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    4 views20 pages

    Load Frequency Control

    Uploaded by

    Pratik Kanjilal
    load freq ctrl

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    op Load Frequerey Cortes] , 6.1 Introduction {oo important parameters in the power system are system voltage and system frequency. These two have to ‘econtinuously controlled to maintain them within acceptable limits. Frequency deviations occur due to ulance berween generation and load. The load being dynamic changes continuously and the generation cobe controlled ro keep track of the load variations and follow it. This isthe problem of auromatic gen- sion control (AGC), which is dealt with in this chapter. There are several control problems which have to seaddressed for a stable and efficient operation of a power system, In the last three chapters, we addressed roblem of economic dispatch and unit commitment to operate the system with minimum cost. In this dupes, we address the problem of operating the system in a continuous automatic closed-loop control 0 3s to cuinuin the voltage and frequency within acceptable limits. The load on the system being dynamic, the voltage and frequency continuously change. These deviations ast be detected in real time and the automatic control system should initiate control actions to counter deviations and bring the system back quickly to its original state. 6.2 Basic Generator Control Loops T = generators are equipped with two major control loops, namely: 1. Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) 2. Automatic load-frequency control (ALFC) or AGC Figute 6.1 shows the two control loops for a generator. Secondary ALF ~~ __ Tie-line —s Powor Primary ALEC Stoam/wator ~ Signal ]Integrator (AP )\_ ary Jamptior|_F]_f Spood |__| Spood | _fivdmute] |S] rae + 8] [changor|~"| governor} "| ampitior |" “vos mixer ares gates | ‘roa control rol Turbine | 4p, [Excior error (ACE) powor [Turbine }4[Generator ——— Transtormer] Frequency sensor ; Bus Local loads Figure 6.1 Control loops of a generator. The AVR has been discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Basically i is used co control the terminal volageeis generator. The generator terminal voltage is controlled by the field current, supplied by the exciterDifxz exciters and their models are discussed in Chapter 2. To implement the AVR, the terminal voligeirce wuously sensed, rectified and smoothened. This de signal is chen compared with a reference devo paix the error voltage. This error voltage is amplified and is used as input to the exciter to adjust the feld in such a way that the terminal voltage reaches the reference value. The ALFC, also called AGC, controls the real power so as to maintain the system frequency a consuat Ts is achieved by controlling the speed of the prime mover. The ALFC does not comprise a single loop. Iku primary loop which responds to frequency changes (due to load changes) and regulates the steam or wasi* via the speed governor and control valves to match the real power output with that of the load. The tmee considered here isa few seconds. We can say that this primary loop performs a coarse speed ot frquency = There is a slower secondary loop which maintains fine frequency adjustments to maintain prope t “ : eave eae ean ine wasnt! power interchange with other interconnected networks via tie ines. This loop is insensitive 0 frequency changes and acts on deviations which take place over several minutes. In general, the active power control i relaced to frequency control, and the reactive power contel age control. Therefore, the AVR and ALFC loops are more or less decoupled and cross-coupling ee 4 Joops can be neglected. However, since the changes in the internal emfalso affect the real res fc er than hell” in AVR loop also affect the ALFC loop. The AVR loop is much fist es initiated, So, for all the generator, change Joop. Hence, the AVR dynamics settle down before the ALEC control action purposes we can assume thar there is no cross-coupling benween the two loops. oe ens 20 ot help th 6.3 Commonly Used Terms in AGC The complete IEE-recommended definitions of terms for AGC of electric power y “ ell alee etc in JEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems!" . A few terms are discussed here understand the terminology. 4. Control areas large scale power system is divided into number of conta ares: A conta area pore ofasystem 10 ‘hich a common generation control is applied. : 9, Tie Fines The eansmission lines connecting two or more areas are called tie Tre ne aren co another vi the te ines ta eee: Bere contol Fs her fsa mutually preaeanged et pow 9 net interchange. The algebraic sum of powers on the area te line trchange. If the net interchange is positive, there is generation out ofthe area nes. Active power flows in the area tie lines, called the schedule s of a control area js called the net int sg Frguenege There ate different Frequencies commonly used. They are: reget fequon: Is the actual frequency ofthe system ac voltage. « Seandard frequency: Ieis the frequency intended to be used as reference. «pared fiequency Its the frequency for which the generating equipment i designed. « Schdled frequency Wes the frequency which the system attempts ro manain Frequency bias: Ic is the offet in the scheduled net power interchange of a control area. Iris varied roportional to the frequency deviation and is in a direction so as to bring the system frequency to the scheduled frequency. 6 Time deviation: It is the ratio 0 quency and rated frequency, to the rat interchange power of a control area proportional to the time deviation to 2er0. 7. Load-frequency characteristic: change in system frequency. 8, Station control error: It is the station generation minus t tN that this is reverse co the way err is defined in 3 co trolled quantity). Unit control errors: It is the unit generation minus the assigned unit generation. F the accumulated (or integrated) difference between the system fre- ffiset in the scheduled net frequency. The time bias is the of deviation in a direction to restore time Fora control area, iis the change in roral area Toad resulting from a he assigned station generation. introl system as reference quant ry minus con- f | 64 Functions of AGC Inapower system the loads and losses are sensitive to frequency. Ifa generating unit is tripped or the load on the sytem is increased, the power mismatch is initially compensated by extracting the kinetic energy from system inertial storage causing a decline in system frequency. As the frequency decreases, the power taken by sheloads also decreases. Equilibrium in larger systems is generally obtained when the reduction in frequency sensitive load balances the output of the tripped generator or the load increase at the new frequency. IF equi- Ibsium is reached it isin less than 2 s. Ifthe mismatch is large, then the governor action has to increase the generation of the units such that ‘ulibrium is reached, when the reduction in the power taken by the loads plus the increase in generation makes up for the mismatch. Such equilibrium is reached in 10-15 s after tripping of a unit or connection of ziditonal load. The main requirement of the AGC is to ensure the following: 1. The fiequency of the various bus voltages are maintained at the scheduled frequency. 2. The tie-line power flows are maintained at the scheduled levels. 3. The rota power is shared by all generators economically (economic dispatch). The first wo functions are realized using the ALFC, whereas the third has been extensively dealt with in (lap 3. Apart from this, modern AGC strategies” include many more functions. Some of them are sted here. 6.5 Speed Governors When the electrical load on a generator inereases suddenly, the mismatch in Power is compensated f Kinetic energy stored in the system. This leads to a reduction in speed of the turbine and a drop in the quency. The speed governor reacts to this change in speed, and adjusts the turbine input (stearyate x change the mechanical power output to match the increased power and restore the system frequeng In; Scam turbine, governor-controlled valves control the power input to the turbine and are actusted by the governor. In a hydro turbine, governor-controled gates contiol the power input to the turbine ll quip such 2s relays, levers, servomotors, pressure or power-amplifying devices, linkages between speed gore: and governor-controlled valves (or gates) form the speed-control mechanism. 6.5.1 General Governor Operation The speed sensing device is either a fly ball assembly (in case of mechanical-hydraulic governors) orf quency transducer (in case of electro-hydraulic governors). The output of the speed sensor passes throu! signal conditioning, amplification and operates a control (gates/valves) +o adjust the prime mover oust until the system frequency change is arrested. The governor control alone cannot restore frequency 10 original value. The frequency is restored by the AGC to the scheduled value, Recens electric governs use frequency deviation and actuate hydraulic devices to control gate of throttle position without w + Yield a generation trend acceptably matching the trend required to serve the changing scheduled frequency, over the selected time frame, 8 load Schedule generation to accumulate lower fuel cost over the selected time frame, which include ing undesirable generation ranges in different units and avoiding sustained operation in these "Pa + Maintain a sufficient level of reserved control range and sufficient level of control rate, ames, + Operate the system with higher security margins. + Provide timely recommendations for changing of outputs of units which ate manuall - Provide meaningful alarms such as display in control center for deviation from desi hot responding to AGC control signal, anticipated future generation, etc, th, 2, aye w ly contolleg, ed generation, The design of AGC system depends on the way the units respond to AGC signals. The res ; POMS char, | istics of units vary widely and depend on many factors such as: + Type of generating unit: fossil-fired, nuclear hydro, combined cycle, ete. - Type of fuel used: coal, oil, uranium, gas, etc, = Type of plant control. Pee + Type of plant: once-hrough boiles,drum-type boiler, pressurized-water nuclear reactor, pumped stag hydro, etc. 5. Operating point of units. 6. Manual control by operators. In multi-area control, tie-line power deviation dictates the AGC control. This is deal within Chper’ The speed governors play a vital role in the primary control of the frequency. This is discussed in dealt the next section. To understand the load frequency control problem, ying an isolated load let us consider a single turbo-generator. system sopplying . 821 Turbine Speed Governing System Figure 8.2 shows schematically the speed Steam governing system of a steam turbine. zl The system consists of the following components: Lower 1. Fly ball speed governor: ‘This {| yo Clase vis the heart of the system which . = =(—] Speed changer ana Senses the change in speed p 4. movement | (frequency). As the speed increases perio the fly balls move outwards and A ihe point B on linkage mechanism dh % moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases, i NAM Fecescs calles 2. Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises Fe @ pilot valve and main piston Pea i LE. Main arrangement. Low power level piston pilot valve movement is converted t 6 into high power level piston valve Speed governor Hycraulc amplifer Movement. This is necessary in (speed control mechanism) order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam. Fig. 8.2 Turbine speed governing system (Reprinted with permission 3. Linkage mechanism: ABC is a of McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, from Olle 1. Elgerd: rigid Tink nit ef Band CDE Electric Energy System Theory: An Introduction, 1971, p 322) is another rigid link pivoted at D. This link mechanism provides a ih ‘i : é Movement to the control valve in proportion to change in speed. It also provides a feedback from the ‘Steam valve movement (link 4). . 4. Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output sctting for the turbine, Its downward movement Pens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence More steady power output). The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer, [8.22 Model of Speed Governing System Assume that the system is initially operating under steady eoeliceeie linkage ctconant i finite magnitude, turbine running wit id pilot valve closed, steam valve opened by a def r ine ; turbine Power output balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be characterised by J? = system frequency (speed) P= generator output = turbine output (neglecting generator loss) EH steam valve setting . Ne shall obtain a linear incremental model around these operating conditions, ; Let the point 4 on the linkage mechanism be moved downwards by a small amount Ay,. It is a command ‘hich causes the turbine power output to change and ean therefore be written Or | aaf | ars |S ites) arts) the change in load demand, Let us consider a simple situation in which the speed changer x has a fixed setting (i., APo = 0) and the RI lead demand changes. This is known as free Fig. 8.6 ‘Block diagrain model of load frequency control governor operation, For such an operation, (isolated power system) the steady change in system frequency for a sudden change in load demand by an amount APp, » APp(s) = AP ys is obtained as follows: Kye “ APy AF(s) =o KykiKyIR* 5, (8.14) (14 1,5) 4 eee |APo(3)=0 (1+ Ts\(l+ Ts) of siesaysate = SAF (s)} aee0 540 AR @)=0 K, =-| —————__| ap, es a > (8.15) While the gain X, is fixed for the turbine and Kpr is fixed for the power system, K,», the speed governor cance

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