Physiology Summary

The Digestive System : agio

•devided into : see
1- Alimentary canal : Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
- continuous muscular tube from the mouth to the anus.
- Function : Digests and absorbs the digested food.
2- Accessory digestive organs: Teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
- Function : Produce a variety of secretions that help break down the food.
• Digestive processes :
1- Ingestion : Taking food into the GIT
2- Propulsion : Movement of the food in the AC ( Alimentary canal ) || including: swallowing
( voluntary) — Peristalsis ( involuntary) -> waves of contraction , relaxation of muscles in the organ wall .
3- Mechanical breakdown : Increasing the surface area of the digested food || preparing for
the digestion by enzymes physically
4- Digestion : catabolic steps -> enzymes secreted into the cavity of AC -> breakdown food
to their chemical building block .
5- Absorption : The end product passage ( contain vitamins , minerals , H2O) -> from the
GIT to blood , lymph ( through the mucosal cells by active of passive transport )
6- Defecation : Remove the indigestible substances from the body via anus in the form of feces .

• Histology of the AC : Each layer contains a

predominant tissue type that plays a
The 4 basic layers : Mucosa - submucosa - Muscularis externa - Serosa —> speci c role in food breakdown.
1- MUCOSA :
Function : Secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones || Absorb the end products of digestion into the
blood || Protect against infectious disease
Consist of :
A- Epithelium : simple columnar epithelium -> rich in mucus secreting cells || strati ed squamous epithelium
-> in the mouth , oesophagus, anus || Function : the slippery mucus protect the organs from being digested by the
enzymes — eases the passage of the food along the GIT
B- Lamina Propria : Loose CT -> contain capillaries -> nourish the epithelium , absorb digested nutrients.
C- Muscularis Mucosae : smooth muscles cells -> produces local movements of the mucosa || small intestine
muscularis mucosae -> tone throws the mucosa into a series of small folds -> increase it’s surface area.

2- SUBMUCOSA : External to the mucosa

Consist of : loose CT -> contain B.V , L.V , lymphoid follicles , nerve bers -> supplying the surrounding tissues of
the GIT wall || elastic bers -> help the stomach to return its normal shape ( FLEXIBILITY )
 3- The Muscularis Externa : Surrounding the submucosa
Function : segmentation , peristalsis
Consist of : inner circular ( its thickens form sphincter -> act as a valve -> control food passage , prevent
back ow ) , outer longitudinal of smooth muscles cell

4- SEROSA : The outermost layer

Formed of : loose CT > covered with mesothelium ( a single layer of squamous epithelial cells )
I.N : The oesophagus serosa replaced with adventitia ( ordinary brous CT > binds the oesophagus
to surrounding structures ) .

• Enteric Nervous System of the Alimentary Canal

- The nerve supply ( enteric neurons ) -> regulate digestive system activity
- Enteric neurons constitute the bulk of the two major intrinsic nerve plexuses:
a- Submucosal nerve plexuses : in the submucosa
b- Myenteric nerve plexuses: between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis externa
- The enteric nervous system is linked to the central nervous system by :
a- Afferent visceral bers
b- Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches ( motor bers ) of the ANS ( autonomic nervous system)

Inhabit digestive Enhance digestive

activities activities

• The Component of the Digestive system :

1- Mouth ( oral cavity ) :

Function : ingestion , chewing the food and mix it with the saliva ( contain enzyme )
Boundaries : Anteriorly: lips | Laterally: cheeks | Superiorly: palate | Inferiorly: tongue
The wall : strati ed squamous epithelium ( protect form friction )
The mucosa : produce defensins -> responds to injury .
• The structures that present in the mouth : The Palate, tongue, salivary gland , teeth.
A- The Palate : form the roof of the mouth

Hard palate Soft palate

anteriorly posteriorly
A rigid surface -> Mobile fold > mostly of skeletal
tongue forces food muscle that rises re exively to
during chewing close off the nasopharynx when
we swallow
B- The Tongue 👅 :
Function : Repositions the food between the teeth | Mixes food with saliva forming “bolus” | Initiates
swallowing | Help with speaking .
Consist of :
B1- Tow skeletal muscle bers:

Intrinsic Extrinsic
muscles muscles
not attached to bone extend from bones of the skull
and allow the tongue to or the soft palate (change the
change its shape tongue’s position)

B2 - Lingual papilla : bears to the superior surface of the tongue

Filiform Fungiform Vallate Foliate

Cone-shaped |roughen Has a vascular located in a V- shaped located on the lateral aspects
the tongue surface core row (back of the tongue) of the posterior tongue

I.N : Serous cells beneath the foliate and vallate papillae -> secrete lingual lipase( a fat-digesting
enzyme that operates in the acid environment of the stomach ) .

C- The Salivary Gland :

Function Types Component
1- Cleanses the mouth 1- Saliva is largely water:
2. Dissolves food chemicals so Parotid Gland 97 to 99.5%.
they can be tasted 2- Slightly acidic (pH 6.75
3. Moistens food and helps to 7.00) .
compact it into a bolus Sublingual Gland 3- Contains: digestive
4. Contains enzymes enzymes (salivary amylase
(amylase) that begin the and lingual lipase); the
chemical breakdown of
Submandibular Gland proteins mucin, lysozyme,
starchy foods and IgA.

• Control of Salivation :
- The process: Chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the mouth -> send signals to the salivatory nuclei in the brain stem (pons and medulla) ->
The parasympathetic nervous system activity increases -> Impulses sent via motor bers in the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves -> increase the
output of saliva dramatically .
- The stimulator : Chemoreceptors: activated by acidic substances (vinegar and citrus juice) || Mechanoreceptors: activated by
mechanical stimulus in the mouth || Sight or smell || Irritation of the lower GI tract by ( bacterial toxins, spicy foods, or
hyperacidity ) .
- The inhabiters : sympathetic division -> thick saliva ( Strong activation -> constricts blood vessels -> serving the salivary glands ,
completely inhibits saliva release, -> dry mouth ) || Dehydration -> inhabit salivation ( the blood volume reduces ltration pressure at capillary
beds) .
D- The Teeth 🦷 :
- Function : tear and grind the food, physically breaking it down into smaller fragments.
- Types :
A- Primary ( milk teeth ) : 20 teeth
B- Permanent : 32 teeth
- Classi cation :
Incisors Canines Premolars
i Molars
- chisel-shaped - cuspids or -bicuspids -broad crowns with
- cutting | eyeteeth - grinding or rounded cusps
nipping off - tear and pierce crushing - best grinders

2- Pharynx :

- Food Pathway : Mouth -> Oropharynx -> Laryngopharynx ( passageways for food, uids, and air) .
- The structure :
A- Mucosa : Strati ed squamous EPITH ( friction- resistant ) , mucus-producing cells
B- Muscularis Externa : Inner layer (longitudinally) || Outer layer (encircle the wall) .
I.N : Contractions of the muscles propel food into the esophagus below .

3- Oesophagus :
- De ned as : It is a muscular tube (collapse when not involved in food propulsion) .
- The structure:
Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Adventitia
1-Mucus-secreting glands 1- Superior 1/3 : skeletal muscle - Fibrous CT -> blends
1- Nonkeratinized
( when the bolus move -> 2- Middle 2/3 :skeletal and with surrounding
strati ed squamous compresses the gland ->
smooth muscle structures along its
EPITH. secrete mucus -> greases the
3- Inferior 3/3 :smooth muscle route.
walls and aids food passage) .

- Digestive Processes: Mouth to Esophagus :

The mouth : Ingests || Begins mechanical breakdown by chewing || Initiates propulsion by swallowing
|| Starts the chemical breakdown (digestion) of polysaccharides .
I.N : No absorption occurs in the mouth.
A- MASTICATION (CHEWING): BREAKING DOWN large food particles into smaller particles.
- Function : breaks down large food particles into smaller particles || mixes food with salivary secretion. ||
Most important for fruits, raw vegetables and grains because it breaks the indigestible cellulose membrane
around it || Chewing facilitate swallowing, protect the GIT from injury by big masses of food.
- Mechanism :
Carried by : muscles of jaws, lips, cheeks, and tongue.
The action : voluntary, involuntary ( activation of muscles in response to pressure - > rhythmic re ex action )
B - DEGLUTITION ( SWALLOWING ) : transportation of the food through the pharynx and esophagus to the stomach.
- Phases Of Deglutition :
B1- The Buccal (oral) phase : voluntary contractions of the muscles of the tongue.
B2- The Pharyngeal Phase : Involuntary | Initiated-> tongue force bolus into pharynx | Stimulated
by > pressure receptors -> mucosa sends impulses ( Efferent impulses are carried the pharyngeal
musculature and tongue ) -> swallowing centre in the medulla.
B3- Esophageal Stage : Involuntary | conducts food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristaltic waves .

4- Stomach :

- Known as ( Storage tank ) .

- Food is converted to a creamy paste called chyme.
- The vloume of the stomach : empty -> 50 ml || full -> 4L ( may extend nearly to the pelvis )
- Parts of the stomach :
1. Cardiac region -> where the contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach
2. Fundus -> formed by the upper curvature of the organ
3. Body -> the main central region
4. Pylorus and antrum (the lower section of the organ) -> facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine.
- The structure of the layers in the stomach :
The MUCOSA :
- Lined with simple columnar epithelium that composed of mucous cells .
- Function : produce a cloudy , protective tow layer of alkaline mucus , the surface layer consist of viscous, insoluble
mucus that traps a layer of bicarbonate-rich uid beneath it.
- Consist of : deep gastric pits —-(lead to ) —> tubular gastric gland > produce the stomach secretion ( gastric juice )
- I.N : the cells that form the gastric pits s wall -> primary mucus cell || the cells of the gastric gland ——( vary in
different stomach regions ) —> cells of the cardia , pylorus ( secrete mucus ) | cells of the pyloric antrum
( produce mucus , hormones [ the stimulatory hormone called gastrin ] ) .
- The mucosal barrier ( Factors create this barrier) : thick coating of bicarbonate-rich mucus builds up on the
stomach wall || The epithelial cells of the mucosa are joined together by tight junctions that prevent gastric juice from
leaking into underlying tissue layers. || Damaged epithelial mucosal cells are shed and quickly replaced by division of
undifferentiated stem cells that reside where the gastric pits join the gastric glands.
 • Cells of the MUCOSA :

Mucous Neck Cells Parietal Cells Chief Cells Enteroendocrine Cells

Produce a thin , soluble - Secrete HCl acid , intrinsic factor.
- It has dense microvilli -> provides
mucus , its differ from that
a huge surface area for secreting H
secreted by the mucous + and Cl- into the stomach lumen.
cells of the surface EPITH. - Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein
required for vitamin B12 absorption
in the small intestine.
- Acidic condition : its important to ..
Activation of protein-digesting enzyme pepsin || Helps digest food by denaturing proteins || Break down cell walls
of plant foods || Kill many of the bacteria ingested with foods.
-produce pepsinogen
(inactive form of the pepsin)
- secrete lipases (fat-
digesting enzymes)
-release a chemical messengers
directly into the interstitial uid of
the lamina propria.
1- Histamine , Serotonin : act
locally as paracrines.
2- Somatostatin : act as paracrines
Locally , hormone -> diffuse into
B.C -> in uence target organ
3- Gastrin : act as hormone ->
regulating stomach secretion and
motility.

- I.N : The stomach surface epithelium of mucous cells is completely renewed every 3-6 days, but
the more sheltered glandular cells deep within the gastric glands have a much longer life span.

The MUSCULARIS EXTERNA :

1- Incomplete innermost layer of smooth muscle brils —> obliquely.
2- The arrangement of the muscles ( circular and longitudinal muscle layers ) —> allow the stomach to —>
mix , churn , move food along the tract | pummel the food ( physically breaking it down into smaller
fragments and ramming it into the small intestine )

The Stomach Sphincter : Cardiac sphincter , pyloric sphincter -> help in keeping the contents of the stomach contained

Digestion in the stomach :

1- Stomach muscles mix up the food with enzymes and acids —> smaller digestible pieces .
2- The pyloric sphincter —> keeps the chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right
consistency to pass into the small intestine.
3- The food leaves the stomach in small squirts rather than all at once.