngo T, Mendis P, Nguyen T, Kashani A,
van Deventer JSJ. Pore characteristics in one-part mix geopoly-
mers foamed by H2O2: the impact of mix design. Mater Design.
2017;130:381–91.
63. Colangelo F, Roviello G, Ricciotti L, Ferrandiz-Mas V, Messina
F, Ferone C, et al. Mechanical and thermal properties of
lightweight geopolymer composites. Cem Concr Compos.
2018;86:266–72.
64. Luukkonen T, Veznikova K, Tolonen E-T, Runtti H, Yliniemi J,
Hu T, et al. Removal of ammonium from municipal wastewater
with powdered and granulated metakaolin geopolymer. Envi-
ron Technol. 2018;39:414–23.
65. Luukkonen T, Sarkkinen M, Kemppainen K, Ramo J, Lassi
U. Metakaolin geopolymer characterization and application
for ammonium removal from model solutions and landfill
leachate. Appl Clay Sci. 2016;119:266–76.
66. Samson G, Cyr M. Porous structure optimisation of flash-
calcined metakaolin/fly ash geopolymer foam concrete. Eur J
Environ Civ Eng. 2018;22:1482–98.
67. De Rossi A, Simão L, Ribeiro MJ, Novais RM, Labrincha
JA, Hotza D, et al. In-situ synthesis of zeolites by geopoly-
merization of biomass fly ash and metakaolin. Mater Lett.
2019;236:644–8.
68. Novais RM, Buruberri LH, Ascensao G, Seabra MP, Labrincha
JA. Porous biomass fly ash-based geopolymers with tai-
lored thermal conductivity. J Cleaner Prod. 2016;119:99–
107.
69. Romero AR, Toniolo N, Boccaccini AR, Bernardo E. Glass-
ceramic foams from "weak alkali activation’ and gel-casting of
waste glass/fly ash mixtures. Materials 2019;12.
70. Samson G, Cyr M, Gao XX. Thermomechanical performance
of blended metakaolin-GGBS alkali-activated foam concrete.
Constr Build Mater. 2017;157:982–93.
71. Luukkonen T, Runtti H, Niskanen M, Tolonen E-T, Sarkkinen
M, Kemppainen K, et al. Simultaneous removal of Ni(II),
As(III), and Sb(III) from spiked mine effluent with metakaolin
and blast-furnace-slag geopolymers. J Environ Manage.
2016;166:579–88.
72. Andrejkovicova S, Sudagar A, Rocha J, Patinha C, Hajjaji
W, Ferreira da Silva E, et al. The effect of natural zeolite
on microstructure, mechanical and heavy metals adsorption
properties of metakaolin based geopolymers. Appl Clay Sci.
2016;126:141–52.

1808
73. Chan WH, Mazlee MN, Ahmad ZA, Ishak MAM, Shamsul JB.
Effects of fly ash addition on physical properties of porous clay-
fly ash composites via polymeric replica technique. J Mater
Cycles Waste Manage. 2017;19:794–803.
74. Kim KH, Yoon SY, Park HC. Recycling of coal fly ash for the
fabrication of porous mullite/alumina composites. Materials
2014;7:5982–91.
75. Ahmaruzzaman M. A review on the utilization of fly ash. Prog
Energy Combust Sci. 2010;36:327–63.
76. M RA. A brief on high-volume Class F fly ash as cement
replacement - a guide for civil engineer. Int J Sustainable Built
Environ. 2015;4:278–306.
77. Hu T, Gao W, Liu X, Zhang Y, Meng C. Synthesis of zeolites
Na-A and Na-X from tablet compressed and calcinated coal fly
ash. R Soc Open Sci. 2017;4:170921.
78. Liu Y, Yan C, Qiu X, Li D, Wang H, Alshameri A. Prepara-
tion of faujasite block from fly ash-based geopolymer via in-situ
hydrothermal method. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng. 2016;59:433–9.
79. Ndlovu NZN, Missengue RNM, Petrik LF, Ojumu T. Synthesis
and characterization of faujasite zeolite and geopolymer from
south african coal fly ash. J Environ Eng. 2017;143. https://doi.
org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001212.
80. Onutai S, Jiemsirilers S, Thavorniti P, Kobayashi T. Fast
microwave syntheses of fly ash based porous geopolymers
in the presence of high alkali concentration. Ceram Int.
2016;42:9866–74.
81. Liu Y, Yan C, Zhang Z, Li L, Wang H, Pu S. One-step fabri-
cation of novel porous and permeable self-supporting zeolite
block from fly ash. Mater Lett. 2017;196:328–31.
82. Hajimohammadi A, Ngo T, Mendis P, Sanjayan J. Regulat-
ing the chemical foaming reaction to control the porosity of
geopolymer foams. Mater Design. 2017;120:255–65.
83. Rickard WDA, van Riessen A. Performance of solid and cellular
structured fly ash geopolymers exposed to a simulated fire. Cem
Concr Compos. 2014;48:75–82.
84. Szabo R, Gombkoto I, Sveda M, Mucsi G. Effect of grinding fine-
ness of fly ash on the properties of geopolymer foam. Arch Met-
all Mater. 2017;62:1257–61.
85. Cui Y, Wang D. Effects of water on pore structure and thermal
conductivity of fly ash-based foam geopolymers. Adv Mater Sci
Eng. 2019;2019:1–10.
86. Arenas C, Luna-Galiano Y, Leiva C, Vilches LF, Arroyo F,
Villegas R, et al. Development of a fly ash-based geopolymeric
concrete with construction and demolition wastes as aggre-
gates in acoustic barriers. Constr Build Mater. 2017;134:433–42.
87. Tho-in T, Sata V, Chindaprasirt P, Jaturapitakkul C. Pervious
high-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater.
2012;30:366–71.
88. Xu F, Gu G, Zhang W, Wang H, Huang X, Zhu J. Pore structure
analysis and properties evaluations of fly ash-based geopolymer
foams by chemical foaming method. Ceram Int. 2018;44:19989–
97.
89. Muzek MN, Svilovic S, Zelic J. Kinetic studies of cobalt ion
removal from aqueous solutions using fly ash-based geopoly-
mer and zeolite NaX as sorbents. Sep Sci Technol. 2016;51:2868–
75.
90. Wang S, Li L, Zhu ZH. Solid-state conversion of fly ash to
effective adsorbents for Cu removal from wastewater. J Hazard
Mater. 2007;139:254–9.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
91. Huang Y, Gong L, Shi L, Cao W, Pan Y, Cheng X. Experimen-
tal investigation on the influencing factors of preparing porous
fly ash-based geopolymer for insulation material. Energy Build.
2018;168:9–18.
92. Sata V, Wongsa A, Somna K, Chindaprasirt P. Interfacial tran-
sition zone of pervious cement and geopolymer concrete con-
taining crushed clay brick. Chiang Mai J Sci. 2016;43:402–
8.
93. Zhang Z, Li L, He D, Ma X, Yan C, Wang H. Novel self-
supporting zeolitic block with tunable porosity and crystallinity
for water treatment. Mater Lett. 2016;178:151–4.
94. Lee NK, Khalid HR, Lee HK. Synthesis of mesoporous geopoly-
mers containing zeolite phases by a hydrothermal treatment.
Micropor Mesopor Mater. 2016;229:22–30.
95. Cilla MS, de Mello Innocentini MD, Morelli MR,
Colombo P. Geopolymer foams obtained by the saponifi-
cation/peroxide/gelcasting combined route using different
soap foam precursors. J Am Ceram Soc. 2017;100:3440–50.
96. Cilla MS, Morelli MR, Colombo P. Effect of process parameters
on the physical properties of porous geopolymers obtained by
gelcasting. Ceram Int. 2014;40:13585–90.
97. Mandal AK, Verma HR, Sinha OP. Utilization of aluminum
plant’s waste for production of insulation bricks. J Cleaner
Prod. 2017;162:949–57.
98. Ziegler D, Formia A, Tulliani J-M, Palmero P. Environmentally-
friendly dense and porous geopolymers using fly ash and rice
husk ash as raw materials. Materials 2016;9:466.
99. Huang Y, Han M, Yi R. Microstructure and properties of fly ash-
based geopolymeric material with 5A zeolite as a filler. Constr
Build Mater. 2012;33:84–9.
100. Song SJ, Jennings HM. Pore solution chemistry of alkali-
activated ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Cem Concr
Res. 1999;29:159–70.
101. Cheng TW, Chiu JP. Fire-resistant geopolymer produced by
granulated blast furnace slag. Miner Eng. 2003;16:205–10.
102. Kumar S, Kumar R, Bandopadhyay A, Alex TC, Kumar BR, Das
SK, et al. Mechanical activation of granulated blast furnace slag
and its effect on the properties and structure of portland slag
cement. Cem Concr Compos. 2008;30:679–85.
103. Sun W, Zhang YS, Liu SF, Zhang YM. The influence of min-
eral admixtures on resistance to corrosion of steel bars in green
high-performance concrete. Cem Concr Res. 2004;34:1781–5.
104. Shafigh P, Jumaat MZ, Bin Mahmud H, Alengaram UJ.
Oil palm shell lightweight concrete containing high volume
ground granulated blast furnace slag. Constr Build Mater.
2013;40:231–8.
105. Bijen J. Benefits of slag and fly ash. Constr Build Mater.
1996;10:309–14.
106. Sarkar C, Basu JK, Samanta AN. Experimental and kinetic
study of fluoride adsorption by Ni and Zn modified LD slag
based geopolymer. Chem Eng Res Design. 2019;142:165–75.
107. Azarshab M, Mohammadi F, Maghsoodloorad H, Mohammadi
T. Ceramic membrane synthesis based on alkali activated blast
furnace slag for separation of water from ethanol. Ceram Int.
2016;42:15568–74.
108. Tang Q, Wang K, Yaseen M, Tong Z, Cui X. Synthesis of
highly efficient porous inorganic polymer microspheres for the
adsorptive removal of Pb2+from wastewater. J Cleaner Prod.
2018;193:351–62.

YU et al.
109. Tarameshloo A, Kani EN, Allahverdi A. Performance evalua-
tion of foaming agents in cellular concrete based on foamed
alkali-activated slag. Can J Civ Eng. 2017;44:893–8.
110. Peigang H, Qikun W, Shuai F, Meiling W, Shengjian Z, Xuzhao,
L, et al. Hydrothermal transformation of geopolymers to bulk
zeolite structures for efficient hazardous elements adsorption.
Sci Total Environ. 2021;767: 144973.
111. Sarkar C, Basu JK, Samanta AN. Synthesis of mesoporous
geopolymeric powder from LD slag as superior adsorbent for
Zinc (II) removal. Adv Powder Technol. 2018;29:1142–52.
112. Yuan B, Straub C, Segers S, Yu QL, Brouwers HJH. Sodium car-
bonate activated slag as cement replacement in autoclaved aer-
ated concrete. Ceram Int. 2017;43:6039–47.
113. Sahin M, Erdogan ST, Bayer O. Production of lightweight aer-
ated alkali-activated slag pastes using hydrogen peroxide. Con-
str Build Mater. 2018;181:106–18.
114. Hajimohammadi A, Tuan N, Mendis P. Enhancing the strength
of pre-made foams for foam concrete applications. Cem Concr
Compos. 2018;87:164–71.
115. Lee NK, Khalid HR, Lee HK. Adsorption characteristics
of cesium onto mesoporous geopolymers containing nano-
crystalline zeolites. Micropor Mesopor Mater. 2017;242:238–44.
116. Zhang Z, Wang H. The pore characteristics of geopolymer foam
concrete and their impact on the compressive strength and
modulus. Front Mater. 2016;3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.
2016.00038.
117. Sazama P, Bortnovsky O, Dedecek J, Tvaruzkova Z, Sobalik Z.
Geopolymer based catalysts-New group of catalytic materials.
Catal Today. 2011;164:92–9.
118. Chen X, Guo Y, Ding S, Zhang H, Xia F, Wang J, Zhou M.
Utilization of red mud in geopolymer-based pervious concrete
with function of adsorption of heavy metal ions. J Cleaner Prod.
2019;207:789–800.
119. Du Y-J, Yu B-W, Liu K, Jiang N-J, LiuMD. Physical, hydraulic,
and mechanical properties of clayey soil stabilized by
lightweight alkali-activated slag geopolymer. J Mater Civ
Eng. 2017;29:04016217.
120. Bernal SA, Provis JL, Walkley B, Nicolas RS, Gehman JD, Brice
DG, et al. Gel nanostructure in alkali-activated binders based
on slag and fly ash, and effects of accelerated carbonation. Cem
Concr Res. 2013;53:127–44.
121. Ismail I, Bernal SA, Provis JL, Nicolas RS, Hamdan S,
van Deventer JSJ. Modification of phase evolution in alkali-
activated blast furnace slag by the incorporation of fly ash. Cem
Concr Compos. 2014;45:125–35.
122. Puertas F, Martinez-Ramirez S, Alonso S, Vazquez T. Alkali-
activated fly ash/slag cement - strength behaviour and hydra-
tion products. Cem Concr Res. 2000;30:1625–32.
123. Kumar S, Kumar R, Mehrotra SP. Influence of granulated blast
furnace slag on the reaction, structure and properties of fly ash
based geopolymer. J Mater Sci. 2010;45:607–15.
124. Novais RM, Ascensao G, Tobaldi DM, Seabra MP, Labrincha
JA. Biomass fly ash geopolymer monoliths for effective
methylene blue removal from wastewaters. J Cleaner Prod.
2018;171:783–94.
125. Soltan-Hassan H, Abdel-Gawwad HA, Vasquez Garcia SR,
Israde-Alcantara I. Fabrication and characterization of
thermally-insulating coconut ash-based geopolymer foam.
Waste Manage. 2018;80:235–40.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1809
126. Liu MYJ, Alengaram UJ, Santhanam M, Jumaat MZ, Mo KH.
Microstructural investigations of palm oil fuel ash and fly ash
based binders in lightweight aggregate foamed geopolymer
concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2016;120:112–22.
127. Emdadi Z, Asim N, Amin MH, Yarmo MA, Maleki A, Azizi M,
et al. Development of green geopolymer using agricultural and
industrial waste materials with high water absorbency. Appl
Sci. 2017;7:514.
128. Novais RM, Ascensao G, Buruberri LH, Senff L, Labrincha
JA. Influence of blowing agent on the fresh- and hardened-
state properties of lightweight geopolymers. Mater Design.
2016;108:551–9.
129. Liu MYJ, Alengaram UJ, Jumaat MZ, Mo KH. Evaluation of
thermal conductivity, mechanical and transport properties of
lightweight aggregate foamed geopolymer concrete. Energy
Build. 2014;72:238–45.
130. Kamseu E, Ngouloure ZNM, Ali BN, Zekeng S, Melo UC,
Rossignol S, et al. Cumulative pore volume, pore size distribu-
tion and phases percolation in porous inorganic polymer com-
posites: relation microstructure and effective thermal conduc-
tivity. Energy Build. 2015;88:45–56.
131. Santos FD, da Conceicao LRV, Ceron A, de Castro HF.
Chamotte clay as potential low cost adsorbent to be used in the
palm kernel biodiesel purification. Appl Clay Sci. 2017;149:41–
50.
132. Maleki A, Hajizadeh Z, Sharifi V, Emdadi Z. A green, porous
and eco-friendly magnetic geopolymer adsorbent for heavy
metals removal from aqueous solutions. J Cleaner Prod.
2019;215:1233–45.
133. Lynch JLV, Baykara H, Cornejo M, Soriano G, Ulloa NA. Prepa-
ration, characterization, and determination of mechanical and
thermal stability of natural zeolite-based foamed geopolymers.
Constr Build Mater. 2018;172:448–56.
134. Pimraksa K, Chindaprasirt P, Rungchet A, Sagoe-Crentsil
K, Sato T. Lightweight geopolymer made of highly porous
siliceous materials with various Na2O/Al2O3 and SiO2/Al2O3
ratios. Mater Sci Eng A. 2011;528:6616–23.
135. Novais RM, Carvalheiras J, Seabra MP, Pullar RC, Labrincha
JA. Red mud-based inorganic polymer spheres bulk-type
adsorbents and pH regulators. Mater Today. 2019;23:105–
6.
136. Badanoiu AI, Al Saadi THA, Stoleriu S, Voicu G. Preparation
and characterization of foamed geopolymers from waste glass
and red mud. Constr Build Mater. 2015;84:284–93.
137. Kastiukas G, Zhou X, Wan KT, Gomes JC. Lightweight alkali-
activated material from mining and glass waste by chemical
and physical foaming. J Mater Civ Eng. 2019;31. https://doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002610.
138. Bai C, Li H, Bernardo E, Colombo P. Waste-to-resource prepa-
ration of glass-containing foams from geopolymers. Ceram Int.
2019;45:7196–202.
139. Alghamdi H, Dakhane A, Alum A, Abbaszadegan M, Mobasher
B, Neithalath N. Synthesis and characterization of economical,
multi-functional porous ceramics based on abundant alumi-
nosilicates. Mater Design. 2018;152:10–21.
140. Al-Zboon KK, Al-smadi BM, Al-Khawaldh S. Natural volcanic
tuff-based geopolymer for Zn removal: adsorption isotherm,
kinetic, and thermodynamic study. Water Air Soil Pollut.
2017;228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-2937-5.

1810
141. Chen Z, Liu Y, Zhu W, Yang E-H. Incinerator bottom ash (IBA)
aerated geopolymer. Constr Build Mater. 2016;112:1025–31.
142. Ul Haq E, Padmanabhan SK, Licciulli A. Microwave synthesis
of thermal insulating foams from coal derived bottom ash. Fuel
Process Technol. 2015;130:263–7.
143. Font A, Victoria Borrachero M, Soriano L, Monzo J, Mellado
A, Paya J. New eco-cellular concretes:sustainable and energy-
efficient materials. Green Chem. 2018;20:4684–94.
144. Font A, Victoria Borrachero M, Soriano L, Monzo J, Paya J.
Geopolymer eco-cellular concrete (GECC) based on fluid cat-
alytic cracking catalyst residue (FCC) with addition of recycled
aluminium foil powder. J Cleaner Prod. 2017;168:1120–31.
145. He PY, Zhang YJ, Chen H, Liu LC. Development of an
eco-efficient CaMoO4/electroconductive geopolymer compos-
ite for recycling silicomanganese slag and degradation of dye
wastewater. J Cleaner Prod. 2019;208:1476–87.
146. Duan P, Yan C, Zhou W, Ren D. Development of fly ash and
iron ore tailing based porous geopolymer for removal of Cu(II)
from wastewater. Ceram Int. 2016;42:13507–18.
147. Provis JL, Palomo A, Shi C. Advances in understanding alkali-
activated materials. Cem Concr Res. 2015;78:110–25.
148. Lemougna PN, Melo UFC, Delplancke M-P, Rahier H. Influ-
ence of the chemical and mineralogical composition on the
reactivity of volcanic ashes during alkali activation. Ceram Int.
2014;40:811–20.
149. MacKenzie KJD, Brew DRM, Fletcher RA, Vagana R. Forma-
tion of aluminosilicate geopolymers from 1 : 1 layer-lattice min-
erals pre-treated by various methods: a comparative study. J
Mater Sci. 2007;42:4667–74.
150. Bondar D, Lynsdale CJ, Milestone NB, Hassani N,
Ramezanianpour AA. Effect of heat treatment on reactivity-
strength of alkali-activated natural pozzolans. Constr Build
Mater. 2011;25:4065–71.
151. Xu M-x, He Y, Wang Y-p, Cui X-m. Preparation of a non-
hydrothermal NaA zeolite membrane and defect elimina-
tion by vacuum-inhalation repair method. Chem Eng Sci.
2017;158:117–23.
152. Deng X, Ge Y, He Y, Cui X. A low-cost photo-evaporation
inorganic membrane preparation and treatment of the simu-
lated high salinity radioactive waste water. J Hazard Mater.
2022;424:127433.
153. El-Naggar MR, Amin M. Impact of alkali cations on properties
of metakaolin and metakaolin/slag geopolymers: microstruc-
tures in relation to sorption of Cs-134 radionuclide. J Hazard
Mater. 2018;344:913–24.
154. Zhang YJ, Chen H, He PY, Li CJ. Developing silica fume-based
self-supported ECR-1 zeolite membrane for seawater desalina-
tion. Mater Lett. 2019;236:538–41.
155. Petlitckaia S, Poulesquen A. Design of lightweight metakaolin
based geopolymer foamed with hydrogen peroxide. Ceram Int.
2019;45:1322–30.
156. Zaidi SFA, Ul Haq E, Nur K, Ejaz N, Anis-ur-Rehman M, Zubair
M, et al. Synthesis and characterization of natural soil based
inorganic polymer foam for thermal insulations. Constr Build
Mater. 2017;157:994–1000.
157. Wu J, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Li D. Preparation and characteriza-
tion of ultra-lightweight foamed geopolymer (UFG) based on
fly ash-metakaolin blends. Constr Build Mater. 2018;168:771–9.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
158. Novais RM, Senff L, Carvalheiras J, Seabra MP, Pullar RC,
Labrincha JA. Sustainable and efficient cork - inorganic poly-
mer composites: an innovative and eco-friendly approach to
produce ultra-lightweight and low thermal conductivity mate-
rials. Cem Concr Compos. 2019;97:107–17.
159. Minelli M, Papa E, Medri V, Miccio F, Benito P, Doghieri F,
et al. Characterization of novel geopolymer - zeolite composites
as solid adsorbents for CO2 capture. Chem Eng J. 2018;341:505–
15.
160. Sata V, Wongsa A, Chindaprasirt P. Properties of pervious
geopolymer concrete using recycled aggregates. Constr Build
Mater. 2013;42:33–9.
161. Garg M, Valeo C, Gupta R, Prasher S, Sharma NR, Constabel P.
Integrating natural and engineered remediation strategies for
water quality management within a low-impact development
(LID) approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2018;25:29304–13.
162. Siqi M, Hualong Y, Shenjian Z, Peigang H, Zuhua Z, Xiaoming
D, et al. 3D-printing of architectured short carbon fiber-
geopolymer composite. Compos Part B Eng. 2021;226:109348
163. Wang X, Li X, Bai C, Qiao Y, Li H, Zhang L, et al. Facile synthe-
sis of porous geopolymers via the addition of a water-soluble
pore forming agent. Ceram Int. 2022;48:2853–64.
164. Shao N-n, Zhang Y-b, Liu Z, Wang D-m, Zhang Z-t. Fabrication
of hollow microspheres filled fly ash based foam geopolymers
with ultra-low thermal conductivity and relative high strength.
Constr Build Mater. 2018;185:567–73.
165. Reeb C, Pierlot C, Davy C, Lambertin D. Incorporation of
organic liquids into geopolymer materials - a review of process-
ing, properties and applications. Ceram Int. 2021;47:7369–85.
166. Shan H, Wang X, Ge Y, Li Z. Homologous amino acids
promoted co-immobilization of laccase and mediator onto
geopolymer microspheres for enhancing degradation of dyes in
water. J Hazard Mater. 2022;423:127107.
167. Cabeza LF, Rincon L, Vilarino V, Perez G, Castell A. Life cycle
assessment (LCA) and life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) of
buildings and the building sector: a review. Renewable Sustain-
able Energy Rev. 2014;29:394–416.
168. Ortiz O, Castells F, Sonnemann G. Sustainability in the con-
struction industry: a review of recent developments based on
LCA. Constr Build Mater. 2009;23:28–39.
169. Hajimohammadi A, Tuan N, Kashani A. Sustainable one-part
geopolymer foams with glass fines versus sand as aggregates.
Constr Build Mater. 2018;171:223–31.
170. Nazari A, Sanjayan JG. Synthesis of geopolymer from industrial
wastes. J Cleaner Prod. 2015;99:297–304.
171. Pan Z, Sanjayan JG, Rangan BV. Fracture properties of geopoly-
mer paste and concrete. Mag Concr Res. 2011;63:763–71.
172. Provis JL. Geopolymers and other alkali activated materials:
why, how, and what? Mater Struct. 2014;47:11–25.
173. Zhang Z, Provis JL, Reid A, Wang H. Mechanical, thermal insu-
lation, thermal resistance and acoustic absorption properties
of geopolymer foam concrete. Cem Concr Compos. 2015;62:97–
105.
174. Nambiar EKK, Ramamurthy K. Fresh state characteristics of
foam concrete. J Mater Civ Eng. 2008;20:111–17.
175. Ramamurthy K, Nambiar EKK, Ranjani GIS. A classification
of studies on properties of foam concrete. Cem Concr Compos.
2009;31:388–96.

YU et al.
176. Shi L, Chew MYL. A review on sustainable design of renew-
able energy systems. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev.
2012;16:192–207.
177. Barbhuiya S, Barbhuiya S. Thermal comfort and energy
consumption in a UK educational building. Build Environ.
2013;68:1–11.
178. Novais RM, Ascensao G, Ferreira N, Seabra MP, Labrincha
JA. lInfluence of water and aluminium powder content on the
properties of waste-containing geopolymer foams. Ceram Int.
2018;44:6242–9.
179. Jiang L, Xiao H, An W, Zhou Y, Sun J. Correlation study
between flammability and the width of organic thermal insu-
lation materials for building exterior walls. Energy Build.
2014;82:243–9.
180. Jelle BP, Gustavsen A, Baeten R. The path to the high perfor-
mance thermal building insulation materials and solutions of
tomorrow. J Build Phys. 2010;34:99–123.
181. Duan P, Song L, Yan C, Ren D, Li Z. Novel thermal insulating
and lightweight composites from metakaolin geopolymer and
polystyrene particles. Ceram Int. 2017;43:5115–20.
182. Huiskes DMA, Keulen A, Yu QL, Brouwers HJH. Design and
performance evaluation of ultra-lightweight geopolymer con-
crete. Mater Design. 2016;89:516–26.
183. Zhu W, Rao XH, Liu Y, Yang E-H. Lightweight aerated
metakaolin-based geopolymer incorporating municipal solid
waste incineration bottom ash as gas-forming agent. J Cleaner
Prod. 2018;177:775–81.
184. Feng J, Zhang R, Gong L, Li Y, Cao W, Cheng X. Development
of porous fly ash-based geopolymer with low thermal conduc-
tivity. Mater Design. 2015;65:529–33.
185. Hlavacek P, Smilauer V, Skvara F, Kopecky L, Sulc R. Inorganic
foams made from alkali-activated fly ash: Mechanical, chemi-
cal and physical properties. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2015;35:703–9.
186. Prud’hommea E, Michaud P, Joussein E, Peyratout C, Smith
A, Arrii-Clacens S, et al. Silica fume as porogent agent in geo-
materials at low temperature. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2010;30:1641–8.
187. Papa E, Medri V, Kpogbemabou D, Moriniere V, Laumonier
J, Vaccari A, et al. Porosity and insulating properties of silica-
fume based foams. Energy Build. 2016;131:223–32.
188. Tsaousi GM, Profitis L, Douni I, Chatzitheodorides E, Panias D.
Development of lightweight insulating building materials from
perlite wastes. Materiales De Construccion. 2019;69.
189. Bos MA, van Vliet T. Interfacial rheological properties of
adsorbed protein layers and surfactants: a review. Adv Colloid
Interface Sci. 2001;91:437–71.
190. Garrn I, Reetz C, Brandes N, Kroh LW, Schubert H. Clot-
forming:the use of proteins as binders for producing ceramic
foams. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2004;24:579–87.
191. Ibrahim WMW, Hussin K, Abdullah MMAB, Kadir AA,
Deraman LM, Sandu AV. Influence of foaming agent/water
ratio and foam/geopolymer paste ratio to the properties of fly
ash-based lightweight geopolymer for brick application. Rev
Chim. 2017;68:1978–82.
192. Liu Y, Yan C, Zhang Z, Gong Y, Wang H, Qiu X. A facile
method for preparation of floatable and permeable fly ash-
based geopolymer block. Mater Lett. 2016;185:370–3.
193. Masi G, Rickard WDA, Vickers L, Bignozzi MC, Van Riessen A.
A comparison between different foaming methods for the syn-
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1811
thesis of light weight geopolymers. Ceram Int. 2014;40:13891–
902.
194. Sanjayan JG, Nazari A, Chen L, Giang Hoang N. Physical and
mechanical properties of lightweight aerated geopolymer. Con-
str Build Mater. 2015;79:236–44.
195. Posi P, Teerachanwit C, Tanutong C, Limkamoltip S,
Lertnimoolchai S, Sata V, et al. Lightweight geopolymer
concrete containing aggregate from recycle lightweight block.
Materials & Design. 2013;52:580–6.
196. Bui LA-t, Hwang C-l, Chen C-t, Lin K-l, Hsieh M-y. Manu-
facture and performance of cold bonded lightweight aggregate
using alkaline activators for high performance concrete. Constr
Build Mater. 2012;35:1056–62.
197. Shafigh P, Alengaram UJ, Bin Mahmud H, Jumaat MZ. Engi-
neering properties of oil palm shell lightweight concrete con-
taining fly ash. Mater Design. 2013;49:613–21.
198. Kupaei RH, Alengaram UJ, Bin Jumaat MZ, Nikraz H. Mix
design for fly ash based oil palm shell geopolymer lightweight
concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2013;43:490–6.
199. Rahman MA, Imteaz MA, Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Disfani
MM. Recycled construction and demolition materials in per-
meable pavement systems: geotechnical and hydraulic charac-
teristics. J Cleaner Prod. 2015;90:183–94.
200. Chandrappa AK, Biligiri KP. Comprehensive investigation of
permeability characteristics of pervious concrete: a hydrody-
namic approach. Constr Build Mater. 2016;123:627–37.
201. Scholz M, Grabowlecki P. Review of permeable pavement sys-
tems. Build Environ. 2007;42:3830–6.
202. Wu G, Li R, Yuan Y, Jiang L, Sun D. Sound absorption proper-
ties of ceramic hollow sphere structures with micro-sized open
cell. Mater Lett. 2014;134:268–71.
203. Duan C, Cui G, Xu X, Liu P. Sound absorption characteristics
of a high-temperature sintering porous ceramic material. Appl
Acoustics. 2012;73:865–71.
204. Kim HK, Jeon JH, Lee HK. Workability, and mechanical, acous-
tic and thermal properties of lightweight aggregate concrete
with a high volume of entrained air. Constr Build Mater.
2012;29:193–200.
205. Luna-Galiano Y, Leiva C, Arenas C, Fernandez-Pereira C. Fly
ash based geopolymeric foams using silica fume as pore gen-
eration agent. Physical, mechanical and acoustic properties. J
Non-Cryst Solids. 2018;500:196–204.
206. Ge Y, Cui X, Kong Y, Li Z, He Y, Zhou Q. Porous geopolymeric
spheres for removal of Cu(II) from aqueous solution: synthesis
and evaluation. J Hazard Mater. 2015;283:244–51.
207. Ren X, Zeng G, Tang L, Wang J, Wan J, Liu Y, et al. Sorp-
tion, transport and biodegradation - an insight into bioavail-
ability of persistent organic pollutants in soil. Sci Total Environ.
2018;610:1154–63.
208. Correia PRM, Oliveira E, Oliveira PV. Simultaneous determi-
nation of Cd and Pb in foodstuffs by electrothermal atomic
absorption spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta. 2000;405:205–11.
209. Bhat A, Megeri GB, Thomas C, Bhargava H, Jeevitha C,
Chandrashekar S, et al. Adsorption and optimization studies of
lead from aqueous solution using gamma-Alumina. J Environ
Chem Eng. 2015;3:30–9.
210. Javadian H, Ghorbani F, Tayebi H-a, Asl SH. Study of the
adsorption of Cd (II) from aqueous solution using zeolite-based

1812
geopolymer, synthesized from coal fly ash;kinetic, isotherm
and thermodynamic studies. Arabian J Chem. 2015;8:837–49.
211. Akunwa NK, Muhammad MN, Akunna JC. Treatment of
metal-contaminated wastewater: A comparison of low-cost
biosorbents. J Environ Manage. 2014;146:517–23.
212. Visa M, Chelaru A-M. Hydrothermally modified fly ash for
heavy metals and dyes removal in advanced wastewater treat-
ment. Appl Surf Sci. 2014;303:14–22.
213. Babel S, Kurniawan TA. Low-cost adsorbents for heavy met-
als uptake from contaminated water:a review. J Hazard Mater.
2003;97:219–43.
214. Shukla S, Pai RS. Removal of Pb(II) from solution using
cellulose-containing materials. J Chem Technol Biotechnol.
2005;80:176–83.
215. Minceva M, Fajgar R, Markovska L, Meshko V. Comparative
study of Zn2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+ removal from water solution
using natural clinoptilolitic zeolite and commercial granulated
activated carbon. Equilibrium of adsorption. Sep Sci Technol.
2008;43:2117–43.
216. Zhang J, Provis JL, Feng D, van Deventer JSJ. Geopolymers
for immobilization of Cr6+, Cd2+, and Pb2+. J Hazard Mater.
2008;157:587–98.
217. Xu JZ, Zhou YL, Chang Q, Qu HQ. Study on the factors
affecting the immobilization of heavy metals in fly ash-based
geopolymers. Mater Lett. 2006;60:820–2.
218. Kara I, Yilmazer D, Akar ST. Metakaolin based geopolymer as
an effective adsorbent for adsorption of zinc(II) and nickel(II)
ions from aqueous solutions. Appl Clay Sci. 2017;139:54–63.
219. Al-Harahsheh MS, Al Zboon K, Al-Makhadmeh L, Hararah
M, Mahasneh M. Fly ash based geopolymer for heavy metal
removal: A case study on copper removal. J Environ Chem Eng.
2015;3:1669–77.
220. Bassam El-Eswed MA, Yousef RI, Hamadneh I, Khalili F.
Adsorption of Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) onto
Kaolin/Zeolite based- geopolymers. Adv Mater Phys Chem.
2012;2:119–25.
221. Kamel Al-Zboo MSA-H, BaniHani F. Fly ash-based geopoly-
mer for Pb removal from aqueous solution. J Hazard Mater.
2011;188:414–21.
222. Bingol D, Xiyili H, Elevli S, Kilic E, Cetintas S. Comparison
of multiple regression analysis using dummy variables and a
NARX network model: an example of a heavy metal adsorption
process. Water Environ J. 2018;32:186–96.
223. Khalid HR, Lee NK, Park SM, Abbas N, Lee HK. Synthesis of
geopolymer-supported zeolites via robust one-step method and
their adsorption potential. J Hazard Mater. 2018;353:522–33.
224. Bai C, Franchin G, Elsayed H, Zaggia A, Conte L, Li H, et al.
High-porosity geopolymer foams with tailored porosity for
thermal insulation and wastewater treatment. J Mater Res.
2017;32:3251–9.
225. Ge Y, Cui X, Liao C, Li Z. Facile fabrication of green geopoly-
mer/alginate hybrid spheres for efficient removal of Cu(II) in
water: batch and column studies. Chem Eng J. 2017;311:126–34.
226. Liu Y, Yan C, Zhang Z, Wang H, Zhou S, Zhou W. A compar-
ative study on fly ash, geopolymer and faujasite block for Pb
removal from aqueous solution. Fuel 2016;185:181–9.
227. Naghsh M, Shams K. Synthesis of a kaolin-based geopolymer
using a novel fusion method and its application in effective
water softening. Appl Clay Sci. 2017;146:238–45.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YU et al.
228. Novais RM, Buruberri LH, Seabra MP, Labrincha JA. Novel
porous fly-ash containing geopolymer monoliths for lead
adsorption from wastewaters. J Hazard Mater. 2016;318:631–40.
229. Qiu J, Zhao Y, Xing J, Sun X. Fly ash-based geopolymer as a
potential adsorbent for Cr(VI) removal. Desalin Water Treat.
2017;70:201–9.
230. Singhal A, Gangwar BP, Gayathry JM. CTAB modified large
surface area nanoporous geopolymer with high adsorption
capacity for copper ion removal. Appl Clay Sci. 2017;150:106–
14.
231. Sudagar A, Andrejkovicova S, Patinha C, Velosa A, McAdam
A, da Silva EF, et al. A novel study on the influence of cork
waste residue on metakaolin-zeolite based geopolymers. Appl
Clay Sci. 2018;152:196–210.
232. Yan C, Guo L, Ren D, Duan P. Novel composites based on
geopolymer for removal of Pb(II). Mater Lett. 2019;239:192–5.
233. Al-Zboon K, Al-Harahsheh MS, Hani FB. Fly ash-based
geopolymer for Pb removal from aqueous solution. J Hazard
Mater. 2011;188:414–21.
234. Ge Y, Yuan Y, Wang K, He Y, Cui X. Preparation of geopolymer-
based inorganic membrane for removing Ni2+ from wastewa-
ter. J Hazard Mater. 2015;299:711–8.
235. Yousef RI, El-Eswed B, Alshaaer M, Khalili F, Khoury H. The
influence of using Jordanian natural zeolite on the adsorption,
physical, and mechanical properties of geopolymers products.
J Hazard Mater. 2009;165:379–87.
236. Langmuir L. The constitution and fundamental properties of
solids and liquids. J Franklin Inst. 1916;184:102–5.
237. Yu M, Han Y, Li J, Wang L. CO2-activated porous carbon
derived from cattail biomass for removal of malachite green dye
and application as supercapacitors. Chem Eng J. 2017;317:493–
502.
238. Ghaedi M, Hajjati S, Mahmudi Z, Tyagi I, Agarwal S, Maity A,
et al. Modeling of competitive ultrasonic assisted removal of the
dyes - methylene blue and Safranin-O using Fe3O4 nanoparti-
cles. Chem Eng J. 2015;268:28–37.
239. Robinson T, McMullan G, Marchant R, Nigam P. Remediation
of dyes in textile effluent: a critical review on current treatment
technologies with a proposed alternative. Bioresour Technol.
2001;77:247–55.
240. Padmapriya M, Ramesh ST, Biju VM. Seawater-based meso-
porous geopolymer as a sorbent for the removal and recov-
ery of methylene blue from wastewater. Desalin Water Treat.
2019;138:313–25.
241. Li L, Wang S, Zhu Z. Geopolymeric adsorbents from fly ash
for dye removal from aqueous solution. J Colloid Interface Sci.
2006;300:52–9.
242. Salehi A, Kani EN. Green cylindrical mesoporous adsorbent
based on alkali-activated phosphorous slag: synthesis, dye
removal, and RSM modeling. J Int Adsorp Soc. 2018;24:647–
66.
243. Yan S, He P, Jia D, Wang Q, Liu J, Yang J, et al. Synthesis of
novel low-cost porous gangue microsphere/geopolymer com-
posites and their adsorption properties for dyes. Int J Appl
Ceram Technol. 2018;15:1602–14.
244. Novais RM, Carvalheiras J, Tobaldi DM, Seabra MP, Pullar
RC, Labrincha JA. Synthesis of porous biomass fly ash-based
geopolymer spheres for efficient removal of methylene blue
from wastewaters. J Cleaner Prod. 2019;207:350–62.

YU et al.
245. Minelli M, Medri V, Papa E, Miccio F, Landi E, Doghieri F.
Geopolymers as solid adsorbent for CO2 capture. Chem Eng
Sci. 2016;148:267–74.
246. Song CS. Global challenges and strategies for control, conver-
sion and utilization of CO2 for sustainable development involv-
ing energy, catalysis, adsorption and chemical processing. Catal
Today. 2006;115:2–32.
247. Boot-Handford ME, Abanades JC, Anthony EJ, Blunt MJ,
Brandani S, Mac Dowell N, et al. Carbon capture and storage
update. Energy Environ Sci. 2014;7:130–89.
248. Papa E, Medri V, Amari S, Manaud J, Benito P, Vaccari A, et al.
Zeolite-geopolymer composite materials: production and char-
acterization. J Cleaner Prod. 2018;171:76–84.
249. Luukkonen T, Tolonen E-T, Runtti H, Kemppainen K,
Peramaki P, Ramo J, et al. Optimization of the metakaolin
geopolymer preparation for maximized ammonium adsorption
capacity. J Mater Sci. 2017;52:9363–76.
250. Liu Y, Yan C, Zhao J, Zhang Z, Wang H, Zhou S, et al. Synthe-
sis of zeolite P1 from fly ash under solvent-free conditions for
ammonium removal from water. J Cleaner Prod. 2018;202:11–
22.
251. Duxson P, Lukey GC, van Deventer JSJ. The thermal evolution
of metakaolin geopolymers: part 2 - phase stability and struc-
tural development. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2007;353:2186–200.
252. Kovarik T, Krenek T, Rieger D, Pola M, Riha J, Svoboda M, et al.
Synthesis of open-cell ceramic foam derived from geopolymer
precursor via replica technique. Mater Lett. 2017;209:497–500.
253. Studart AR, Gonzenbach UT, Tervoort E, Gauckler LJ. Process-
ing routes to macroporous ceramics: a review. J Am Ceram Soc.
2006;89:1771–89.
254. Glad BE, Kriven WM. Highly porous geopolymers through
templating and surface interactions. J Am Ceram Soc.
2015;98:2052–9.
255. Wang W, Liu H, Gu W. A novel fabrication approach
for improving the mechanical and sound absorbing proper-
ties of porous sound-absorbing ceramics. J Alloys Compd.
2017;695:2477–82.
256. Kim H, Lee S, Han Y, Park J. Control of pore size in ceramic
foams: influence of surfactant concentration. Mater Chem
Phys. 2009;113:441–4.
257. He Y, Cui X-m, Liu X-d, Wang Y-p, Zhang J, Liu K. Preparation
of self-supporting NaA zeolite membranes using geopolymers.
J Membr Sci. 2013;447:66–72.
17447402, 2022, 4, Downloaded from https://ceramics.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijac.14028 by Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos, Wiley Online Library on [30/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
1813
258. Armor JN. Applications of catalytic inorganic membrane reac-
tors to refinery products. J Membr Sci. 1998;147:217–33.
259. Lu GQ, da Costa JCD, Duke M, Giessler S, Socolow R, Williams
RH, et al. Inorganic membranes for hydrogen production and
purification: a critical review and perspective. J Colloid Inter-
face Sci. 2007;314:589–603.
260. Lorente-Ayza M-M, Perez-Fernandez O, Alcala R, Sanchez E,
Mestre S, Coronas J, et al. Comparison of porosity assess-
ment techniques for low-cost ceramic membranes. Bol Soc Esp
Ceram Vidrio. 2017;56:29–38.
261. Bendoni R, Miccio E, Medri V, Benito P, Vaccari A, Landi
E. Geopolymer composites for the catalytic cleaning of tar in
biomass-derived gas. Renewable Energy. 2019;131:1107–16.
262. Alzeer MIM, MacKenzie KJD, Keyzers RA. Porous aluminosili-
cate inorganic polymers (geopolymers): a new class of environ-
mentally benign heterogeneous solid acid catalysts. Appl Catal.
2016;524:173–81.
263. Innocentini MDM, Botti RF, Bassi PM, Paschoalato CFPR,
Flumignan DL, Franchin G, et al. Lattice-shaped geopolymer
catalyst for biodiesel synthesis fabricated by additive manufac-
turing. Ceram Int. 2019;45:1443–46.
264. Lloyd RR, Provis JL, van Deventer JSJ. Pore solution compo-
sition and alkali diffusion in inorganic polymer cement. Cem
Concr Res. 2010;40:1386–92.
265. Ascensao G, Seabra MP, Aguiar JB, Labrincha JA. Red mud-
based geopolymers with tailored alkali diffusion properties and
pH buffering ability. J Cleaner Prod. 2017;148:23–30.
266. Kamseu E, Mohamed H, Sofack JC, Chaysuwan D, Tchakoute
HK, Djobo JNY, et al. Moisture Control Capacity of Geopoly-
mer Composites: Correlation of the Bulk Composition-Pore
Network with the Absorption-Desorption Behavior. Transp
Porous Media. 2018;122:77–95.
267. Wang J-t, Ge Y-y, He Y, Xu M-x, Cui X-m. A porous gradient
geopolymer-based tube membrane with high PM removal rate
for air pollution. J Cleaner Prod. 2019;217:335–43.
How to cite this article: Yu H, Xu M-x, Chen C,
He Y, Cui Y-m. A review on the porous geopolymer
preparation for structural and functional materials
applications. Int J Appl Ceram Technol.
2022;19:1793–1813. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijac.14028