Chapter-5

Computer
Networks and
Internet Services
PREPARED BY: SUSHANT BHATTARAI
 2
Introduction

Communication c a n b e defined as the process of exchanging(sending , receiving a n d

processing) of information by electronic media.
 3
Communication System

• A communications system or communication system is a collection of

individual telecommunications networks, transmission systems, relay
stations, tributary stations, and terminal equipment usually capable of
interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole.
• Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one
entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs
 4
3
Computer
Network

Computer Network c a n b e defined as the interconnection of two or more computer

that are linked together for the purpose of communication, sharing information(files,
software programs) a n d other hardware resources (printers, hard disks, plotters, etc).
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4
Advantages of Computer
Network
Resource Sharing: Sharing of resources includes peripherals like printer,
scanners , etc.
Centralized control a n d management: All the computers in a network are
generally c o n n e c t e d to a server which controls the overall computer
c o n n e c t e d in the network.
Speedy a n d cost effective communication: Since entire computer are
c o n n e c t e d in a network resulting in high s p e e d e x c h a n g e of data.
Backup & Recovery: Data are all securely handled by server thus loss of
d a t a is rare scenario meaning b a c k up a n d recovery is possible.
Flexible access: People c a n a c c e s s d a t a from any computer provided
that they are c o n n e c t e d in the s a m e network as their computer

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

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Disadvantages of Computer
Network
Expensive: The devices like Hub , NIC , MODEM , etc. increases the cost of
the network.
Security Problem: Security issues such as plagiarism, hacking, piracy , etc.
are major concern of computer network especially internet.
Needs special technical knowledge: It is not an easy task to maintain,
operate a n d establish a computer network.
Network Failure: Failure of network c a n hamper the day to day operation.
example: fault in server
Complex: Network itself is very difficult to establish a n d m a n a g e a n d
operate.

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

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61
Transmission
Media
The wires, cables, and other means through which d a t a travels from
its source to destination.
Often called communication media.
 8
62
Types of Transmission
media

Guided/Bounded/Wired TransmissionMedia
Unguided/Unbounded/Wireless TransmissionMedia
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Guided Transmission
Media
Twisted Pair C a b l e
STP(Shielded Twisted Pair)
UTP( Unshielded Twisted Pair)
Coaxial C a b l e
Fiber Optics C a b l e
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64
Twisted Pair
Cable
Oldest and most c o m m o n transmission m e d i a
Contains a pair of c a b l e twisted with e a c h other.
Most commonly used in telephone and in LAN.
C o n n e c t e d with the help of RJ-45 for LAN and RJ-11 for telephone. RJ-45

Twisted Pair Cable

RJ-11
Twisted Pair Cable 11
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65
Advantages of Twisted Pair
Cable
Light and thin so flexible to fit
C h e a p e r than other c a b l e
Data transmission at high bandwidth for short distance
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66
Disadvantages of Twisted Pair
Cable
Cannot b e used for long distance transmission
Slower rate of d a t a transmission as c o m p a r e d to other c a b l e
Prone to noise
Electric field and magnet ic field c a n easily affect the transmission
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67
UTP( Unshielded Twisted Pair)

Most c o m m o n twisted pair

No extra covering
Data transmission over a short distance
Cheaper
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68
STP( Shielded Twisted Pair)

Rarely used
Extra covering with metal foil
Data transmission over long range
Expensive
Coaxial 16
69

cable
Carries d a t a signal at higher frequency and faster s p e e d
Commonly used for transmission of signal in TV and broadband
transmission.
Transmit many signals at the same time
Each signal is called a channel.
Has very high bandwidth
Coaxial 17
70

cable
Has a single copper conductor at its center.
Plastic layer provides insulation b e t w e e n center conductor and a
braided metal shield.
Surrounded by an external insulation layer.

Coaxial ca bl e
Advantages of Coaxial 18
71

Cable
Provides faster d a t a transmission than twisted pair
Data transmission over medium range.
Easier to install , modify and m a n a g e the network
Disadvantages of Coaxial 19
72

Cable
Expensive than twisted pair c a b l e
Not appropriate for long distance transmission
Rarely used at present for a computer network.
Fiber 20
73

Optics
M a d e up of glass or plastic
Transmits signal in form of light.
C a n carry voice , vid eo and d at a.
Large bandwidth and carry signal for extremely long distance.
Immune to electromagnetic interference
Secure than other cables.
Fiber 21
74

Optics
Consist of glass core at the center
Surrounded by several layers of protective materials.
C a b l e itself is a core fiber surrounded by cladding
LED send signal d o w n the cable.
A detector receives the signals & converts them b a c k to electrical
impulses

Optical fiber
Advantages of Fiber 22
75

Optics
Fastest d a t a transmission than other transmission media.
C a n b e used for both short and long distance transmission
Error free highly secured transmission
Disadvantages of Optical 23
76

Fiber
Expensive and difficult to install
Prone to d a m a g e
Skilled technical manpower required to install
Unguide d /Unbo und e d /Wirel 24
77

e ss Transmission Media
Those transmissionmedia that aren’t bounded by wire to send data
from source to destination is wireless transmission media.
Data flow inatmosphere.
Types of Wireless Transmission 25
78

Media
• Microwave system
• Radio Transmission
• Infrared
• Satellite Communication,etc.
Microwave System 26
79

• Uses very high frequency radio signal to transmit d a t a through the

air.
• Transmitter an d receiver of a microwave system should b e in LOS(Line
of Sight) as it can’t be bend.
• Transmitting an d receiving antenna must b e p l a c e d on some
p l a c e at considerable height(buildings , t op of hills , et c . )
• Very long distance transmission isn’t possible.
• In order to o v e r c o m e LOS a n d short distance, repeater are used
at intervals of 25 to 30 km apart.
• Repeater receives the signal amplifies it and send it to the next
tower.
Microwave System 80
27

Radio frequencies are used

Microwav e System
Radio Transmission 28

 The electromagnetic radio waves that operate at the radio frequency are
also used to transmit computer data. This transmission is also known as Radio
Frequency (RF) transmission.
 The computers using RF transmission do not require a direct physical
connection like wires or cable.
 Each computer attaches to an antenna hat can both send and receive
radio transmission.
Satellite 29
81

Communication
Most c o m m o n worldwide communication system at present.
Uses satellite as a repeater.
Have receiver and transmitter l o c a t e d in ground stations.
Microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the
satellite at space.
Satellite amplifies the w e a k signal and transmits it b a c k to the
receiver.
In order to c o v e r large distance multiple satellite are used.
Satellite 30
communication
Infrared 31

Used for short range communication

LOS is necessary
High frequency signal
Cannot penetrate walls. So prevents interference b e t w e e n systems.
Mainly used in wireless mouse , remote control , e t c
Generally not used outside as sun’s infrared can interfere.
Infrared 32
 33
Direction of Communication Flow or
Modes of Communication
Simplex
Half-duplex
Duplex(Full-duplex)

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

 34
Simplex

The transmission is possible in only one direction

C a n either send or receive d a t a
Example: Television, Radio, etc.

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

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Half-Duplex

Communication is possible in both direction but not simultaneously.

Only o n e d e v i c e c a n send a d a t a at a time.
Example: Walkie-talkie, ATC a n d pilot,etc.

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

 36
Full-duplex(Duplex)

Communication is possible in both direction a n d simultaneously.

Both d e v i c e c a n send a d a t a at a time.
Example: Telephone , etc.

Prepared By: Sushant Bhattarai

Transmission Speed 37
 When the signals are transmitted between two computers, two factors need to be
considered
 Bandwidth
 Distance
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through the underlying hardware
i.e. the communication medium, in a fixed amount of time. Bandwidth is measured in
cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).
 The bandwidth of the transmission medium determines the data transfer rate.
 Throughput is the amount of data that is actually transmitted between the two computers.
Throughput is specified in bits per second (bps).
 When a signal has to travel long distance, the signal strength decreases; the signal strength
is utilized to overcome the resistance offered by the connecting medium (cable or wire).
The gradual deterioration of signal strength across long distances is called attenuation.
 with increasing distance the external disturbance increases, which causes the signal to
deteriorate and results in less amount of data to be transferred. The degradation of signal
due to internal or external disturbances is called distortion.
Fundamental of transmission 38

 Telecommunication systems use electromagnetic waves to transfer

information.
 Electromagnetic waves can travel through transmission media like copper
wires, fiber optics or as radio waves.
 They can also travel in vacuum.
 Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves for transmission of
information.
 A signal is a wave that is suitable for carrying information over a transmission
medium.
 Signals can be electric signals, light signals, electromagnetic signals or radio
signals.
 Electric signals are used to carry information through copper wires, light
signals for fiber optic cables, and radio signals for carrying information in free
space.
Analog and Digital Signal 39
 Analog Signal:
 An analog signal is a wave that continuously changes its information carrying properties over
time.
 The wave may vary in amplitude or frequency in response to changes in sound, light, heat,
position, or pressure etc.
 For example a telephone voice signal is analog.
 The intensity of the voice causes electric current variations. At the receiving end, the signal is
reproduced in the same proportion.
 Digital Signal:
 A digital signal is a wave that takes limited number of values at discrete intervals of time.
 Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps.
 They consist of pulses or digits with discrete levels or values.
 The value of each pulse is constant, but there is an abrupt change from one digit to the next.
 Digital signals have two amplitude levels called nodes.
 The value of which are specified as one of two possibilities such as 1 or 0, HIGH or LOW, TRUE
or FALSE, and so on.
 Analog and Digital Signal
40
 Analog and digital signals are compared on the basis of
 Impact of noise
 Loss of information
 Introduction of error.
 Analog signal has the potential for an infinite amount of signal resolution.
 Another advantage with analog signals is that they can be processed more
easily than their digital equivalent.
 The primary disadvantage of the analog signals is the noise. The effects of noise
create signal loss and distortion, which is impossible to recover, since amplifying Fig: a)Digital Signal
the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal, also amplifies the noise. b) Analog Signal

 Even if the resolution of an analog signal is higher than a comparable digital

signal, the difference can be overshadowed by the noise in the signal.
 In digital systems, degradation can not only be detected, but corrected as well.
Modulation 41
 Signals consist of two components—the information signal and the carrier
signal.
 The transmission of any signal over some communication medium usually
involves modulation of a carrier.
 Prior to their transmission the information signal and the carrier signal are
combined and the process of combining these two signals is called
modulation.
 Characteristics of the carrier signal are varied in proportion to the amplitude of
the information-carrying signal.
 Modulation results in the transfer of the signal information to higher frequency
carrier signal.
 In simple English terms, the information signal sits on top of the carrier signal
and rides on it from the receiver to the transmitter.
 Modulation 42
 Types of analog modulation
 AM(Amplitude Modulation)
 FM(Frequency Modulation)
 PM(Phase Modulation)
 Necessity for modulation
 To make efficient use of the lines or media used for
communication
 To make radio communications feasible: The lower the
frequency of signal, the larger is the size of the antenna needed
for transmission and reception. A signal of 10 KHz would require
an antenna whose dimensions are in the range of a few
kilometers.
 To simplify signal processing: It is simpler to design electronic
systems for narrow frequency bands.
Modulation
43

Carrier wave+source

Amplitude Modulation

Frequency Modulation

Phase Modulation
Demodulation 44

 The process of segregating the data signal and the carrier signal from the
modulated carrier wave is called demodulation.
 At the receiving end, the carrier wave is discarded after the data signal has
been reconstructed.
Multiplexing 45
 Transmission medium have varying data carrying capacities.
 To utilize the full capacity of the transmission medium, computer networks
use separate channels that allow sharing of a single physical connection for
multiple communication.
 Multiple carrier signals are transmitted over the same medium at the same
time and without interference from each other.
 The combining of multiple signals into a form that can be transmitted over a
single link of a communication medium is called multiplexing.
 The two basic multiplexing techniques are
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
FDM(Frequency Division Multiplexing)
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing which 46
means combining more than one signal over a shared medium.
 In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do
not overlap.
 The frequency bands are separated from one another by strips of unused
frequencies called the guard bands, to prevent overlapping of signals
 FDM combines different carrier frequencies signals into a single signal of
higher bandwidth. The bandwidth of the communication medium link
carrying the combined signal is greater than the sum of the bandwidth of
the individual signals that are combined.
WDM(Wavelength Division Multiplexing
47
 WDM is similar to FDM except that FDM involves electromagnetic spectrum below light
and WDM involves light signals.
 WDM uses very high frequencies
 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique of multiplexing multiple optical
carrier signals through a single optical fiber channel by varying the wavelengths of laser
lights.
 The optical signals from different sources or (transponders) are combined by a
multiplexer, which is essentially an optical combiner. They are combined so that their
wavelengths are different.
 The combined signal is transmitted via a single optical fiber strand.
 At the receiving end, a demultiplexer splits the incoming beam into its components and
each of the beams is send to the corresponding receivers.
Synchronous and Asynchronous 48

Transmission
 Whenever an electronic device transmits digital (and sometimes analog)
data to another electronic device, there must be a certain rhythm
established between the two devices.
 The signal must be synchronized in a way that the receiver can distinguish
the bits and bytes as the transmitter intends them to be distinguished.
 Two approaches exist to address the problem of synchronization
 Synchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission.
Synchronous Transmission 49

 Synchronous communication is the characteristic of a communication

system in which the sender must coordinate (i.e. synchronize) with the
receiver before sending data.
 The network is designed to move the data at the precise rate, which is not
affected by the increase or decrease in network traffic.
 Voice system network use the synchronous transmission.
Asynchronous Transmission 50

 Asynchronous communication is a characteristic of a communication

system in which the sender and receiver do not coordinate before the
transmission of data.
 Asynchronous transmission is also referred to as start/stop transmission.
 The receiver must be prepared to accept data at any time.
 The sender can wait when no data is available and send when data is
available for sending.
 Most of the data networks use asynchronous transmission.
 E.g.: RS-232 based serial devices use asynchronous communication.
Data transmission and Data 51

Networking
 Data transmission at physical level involves the hardware required for
handling individual bits and encoding bits in signals.
 Any two devices directly linked via a communication medium (point to
point communication) can send and receive data, to and from each other
respectively.
 If a large number of computers need to interact with each other, point to
point communication will require direct link between all the computers
which isn’t practical.
 For long distance communication, instead of point to point connection, a
network of nodes is used as a communication medium.
Switching 52
138

 Aim of D a t a Communication a n d Networking is to facilitate the

e x c h a n g e of d a t a such as audio, text or vi d e o b e t w e e n
various points in the world.
 This transfer of d a t a takes p l a c e o ver the computer network over
which the d a t a travels smoothly.
 For the delivery of d a t a or information with the e a s e of a c c u r a c y
various types of Switching Techniques are e m p l o y e d in the D a ta
Communication a n d Networking
Types of Switching 53
139

 Circuit Switching
 Pac ket Switching
 Message Switching
Circuit Switching 54
140

 Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks.

 It c o m e into existence for handling v o i c e traffic in addition to digital
data
 Here the network connection allows the electrical current a n d the
associ ated v o i c e with it to flow in b e t w e e n the t w o respective users.
 The e n d to e n d communication w a s established during the duration
of call.
 Here the routing decision is m a d e when the path is set up across the
gi ven network.
 After the link has b e e n sets in b e t w e e n the sender a n d the receiver
then the information is forwarded continuously over the provided link.
Circuit 55
141

Switching
Advantages of Circuit 56
Switching
 It uses a fixed bandwidth.
 A d e d i c a t e d communication channel increases the quality
of communication.
 D a t a is transmitted with a fixed d a t a rate.
 No waiting time at switches.
 Suitable for long continuous communication.
Disadvantages of Circuit 57
Switching
 A d e d i c a t e d connection makes it impossible to transmit other d a t a
e v e n if the channel is free.
 Resources are not utilized fully.
 The time required to establish the physical link b e t w e e n the t w o
stations is t o o long.
 As a d e d i c a t e d path has to b e established for e a c h
connection, circuit switching is more expensive.
 Even if there is no transfer of d a t a , the link is still maintained until it is
terminated by users. By this channel remains ideal for a long time
thereby making circuit switching inefficient.
 D e d i c a t e d channels require more bandwidth.
Packet Switching 58

 In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets

 Each of which includes a h e a d e r with source, destination a n d
intermediate n o d e address information.
 Individual Packets in p a c k e t switching technique ta ke different
routes to r e a c h their respective destination
Advantages of Packet 59
Switching
 Delay in delivery of pac ket s is less, since packets are sent as soon as
they are available.
 Switching devices don’t require massive storage, since they don’t h a v e
to store the entire messages before forwarding them to the next
node.
 D a t a delivery c a n continue e v e n if some parts of the network
f a c e s link failure. Packets c a n b e routed vi a other paths.
 It allows simultaneous u s a ge of the s a me channel by multiple users.
 It ensures better bandwidth u s a ge as a number of packets from
multiple sources c a n b e transferred vi a the s a me link.
Disadvantages of Packet 60
Switching
 They are unsuitable for applications that cannot afford delays in
communication like high quality v o i c e calls.
 Pac ket switching high installation costs.
 They require complex protocols for delivery.
 Network problems m a y introduce errors in packets, d e l a y in delivery
of packets or loss of packets. If not properly handled, this ma y l e a d
to loss of critical information.
Message Switching 61

 In Message Switching it is not necessary to established a d e d i c a t e d

path in b e t w e e n any t w o communication devi ces.
 E a c h me s s a ge is trea te d as a n i ndependent unit a n d includes
its o w n destination source address by its own.
 Each c o m p l e t e me s s a ge is then transmitted from o n e d e v i c e
to another through internet work.
 Each intermediate d e v i c e r ec ei v e the me s s a g e a n d store it until
the nest d e v i c e is rea dy to r e c e i ve it a n d then this me s s a ge is
forwarded to the next d e vi c e .
 For this reason a me s s a ge switching network is sometimes called as
Store a n d Forward Switching.
Message Switching 62
Network Types 63

 Computer network is broadly classified into three types:

 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 The different network types are distinguished from each other based on the
following characteristics:
 Size of the network
 Transmission Technology
 Networking Topology
 64
LAN(Local Area Network)

 Contains printers, servers a n d

computers
 Systems are close to e a c h other
 Contained in o n e office or building
 Organizations often h a v e several
LANS
 65
Advantages of LAN

 Data transmission faster than MAN a n d

WAN
 Higher security to resources
 C h e a p e r to establish
 Easier to establish , m a n a g e a n d
operate
 66
Disadvantages of
LAN
 Limited to small a r e a
 Connects comparatively less number of
computers.
 Lack of Backup
 67
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

 Large network that connects different

organizations
 Shares regional resources
 A network provider sells time
 68
Advantages of
MAN
 Spread to a larger a r e a than LAN
 Connects comparatively large number of computers
than LAN
 Connects dissimilar networks
 69
Disadvantages of
MAN
 Uses comparatively expensive devi ces than used in
LAN
 Low transmission s p e e d
 Complex to establish
 Expensive to run
 70
WAN(Wide Area
Network)
 Two or more LANs c o n n e c t e d
 Over a large geographi c
area
 Typically use public or leased
lines
 Phone lines
 Satellite
 The Internet is a WAN
 71
A d v antage of
WAN
 Spread large a r e a than LAN a n d MAN
 Connects large number of computer
 Connects dissimilar network
 72
Disadvantages of WAN

 Expensive
 Transmission s p e e d low as c o mp a r e d to LAN
 Complex
 Highly qualified personnel required to m a n a g e , operate a n d
establish
 73
Network Topology

 The physical layout with geometrical arrangement of inter-connection of

computer in a network is called network topology
 74
Types of Network Topology

 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology
75
 Bus topology c onnects e a c h computer to a segment called
trunk (bus).
 Coaxial cables are used.
 Consist of main c a b l e with terminators at both ends.
 76
Advantages of Bus Topology

 Easy to setup
 Small amount of wire
 77
Disadvantages of Bus
Topology

 Slow
 Easy to crash
 Extension of PC will result in performance issue.
 78
Ring Topology

 Nodes connected in a circle

 Tokens used to transmit data
 Nodes must wait for token to send
 Data transmission in high speed
 79
Advantages of Ring Topology

 Time to send data is known

 No data collisions
 High s p e e d d a t a transmission
 80
Disadvantages of Ring topology

 Data can travel in only one direction

 Lots of cable
 Addition of computer is difficult
 If one computer is damaged, whole network fails to operate.
 Star Topology
81
 Most common network topology found in most offices and home
network.
 All nodes connect to a hub
 Packets sent to hub
 Hub sends packet to destination
 Hub amplifies the d a ta signal & broadcasts it.
 High d a t a traffic will b e high which ma y increase d a ta collision
rate a n d d a ta error rate.
 82
Advantages of Star Topology

 Easy to setup
 One cable can not crash network
 Easier to a d d or remove computers.
 83
Disadvantages of Star Topology

 One hub crashing downs entire network

 Uses lots of cable
 Most common topology
OSI Reference Model 84

OSI stands for O p e n Systems Interconnection.

It has b e e n d e v e l o p e d by ISO –‘InternationalOrganization of
Standardization,in the year 1984.
It is a 7 layer architecture with e a c h layer having specific
functionality to perform.
All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the d a t a from o n e
person to another across the gl o b e .
OSI Reference Model 85
Physical Layer (Layer1) 86

The lowest layer of the OSI reference mo d e l is the physical layer.

It is responsible for the actual physical connection b e t w e e n the
devi ces.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from o n e n o d e to the
next.
When receiving d a t a , this layer will g e t the signal r e c e i ve d a n d
convert it into 0s a n d 1s a n d send them to the D a ta Link layer
D a t a Link Layer will put the frame b a c k together.
Data Link Layer(DLL) (Layer 2) 87
103

The d a t a link layer is responsible for the n o d e to n o d e delivery of the

message.
The main function of this layer is to m a k e sure d a t a transfer is error-
free from o n e n o d e to another, over the physical layer.
When a p a c k e t arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The p a c k e t r ecei ve d from Network layer is further divided into
frames d e p e n di n g on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface
Card).
DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’sMAC address in the
header.
Network Layer(Layer 3) 88

Network layer works for the transmission of d a t a from o n e host to the

other l o c a t e d in different networks.
It also takes c a r e of p a c k e t routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the p a c k e t , from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’sIPaddress are placed inthe header by the
network layer.
Functions:
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination.
Logical Addressing: The sender & receiver’s IPaddress are placed in the
header by network layer.
Transport Layer( Layer 4) 89

Transport layer provides services to application layer a n d takes

services from network layer.
The d a t a in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the c o mp l e te message .
Provides the a c k n o wl e dge me n t of the successful d a t a transmission
a n d re-transmits the d a t a if a n error is found.
At sender’sside:
Transport layer receives the formatted d a ta from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation
Also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper d a t a
transmission. It also adds Source a n d Destination port number in its
header a n d forwards the s e gme n t e d d a ta to the Network Layer.
Transport Layer(Layer 4) 90
At receiver’sside:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header a n d
forwards the Data which it has recei ved to the respective
application.
It also performs sequencing a n d reassembling of the segmented
data.
Functions :
Segmentation a n d Reassembly: This layer a c c e p t s the me s s a ge
from the (session) layer , breaks the me s s a ge into smaller units .
Each of the segment produced has a header associated with
it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the me s s a g e to
correct process, transport layer header includes a type of
address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the
me s s a ge is delivered to the correct process.
Session Layer(Layer 5) 91

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection,

mai ntenance of sessions, authentication a n d also ensures security.
Functions:
Session establishment, mai ntenance a n d termination
Synchronization :
allows a process to a d d checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data.
These synchronization point help to identify the error so that the
d a ta is re- synchronized properly, a n d ends of the messages are
not cut prematurely a n d d a ta loss is avoided.

Dialog Controller : The session layer allows t w o systems to start

communication with e a c h other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Presentation Layer(Layer 6) 92

Also called the Translation layer.

The d a t a from the application layer is extracted here a n d
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
functions of the presentation layer are :
Translation : For exampl e, ASCII to EBCDIC.
Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the d a t a into
another form or c o d e . The encrypted d a t a is known as the cipher text
a n d the decrypted d a t a is known as plain text. A key v a l u e is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that n e e d to b e transmitted
on the network.
Application Layer(Layer 7) 93

At the very top of the OSI Model, w e find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications.
These applications p r o d u c e the d a t a , which has to b e
transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
a c c e s s the network a n d for displaying the r e c e i ve d information to
the user.
Ex: Application –Browsers, Skype Messenger e t c .
The internet architecture 94

 The architecture of Internet is hierarchical in nature.

 A brief description of the architecture of Internet is as follows:
 Client (user of computer) at home or in a LAN network is at the lowest level
in hierarchy.
 Local Internet Service Provider (ISP) is at the next higher level.
 An ISP is an organization that has its own computers connected to the
Internet and provides facility to individual users to connect to Internet
through their computers.
 Local ISP is the local telephone company located in the telephone
switching office, where the telephone of client terminates. Examples of
local ISP in Nepal is Worldlink , Subisu , Classictech, CG Net,etc.
 The client calls local ISP using a modem or Network Interface Card.
The internet architecture 95
 Regional ISP is next in the hierarchy. The local ISP is connected to regional ISP
 A router is a special hardware system consisting of a processor, memory, and an I/O interface, used for
the purpose of interconnecting networks. A router can interconnect networks having different
technologies, different media, and physical addressing schemes or frame formats.
 The regional ISP connects the local ISP’s located in various cities via routers.
 If the packet received by regional ISP is for a client connected to this regional ISP, then the packet is
delivered; otherwise, packet is sent to the regional ISP’s backbone.
 Backbone is at top of the hierarchy.
 Backbone operators are large corporations like AT&T,UUNET,GTE Corp,etc. which have their own
server farms connected to the backbone. There are many backbones existing in the world.
 The backbone networks are connected to Regional ISP’s with a large number of routers through
high speed fiber-optics.
 Network Access Point (NAP) connects different backbones, so that packets travel across different
backbones.
 If a packet at the backbone is for a regional ISP connected to this backbone, the packet is sent
to the closest router to be routed to local ISP and then to its destination; otherwise, packet is sent
to other backbone via NAP. The packet traverses different backbones until it reaches the
backbone of regional ISP for which it is destined.
The internet architecture 96
Managing the Internet 97
 Internet is not controlled by any one person or an organization.
 A number of organizations manage the Internet.
 Bodies governing the internet are listed below:
Governing bodies Functions
Internet Society(ISOC) • Provides information about Internet
• Responsible for development of
standards and protocols related
to Internet

Internet Architecture Board(IAB) • Advisory group of ISOC

Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF)
• Responsible for development of Internet
architecture
• Community of network designers,
operators, vendors, and
researchers
• Responsible for evolution of Internet
• Open to all individuals
Managing the Internet
Governing bodies
Internet Engineering Steering
Group(IESG)
Internet Research Task Force(IRTF)
Internet Assigned Number Authority
Internet Network Information
Centre(InterNIC)
World Wide Web Consortium(W3C)
98
Functions
• Reviews standards developed by
IETF
• Focuses on research towards the
future of Internet (Internet
protocol, architecture etc.)
• Allots IP address to organizations
and individuals
• Responsible for domain name
registration
• Responsible for development of
technologies for World Wide
Web
Internet Connections 99
 The ISPs provide Internet connections of different types. Bandwidth and cost
are the two factors that help you (the user) in deciding which Internet
connection to use.
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through a
communication medium in a fixed amount of time.
 The speed of Internet access depends on the bandwidth. The speed of
Internet access increases with the increase in bandwidth.
 ISPs offer low speed Internet connection like Dial-up connection, and high-
speed Internet connection called broadband connection.
 Broadband are the services with more bandwidth than standard telephone
service.
Dialup Connection
 Dial-up access is a method of connecting to the Internet using an existing 100
telephone line.
 When your computer is connected to the Internet, you cannot receive
voice telephone calls on this telephone line during that time.
 In Dial-up access, you are assigned an account on the server of ISP along
with some storage space on the disk of server.
 For example agoel@vsnl.com is an account with an ISP named VSNL. You
are also assigned a user-id and password.
 You connect to Internet by dialing-up one of the computers of ISP. For this,
you use a telephone number provided by ISP and connect via a 56 Kbps
modem. The computer that dials-up is the client or remote machine, and
the computer of ISP is the server or host.
 The client enters the user-id and password, and gets connected to the
Internet via the ISP.
Leased Line 101

 Leased line is a dedicated phone line that connects a computer (also known as
gateway) to Internet, using special kind of modems. At the other end, the gateway
is connected to a large number of computers, which access the Internet via the
gateway.
 The gateway forms a domain on Internet, e.g. niit.com, which is used to provide
connection to the other computers on the Internet to connect to it.
 Leased lines provide reliable and high-speed Internet access.
 The entire bandwidth of leased line is reserved for the traffic between gateway and
Internet.
 Leased lines are generally used by large organizations and universities that have
their own internal network, and have large number of users.
 The leased lines are on-line, twenty-four hours a day and seven days a week. The
leased lines are normally provided on a yearly contract basis. The charges for the
leased line are fixed based on many criteria like the bandwidth, number of users etc.
The fixed charges do not vary with the actual usage of Internet.
ISDN 102

 ISDN is a digital telephone service that can transmit voice, data and control
information over an existing single telephone line.
 Internet access is faster using ISDN than Dial-up access.
 ISDN is commonly used for business purposes. You are able to connect a
computer, a fax machine or a telephone to a single ISDN line, and also use
them simultaneously.
 ISDN is costlier than Dial-up connection. It requires a special phone service
and modem.
 Nowadays, ISDN services are largely being replaced by high speed
broadband connection.
DSL 103
 DSL is a broadband connection that allows connecting to Internet over the existing telephone
lines. It does not affect your telephone voice services. DSL uses the modem provided by ISP.
 The data transmission speed of DSL ranges from 128 Kbps to 8.448 Mbps.
 Originally, telephone lines were designed for carrying human voice and the whole system
worked according to this requirement. All frequencies less than 300 Hz and above 3.4kHz were
attenuated, since 300Hz to 3.4kHz is the range for human speech to be clearly audible.
 When using DSL, a different kind of switch is used that does not filter the frequencies, thus
making entire frequency available. DSL uses frequency beyond 3.4 kHz for Internet access.
 Asymmetric DSL (ADSL), a variant of DSL, provides high-speed delivery of download data (from
Internet to user), than that for upload (from user to Internet), since most users download much
more than they upload.
 The bandwidth of connecting wire is divided into three bands—(1) 0–25kHz for regular
telephone, (2) 25kHz–200kHz for user to Internet (upload), and (3) 250kHz–1MHz for Internet to the
user (download). The available bandwidth for each direction for Internet is divided into
channels of 4 kHz.
 DSL is almost ten times faster than Dial-up access and is an always-on connection.
Cable Modem 104

 The user can connect to the Internet via a cable modem through cable
television. The cable modem provides two connections—one for television
and other for computer.
 The cable modem sends and receives data through the coaxial cable
which connects the cable modem to the cable service provider.
 Coaxial cables allow transmission of Internet data, audio, and video, and
control over its several channels simultaneously. The user can access the
Internet and watch television at the same time.
 Like DSL, cable modem provides high-speed Internet connection. However,
while using cable modem, the bandwidth is shared by many users. If many
users access the Internet simultaneously then the available bandwidth for
each of the user reduces.
Internet Address 105

 A computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address in order

to communicate across the Internet.
 Internet Protocol (IP) address is assigned uniquely to every computer
connected to the Internet. IP address is provided by the ISP whose services
you use to connect your computer to the Internet. IP address is a string of
numbers consisting of four parts, where each part is a number between 0
and 255. An IP address looks like 201.54.122.107.
 IP addresses are numeric, it is difficult to remember everyone’s IP address.
So, instead of numeric IP address, domain name is used.
Internet Address 106

 Domain name is a text name (string of words) corresponding to the numeric

IP address of a computer on the Internet. Domain names are used for the
convenience of the user. A domain name combines a group of hosts on
the Internet (e.g. Yahoo, Google, MSN etc.), and a top level domain. Some
examples of top-level domain are as follows:
 com—for commercial organizations,
 edu—for educational institutions,
 net—for gateways and administrative hosts,
 org—for non-profit organizations,
 co—for companies, and
 ac—for academics

 Some examples of domain name are google.com, psc.gov.np,

mmamc.edu,etc.
DNS 107

 In order to translate numeric IP address that identifies a computer on the

Internet to a domain name that is convenient for the user to remember, a
mapping is needed between the IP address and domain names.
 Domain Name System (DNS) server is a computer having a database that
stores the IP addresses and their domain names.
 Whenever a user uses the domain name, DNS translates it into its
corresponding IP address, to access the computer on Internet.
 For example, DNS translates google.com to the IP address of the computer
that houses Google
 WWW 108
 WWW (also called as Web) is a large scale, online store of information.
 It is a system of creating, organizing, and linking of documents.
 Information is stored on WWW as a collection of documents that are
interconnected with each other via links.
 The interconnected documents may be located on one or more than one
computer, worldwide, thus, the name world wide web.
 The documents on web are created in hypertext format. Hypertext facilitates linking of
documents.
 The language used to create a hypertext format document is HyperText Markup
Language (HTML). HTML allows the designer of the document to include text, pictures,
video, images, sound, graphics, movies etc., and also to link contents on the same
document or different documents using a hyperlink.
 The hypertext format document is transferred on the Web using HyperText Transfer
Protocol (HTTP).
Web Browser 109

 Web Browser (or browser) is a software program that extracts information on

user request from the Internet and presents it as a web page to the user. It is
also referred to as the user interface of the web.
 Browsers are of two types:-graphical browser and text-based browser.
 Graphical browsers provide a graphical user interface where the user can jump
from one web page to the other by clicking on the hyperlink (displayed in blue
color with underline) on a web page.
 Internet Explorer, Chrome and Mosaic are examples of graphical browsers.
 Text browsers are used on computers that do not support graphics. Lynx is a text
browser.
 The process of using browser to view information on the Internet is known as
Browsing or Surfing.
URL 110
 A web page on the Internet is uniquely identified by its address, called URL.
URL is the address on the Internet at which the web page resides.
 The user uses this address to get a web page from the Internet.
 The general form of URL is
protocol://address/path
Internet Search Engines 111

 There are hundreds of millions of web pages available, containing

information on a wide variety of topics.
 There is no single catalog maintained (similar to a library) that lists all the
web pages and their information.
 The user needs to search the Internet to find the information relevant to
his/her requirement.
 Internet Search engines or Search engines are specific web sites that help
the users to find information stored on the Internet.
WWW development languages
112
 The web pages or web sites are written using web development languages.
 Web development languages are required for developing the layout of the web site
in a Graphical User Interface (GUI) based web editor, and to add interactivity to the
web sites:-at client side and at server side.
 HTML, Dynamic HTML (DHTML), and eXtensible Markup Language (XML) are some of
the programming languages used to design and develop the web pages. You can
also use software like Dreamweaver, Microsoft Front page, or your common word
processor, which have the ability to save your document as a web page, for
designing and development of the web pages.
 client side interactivity, the changes in the code for user interaction happen on the
computer of the client side only. For example, if you are viewing a book store
website, then as you move the cursor on a book, you can see a blurb showing the
details of the book; this is implemented for client side.
 The server side interactivity involves the server that is hosting the web site. Here, one
may need to access the database or some other content stored on the server. For
example, from the book store web site you decide to purchase a book. This may
require filling in a form to check the availability of the book and completing the
payment transaction; this requires server side programming.
E-mail 113
 Electronic mail (E-mail) is an electronic message transmitted over a network
from one user to another.
 E-mail is a text-based mail consisting of lines of text, and can include
attachments such as audio messages, pictures and documents.
 To use e-mail, a user must have an e-mail address.
 The e-mail address contains all information required to send or receive a
message from anywhere in the world.
 An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by @ symbol (spelled as at):-
the first part is user_name and the second part is host computer name.
 The e-mail address may look like abcdgoel@gmail.com
where, abcdgoel is the user_name,
 gmail.com is the host computer name (domain name) i.e. the mailbox where
finally the mail will be delivered. gmail is the mail server where the mailbox
“abcdgoel” exists.
E-mail services 114

 There are two kinds of e-mail services:-Application-based e-mail, and Web-

based e-mail.
 Application-based e-mail is installed onto the user’s computer. The mail is stored
on the user’s computer. For using an application based e-mail, the user uses a
program such as Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express etc. The user must have an
e-mail account on the Internet mail server with a domain name (e.g. vsnl.com),
which is provided by the ISP whose services the user is using to connect to the
Internet. The user also has an e-mail address (create e-mail address by adding
your username to e-mail server’s domain name. E.g. aagoel@vsnl.com), which
identifies the user uniquely on the e-mail server.
 Web-based e-mail or Webmail appears in a web browser’s window. A web-
based e-mail can be accessed by the user from any Internet-connected
computer anywhere in the world. Web-based e-mail is not stored on the user’s
computer. Many free web-based e-mail services are available. Hotmail, yahoo,
and gmail provide free e-mail accounts. An example of web-based e-mail
address is ashima1234@gmail.com.
How does E-mail works 115
FTP 116

 FTP is an Internet tool used for copying files from one computer to another.
 It gives access to directories or folders on remote computers, and allows
software, data and text files to be transferred between different kinds of
computers.
 Using a FTP program or a web browser, the user can log onto an FTP host
computer over Internet and copy files onto their own computer.
 FTP promotes sharing of files, articles, and other types of data.
 FTP encourages indirect use of remote computers.
 Heterogeneous systems use different operating systems, character sets, directory
structures, file structures, and formats. FTP shields users from these variations and
transfers data reliably and efficiently.
 Universities and software companies use FTP host computers to provide visitors
with access to data.
How does FTP works 117
Telnet 118

 Telnet uses the telecommunication network facility that allows a computer

to access the contents of another computer (also called host computer).
 A telnet program allows the user to access or edit files, or, issue or execute
commands on the host computer. Telnet is different from FTP.
 While FTP allows transfer of files from the host computer, Telnet allows
access to the computing facility of the host computer but does not allow
transfer of files. Telnet is widely used by libraries, to allow visitors to look up
information, find articles, to access the computer of your office from home,
etc.
 To start telnet, the user gives a command to log to the host computer, for
example telnet foo.cs.wisc.edu.
News 119

 News includes tens of thousands of newsgroups.

 Each newsgroup is focused to a specific topic for discussion.
 People who are interested in the topic, post their articles or views on it for
others to read. People can read articles and also respond to articles.
 The name of the newsgroup suggests the specific topic handled by it. For
example, prefix of comp indicates that the newsgroup is about computers,
and soc indicates a newsgroup about social issues and socializing.
 To participate in a newsgroup, newsreader software like Microsoft Outlook
Express is needed. Newsreader software allows the user to read articles that
have been posted on a newsgroup.
IRC 120

 IRC allows users to communicate in real time by typing text in a special

window.
 This means that other users with whom you chat are present online on their
computers.
 It is an instant sending and receiving of message, unlike e-mail where the
receiver may not be on-line when the e-mail message is sent.
 There are several IRC channels, where each is a discussion room for a user
group or for discussion on a subject.
 A message sent by a user to IRC channel is received by all the users who
have joined the channel.
Web 121

 The Web is the common name for the World Wide Web, a subset of the
Internet consisting of the pages that can be accessed by a Web
browser.
 Many people assume that the Web is the same as the Internet, and use
these terms interchangeably.
 Web does make up a large portion of the Internet, but they are not one
and same.
 Web pages are formatted in a language called Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML).
 The Web uses HTTP protocol to transmit data and share information.
 Browsers such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox
are used to access Web documents, or Web pages, which are
connected via links.
Web 2.0 122

 Web 2.0 describes the current state of the web, which has more user-
generated content and usability for end-users compared to its earlier
incarnation, Web 1.0.
 Web 2.0 does not refer to any specific technical upgrades to the internet; it
refers to a shift in how the Internet is used.
 In the new age of the Internet, there is a higher level of information sharing
and interconnectedness among participants.
 Examples of Web 2.0 sites include Wikipedia, Facebook, Twitter, and web
blog sites, which all transformed the way the same information was shared
and delivered.
Wearable Computing 123

 Wearable computing is a term that refers to computer-powered

devices or equipment that can be worn by a user, including
clothing, watches, glasses, shoes and similar items.
 Wearable computing devices can range from providing very
specific, limited features like heart rate monitoring and pedometer
capabilities to advanced smart functions and features similar to
those a smartphone or smartwatch offers.
IOT 124

 The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects

“things” that are embedded with sensors, software, and other
technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging data
with other devices and systems over the internet.
 These devices range from ordinary household objects to
sophisticated industrial tools.
Cloud Computing 125

 Cloud computing is the delivery of different services through the

Internet. These resources include tools and applications like data
storage, servers, databases, networking, and software.
 Cloud computing is a popular option for people and businesses for
a number of reasons including cost savings, increased productivity,
speed and efficiency, performance, and security.
 Cloud computing takes all the heavy lifting involved in crunching
and processing data away from the device you carry around or sit
and work at. It also moves all of that work to huge computer clusters
far away in cyberspace
Importance of Cloud Computing 126
 Cost Savings

 Security

 Flexibility

 Mobility

 Insight

 Increased Collaboration

 Quality Control

 Disaster Recovery

 Loss Prevention

 Automatic Software Updates

Smart Cities Vs ICT 127

 A smart city is a framework, predominantly composed of

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), to develop,
deploy, and promote sustainable development practices to
address growing urbanization challenges.