MODULE 3

LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

LESSONS AND COVERAGE

 The criteria in selecting, citing, and synthesizing related literature
 The ethical standards in writing related literature
 The formulation of conceptual framework
 The research hypothesis
 The definition of terms

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES

1. Selects relevant literature (CS_RS12-If-j-1)
2. Cites related literature using standards style (CS_RS12-If-j-2)
3. Synthesizes information from relevant literature (CS_RS12-If-j-3)
4. Writes coherent review of literature (CS_RS12-If-j-4)
5. Follows ethical standards in writing related literature (CS_RS12-If-j-5)
6. Illustrates and explain conceptual framework (CS_RS12-If-j-6)
7. Defines terms used in study (CS_RS12-If-j-7)
8. Lists research hypothesis (CS_RS12-If-j-8)
9. Presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework (CS_RS12-If-j-9)

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?

A literature review is a compilation, classification and evaluation of what other researchers have written on a particular
topic. A literature review normally forms part of research study but it can also stand alone as self-contained review of
writings on a subject.

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Place each work in the context of its contribution to the subject under review;
2. Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration;
3. Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research;
4. Resolve conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies
5. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort;
6. Point the way forward for further research;
7. Place an original piece of research in the context of existing literature

FOCUS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Determine what has already been written on a topic
2. Identify previous approaches to the topic
3. Integrate what previous researchers have found
4. Identify important issues still unresolved

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Group research studies and other relevant literature according to a common theme or idea
2. Summarize each item of the literature appropriately according to its significance
3. Compare and evaluate each item of the literature
4. Provide topic sentences at the beginning of paragraphs and summary sentences at the end of sections to help the reader
understand what the main issues are

CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. The literature and studies must be closely related with the study being undertaken. The unrelated ideas or findings
which are not closely related to the present study should be deleted.
2. The books, magazines, journals or other materials cited must be recent as possible. If the historical value of data is not
being given weight, the sources to be cited should not be older than more or less five years
3. The researches, theses or dissertations, should not be of the antiquated vintage, especially when the research study
calls for new discoveries and ideas.
4. In cases where the historic value and significance of data are needed to prove the authenticity of the fact of evidence as
in researches where case studies are undertaken, the recency of the materials sources may not be necessity.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. It provides the researcher a comprehensive point of view on the concepts of the study to be undertaken
2. It provides the researcher a good basis for theoretical and conceptual framework to which the present study is anchored
3. It enriches the current study with insights and backdrops of the cited data and findings of related literature and studies
for better and deeper understanding
4. It helps the reader in drawing up generalizations and conclusions that may validly crop up from the present study.

WHAT IS CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK?

It is a graph or non-prose material, specifically, a schematic diagram that shows well - ordered elements of the
research. Giving a carefully constructed arrangement of the components of your study, conceptual frame work is a broad
outline or plan to give shape to your research.

CONTRIBUTION OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IN RESEARCH STUDY

1. identifies research variables
2. Clarifies relationship among variables

POINTERS IN WRITING CONCECPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1. Familiarize yourself with the objective of the conceptual framework
2. Base the contents of the conceptual framework on your own understanding of the elements and of the
relationships of the research features
3. See to it that all aspects of the conceptual framework are related to the objective of the research
4. Let others read your conceptual framework for comments or feedback for improvement purposes

THE CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM

A conceptual paradigm is a diagram that visually represents and interprets the underlying theory, principles and
concepts of a research. It is a visual presentation of variables that interrelate with one another as perceived by the researcher
before an actual empirical investigation is done to prove its relationship.

THE COMPONENTS OF THE CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM

1. Input - the information fed into a research study
2. Process - a method of operations that brings about the particular result
3. Output - the result of processing information or data at a given period
A. Input
The input consists of the item statements which are derived from the questions under the statements of the problems of
the study written in the order of the inquiry.
B. Process
The process refers to the statistical measures of the study as to how the data are gathered, evaluated, analyzed, and
interpreted by using either the descriptive or inferential statistics whichever is applicable.
C. Output
The output presents the goals of the study, the expected results and/or the status to be realized or achieved.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The Theoretical Framework draws up the rationale of the research problem, the basis of the research objectives
and the scope of the research work which may be considered as the extent of the parameters.
Theoretical framework bridges the present study with existing theories in the process of analyzing, interpreting and
harmonizing findings arising from similar or related constructs.
THE PURPOSES OR USEFULNESS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
1. A theory is useful as a guideline in meaningfully organizing existing data that will be used in answering the main
problems of the study
2. A theory explains why the problem under study exists. It also helps the researcher determine the variables to be
measured.
3. The conceptual framework explains the relationship between among the variables that the researchers have to study.
The conceptual framework identifies the central theme, the focus, or the main thrust of the study.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS?

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or an answer to a question about variables, their relationships, and other facts
involved in the research. It is an inferential thinking that makes you guess something based not only on whatever experience
of factual knowledge you have about studies. A hypothesis has to be tested through analytic investigation to prove how true
or false it is.

PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESES
1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to focus on
2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables
3. They give the right direction of the research
4. They outline your thoughts on your manner of summarizing the results and of explaining the conclusions
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the existence of relationship of variables and the effects of
independent variable on the dependent variable

A HYPOTHESIS SHOULD ALWAYS:

1. Explain what you expect to happen
2. Be clear and understandable
3. Be testable
4. Be measurable
5. And contain an independent and dependent variable

CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Simple Hypothesis - a hypothesis that predicts the relationship between two variables: the independent variable
and the dependent variable.
Examples:
1. “Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.”
2. “Smoking cigarettes daily leads to lung cancer.”
2. Complex Hypothesis - a relationship between variables. However, it’s relationship between two or more
dependent variables.
Examples:
1. “Overweight adults who (a) value longevity and (b) seek happiness are more likely than other adults
to (a) lose their excess weight and (b) feel a more regular sense of joy.”
2. “Individuals that (a) smoke cigarettes and (b) live in cities are more likely than others to have (a)
respiratory problems and (b) increased cancer.”
3. Null Hypothesis (H0) - this hypothesis is expressed in the negative form. It denies the existence of an attribute, a
significant relationship or characteristics that spells the difference between noted phenomena.
Examples:
1. “There is no significant difference between the efficiency of male and female nurses in rural health care
delivery.”
2. “There is no significant difference between the mathematics achievement of boys and girls in Grade 6.”
4. Alternative Hypothesis (H1) - this type of hypothesis is expresses in the positive form. It always affirms or
confirms the existence of an attribute between observed phenomena.
Examples:
1. “There will be a difference between the performance of male and female nurses in the ICU of hospitals”
2. “There will be a difference between the mathematics achievement of boys and girls in Grade 6.”
5. Logical Hypothesis - is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence.
Examples:
1. “Beings from Mars would not be able to breathe the air in the atmosphere of the earth.”
2. “Creatures found in the bottom of the ocean use aerobic respiration rather than anaerobic
respiration.”
6. Empirical Hypothesis - called as working hypothesis, comes to life when theory is being put to the test, using
observation and experiment. It’s no longer just an idea or notion. It’s going through some trial and error and perhaps
changing around those independent variables.
Examples:
1. “Women taking vitamin E grow hair faster thank those taking vitamin K.”
2. “Thirsty rats find their way through a maze quicker if there is water at the end of the maze.”
7. Statistical Hypothesis - is an examination of portion of a population or statistical model. In this type of analysis, you
use statistical information from an area.
Examples:
1. “50% of the Savannah population lives beyond the age of 70.”
“80% of the U.S. population get divorce because of irreconcilable
differences.”

GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING HYPOTHESES

1. Express your hypothesis in declarative sentence
2. Support your hypothesis with ideas based on theories, known facts, and previous studies
3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses and research problem
4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship between or among variables
5. Ascertain the possibility of of having some means of testing, analyzing, and investigating your hypotheses
6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact or specific language in stating the hypotheses

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES
1. Clarity. A hypothesis brings clarity to a research hence making it easier to understand. Clarity is very important
especially there should have to be clarify in the research problem. Hypothesis clears any ambiguities in the research
problem.
2. Specificity. Every researchers wants to bring specificity in his research and hypothesis makes the research very specific.
When the hypothesis is formulated, the researcher gets to now that he has work only on specific areas of the research
problem.
3. Focus. No research can be conducted properly unless there is some focus in it. The researcher should focus on the
specific areas of the research. The hunch or the guess that the researcher formulates gives the research a focal point.
4. Direction. Hypothesis is also shows direction to the researcher. Without hypothesis, the researcher looks at various
aspects of the research as he has to decide how to start the research.
5. Empirical. One of the most important quality of the hypothesis is that it makes the research empirical and the findings of
such research are valid and generalize. Every research should be based on scientific methods and hypothesis makes it easier
for the researcher to use scientific methods in research.

QUALITIES OF A RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. Well - defined. The first quality or research hypothesis is that it should be well - defined, simple and easy to understand.
The research hypothesis should have to be well - defined so that you can easily focus on it, a vague hypothesis can be
misleading and it can run the whole research. Simplicity in wording is important so that you can easily understand it and
you do not take double meanings of the hypothesis.
2. Relevant. The research hypothesis should have to be relevant to the research study. An irrelevant hypothesis has no
values and such hypothesis can mislead the complete study.
Measurable. One of the most important consideration in formulating a research hypothesis is that it should have to be
measurable.
4. Verifiable. Every hypothesis that a researcher formulates has to be verified using certain methods and techniques.
Verification is necessary as it helps in analyzing the research and reaching a conclusion.
TYPES OF DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION - this kind of definitions are based on literal definitions which are taken from dictionaries
or authoritative sources, like encyclopedia, thesaurus or from glossaries of books; hence, the sources should be indicated
after the definition.
Example:
Student - a learner; one who attends a school; one who studies;and attentive and systematic observer Source:
Merriam - Webster Dictionary
2. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION - these type of definition are based on contextual meanings, derived from they way they
are used in the study. These definitions are derived from the observed characteristics or usage of the terms; there would be
no need to cite sources of the definitions for the researcher, himself, draws up the meaning.
Example:
Student - a person who undergo on formal education in a certain educational institution to develop knowledge and
skills in order to cope up in the demands and challenges in life and society
Source: According to researcher

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This portion of research indicates the importance of the study of any group which may derive any form of benefits
from the findings of the study. The researcher may attempt to explain the significance of the research contributions to a
particular entity in bringing about improvements to social, economic, educational or health status as the case may be
depending on what would be the objective of the study.
The group or class of people who will benefit from the findings may be identified. In other words, the following
questions may serve as guides:
 Who do you think will benefit from the result of the study?
 What particular benefits for particular beneficiaries could be derived from the study?
An explanation of the significance of a study may include the meaning of the research work to you personally and
should include how your benefits or impacts others in part or whole.Discuss what people or groups of people might benefit
from reading your research. Show how this project is significant in developing a body of knowledge. Without significant
contribution, a research study will neither be appreciated nor regarded feasible to go on, and will not be given the chance to
be funded.
Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its importance to
society as whole, then proceed downwards towards its contribution to individuals and that may include yourself as a
researcher. You start off broadly than narrow down gradually to a specific group or person.

Here are some tips when writing the significance of the study:
1. It describes the contributions of the study as new knowledge, make findings more conclusive
2. It cites the usefulness of the study to the specific groups
3. Cite all the persons and groups that benefited on your study or research
4. Include a short explanation regarding how those persons and the groups benefited from the study or simply how the
research study will help them
5. The researchers should include themselves

Example of Significance of the Study

This study will be a significant endeavor in promoting good work environment in the workplace and motivations of its
employees. This study will also be beneficial to the students and instructors in strategic management, corporate strategies
when they employ effective learning in their classroom setting particularly in different concepts related to the use of
effective human resources management. By understanding the needs of the students and benefits of quality education, these
instructors and students be assured of a competitive advantage. Moreover, this research will provide recommendations on
how to evaluate the performance of a certain institution in accordance to human resources management.
Moreover, this study will be helpful to the retail industry and business practitioners in training and informing them in
the area of human resources management, objectives, and strategies. It will also serve as a future reference for researchers
on the subject of human resources and corporate companies. And importantly, this research will educate clients in deciding
on whether an industry like business industry is really fulfilling its responsibility to the community or is just showing off to
promote its business.