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Emergency Psychiatry
PRIMERS ON PSYCHIATRY
Stephen M. Strakowski, MD, Series Editor
Published and Forthcoming Titles

Anxiety Disorders
Edited by Kerry Ressler, Daniel Pine, and Barbara Rothbaum
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Edited by Christopher McDougle
Schizoprehnia and Psychotic Spectrum Disorders
Edited by S. Charles Schulz, Michael F. Green, and Katharine J. Nelson
Mental Health Practice and the Law
Edited by Ronald Schouten
Borderline Personality Disorder
Edited by Barbara Stanley and Antonia New
Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
Edited by Frederick J. Stoddard, Jr., David M. Benedek,
Mohammed R. Milad, and Robert J. Ursano
Depression
Edited by Madhukar H. Trivedi
Bipolar Disorder
Edited by Stephen M. Strakowski, Melissa P. Del Bello,
Caleb M. Adler, and David E. Fleck
Public and Community Psychiatry
Edited by James G. Baker and Sarah E. Baker
Substance Use Disorders
Edited by F. Gerard Moeller and Mishka Terplan
Personality Disorders
Edited by Robert E. Feinstein
Emergency Psychiatry
Edited by
T O N Y T H R A SH E R , D O, M BA , D FA PA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Thrasher, Tony, editor.
Title: Emergency psychiatry / [edited by] Tony Thrasher.
Other titles: Emergency psychiatry (Thrasher) | Primer on.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2023] |
Series: Primer on series |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023006089 (print) | LCCN 2023006090 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197624005 (paperback) | ISBN 9780197624029 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197624036 (online)
Subjects: MESH: Emergency Services, Psychiatric—methods |
Mental Disorders—diagnosis | Mental Disorders—therapy
Classification: LCC RC480.6 (print) | LCC RC480.6 (ebook) |
NLM WM 401 | DDC 616.89/025—dc23/eng/20230323
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023006089
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DOI: 10.1093/med/9780197624005.001.0001
This material is not intended to be, and should not be considered, a substitute for medical or
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Contents
Acknowledgments vii
Contributors ix
SE C T IO N I . T H E A P P R OAC H T O E M E R G E N C Y
P SYC H IAT R IC EVA LUAT IO N
1. An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation: Pitfalls, Pearls,

and Notice of Countertransference 3
Janet Richmond
2. Evaluating and Managing the Agitated Patient 21
Victor Hong, Jennifer Baumhauer, and Stephen Leung
3. Medical Assessment of the Psychiatric Patient 41
Seth Thomas
4. Assessing for Suicidality and Overall Risk of Violence 64
Megan B. Schabbing
5. Telepsychiatry and Beyond: Future Directions in Emergency Psychiatry 83
Katherine Maloy
6. Cultural Competence in Emergency Psychiatry 97
Arpit Aggarwal and Oluwole Popoola
SE C T IO N I I . SP E C I F IC D I S O R D E R S , D IAG N O SE S ,
A N D SYM P T OM S F R E Q U E N T LY E N C OU N T E R E D A S
P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S
7. Altered Mental Status and Neurologic Syndromes 109

Thomas W. Heinrich, Ian Steele, and Sara Brady
8. Intoxication, Withdrawal, and Symptoms of Substance Use Disorders 136
Annaliese Koller Shumate
9. Psychosis, Psychotic Disorders, and the Schizophrenia Spectrum 166
Chelsea Wolf and Helena Winston
10. Emergency Psychiatry Evaluation and Treatment of Mood Disorders 190
Katherine Maloy
11. Anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Other Trauma-Related
Disorders 208
Anna K. McDowell and Scott A. Simpson
vi Contents
12. Personality Disorders 220

Joseph B. Bond and Nicole R. Smith
13. Deception in the Emergency Setting: Malingering and Factitious
Disorder 250
Laura W. Barnett and Eileen P. Ryan
14. Eating Disorders 267
Claire Drom
SE C T IO N I I I . SP E C I F IC P O P U L AT IO N S F R E Q U E N T LY
E N C O U N T E R E D A S P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S
15. Children and Adolescents 295
Heidi Burns, Bernard Biermann, and Nasuh Malas
16. Geriatrics 321
Daniel Cho, Junji Takeshita, Victor Huynh, Ishmael Gomes, and
Earl Hishinuma
17. Developmental Disabilities 344
Justin Kuehl
18. Perinatal Patients and Related Illnesses, Symptoms, and
Complications Related to Pregnancy 362
Sarah Slocum
19. Victims of Physical and Sexual Violence 376
Kristie Ladegard and Jessica Tse
SE C T IO N I V. D I SP O SI T IO N , A F T E R C A R E ,
L E G A L I S SU E S , A N D F U T U R E D I R E C T IO N S
20. Tool, Constraint, Liability, Context: Law and Emergency Psychiatry 401
John S. Rozel and Layla Soliman
21. Documenting Risk Assessments and High-Acuity Discharge
Presentations 420
Shafi Lodhi
22. Trauma-Informed Care, Psychological First Aid, and
Recovery-Oriented Approaches in the Emergency Room 440
Benjamin Merotto and Scott A. Simpson
23. Collaborations Within the Emergency Department 451
Julie Ruth Owen
24. Collaborations Beyond the Emergency Department 463
Margaret E. Balfour and Matthew L. Goldman
25. Quality Improvement in Psychiatric Emergency Settings:
Making Care Safer and Better 479
Margaret E. Balfour and Richard Rhoads
Index 493
Acknowledgments
My significant gratitude toward the finest group of physicians I have ever worked with—
the Psychiatric Crisis Service of Milwaukee County. Love and appreciation to Amy,
Noah, and Owen for their patience, support, and enthusiasm for not only our mission
but also my passion.
Tony Thrasher, DO, MBA, DFAPA

Contributors
Arpit Aggarwal, MD Heidi Burns, MD

Associate Professor of Clinical Psychiatry Assistant Professor
Department of Psychiatry Department of Child and Adolescent
University of Missouri, Columbia Psychiatry
Columbia, MO, USA University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Margaret E. Balfour, MD, PhD
Associate Professor of Psychiatry Daniel Cho, MD
Chief of Quality and Clinical Innovation Assistant Professor
Connections Health Solutions Department of Psychiatry
University of Arizona University of Hawaii,
Tucson, AZ, USA Honolulu, HI, USA
Laura W. Barnett, DO Claire Drom, MD

Clinical Assistant Professor Staff Psychiatrist
Department of Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry and
The Ohio State University Wexner Behavioral Health
Medical Center CentraCare Clinic
Columbus, OH, USA St. Cloud, MN, USA
Jennifer Baumhauer, MD Matthew L. Goldman, MD, MS

Clinical Assistant Professor Medical Director, Comprehensive
Department of Psychiatry Crisis Services
University of Michigan San Francisco Department of Public
Ann Arbor, MI, USA Health
San Francisco, CA, USA
Bernard Biermann, MD, PhD
University of Michigan Medical School Ishmael Gomes
Ann Arbor, MI, USA Department of Psychiatry
University of Hawaii
Joseph B. Bond, MD, MPH
Honolulu, HI, USA
Child, Adolescent, & Adult Psychiatrist
Department of Psychiatry Thomas W. Heinrich, MD
Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Professor of Psychiatry and Family
Medical School Medicine
Boston, MA, USA Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Medicine
Sara Brady, MD
Medical College of Wisconsin
Physician
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Medicine Earl Hishinuma, PhD
Medical College of Wisconsin Adjunct Professor
Milwaukee, WI, USA Department of Psychiatry
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
x Contributors
Victor Hong, MD Benjamin Merotto, MD

Associate Clinical Professor Behavioral Health Services
Department of Psychiatry Denver Health and Hospital Authority
University of Michigan Denver, CO, USA
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Julie Ruth Owen, MD, MBA
Victor Huynh, DO Assistant Professor; Medical Director,
Resident Physician Emergency Department Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry Service
University of Hawaii Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral
Honolulu, HI, USA Medicine; Department of Emergency
Medicine
Justin Kuehl, PsyD
Chief Psychologist
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Milwaukee County Behavioral Health
Division Oluwole Popoola, MD, MPH
Milwaukee, WI, USA Assistant Clinical Professor
Department of Psychiatry
Kristie Ladegard, MD
University of Missouri
Assistant Professor and Clinical Director of
Columbia, MO, USA
School Based Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry Richard Rhoads, MD
University of Colorado Medical Director
Denver, CO, USA Connections Health Solutions
Phoenix, AZ, USA
Stephen Leung, MD
Assistant Clinical Professor Janet Richmond
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral McLean Hospital
Sciences Boston, MA, USA
University of California, San Francisco
John S. Rozel, MD, MSL
San Francisco, CA, USA
Professor of Psychiatry/Adjunct Professor
Shafi Lodhi, MD of Law
Psychiatric Emergency Services University of Pittsburgh
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Neuroscience
Eileen P. Ryan, DO
University of Cincinnati
Professor
Cincinnati, OH, USA
Department of Psychiatry and
Nasuh Malas, MD, MPH Behavioral Health
Associate Professor The Ohio State University Wexner
Department of Psychiatry and Department Medical Center
of Pediatrics Columbus, OH, USA
University of Michigan
Megan B. Schabbing, MD
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
System Medical Director
Katherine Maloy, MD Department of Psychiatric Emergency
Assistant Clinical Professor Services
Department of Psychiatry OhioHealth
New York University Columbus, OH, USA
New York, NY, USA
Annaliese Koller Shumate, BA, DO
Anna K. McDowell, MD Staff Psychiatrist
Mental Health Service Milwaukee County Crisis Services
Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Milwaukee County
Medical Center Milwaukee, WI, USA
Aurora, CO, USA
Contributors xi
Scott A. Simpson, MD, MPH Seth Thomas, MD

Medical Director, Psychiatric Emergency Director of Quality and Performance
Services Emergency Medicine
Behavioral Health Services Vituity
Denver Health Emeryville, CA, USA
Denver, CO, USA
Jessica Tse, DO
Sarah Slocum, MD Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Fellow
Psychiatry Service Line Physician Lead Department of Psychiatry
Exeter Health Resources University of Utah
Exeter, NH, USA Salt Lake City, UT, USA
Nicole R. Smith, MD Helena Winston, MD

Psychiatrist Assistant Professor
Prism Psychiatry Practice Department of Psychiatry
Washington, DC, USA Denver Health and the University of Colorado
Anschutz Medical Campus
Layla Soliman
Denver and Aurora, CO, USA
Dept of Psychiatry
Atrium Health/Wake Forest University Chelsea Wolf, MD, MA
School of Medicine Assistant Professor and Medical Director,
Charlotte, NC, USA Adult Inpatient Psychiatry
Ian Steele, MD
Denver Health Medical Center
Assistant Professor
Denver, CO, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Medicine
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Junji Takeshita, MD
Professor and Associate Chair, Clinical
Services
Geriatric Psychiatry Program Director
John A. Burns School of Medicine
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
SECTION I
THE A PPROAC H TO E M E RG E NC Y
P SYC HIAT R IC EVA LUAT ION
1
An Initial Approach to the
Emergency Evaluation
Pitfalls, Pearls, and Notice of Countertransference
Janet Richmond
Introduction
This chapter introduces the new clinician to techniques used to engage and evaluate
the psychiatric patient in the emergency setting. The goal of the examination is to
quickly establish rapport, contain affect, and gather enough information to arrive at a
differential diagnosis that informs stabilization and disposition. An effective interview
should be trauma-informed, collaborative, noncoercive, and have a treatment compo-
nent.1–5 The evaluation is rapid and focused rather than a complete workup as is done
in an outpatient intake. In the emergency psychiatric evaluation, attention is paid to
the chief complaint, the history of the present illness, the mental status examination,
a safety assessment, and the patient’s request.3,6–8 A biopsychosocial understanding
of the patient’s situation is also necessary to inform treatment and disposition. The
objective is to elicit as much information as needed, focusing more on how to elicit
the information rather than asking a list of actuarial questions that frequently give
only limited information. The exam is a process of generating hypotheses that change
over the course of the interview as new information is elicited. For example, is the pa-
tient psychotic because he stopped his antipsychotic medication? The patient appears
psychotic; is he truly psychotic or just terribly anxious? Or is he in the middle of a
thyroid storm? Although this type of interviewing may appear to be inefficient, it is a
systematic way of interviewing that elicits information organically yet is not lengthy
to conduct. Finally, this model of interviewing draws on psychoanalytic1,9 and object
relations theory.
The Biopsychosocial Model
Lazare10 developed a framework for clinical decision-making by using a biopsychosocial

framework (Table 1.1). In this model, “the clinician must learn to elicit specific data to
confirm or refute clinical hypotheses rather than gather a complete history.” He used
George Engel’s biopsychosocial model11 to develop his interviewing method. Lazare
states that using this model ensures that the clinician does not come to a premature clo-
sure in the examination and “provide(s) a stimulus for the exploration of relevant but
neglected clinical questions” during the interview.
4 Emergency Psychiatry
Table 1.1 Lazare’s Hypotheses in the Biopsychosocial Model
Psychological Social Impact Biological Consider First

Conditions That Are
Precipitating event Change in the social Probable

environment
Personality style Cultural factors Axis I disorders Serious
Unresolved grief Religious and Medical/neurological Treatable
spiritual factors illness
Developmental crisis Social isolation Alcohol or drug use Resource availability
Coping skills/ego Social interactions Patient’s behavior
defenses
Interpersonal Inability to get what
conflicts/attachment one wants or needs
problems from others
History of traumatic External events
events (suicide, violence,
traumatic events)
Adapted from Lazare.10
In the first few minutes of the interview, the clinician generates hypotheses, which
the clinician rules in or out. Then, based on further information, the clinician generates
more hypotheses. More serious conditions, such as acute medical illness, psychosis, or
homicidal or suicidal ideation/intent, are first on the list of hypotheses to rule in or out.
As noted above, performing an emergency psychiatric examination can be done
without a preset list of questions and can elicit more information than a reductionistic
checklist. Interviewing techniques include the use of open-ended questions interwoven
with more focused, closed-ended questions; sitting in silence; and paying attention to
one’s own countertransference feelings, both physiologic and emotional.3,12
Most patients are not seeking a diagnosis in the emergency department (ED), but cli-
nicians strive to make one and then believe that the assessment is complete. Lazare and
Engel argue that there are more elements to take into consideration. In my clinical work,
this type of formulation has been useful even in the evaluation of potentially suicidal
patients. It has often obviated the need for hospitalization, even when multiple risk fac-
tors superficially indicated that the patient was imminently lethal and in need of invol-
untary hospitalization. The following case illustrates a biopsychosocial evaluation.
Case Example
A 40-year-old male with no known prior psychiatric or medical history is brought to the
ED after becoming agitated at work. He is dressed in a suit and tie and is neat and clean
except for excessive sweating and a haphazardly undone tie. He reports feeling agitated
and believes he is having “flashbacks” to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 (9/
11), when he was in one of the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City but
escaped unharmed. At the time, he had nightmares and exaggerated startle responses,
but these remitted within the first month after the event. His primary care doctor had
An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation 5
diagnosed insomnia and had prescribed a sleeping aid (zolpidem), which the patient
used for only 2 weeks. He does not drink, use drugs, or take supplements. He is an at-
torney, and he is embarrassed that he was so upset in front of his partners, one of whom
took him to the ED. His wife corroborates the history. From a biomedical framework,
the change in mental status could stem from an array of new-onset medical illnesses,
including an acute cardiac event, thyroid storm, hyperglycemia, or impairment of the
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. A full medical workup is completely negative. The
medical diagnosis is panic attack. The next step is to generate hypotheses, the first being
whether the diagnosis of panic attack is accurate or due to another psychiatric illness or
an occult medical illness that the medical examination did not pick up.
Is there a family history of psychiatric illness such as bipolar disorder that could now
be emerging in the patient? Is this a delayed post-traumatic stress disorder reaction and,
if so, what precipitated it? Is the patient’s report that he does not use substances accurate?
As he speaks, the clinician listens for clues as to what may have precipitated these
“flashbacks” (which are actually intrusive memories of the event and not actual flashback
phenomena). From the social component, are the patient’s marriage and job secure? Is he
worried about finances? From the psychological frame, what might be triggering these
intense memories? What happened to disrupt his usual coping skills?
During the interview, the clinician listens for data to confirm or refute hypotheses,
asking focused questions when necessary and generating further hypotheses, exploring
each thoroughly. The patient’s marriage, job, and finances are secure. There are no recent
life cycle events and no family psychiatric or substance abuse history. Once again, the
patient denies personal use of substances and is convincing. He reviews his reactions to
9/11 and, when asked, goes into some detail about the specific traumatic event that he is
reexperiencing today. The clinician then asks the patient to “walk me through your day”
(up to and including the onset of today’s symptoms) to determine a precipitant. Almost
immediately the patient pauses, is shocked, and “remembers” that while on his way to
work that morning, he was delayed by a serious traffic accident in which a car caught
on fire and a father and two young children were rescued unharmed. At the time of 9/
11, the patient’s two children were school aged, and as he watched the towers blazing,
he remembered seeing two children approximately the same age as his children being
hurried by their mother to safety. Throughout the day (of 9/11), he had had intrusive
thoughts that his children could have been in the rubble, but his wife had kept them back
home due to a stomach flu. While retelling his story, the patient had an upsurge in adren-
ergic symptoms that resolved as he was able to understand his reaction. Despite gener-
ating all these hypotheses and doing so in a nonstructured format, the entire evaluation
took 20 minutes. An additional 10 minutes was spent helping the patent reintegrate his
experiences and reequilibrate.
The Interview
The best interview does not feel like an interview to the patient, nor does it look like
one to the casual observer. Instead, it looks like a conversation dedicated to learning
about the patient, their illness, their ability to cope, and what the patient would like to see
happen in the ED. This method of interviewing builds rapport.
It is current practice to use a trauma-informed approach for all patients. The emer-
gency room environment may be threatening or trigger memories or reactions from past
traumatic events. These may have occurred in a previous emergency room visit or with
previous medical providers. Listen and observe for any signs that the patient may be
tentative, agitated, or even hostile. Chapter 22 discusses trauma-informed care in detail.
Structure of the Interview
The Environment
Attention to the physical environment as well as the clinician’s initial nonverbal behavior
sets the tone. General principles for safety in the environment include the removal of
large and small items such as pens and paper clips that can be thrown. When indicated,
have Security readily available. Friendly but not intense eye contact is preferred. Keep
your hands visible. Both patient and clinician should have equal access to the door, and
if the patient appears volatile or unpredictable, stand or sit far enough away so that you
are not punched or kicked.3 In all interviews, try to sit at or below the patient’s eye level.
If possible, avoid standing over the patient; it makes for a symbolic imbalance of power.
Observation
Even before entering the room, there is a wealth of information to be gleaned from
simply observing the patient, first in the waiting room and then in the exam room. What
the patient is wearing, their level of neatness and hygiene, as well as their psychomotor
activity can be diagnostic tools and generate hypotheses. The well-dressed and groomed
patient in Vignette 1.1 was diaphoretic with his collar and tie loosened. These two factors
should lead a clinician to generate questions about any acute medical illnesses or the
patient’s level of orientation and cognitive functioning.
Verbal Engagement
Introduce yourself, ask the patient’s name and how they would like to be addressed.
Consider addressing the patient by their last name because using their first name might
appear overly personal or infantilizing, creating an imbalance of power. Other patients
prefer to be called by their first name, despite the risk of overfamiliarity.
Establishing Rapport and Building an Alliance
Establishing rapport allows for the development of a therapeutic alliance. Alliance is a

psychotherapeutic concept whereby the patient and clinician enter into a relationship
built on the tacit or stated agreement that the clinician will partner with the patient to
help solve the patient’s problem. In turn, a successful alliance allows the patient to believe
that they can trust the clinician. Alliances result in better clinical outcomes.12,13 Alliances
are built from the patient’s past experiences with authority figures, including parents and
medical providers (police and other persons in authority). Patients come with an a priori
transference, either positive or negative. A patient who admires medical providers may
be cooperative and appropriate. Another patient might be overly solicitous or seductive.

A fearful or suspicious patient might be hostile or wary. These patients may be difficult
to engage or be uncooperative because of their past experiences that are then projected
onto the clinician, even though the patient may never have met the clinician. Later, this
chapter introduces interviewing skills to deal with such scenarios.
Often, beginning clinicians assume an alliance prematurely12 and move in too quickly
with focused questions or comments that may break or thwart the alliance. Those types
of inquiries may be perceived as challenging or confrontational. Other clinicians, partic-
ularly trainees, try to establish rapport when it is already there. When the clinician dwells
too long on building the alliance, this can have the opposite effect, breaking down rap-
port and even angering the patient.12 The goal of the interview is to provide enough sup-
port so that more challenging areas of exploration do not seem so threatening.13 Another
principle is to stabilize the patient before exploration.2 This means attending to real-life
concerns (e.g., ensuring that their children or belongings are safe)14 and that acute issues
such as pain or agitation are addressed.3 If a patient asks for a particular medication, it
may be best to give it to them. This is akin to the patient who comes in with a chief con-
cern of crushing chest pain and asks for pain relief. Even if there is a suspicion of drug
abuse, this is not the time to argue with the patient. Similarly, the emergency psychiatric
clinician cannot insist on conducting a complete evaluation before stabilizing and rend-
ering treatment, including pharmacotherapy.2 Often, beginners believe they must ex-
plore before stabilization, which is a mistake in the ED.2,3,15
Presenting Problem and the Patient’s Request
Patients come to the ED with many underlying wishes and longings. These “requests”8
are different from the chief complaint and are frequently not verbalized. They can some-
times be communicated through body language or affective tone. For example, a patient
whose chief complaint is “I’m suicidal” might have the underlying wish that the clini-
cian uses their authority to muster up a change in the patient’s situation. The request is
“I wouldn’t be suicidal if my girlfriend came back to me. Could you call her and talk to
her?” (really, “persuade her to change her mind since she’ll listen to you because you’re
the doctor”). The request may or may not be realistic or possible, but it is still important
to uncover. Otherwise, the interview may reach an impasse or at the end of the exam the
patient may be dissatisfied with the outcome and either leave in a huff or delay the end of
the visit. Asking “What would you like to see happen here today?” early in the interview
allows the clinician to address these requests. If the patient replies “I don’t know,” the
clinician can respond that “often people have an idea of what they want accomplished in
the visit. I’d like to hear what it is [even if it’s not easy to talk about]” or “As we continue to
talk, let’s both try to figure out what it is.”
The History of Present Illness and Precipitant
Using open-ended questions establishes rapport because it communicates to the patient

that you want to listen to what the patient says, unlike many others in the patient’s life
who may not. The precipitant is useful, even necessary, to understand: Why did the pa-
tient need the emergency room today rather than yesterday or next week? If the patient
glosses over the content too quickly or shows no affect, slow them down and develop a
timeline: “First you came home, and then your daughter walked into the kitchen, etc.”
Watch for emerging affect, the patient’s thought process and cognition. If the patient
floods with affect and cannot contain themself, slow the patient down and ask about
content and objective facts. If too much content is without affect, ask about the patient’s
feelings. Sometimes it is helpful to verbalize them for the patient: “If that happened to
me, I’d be terribly upset.”
Once the alliance is established, the clinician can then explore more deeply and use fo-
cused, specific questions. If you wonder whether the patient is psychotic, asking focused
questions such as “Do you ever have the feeling that others are following you?” is a risk if
the alliance is not adequately established. A less challenging entry to the question might
be, “Do you tend to be a cautious person?” Focused questions are essential, but timing is
crucial. Moving in with that type of question too soon can challenge, offend, or frighten
the patient. If that happens, apologize, reestablish rapport, and resume building the alli-
ance. Rehabilitate the interview and then later return to that question.2
The Rest of the Story: History of Relevance
Other elements of the psychiatric examination, such as past psychiatric, medical, family,
military, and social history, may be useful to understand the current presentation. Again,
collecting this information for completion sake is not the goal of the emergency evalua-
tion. Whatever extraneous information you gather is “free information.”3
Other interviewing techniques include summarization, clarification, interpretation,
and confrontation. The latter are to be used judiciously but can be very effective. An
example of an interpretation might be, “You mentioned that your mother died from
stomach cancer, and you’re here today with a stomachache. Do you see a connection?”
Another example is, “Your boss said something so hurtful and humiliating that you
wanted to disappear, so you thought about killing yourself.” (This interpretation actually
helped a patient reconstitute. She was no longer suicidal, realized how outrageous the
boss had been, became appropriately angry, and was successfully followed in outpatient
care.) The following is an example of an interpretation and a confrontation: “You had a
disagreement with your boss, and now you’re here having an argument with me when
your beef is really with the boss. You’re trying to get under my skin the way he [your
boss] got under yours.”
Mental Status
Aside from the patient’s request, history of present illness, and collateral information, the
most essential piece of the emergency exam is the mental status examination, which can
also be done through careful listening, followed by a focus on areas needing clarification
or exploration. For example, elements that could potentially be gathered without ask-
ing specific questions are level of arousal, motor, speech, cognition, orientation, attitude,
thought process, affect, and overall mood. A nonfocused interview might even reveal the
presence or absence of hallucinations, delusions, and suicidal or homicidal ideation. If
not, these areas can be quickly explored.
The following case presents an interview using a biopsychosocial framework and

demonstrating many of the interviewing techniques noted above.
Case Example
A 78-year-old previously healthy and active female is brought to the ED by her son,
who reports an insidious decline in functioning for the past 2 months. Her husband of
52 years died from a long-term illness 8 months ago. The couple had been very devoted to
each other, and the patient had cared for her husband at home. She had help, but she felt
strength and purpose helping him through his last days. Following his death, the patient
seemed to go through the grieving process uneventfully and after 3 months had resumed
her usual activities—visiting with friends, going to the theater, and playing tennis twice a
week. Although episodes of sadness and longing surfaced occasionally, they were short-
lived and occurred on anniversary dates. Most of the patient’s memories of her husband
brought comfort and a smile. The hypotheses generated were whether there was some
occult difficulty grieving the loss of her husband (psychological) or a problematic social
impact (change in status to a widow, financial problems, etc.).
Approximately 2 months ago, the patient had stopped playing tennis and reported
feeling too tired to join her friends for evening theater. She began sleeping more and
had gained approximately 10 pounds, which she attributed to “sitting around all day.”
Usually a meticulous and stylish dresser, she began wearing old sweatshirts with
stains. “I’m not going anywhere, so why should I dress up?” Her appetite was poor,
and she complained about decreased concentration. Based on what he had read about
early signs of cognitive impairment, the son was concerned that the patient was expe-
riencing the beginning of dementia. The patient was anhedonic and anergic but was
not suicidal.
The interview went as follows:
Clinician: Hello Ms. Boston, I’m Sarah Brown from the Psychiatry Department. What
brings you in today?
Patient: I’ve been feeling down lately. My son thought I should come in.
Clinician: You’ve been feeling down, could you say more?
Patient: Not really; just don’t feel like doing anything. I just sit around the house all day.
Clinician: And what do you do in the house?
Patient: Just sit, watch television.
Clinician: I understand that’s very different from how you normally are. Is that right?
The patient goes on with sparse speech, but she is cooperative with the interviewer. She
describes most of her neurovegetative symptoms by saying more about her day: Does she
cook? No, no appetite. How’s her sleep? Can’t fall asleep. The interviewer asks more fo-
cused questions to fill in the information:
Clinician: When you’re watching television, can you keep track of the story or do you
drift off?” (The clinician is asking about concentration.) Are there any shows that are
your favorites?” (If the patient perks up and lists her favorite show, she is not perva-
sively anhedonic, which might rule out depression.)
Then the interviewer explores the question of complicated grief:
Clinician: Your husband died 8 months ago. I’m so sorry. How has the adjustment been
going?”
Again, the interviewer gleans what she can from the patient while still attending to the
patient’s motor activity, eye contact, production of thoughts, and affect. She listens for
any psychotic material and for any memory issues as the patient tells her story in her
own words.
If the patient has not mentioned particular areas that the interviewer deems relevant,
the interviewer can then ask focused questions: “Did you ever think about joining him
[in death]?” This question comes later in the interview so that rapport has been achieved
and sustained, and the question is in context. It could have been asked in the section on
neurovegetative signs (“Is the depression ever so bad that you think about killing your-
self?”), but knowing that many bereaved persons consider joining their loved ones, the
interviewer waited until this area was explored. The clinician can ask directly about any
social fallout from the husband’s death—financial problems or concerns about selling
her house. Are couples’ friends pulling away now that she is single? The psychosocial
aspects of this patient’s presentation have been carefully explored, as well as the biolog-
ical component of a clinical depression. Thus far, the patient appears to have a clinical
depression. The bereavement has been unremarkable without evidence of avoidance or
impaired functioning, and there are no financial or other social issues that concern the
patient. She has ample funds, is comfortable in her current home, and has maintained
her friendships.
The interviewer also considers other potential medical possibilities, not yet accept-
ing the conclusion that this patient has a clinical depression. She has noticed that
the patient’s skin is dry and flaky, and her face is plethoric. The patient has little psy-
chomotor movement, except for an occasional rubbing of her arms because she is
cold. Her unwashed hair is also sparse. Is there an underlying medical condition that
has not been picked up in the medical clearance? The interviewer thus asks about
her medical history and family medical history. The patient has no active medical
problems other than well-controlled hypertension for which she has taken the same
antihypertensive for years. Her son interrupts and says that the patient also has hy-
pothyroidism, but there is no mention of this medication on the triage note. The son
states that this is an example of the patient’s forgetfulness. The patient suddenly looks
up and says,
Oh, I forgot to refill my thyroid prescription! I noticed that I was running low and had
a reminder to call my doctor, but that was the day the patio deck collapsed. I was so fo-
cused on that, that I never called the doctor for the refill. I’ve been off my thyroid med-
ication for the past 3 months. Could that be the problem?
A thyroid-stimulating hormone test confirmed hypothyroidism, and the patient was

restarted on levothyroxine.
The patient’s mental status change was a result of hypothyroidism. She indeed sounded
as though she was grieving her husband appropriately. A biopsychosocial emergency
evaluation was complete. Estimated time: 20 minutes.
Types of Patients: Interviewing Techniques and Tips
The Overtalkative Patient
For the overtalkative patient, displaying circumstantial or tangential thinking, the in-
terviewer needs to focus more. For example, “Before you talk about Y, let’s go back to
X.” This tells the patient that you have been listening and want to help them organize
the information. This may have to be done several times until you either have the infor-
mation needed or determine that the patient cannot provide it. For example, “Let’s go
back to what you said about your experience with [X medication]. What were the side
effects?” If the patient goes off in another area, “It all started when I went to the doctor”
(who prescribed the medication, etc.), the interviewer can interrupt and say, “But I was
asking specifically about side effects? Did you have nausea?” Hypotheses can be gener-
ated about the reason for the circumstantial thinking: Is there some cognitive decline? Is
there a thought disorder? Is this an example of an obsessional style or distancing way of
relating? Is the patient purposely being vague?
If the patient rushes through the narrative—“I had a fight with my mother, and she
called the cops”—slow it down and get the time sequence. This helps both you and the
patient see the event more objectively and helps you determine if the patient can think in
temporal sequence. “Let’s go back; walk me through what happened. I want a picture in
my head as to what happened.”
The Silent Patient
The patient may be silent out of fear, suspicion, defiance, or deference to authority fig-
ures. If mute, consider dissociation or catatonia, which can suddenly burst into catatonic
excitement. You will need to quickly sense what the problem is by gaining clues from col-
lateral information and nursing staff who have already seen the patient.
Comment on their silence and ask, “What is going on?” You can think out loud and
suggest that “silence has many meanings—fear . . . anger . . . defiance . . . shock . . . or ex-
haustion. Do any of them fit your situation?” If the patient continues to be silent, ask if
they would like juice or food. Asking about sleep, or whether they are cold or too warm,
can break the ice. Would they like some medication? These are nonthreatening questions
that good mothers and good doctors ask. If the patient continues to be silent, excuse
yourself and tell the patient when you will return. You may need to return several times,
but something will declare itself at some point.
For the suspicious or fearful patient, tell them that you are there to help. Do not make
any quick motions and tell them exactly what you are doing, even if you are just sitting
down. “I’m going to sit here; you can have a seat over there. We’re both going to have
access to the door. . . . You look frightened; can you tell me if that’s the case?” If you do
not want to give the patient the impression that you can “read their mind,” you can share
your feelings: “I’m feeling uneasy/nervous/frightened in here?” If you are truly in fear,
appeal to the patient’s wish to be in control: “I’m feeling frightened; should I leave the
room? Should I be worried about my safety in here?” Even a suspicious patient might
well relax more if the interviewer shares the patient’s feelings. I have often seen a cu-
rious glance after I have said this to a patient. If the patient tells you to get out, do so. Do
not try to exercise your authority now. The patient is telling you that they have tenuous
control, and this is a warning to you. Leave and get help. You can go back with help and
ask the patient if there is something you can do to help them feel calmer. “Perhaps some
medication? What has worked for you in the past?” This tells the patient that you are not
going to use your authority to control them but to collaborate with them and value their
recommendations. If the patient reassures you that you are safe, you need to determine
if you believe it. If not, you may state, “I still don’t feel comfortable. I’m going to leave the
room right now” (and get out of the room quickly, but do not turn your back because
the patient might attack from behind). If you believe the patient, then you can gently
begin the interview, trying to build rapport and an alliance. “Can you tell me what you’re
feeling? Can you tell me what happened that you’re here?” or “My notes say that the po-
lice brought you in after your mother called 911; what happened?”
The Paranoid or Psychotic Patient
Paranoid patients may interpret empathic or sympathetic statements as pity. They fear
that their power will be diminished. They are frightened and offended by this level of
intimacy. They are not used to people being kind to them unless there is a price to pay.
Staying neutral yet kindly is the best strategy. A paranoid patient also has a strong gran-
diose streak: Why else would aliens choose him over others? You can speak to that with a
less challenging question, “Wow, that’s quite a burden to be chosen and to receive all this
negative attention.” You are allying with both the grandiosity and the undesired atten-
tion. “How did these people land on you [to be] the brunt of their anger?” It can diffuse
tension and help build the alliance.
The Suicidal Patient
If the patient has been talking about all the stress in their life, you can determine the
patient’s state of hopelessness by reflecting and asking, “You’ve been dealing with so
much, how do you keep going? What gives you hope?” Or ask, “What matters to you
most?”16 Here, you are assessing protective factors without having to resort to pat ques-
tions such as “Who’s your support?” That type of question can be off-putting: “Don’t
pull that shrink talk on me!” Instead, ask, “What has kept you from actually getting the
pills [for an overdose]?” This will assess the patient’s impulse control. Sometimes there is
another affect underneath the suicidal urge: “I see how despairing you are, but I’m won-
dering if you’re also angry about this?” If the patient can mobilize their anger and see that
they are not trapped without any other options but suicide, it might obviate the need for
hospitalization. Another example: “With all this stress, do you ever think of ending it all?
Or “Some people in your situation would feel trapped and think about suicide. . . . How
about you? Have you thought about it?” These questions can glean more than the cryptic
“Are you suicidal?” that may not be answered truthfully.
For the patient who cannot express their feelings, sharing one’s own reaction can
normalize feelings and teach the patient that these are human emotions. “When you’re
talking about what you’ve been through, I feel very sad. . . . Is that how you feel? Is it pos-
sible that I’m feeling the sadness that you can’t [aren’t]?”
The Grandiose Manic Patient
Underlying the grandiosity of a manic patient is one who unconsciously believes that he
has little merit. You need to ally with the grandiosity. Allow them to tell you how grand
they are. “How do you sleep doing all the [creative/important] things you are doing? You
sound quite [energetic/busy/productive/pressured] to work as fast as you can/in need of
getting your ideas out quickly because of their importance.”
Manic patients dislike an interviewer who is not as fast as they are. They may be per-
turbed that the interviewer is not following their train of thought quickly enough and
may accuse the interviewer of being “stupid.” Acknowledge this: “’I’m sorry I’m not
keeping up with you, and it is frustrating when I’m so slow, but please try to put up with
me, OK?”
The Personality Disordered Patient
The personality disordered patient has ingrained patterns of behavior that the patient
uses to get what they needs or wants.3 The patient does not know any other way of
behaving. It is worth remembering this because the personality disordered patient can
seem as irrational as a psychotic patient and test the patience of even the most skilled
interviewer.
Narcissistic patients have a lack of self-esteem, but it is difficult to sympathize with
that part of them when you are being assaulted by their narcissism. Ally with the narcis-
sism as best you can:
I understand that you have reasons to believe that [an opiate] is what you need right
now, and that you are in tremendous pain, but unfortunately I don’t agree with your
conclusion so I will not be able to prescribe that. But how about [Y]‌?
If the patient tries to wear you down, repeat your decision one last time and then (with
Security if necessary) back out of the room. Do not get pulled into the patient’s attempts
to wear you down and pressure or frighten you into giving them something that is not
warranted.
The borderline patient in crisis may be hostile or agitated. Interviewing techniques
for the agitated patient are discussed below. It is worth remembering that their emo-
tional dysregulation is often the result of impaired attachment due to childhood neglect
or trauma. Knowing this can help the clinician feel sympathy for the patient, which helps
the clinician be more empathic.
The Agitated, Hostile, or Uncooperative Patient
Much has been written about verbal de-escalation of the agitated patient and the dif-
ferent presentations of agitation.3,17 Agitation falls on a spectrum that can move from
anxiety all the way to violence. The patient’s attitude toward the examiner can become
the whole focus of engagement and makes establishing rapport and understanding the
problem challenging.
A patient must be cooperative for the evaluation to take place. To calm a patient, offer
creature comforts such as food, a drink, or blankets. Ask the patient if there is a medica-
tion they use when this upset. This gives the patient control. Listen for real-life issues that
can be solved: calling a friend to care for a pet or securing the patient’s belongings before
they are discarded.3 Acknowledge and normalize feelings. Agree with what you can and
agree to disagree with what you cannot. An example is the patient who is angry because
he needed to wait a long time to be seen. Without getting into explanations, a simple “I
don’t like to wait either” acknowledges the patient’s grievance and normalizes the feeling.
Keeping the interview brief, taking time-outs, and returning for another short exchange
even several times may be preferable.3 Emergency work requires flexibility and creativity.
Another approach is to reveal one’s own emotional reaction in a judicious manner.
(See Vignette 1.3.) The patient who is perturbing the clinician should be met with an
interpretation or even a confrontation, which needs to be said without any trace of a
punitive or angry tone: “I feel like I’m being dragged into a fight with you. Is this what
happened this morning when you tried to drive the other car off the road?” Another
approach might be, “I’m feeling annoyed by this conversation, and need to step out
to calm down so that we don’t end up arguing.” The patient might be surprised and
sometimes aghast that the clinician is impacted by what the patient is saying. Many
boisterous or argumentative patients believe that loudness and pushiness are the only
way they can have impact; otherwise, it is as though they do not exist, let alone being
taken into consideration. This self-disclosure models appropriate management of feel-
ings. If the patient is aghast and says, “You’re the doctor, you’re not supposed to get
mad,” the response can be that you are human and have feelings too. Self-disclosure can
be extremely useful in the emergency interview and does not have to compromise the
clinician’s authority. It must be used judiciously. None of these techniques are useful
when the clinician has already become furious with the patient. Recognizing when one
is becoming or on the way to being annoyed or angry is when to use these techniques.
Fishkind3–5 outlines 10 rules or “domains” that go into an interaction with a volatile
patient to de-escalate the situation. They are summarized in Box 1.1.
Box 1.1 Fishkind’s Principles of Verbal De-Escalation
Respect the patient’s personal space.

Don’t be provocative or authoritarian.
Establish verbal contact.
Be concise.
Identify wants and feelings; the patient’s “request.”
Listen closely to what the patient is saying.
Agree with what you can or agree to disagree.
“Lay down the law” and set clear limits in neutral tone.
Offer choices and optimism.
Debrief the patient and staff.
Adapted from Fishkind.4,5
Vignettes 1.1–1.3 provide examples of interviews with an agitated, hostile patient that
demonstrate some skills to use to diffuse a tense situation.
Vignette 1.1
Security is outside patient’s room.
Clinician: Hi, I’m Doctor Green from Psychiatry.

Patient: Oh great, now the shrinks are here. You new here? Never seen you before.
Clinician: Yeah new to this ER, but not new to psychiatry or emergency rooms.
(Clinician is not threatened by the patient’s hostility and implication that the clini-
cian is a beginner. She briefly responds to the question and then moves to the issue
at hand.) So why don’t we talk about what happened that you ended up here. It
doesn’t look like you wanted to be here.
Vignette 1.2
Another potential scenario, same patient.
Patient: I don’t want to see shrinks you’re not coming near me get the F out of
here!(The patient is shrieking, waving his hands. Security is on standby. The clini-
cian attempts to establish verbal contact, but it is not possible. The clinician asks
what he would like to see happen in the ED.)
Patient: None of your business.
Clinician: Really? But you’re angry here in the emergency room so it is my
business.
Patient: Then I just don’t want to talk to you. But if I did, I would tell you to get away
from me. I would tell you that I’ll never talk to you! I’ll never say a word in this
place! I want out of here! You hear me you *x*x. (The patient escalates with insults
but remains in behavioral control.)
Clinician: Is there anything that would help you feel calmer? Some juice? A blanket?
Is there any medication that might help take the edge off?
Patient: No.
Clinician: Well, let’s take a break and I’ll come back and hopefully you can talk to
me. (The clinician does not suspect psychosis; the patient appears to be able to re-
main in behavioral control. Taking breaks can be useful as long as the patient is
being watched. Breaks help decrease the potential for argument between clinician
and patient, and they give some time for the patient to cool down and perhaps then
be able to put into words what he is so intensely feeling.)
Vignette 1.3
Another scenario, same patient. The patient draws the interviewer into an argument.
Clinician: We really do need to take a break I’m getting annoyed.

Patient: What d’ya mean you’re getting annoyed? You’re the doctor! You’re not sup-
posed to get mad!
Clinician: Yeah, I’m the doctor but I’ve got feelings too. I want to be treated with re-
spect the same way you want to be treated with respect.
Clinician returns.
Clinician: Any calmer?
Patient: Yeah, How about you? (Note patient is curious how the clinician feels.)
Clinician: Yeah, I’m fine. I’m fine now. I was getting annoyed earlier. [And no, I’m
not angry anymore because I had a chance to cool down. That was a useful way of
dealing with anger.]
Patient: Yeah sometimes I do that to people. You know, you’re the first doctor who
ever told me that [I was annoying them]. (Alliance formed through clinician’s
earlier self-disclosure.)
Clinician: Really? Why do you think so? (The clinician can now explore.)
Patient: They’re scared of me.
Clinician: Oh, what do you do that’s so scary? (Further exploration but now the pa-
tient is not defensive.)
The patient tells the interviewer that he scared his sister by threatening to set the
house on fire.
Clinician: Ahh, she thought you might actually do it? Do you think that was a
possibility? (Clinician can ask about the patient’s impulsivity and likelihood of
doing harm.)
In this scenario, the clinician is flexible but at the same time firm and respectful. She
tells the patient the conditions with which she will continue to engage with him (her
“working conditions”)18 or “laying down the law.”4,5 She has set these conditions in a
respectful but firm manner. She is clear about the need for safety and civility; she is
willing to be flexible and take breaks yet remains firm regarding acceptable behavior.
She uses self-disclosure to facilitate alliance building and to help the patient feel that
he is among other humans—not at the mercy of rigid authority.
Countertransference: When the Patient Pushes Your

Buttons—Pitfalls and Mistakes
Working with patients in behavioral or emotional emergencies inevitably gives rise to

countertransference reactions.2,3,13,15 Countertransference feelings are important and
should not be ignored. This helps the clinician avoid acting out and also to better un-
derstand the patient. Although unchecked countertransference feelings need to be con-
tained, countertransference can be a good diagnostic tool and working within it is useful.
Some patients are provocative. They may project their hostility onto the clinician
by insulting, bullying, threatening, or questioning the clinician’s authority, credentials,
competence, age, or even personality, appearance, gender, or race. Some may be seduc-
tive and attempt to ingratiate or bully the clinician to give them something that they
want. Other patients may touch on the therapist’s own losses or reawaken memories of
one’s own traumas. At these times, the clinician needs to feel the affect, empathize with
the patient, acknowledge their own feelings, and then pull back and reengage the intel-
lect: “What hypothesis does this information generate?” “How can I use this information
and my feelings to better understand and respond to the patient appropriately?” There is
also the need to be aware of both implicit and overt bias that all clinicians bring to clin-
ical encounters.19
It is worth noting that countertransference responses are not always negative. One can
identify with a patient, and that can help build rapport. At other times, overidentification
is problematic. Whatever the response, recognizing the feelings and being able to use
them effectively increases the chance of an alliance.
Avoiding Interviewing Mistakes
Mistakes happen to the best clinicians. Patients do forgive us when they sense that we
have their best interests in mind. Hilfiker20 poignantly discusses a case in which a terrible
mistake was made and the parents of a lost pregnancy forgave the doctor when he could
not forgive himself.
Perhaps the biggest fear of the psychiatric clinician is that a patient released from the
ED will commit suicide. No clinician or screening scale can predict suicide. However, a
climate of total risk aversion infantilizes the patient and can create iatrogenic depend-
ency on the emergency and hospital system. It teaches patients that they are not in charge
of their own lives but that clinicians are in charge. Kernberg reminds us that good treat-
ment comes with risk. The goal is to minimize that risk, not eliminate it. Chapter 4 dis-
cusses the suicidal patient in greater detail, and Chapter 21 focuses on high-acuity risk
assessment.
As noted above, interpreting prematurely, not setting limits, and insufficient backup
are problematic. Confrontation can be a useful technique but must be used judiciously.
Impatience and lack of time usually disrupt the alliance. Rushing in too quickly with
focused questions may cause the patient to feel challenged or accused. Apologize, pull
back to less affect-laden topics, and then later return to the charged area to determine if
the patient is now willing to talk about it. “Can we go back to . . .?” As noted previously,
the opposite is also true: Dwelling too long on building an alliance when one has already
been formed can annoy the patient and have the opposite effect.
Interpreting prematurely or assuming that you know how the patient is feeling can
also be problematic. Thus, “you must feel very sad about the death of your mother” might
be met with “Are you crazy? I hated her! You’re not listening to me!” This is an example of
an empathic failure.
Emergency rooms or any medical encounter can induce shame.21 Patients who feel
ashamed or humiliated will not easily form an alliance. It is my view that humilia-
tion can be as traumatic as any tangible event and can severely decenter a person.
Again, a trauma-informed approach helps decrease the likelihood that such an error
will occur.
Confrontation can be a useful technique but must be used judiciously so as not to be
punitive or humiliating. When the patient has successfully managed to anger you, there
Box 1.2 Avoiding Interviewing Mistakes
Safety
Lack of adequate backup staff
Trying to engage the patient when the patient tells you to get out of the room
Alliance
Failing to be trauma-informed
Assuming an alliance prematurely
Asking direct questions that may be challenging too soon in the interview
Dwelling too long on establishing an alliance when one already exists
Trying to dissuade a fixed belief or a delusion
Inadvertently humiliating the patient
Making assumptions/empathic failures
Clinician’s Attitude and Behavior
Arguing with the patient
Being judgmental, provocative, or argumentative
Setting limits when one is angry/being punitive or threatening
Impatience and time pressure
Adapted from Richmond.7
is a tendency to lapse into irrational thinking along with the patient. A neutral tone is
best, as is having Security behind you to enforce the limit: “If you try to leave the ED,
Security will stop you.”2,3
Box 1.2 outlines some common interviewing mistakes.
Secondary Traumatization and Burnout
Emergency work can be exhilarating, but much trauma and loss pass through the av-
erage ED. Witnessing and experiencing chronic exposure to trauma can bruise any cli-
nician, even experienced ones. Identifying with a patient’s grief or sense of horror can
also be painful for the clinician. The more exposure to trauma, the more potential for
the development of stress-related disorders. It is referred to in the literature as secondary
traumatization, vicarious traumatization, or compassion fatigue.22
The skilled clinician understands this type of constant exposure is an occupational hazard;
it can be treated, leading to increased resiliency and empathy. Decreasing exposure by having
some designated time for administrative or other clinical duties outside of the ED is recom-
mended. Debriefings with other ED staff about difficult patients is a good idea, despite the
inherent time problems. It is well worth it to carve out a regular time to meet, even over lunch.
Secondary traumatization is different from burnout because it is not the result of excessive
exposure to traumatic events but, rather, to medical systems that do not support their staff,
issue unreasonable demands on clinicians’ time, and even make demands that the clinician
may experiences as a “moral injury.”22,23 Whereas secondary traumatization includes a per-
sonal sense of failure, social isolation, intrusive thoughts of the traumatic event, and even
a sense of moral injury, burnout leads to cynicism, disillusionment, irritability, and anger.22
A Word About Temperament
There is an emerging literature describing the unique skill sets and temperament best
suited for emergency psychiatry work.14,24,25 The temperament of the successful emer-
gency psychiatric clinician is that of an authentic, flexible clinician who possesses
advanced interviewing skills. The clinician should be nondefensive, able to use coun-
tertransference skillfully, spontaneous but judicious with self-disclosure, and able to tol-
erate ambiguity. The clinician must be comfortable making rapid and accurate clinical
decisions with limited information and thrive in an environment that can be chaotic. In
addition, the clinician needs to be authoritative without being authoritarian2 and have a
strong understanding of medical illnesses, particularly those that can present as behav-
ioral emergencies.14
Although ED work is not the same as doing psychotherapy, psychotherapeutic theory
is often called upon for diagnostic purposes and treatment of crises. A psychodynamic
and object relations theoretical base can assist in alliance building. Understanding
the underlying dynamics of the patient’s situation can inform outcome and even risk
assessments.
Conclusion
This chapter gives the beginning emergency psychiatry clinician theory and tools to con-
duct an effective emergency interview. The use of self is essential, and being direct and
flexible enables the building and sustaining of an alliance. This chapter offers a different
paradigm for the emergency interview by thinking less in terms of narrow diagnostic
categories and using a broader, more comprehensive model that allows for establishing
rapport and building alliances.
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10. Lazare A. The psychiatric examination in the walk-in clinic. Hypothesis generation and hy-
pothesis testing. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976;33(1):96–102.
11. Engel GL. The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science.
1977;196(4286):129–136.
12. Kleespies P, Richmond JS. Evaluating behavior emergencies: The clinical interview.
In: Kleespies P, ed. Behavioral emergencies: An evidence-based resource for evaluating and
managing risk of suicide, violence, and victimization. American Psychological Association;
2009:33–55.
13. Rosenberg RC. Advanced interviewing techniques. In: Glick RL, Zeller S, Berlin JS, eds. 2nd
ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2021:85–92.
14. Richmond JS, Dragatsi D, Stiebel V, Rozel JS, Rasimus JJ. American Association for
Emergency Psychiatry Recommendations to Address Psychiatric Staff Shortages in
Emergency Settings. Psychiatr Serv. 2021;72(4):437–443.
15. Berlin JS, Gudeman J. Interviewing for acuity and the acute precipitant. In: Glick RL, Berlin
JS, Fishkind AB, Zeller SL, eds. Emergency Psychiatry: Principles and Practice. Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins; 2008:100–102.
16. Meltzer B. 2020.
17. Zeller SL, Nordstrom K, Wilson MP. The Diagnosis and Management of Agitation. Cambridge
University Press; 2017.
18. Pearlman CA. 1998.
19. Agboola IK, Coupet E Jr, Wong AH. “The coats that we can take off and the ones we
can’t”: The role of trauma-informed care on race and bias during agitation in the emergency
department. Ann Emerg Med. 2021;77(5):493–498.
20. Hilfiker D. Facing our mistakes. N Engl J Med. 1984;310(2):118–122.
21. Lazare A. Shame and humiliation in the medical encounter. Arch Intern Med.
1987;147(9):1653–1658.
22. Richmond JS. Loss and trauma. In: Glick RL, Zeller SL, Berlin JS, eds. Emergency
Psychiatry: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2021::287–298.
23. Litz BT, Stein N, Delaney E, et al. Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A prelimi-
nary model and intervention strategy. Clin Psychol Rev. 2009;29(8):695–706.
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model curriculum developed by the Education Committee of the American Association for
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25. Richmond JS, Glick RL, Dragatsi DD. Supervision of ancillary personnel. In: Fitz-Gerald MJ,
Takeshita J, eds. Models of Emergency Psychiatric Services That Work: Integrating Psychiatry
and Primary Care. Springer; 2020:135–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50808-1_13
2
Evaluating and Managing the Agitated Patient
Victor Hong, Jennifer Baumhauer, and Stephen Leung
Introduction
The management of agitation is one of the most challenging and stressful elements of
psychiatric emergency care, both for trainees and for more experienced clinicians and
staff. It is crucial to comprehend all the components of agitation because it may por-
tend a life-threatening emergency and can lead to physical aggression and harm to self
and others. There has been a significant evolution in the understanding and treatment
of agitation that is briefly reviewed here. However, the primary goal of this chapter is to
provide practical tools to utilize in the management of agitation, from early recognition
to skills for handling severe aggression. Case vignettes are included to highlight various
types of agitation, each with its own nuances and challenges. The chapter first provides
background information about clinical agitation. Then it discusses how to optimally as-
sess an agitated patient, and it offers a guide for verbal de-escalation, medication-based,
and physical interventions. Because pediatric agitation necessitates its own specialized
approach, see Chapter 15 for further details.
Background
Agitation is defined as a state of excessive psychomotor activity and irritability. It is best

understood on a spectrum, from the initial phase of having a rising, uncomfortable
feeling to overt physical aggression. Agitation is common (~2.6% prevalence)1 in med-
ical emergency settings, and it is even more prevalent in psychiatric emergency settings.2
The challenges associated with managing agitation result partly from the variety and
complexity of its etiologies. As such, it is helpful to consider agitation as a symptom or
collection of symptoms, which then shifts the clinical focus to identifying its cause rather
than merely treating the symptom.3 When a concerted effort was made to standardize
the management of agitation for Project BETA (Best Practices in the Evaluation and
Treatment of Agitation), it was discovered that traditionally, management of agitation
was largely a one-size-fits-all approach, in which medications were the focus of treat-
ment, typically a first-generation antipsychotic being utilized along with a benzodiaze-
pine.4 The majority of the time, the etiology of the agitation was not taken into account.
It has come into clearer focus that indeed etiology should inform the clinical approach
to agitation. There can be psychiatric, medical, substance-related, psychosocial, and
other causes of agitation, each requiring a specific approach grounded in some general
underlying principles. For example, patients with borderline personality disorder may
respond well to verbal de-escalation; those with acute psychosis may require medication
management; those with delirium need an emergent medical workup; those with de-
mentia may benefit from a reduction in stimulation; and so on.
Early Intervention
When discussing agitation, recommendations often bypass the pre-assessment—that

is, what the clinician does prior to evaluating the patient. It is important, when pos-
sible, to gather information that could potentially be helpful, which means the assess-
ment of agitation ideally begins before meeting the patient. Reviewing the medical
record to understand a patient’s medical and psychiatric history, use of substances,
medication regimen, and allergies is a helpful preamble to evaluation. Knowledge of a
past history of violent aggression is key to factor into your assessment of risk for vio-
lence. Communication with law enforcement personnel, outpatient clinicians, family
members, and ambulance staff is crucial in developing an awareness of the context
of the patient’s visit. Were they physically aggressive in the community? Have they
shown signs of delirium or intoxication? What is the timeline of events? A well-run,
collaborative system helps enable these pre-discussions to occur, with the physical
environment and layout of the emergency setting, staffing model, and workflow all
geared toward the prevention and management of agitation. An ideal setting is quiet,
with less intense lighting, a stable and comfortable temperature, and immobile furni-
ture. Certainly, training staff in the management of acute agitation is crucial. System
development or optimization, physical space design, and training methods are consid-
erations beyond the scope of this chapter.
When available, the nursing triage assessment can provide valuable information,
with vital signs, the nurse’s observations, and chief complaint all illuminating the sit-
uation at hand. Initiating the assessment without first speaking to the nurse who con-
ducted the triage is a common pitfall because the patient could be agitated to the point
of presenting imminent danger, and one could miss crucial information to guide the
interview.
Another aspect of the evaluation that is central to clinical management of patients
with agitation is the garnering of information from collateral informants, whether par-
ents or other loved ones, friends, roommates, nursing or group home staff, or outpa-
tient providers. For the individual who is not adequately able or willing to communicate
due to their mental state, these sources of information may prove more reliable than the
patient.
Then comes the assessment of the patient, which certainly includes the clinical inter-
view. Because those who are acutely agitated are often poor historians, the mental status
exam emerges as a powerful tool and often is the crux of the evaluation. The patient’s ap-
pearance can provide clues as to what they were doing before coming to the emergency
setting or if they are aware of the weather. Their behavior affords the clinician a wealth
of information before the individual even says a word, whether they are pacing or wildly
gesticulating or have their fists clenched. Their speech can be pressured or loud. They can
in some cases verbally express how angry, irritable, or agitated they are, and for others
their mood can be inferred. Their affect can display their true emotions regardless of
what is said. A disorganized thought process can be a window into the patient’s inability
to understand their environment, process what is being communicated to them, and
Evaluating and Managing the Agitated Patient 23
control their impulses. If an individual has paranoia or is responding to internal stimuli,

their risk of violence is significantly elevated.
Patients exhibiting signs of agitation should be evaluated as expeditiously as possible.
Acute agitation must be triaged and treated as an emergency requiring immediate ac-
tion. With each passing minute, agitation can worsen, safety can become more compro-
mised, and the need for physical management becomes more likely. Delays to care can
lead to patient or staff injuries, the inability to treat a potentially life-threatening condi-
tion, and increase the distress of all involved. It follows that early recognition of the signs
of acute or impending agitation is central to early intervention (Figure 2.1).
Providers should recognize and manage their own emotions when approaching
patients with symptoms of agitation. Fear and distress are common reactions and, if un-
checked, can lead to hostility, avoidance, and the mismanagement of care. It is impor-
tant to recognize that although some clinicians can tolerate interactions with agitated
patients seemingly better than others, no one is entirely comfortable in these situations.
It is normal to be scared, even traumatized by these incidents, and seeking support from
colleagues and supervisors is highly recommended. This issue reinforces why an organ-
ized, collaborative approach is helpful, as are repetition and experience, which inform
one’s instincts and hone skills. With time, the ability to stay relatively calm and rationally
process the ideal next steps can develop.
Mentation
inattention
confusion
increased response Behavior
to stimuli
restlessness
aimless movements
repetitive movements
Speech jaw clenching
excessive talking hand wringing
repetitive phrases hand clenching
loud volume pacing
shouting posturing
cursing assaultiveness
hitting
punching
Affect kicking
irritable biting
hostile
belligerent
uncooperative
disruptive
Figure 2.1 Signs and symptoms of agitation.

Maintenance of Safety
“Safety first” is a central tenet of optimal management of agitation. When indicated,

and when available, utilizing trained security personnel as support during evaluation is
strongly recommended. Clinicians’ feelings of anxiety, shame, and fragility in requesting
additional support, although common, must be managed and overcome in the emer-
gency setting in favor of engaging in the safest possible practice. If security personnel
are unavailable, an increased number of respondents, including other clinical staff mem-
bers, may be indicated.
Giving the agitated individual adequate physical space significantly mitigates the po-
tential for an assault to occur, with a general rule being two arm’s length distance,5 but in
some cases, even more space is indicated. Scanning the room for any objects that could
be used as a projectile or weapon is another important step, as is positioning yourself
in a way such that either you as the evaluator or the patient can quickly exit the room if
needed. Although these represent long-standing best practices, they require repetition
and rehearsal because in the often chaotic acute emergency setting, one can be harried
and distracted from these safety steps. If it is clear that the proposed area for the inter-
view is not adequately safe, one should seek a more appropriate environment, if avail-
able, such as a room in which seclusion or restraint is possible. Because each emergency
setting has variable availability of rooms/areas, the clinician must gain an awareness of
all of the options and the unit’s protocols.
How one behaves physically with an agitated patient can also contribute to opti-
mizing safety. Maintaining an open posture with one’s hands visible can help mit-
igate the potential of the patient believing something is being hidden from them,
such as a weapon. Touching an agitated patient, even in a supportive manner, is
rarely indicated and often can trigger a violent response. Eye contact needs to be
causal and not too intense so as to avoid the nonverbal communication that this is
a confrontation.
The issue of utilizing one’s “gut feeling” has been raised, to sense impending danger.
Although there is certainly not empirical evidence to support a practice of relying
solely on one’s intuition, it can be a valuable tool. If a clinician feels quite uncomfort-
able or scared, it may be time to change the approach or give the patient more time to
de-escalate.
Verbal De-Escalation
Although identification of the etiology of the patient’s agitation is a primary goal, verbal
de-escalation remains a first-line intervention for agitation regardless of the cause.
Verbal de-escalation skills can be learned and practiced, and they are critical to safe and
productive clinical engagement.
Project BETA identified four main objectives in working with agitated patients:5
1. Ensuring the safety of the patient, staff, and others in the immediate environment
2. Empowering the patient to manage distress and emotions in an effort to regain
control of their behavior
3. Avoiding usage of seclusion or restraint
4. Reducing the risk of further escalation of agitation
Although previous history of agitation and violence is pertinent to assessing the

patient’s propensity for further episodes of violence, the signs and symptoms actively
displayed by the patient in real time are certainly most indicative of violent outcomes.
Several objective scales, including the Behavioural Activity Rating Scale, have been in-
creasingly employed by staff in emergency settings to assess the level agitation on pres-
entation.6 These scales utilize objective signs related to a point system, resulting in a
score indicating mild, moderate, or severe agitation. Use of these tools helps standardize
and reduce subjectivity of the assessment and can create a shared language among staff.
Although ideal, verbal de-escalation may not always be an available choice if agitation
is severe.
The optimal approach to verbal de-escalation requires preparation. The safety mea-
sures mentioned previously (e.g., ensuring that the physical space is as safe as possible,
ensuring that adequate staffing support is present, conducting a multidisciplinary pre-
discussion, and contingency planning) can offer a good context in which to initiate
verbal de-escalation. Once environmental and personal safety has been optimized, the
clinician can engage the patient, attempt to establish a collaborative relationship, and im-
plement de-escalation techniques.
The following case illustrates core principles of successful verbal de-escalation.
Case Example
Mr. O is a 27-year-old male with a history of depression who presents for suicidal ide-
ation. After careful evaluation, he is believed to warrant inpatient hospitalization for
safety and stabilization despite his desire to go home. He has never been hospitalized
before. Several minutes after being told of this decision, a nurse expresses concern about
Mr. O’s state, noting he is pacing the room, loudly mumbling to himself, and repeatedly
requesting to speak with someone.
Observations from the nurse raise concern for escalating agitation in the setting of in-
voluntary hospitalization. Behind the scenes, the team prepares for engagement, alerting
appropriate support and security staff of the situation while choosing one individual to
lead the encounter. They discuss potential scenarios, including what to do if Mr. O’s ag-
itation escalates. The chosen team leader then enters the patient’s room, respecting Mr.
O’s personal space, maintaining appropriate distance, and aware of his own body lan-
guage and tone of voice. The provider knows it is rarely helpful to raise one’s own voice
in such cases.
Dr. X: Hello Mr. O, I’m Dr. X, the psychiatrist you spoke to earlier. Your nurse informed
me that you wished to speak again.
Mr. O: (pacing, wringing hands, speaking quickly)Yes, I need to go home, I came in for
referrals, and now I’m being held here, I just need to go home, this isn’t happening.
Dr. X: I understand your preference is to leave the hospital, but at this time that is not an
option due to concerns for your safety.
Mr. O: (yelling) I can’t, I’ll be fine, I don’t need to be in the hospital! I’m not going into the
hospital!
Dr. X: I know it must be frustrating to feel like your preferences aren’t being heard. But
our goal is the same as yours: to keep you safe, which is why we feel you need to spend
some time in the hospital.
When verbally engaging an agitated patient, it is paramount to remember they can have
difficulty processing information and become easily confused. The primary communi-
cator should use basic, concise phrases and repeat themself when necessary to convey
important points and set limits. Giving the patient sufficient time to process new infor-
mation is also important. Throughout the interaction, Dr. X attempts to identify and
reflect the patient’s wants and feelings, listening actively to what the patient is saying and
making supportive comments.
Mr. O: (sits down, exasperated, still talking loudly) I can’t believe this is happening to me,
my friend came to the hospital with the same problems, and she left with a therapist!
That’s all I need, I should be able to leave too!
Dr. X: I believe anyone who came in expecting referrals and finding they were being hos-
pitalized would feel the same as you: upset and maybe even frightened. We do believe
it is necessary for your safety at this time.
Although the patient and physician disagree on the intervention needed at this time
(hospitalization), finding some agreement, whether through facts, principle, or odds of
the situation, helps validate and enhance the therapeutic alliance. Note that Dr. X still
maintains that hospitalization is necessary.
Mr. O: (hitting his head with his hands, then jumping up and posturing towards the phy-
sician) I JUST DON’T WANT TO BE HOSPITALIZED!
Dr. X: (backing away slightly) Mr. O., I understand this is upsetting for you, but your be-
havior now is scaring me and the other staff. We cannot let you leave the hospital at
this time, but I would like to see if we can find a way to make you more comfortable
now. Would you mind taking a seat so we can talk?
Mr. O: (sits down, cautiously)
Dr. X: Can I get you something to drink, some food, or a phone to call someone?
Mr. O: I’m sorry, I’m sorry, I’m just very scared, and anxious, and don’t know what
to do. I’ll take a water. And maybe a phone so I can let my parents know what’s
going on.
Dr. X: I understand this is a difficult time for you. I am confident with the right care
through hospitalization things will start to get better. Let me get you that water and
a phone. If you feel your anxiety is getting too high, let us know and we can discuss a
medication to help keep you calm while you’re waiting.
As the patient continues to perseverate, he displays further signs of agitation. Dr. X uses
this opportunity to convey the emotions elicited by the behavior, of which the patient
is likely unaware. All the while, the physician sets clear limits while offering choices
and optimism where possible to assist the patient in feeling some semblance of control.
Ultimately, the patient is de-escalated out of the agitated state.
Utilization of verbal de-escalation can improve safety, reduce the use of force, and
models nonviolent problem-solving. If time and circumstances permit, debriefing with
the patient and other staff following the interaction can help with treatment planning
and improving understanding and processes. Premature escalation to interventions
such as utilization of medications can be perceived as dismissive, rejecting, or humili-
ating by patients.
Special Populations
Agitation Related to Substance Use
From 2006 to 2014, the rate of mental health and substance use-related emergency de-
partment (ED) visits increased 44.1%.7 The primary diagnoses of alcohol-related disor-
ders and substance-related disorders increased 76.3% and 73.7%, respectively. Patients
with substance use disorders and psychiatric comorbidity are higher ED utilizers com-
pared to patients with a substance use disorder but without psychiatric comorbidity.8
The volume of presentations, as well as the fact that intoxication and withdrawal syn-
dromes are frequently associated with agitation, demands that the emergency clinician
must be adept at identifying and treating agitation secondary to substance use. For more
information on the management of intoxication and withdrawal states, see Chapter 8.
Alcohol
Mr. B, a 42-year-old male with a history of depression and alcohol use disorder, volun-
tarily presents to the psychiatric emergency services for suicidal ideation and is seeking
psychiatric hospitalization. His last drink was approximately 36 hours ago. He reveals
that he has been drinking a “fifth” daily during the past few months and that he has been
admitted to the intensive care unit in the past when he stopped drinking. Vital signs
during his initial triage are notable for a blood pressure of 140/95 mmHg and heart rate
of 110 beats per minute. He is slightly diaphoretic and tremulous. His blood alcohol level
is zero, and urine drug screen is negative for all substances. While awaiting psychiatric
hospitalization, he becomes progressively confused, agitated, and appears to be respond-
ing to internal stimuli.
Alcohol-related presentations are frequently associated with acute agitation in the ED.1
An alcohol level, whether through blood alcohol concentration (BAC) or breathalyzer,
should be obtained for any patient suspected of recent alcohol use upon arrival and po-
tentially again as their BAC may continue to rise if the patient consumed alcohol shortly
before arrival to the ED.
When the primary cause of agitation is likely alcohol intoxication, antipsychotics are
often preferred over benzodiazepines due to the risk of respiratory suppression when
benzodiazepines are combined with alcohol.9 Haloperidol (with or without an anti-
cholinergic), olanzapine, and droperidol are all reasonable options, with one large ret-
rospective study demonstrating decreased length of stay with droperidol.10 However,
droperidol may not be widely available on formulary. Compared to haloperidol, olanzap-
ine has a decreased risk of QTc prolongation—an important factor to consider because
chronic alcohol use is associated with hypomagnesemia, which can elongate QTc.11
Alcohol withdrawal should be suspected among any patient who has abruptly stopped
drinking after a significant period of heavy daily alcohol use. Common features of al-
cohol withdrawal include hypertension, tachycardia, diaphoresis, anxiety, hyperarousal,
insomnia, and irritability.12 Onset of severe complications of alcohol withdrawal, such as
seizures and delirium tremens (DTs), can occur within 48–72 hours from the last drink.
Because untreated or undertreated complicated alcohol withdrawal has a high mortality
rate, vigilance is needed to prevent adverse outcomes. Predictors of complicated alcohol
withdrawal (e.g., withdrawal seizures or DTs) include older age, prior history of com-
plicated withdrawal, hypokalemia, and the presence of severe withdrawal symptoms
despite high BAC.12 Individuals with this history in addition to significant signs and
symptoms of withdrawal require medical management.
ED clinicians will be responsible for initiating treatment because prompt control of
withdrawal reduces the incidence of adverse events.13 When agitation is associated with
alcohol withdrawal, benzodiazepines are the preferred treatment, with lorazepam, diaz-
epam, and chlordiazepoxide frequently used and no single benzodiazepine demonstrat-
ing superiority.14 Diazepam and chlordiazepoxide are longer acting benzodiazepines
and may provide a smoother detoxification; however, because both chlordiazepoxide
and diazepam are hepatically metabolized, lorazepam may be preferred in patients with
liver disease. All patients receiving benzodiazepines should have their vital signs serially
monitored because instability can portend a worsening condition.
Benzodiazepines
Similar to alcohol intoxication and withdrawal in overall presentation, benzodiaze-
pine intoxication or withdrawal can also be associated with agitation. Benzodiazepine
withdrawal can be life-threatening, with some experts recommending hospitaliza-
tion for withdrawal from very high doses (≥100 mg of diazepam equivalents daily).14
Benzodiazepine withdrawal is treated with large doses of benzodiazepines in the acute
phase (and may be initiated in the ED), followed by a prolonged taper. Treatment of
withdrawal from multiple benzodiazepines should be consolidated to monotherapy
whenever possible, with some preference given toward longer acting benzodiazepines
such as diazepam.15
Opioids
With the current opioid epidemic, patients who use prescribed and illicit opioids have
become more prevalent in EDs. It is important to recognize opioid withdrawal as a po-
tential factor that can exacerbate agitation. Opioid withdrawal can be extremely un-
comfortable, with common physical symptoms of pain, hyperalgesia, insomnia, and
gastrointestinal distress.16 Psychiatric symptoms of opioid withdrawal include anxiety,
agitation, dysphoria, and irritability. The chronology of opioid withdrawal is highly var-
iable depending on the type of opioids used and the presence of adulterants, although
withdrawal symptoms typically start within 12 hours of last usage and peak within 36–72
hours.16 Although opioid withdrawal is rarely life-threatening,17 it should be treated in
order to keep the patient comfortable and reduce the risk of agitation. Treating a patient’s
opioid withdrawal may also help with alliance building and facilitate disposition to ei-
ther psychiatric or substance use treatment.
Treatment of opioid withdrawal with either buprenorphine or methadone is quickly
becoming the standard of care.17 However, the logistics of providing medication-assisted
treatment in the ED is complicated and largely dependent on addiction treatment ser-
vices available within the hospital system. If buprenorphine or methadone are available
treatments in the ED, these options should be pursued because there is evidence that
ED-initiated medication-assisted treatment significantly increases engagement in ad-
diction treatment.18 Non-opioid pharmacologic treatments such as loperamide, meto-
clopramide, and ondansetron can be used to treat gastrointestinal distress associated
with withdrawal.17 Alpha-2 agonists such as clonidine and lofexidine can treat auto-
nomic hyperactivity from withdrawal and may have an anxiolytic effect; patients should
be monitored for signs of hypotension.16 Pain-reducing medications such as ibuprofen
can assist with headache and other types of pain, and in some cases, benzodiazepines can
be utilized to calm agitation and anxiety.
Stimulants
Mrs. S is a 25-year-old female brought to the psychiatric emergency services by law en-
forcement in the middle of the night for evaluation of psychosis and agitation after she
was found yelling at bystanders in a convenience store. She is unable to cooperate with
initial triage assessment due to mood lability. She can be heard from a distance yelling
about being abducted by aliens. She is visibly disheveled with poor dentition and is ac-
tively picking at her skin. She accuses the medical team of stealing $300,000 from her and
tries to punch nursing staff before being physically restrained.
Acute and chronic use of stimulants, such as methamphetamine and cocaine, can
lead to delusions, grandiosity, paranoia, and perceptual disturbances.19 Compared to
cocaine, methamphetamine may cause more severe psychotic symptoms, potentially
due to neurotoxic effects and different mechanisms of action. A systematic review
found that methamphetamine-related presentations were more likely to present with
agitation, aggression, and homicidal behavior compared with other substance-related
presentations.20
Benzodiazepines are considered a first-line treatment for stimulant-related agita-
tion.9 There is a dearth of quality studies on the treatment of stimulant-related psychosis,
with some evidence supporting the use of haloperidol, olanzapine, and quetiapine.21
Antipsychotics may be considered if psychotic symptoms are prominent or if benzodiaz-
epines are ineffective.
Phencyclidine
Phencyclidine (PCP) is a synthetic compound with anesthetic and hallucinogenic prop-
erties and is frequently associated with agitation. A 2015 case series found that the most
common presenting symptoms of PCP intoxication included horizontal and vertical
nystagmus, agitation, and retrograde amnesia.22 No high-quality studies have compared
treatments for PCP-related agitation. Most patients only require supportive care and
decreased stimuli (quiet room and dim lights), although the availability of a calm envi-
ronment is limited in some settings. For more severe agitation requiring chemical and
physical restraints, benzodiazepines (lorazepam or diazepam) are preferred and have the
additional benefit of reducing PCP-induced hypertension and seizures.23 There is evi-
dence for using haloperidol for PCP-induced psychosis,24 although it is recommended
to utilize benzodiazepines as first-line and reserve antipsychotics for adjunctive pur-
poses or for prominent psychotic symptoms.25
Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids

Cannabis use alone is unlikely to result in severe agitation requiring intervention in the
ED. Nonetheless, clinicians should be aware that in rare circumstances, it can cause ag-
itation. Neuropsychiatric symptoms of cannabis use are generally self-limiting, require
no treatment, and result in a short length of stay in the ED.26 Synthetic cannabinoids, on
the other hand, are more commonly associated with agitation and psychotic symptoms
compared to cannabis.27 Similar to other cases in which substance intoxication leads to
agitation, benzodiazepines can reduce agitation here and antipsychotics can be used for
acute psychosis.28
Nicotine
Nicotine withdrawal may cause agitation, and a thorough assessment of nicotine use
should be included in the patient evaluation. It is important to assess the use of not only
combustible cigarettes but also all forms of nicotine, including e-cigarettes, chewing to-
bacco, and nicotine replacement therapy (NRT). A randomized controlled trial found
that smokers with schizophrenia demonstrated significantly less agitation if they were
treated with NRT.29 Being proactive in offering NRT to all patients who use nicotine is
recommended because they will likely develop withdrawal symptoms if their visit to the
ED is prolonged.
Personality Disorders
For individuals with a known or suspected personality disorder, the approach to agita-
tion requires due consideration of what may be more or less effective, while maintaining
general principles of agitation management. The focus here is on the two most prevalent
types of personality disorders seen in the ED: antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
and borderline personality disorder (BPD).30
Antisocial Personality Disorder

Mr. B is a 47-year-old male with a reported history of alcohol use disorder, ASPD, and bi-
polar disorder. He has presented to the ED four times in the past month. The staff rushes
over, saying, “He’s back again! He needs to leave.” When asked to identify his chief com-
plaint, they say “the same as always, he wants three hots and a cot and is demanding
about it.” When evaluating the patient, he is sleeping and does not respond to your intro-
duction. A staff member says loudly, “C’mon, get up!” and shakes his body. He wakes and
explodes with anger.
When treating those with ASPD, several issues are crucial to consider. Recall that the
diagnostic criteria for ASPD include impulsivity, aggressiveness, and disregard for the
safety of others, all of which can be associated with violent behavior, necessitating keen
attention to the safety measures previously discussed. Specific attention to optimal man-
agement of agitated individuals is needed.31 Often, clinicians assume that patients with
ASPD are malingering when they present to the ED. Although in some cases this may be
true, it is dangerous to assume, because individuals with ASPD can present true safety
risks. Moreover, when patients with ASPD are suspected of malingering, direct confron-
tation can increase agitation and necessitate more aggressive interventions, including
physical management. It is generally more effective to attempt to align with the patient
and determine their goals for the visit. If their wishes cannot be granted, this should
be discussed in a direct but tactful manner, citing the limitations of what is possible in
the ED. Escalation of behavior is certainly a potential outcome in these cases, and staff
should be prepared for this possibility.
Borderline Personality Disorder

Mr. V is a 24-year-old male with a history of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder,
and BPD. He presents with numerous cuts on his arms, and immediately upon being
triaged by the nursing staff, he starts to raise his voice saying he wants to leave, that his
visit was a mistake, and he starts pacing back and forth. Efforts are made to attempt
to calm him down, and staff request that the physician order an injectable medication
immediately. As the nurse approaches Mr. V with the medication, he becomes more agi-
tated and begins to gesticulate wildly, saying this is all “triggering” him.
Given the prevalence of individuals with BPD presenting to EDs and the unique as-
sociated challenges, special considerations are necessary to optimize management.32
Given that emotional dysregulation and self-harm behaviors are core features of the
illness, staff often use benzodiazepines and antipsychotic medications to calm the
patient.31 These measures are sometimes necessary if a patient is so agitated or anx-
ious that the evaluation cannot take place, but quite often, active validation and verbal
de-escalation are effective and sufficient. Perhaps more than others, BPD patients can
benefit from clinicians talking with them, helping them understand that the staff is
there to help and validating their distress. In many cases, this approach can lead to
rapid stabilization.
It is easy for staff to become dysregulated around BPD patients, particularly if the pa-
tient exhibits provocative behaviors. If these staff emotions go unchecked, it can lead to
hostility or dismissiveness toward the patient that, due to the interpersonal hypersensi-
tivity inherent in BPD, can undermine the therapeutic alliance and further complicate
arriving at an ideal disposition.33 Given that experiences of trauma are common in those
with BPD, care must be taken not to retraumatize the patient with aggressive actions.
A thoughtful and trauma-informed approach is crucial here, attending to elements such
as allowing the patient to have choices to maintain a sense of control and attempting to
understand what the patient needs to feel safe.
Delirium and Dementia
Mr. A is an 85-year-old male with Alzheimer’s disease who is brought to the ED by his
wife and daughter for a 1-week-long history of worsening confusion and irritability. His
family became concerned today after he was unable to remember his wife’s name and
waved his cane at her in a threatening manner. He has also been talking about seeing his
deceased brother in the home. His vital signs are notable for a low-grade fever. A brief
neurologic exam appears normal. He appears anxious and afraid. While obtaining a
medication list from his family, the physician discovers that the family has recently been
administering diphenhydramine at bedtime to help with sleep.
Behavioral disturbances due to delirium and dementia are commonly associated
with agitation. Distinguishing between chronic symptoms of dementia and more acute
symptoms of delirium is crucial to a comprehensive emergency evaluation. It is impor-
tant to note the time of symptom onset (hours to days in delirium and months in de-
mentia) and level of arousal (often impaired in delirium and more stable in dementia),
which may provide useful clues. Treatment strategies for agitation associated with de-
lirium and dementia are reviewed here together because there is significant overlap and
they often present concurrently with baseline cognitive impairment and superimposed
mental status changes. The recognition of possible delirium is key, with specific attention
to potential etiologies or precipitating factors including infection, trauma, pain, sub-
stance use, medication changes, and medication side effects. Physical exam, vital signs,
and laboratory findings should augment the history-taking process. Life-threatening
causes or those requiring further medical evaluation and/or intervention need to be
ruled out. When the likely source or sources are found, then mitigating strategies can be
implemented.
Nonpharmacologic interventions take precedence over pharmacologic interventions

for treatment of agitation in delirium and dementia.34 Guidelines include providing fre-
quent reassurance and redirection, attempting to reorient the patient with calendars and
clocks, minimizing overstimulation (quiet room, controlled lighting, and consistent
caregivers), increasing family interactions with the patient, and clear and simple com-
munication. Given the frailty of many individuals with dementia and delirium, use of
physical restraints should be further minimized.35
Medications may be needed for severe agitation refractory to nonpharmacologic
interventions. The benefits of using medications in elderly or medically compromised
patients should be carefully weighed against the risks. For example, medications used
to treat agitation may worsen other conditions or cause gait instability, leading to falls.36
Other potential side effects of calming medications include sedation, extrapyramidal
symptoms, and QTc prolongation. In addition, the therapeutic window of a particular
medication may be narrower for elderly patients due to drug–drug interactions, alter-
ations in drug metabolism, and medical comorbidities.
The use of antipsychotics for off-label treatment of behavioral disturbances in patients
with dementia is associated with increased mortality.37 There is limited evidence sup-
porting the use of any particular antipsychotic over another, although a retrospective
cohort study found that quetiapine may be associated with the lowest mortality risk,
whereas haloperidol may be associated with the highest mortality risk. The U.S. Food
and Drug Administration has issued black box warnings against the off-label use of both
typical and atypical antipsychotics for treatment of dementia-related behavioral dis-
turbances. However, expert consensus suggests that antipsychotics can be appropriate
for patients with dementia, particularly in individuals with dangerous agitation or psy-
chosis.38 As with all medications for geriatric patients or those with underlying medical
complexity or cognitive decline, medications should be started at low doses and titrated
slowly to determine the minimum effective dose.
Similarly, guidelines for pharmacologic treatment of delirium recommend reserv-
ing use of antipsychotics and other sedating medications for treatment of severe ag-
itation that poses risk of harm to patient or staff safety or threatens interruption of
essential medical therapies.39 For delirium-related agitation meeting this level of se-
verity, suggestions include starting with a low dose of one of quetiapine, olanzapine,
risperidone, or haloperidol and maintaining an effective dose for approximately 2 days
before tapering. If there are sleep–wake cycle issues, melatonin or ramelteon can be
administered, with avoidance of sedative–hypnotics. Unless there are issues such as
alcohol or benzodiazepine withdrawal, benzodiazepines for agitation in the setting
of dementia or delirium are to be avoided, given the risk of drug–drug interactions,
further cognitive deficits, dizziness, disinhibition, and development of tolerance and
dependence.40,41
Psychosis and Mania
Ms. T is a 54-year-old female with a history of schizophrenia who presents with police
after being found walking aimlessly in the cold for several hours without shoes. During
triage, she appears restless, wringing her hands and pacing, talking despite being alone
in the room. When approached to check her vital signs, she stares intensely and takes
prolonged periods of time to answer basic questions, irritably mumbling that she cannot
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that venerable humbug to exhibit the contents to his guests. The
sight of so much riches naturally inflamed the already excited
cupidity of the Wa’G’nainu. The next step was easy. In spite of Bei-
Munithu’s lukewarm remonstrances, they helped themselves liberally
and departed, exulting, to their villages. The next day El Hakim
unexpectedly arrived, and, entirely unaware of what had taken place,
asked that his trade goods should be brought out for his inspection,
as he wanted to take them over to M’thara. Bei-Munithu, with many
excuses and much wringing of hands, detailed the events of the
preceding day. El Hakim was exceedingly wroth, and he there and
then wrote me the note which had brought me over.
After Bei-Munithu had retired to his village we talked matters over.
El Hakim was very much annoyed at the turn of affairs, and assured
me that this was only one of the unpleasant results of our reverse in
Embe. What others were in store for us, time alone would disclose.
We decided before we turned in that we would go early on the
morrow to G’nainu and demand our goods. We wished to proceed
on the principle of suaviter in modo rather than fortiter in re, but if the
former failed we were determined to apply the latter without
hesitation. El Hakim had taken an inventory of the missing goods,
and found that more than four loads had disappeared. Bei-Munithu’s
conduct in the affair was not above suspicion, but we could not
afford to quarrel with him just then.
At night a bed of banana leaves was made up for me on the
ground in El Hakim’s tent, which, with the addition of a couple of
blankets, made me as comfortable as possible under the
circumstances. My well-earned rest, however, was soon disturbed by
the field-rats, which used me as a playground, and continually
skipped and jumped over my body and face, to their own infinite
amusement and my extreme discomfort. Two or three times during
the night I woke up and found a large rat curled up fast asleep in the
hollow of my neck or under my arm. El Hakim awoke at my frequent
and somewhat profane exclamations, and gently inquired what was
the matter. When I held forth on the drawbacks of slumber in the
savage wilds, he feigned polite incredulity, and remarked, “Shocking,
shocking! Most unfortunate delusions! Very regrettable, Hardwick,
very;” and turning over in his blankets, he added insult to injury by
chuckling audibly at intervals for an hour afterwards, in a most
aggravating manner.
At four o’clock next morning we roused our fourteen men, and set
out for G’nainu, some twenty or thirty of Bei-Munithu’s men
accompanying us. It was rather a rough tramp, the country being
very hilly and much cut up by ravines and streams. We crossed the
river Kazeta (which flows in a south-easterly direction through Zura
at an average altitude of 5000 feet) by a tree-trunk bridge, and at
seven o’clock reached the first village of the Wa’G’nainu and halted
outside. Our men waved green branches as a sign that we came in
peace, but got no answer, the village, which was very strongly
fortified, seeming to be entirely deserted. It was situated on the crest
of a forest-covered hill, and was surrounded by a very massive outer
stockade of roughly hewn tree-trunks with pointed tops. Inside there
were two additional stockades of pointed logs, and the huts within
were also stockaded one from the other, the whole forming a position
almost impregnable to an enemy without firearms. We waited for a
while, but were unable to get any answer to our signals, and held a
consultation to decide on our next move, but in the middle of the
discussion a shower of poisoned arrows from the surrounding bush
winged their destructive way into our midst, killing three of Bei-
Munithu’s men outright; at the same time the now familiar war-cry
rose on all sides, and resounded from hilltop to hilltop in a manner
which showed us that we were fully expected.
The natives, we found afterwards, had driven off most of the stock,
which, with all their women and children, was safely out of the way
on the hills, while their husbands and fathers contentedly settled
down to a comfortable day’s fighting with the Wasungu, with the
prospect of a nice little massacre afterwards as a fitting conclusion to
a most enjoyable day.
We were compelled to quickly decide upon our course of action,
as the Munithu men were wavering, and their desertion would have
meant disaster, they alone knowing the paths. Retreat was not to be
thought of, as, taken in combination with the Embe reverse, it would
have confirmed the natives in their opinion of our helplessness, and
our prestige would be hopelessly lost. Our men summarily settled
the question by firing a volley into the surrounding bush in reply to
fresh showers of arrows. We were now in for a large-sized quarrel,
and as we did not see any immediate prospect of recovering our
pillaged goods by pacific means, we determined to avail ourselves of
the opportunity to recover at least their value, and also to punish the
treacherous Wa’G’nainu for their unprovoked attack. Accordingly we
gave the word of command, and our little force advanced at the
double and captured the village without encountering any serious
opposition. Inside were a few goats and sheep that had been left
behind in the general stampede which occurred when our arrival was
first signalled. The enemy had drawn off for reinforcements, and
meanwhile contented themselves, after the native fashion, with
shouting insulting remarks, together with a list of the various surgical
operations they later on intended performing upon our persons.
El Hakim mustered our men in the village, and divided them into
two parties, one of which he placed under my command, with orders
to forage round for more live stock, while he, at the head of the other,
held the village as a fortified base.
When I was about to select the men I required, we discovered, to
our consternation, that there were only nine instead of fourteen!
Questions elicited no information as to the whereabouts of the
absentees. It was that firebrand Sadi ben Heri and three or four of
his particular cronies who were missing. I had seen them only ten
minutes before, but where they had gone after we captured the
village I could not ascertain; however, we trusted they would turn up
all right. I took five men of our own and about a dozen of the
Wa’Munithu to try to capture some more stock in order to balance
our account with the Wa’G’nainu.
They certainly made me work for what little I captured. They
disputed every plantation and every village till I began to run short of
ammunition. Two or three of my Munithu contingent were killed, so
when I reached the next village I burnt it, just to show the enemy that
they had in no way intimidated us by their opposition; a proceeding
which heartened my men wonderfully. It was very hard work. Every
village was perched on an eminence, and in most cases reached by
only one, or at the most two, almost inaccessible paths. I proceeded
all the time at the double, so that my men should not have time to
think about the danger, and after racing up and down several hills as
steep as the roof of a house, I was fairly pumped and streaming with
perspiration, in spite of the comparatively low temperature. I
captured a few head of cattle and a hundred or so sheep and goats
in the course of an hour or two, and burnt four villages in the
process; which proceeding greatly facilitated my safe retirement to
the base held by El Hakim, when I was forced both by lack of breath
and ammunition to turn my footsteps thither.
During my retirement the enemy concentrated in force along my
route, but a few well-directed shots from my ·303 persuaded them
that it was safer to scatter and take cover. I rejoined El Hakim, and
found that he had also gathered a couple of dozen or so additional
goats and sheep, and three or four head of cattle. It was then nine
o’clock in the morning. There was no sign of the five missing men.
The war-cries and howls of the enemy were increasing rapidly in
volume, and it became more and more evident that a determined
effort was to be made by them to prevent our return. Our Munithu
contingent showed unmistakable signs of wavering, so we concluded
that in the interests of our own lives and those of our remaining men
we had better put on a determined front, and fight our way back to
Munithu. We therefore burnt our temporary headquarters, and retired
in good order, trusting that the misguided Sadi ben Heri and his
equally misguided companions had already safely retired by another
route.
After leaving the village the path abruptly descended into a narrow
valley and ascended the opposite slope, winding amid thick bush, in
which large numbers of the enemy had congregated. Our first view
of them was by no means encouraging. The bush seemed alive with
them. We were at once greeted with a shower of poisoned arrows at
long range, which, though they did no bodily harm, badly shook the
nerves of the men; but El Hakim and I put in a little fancy shooting at
200 yards, and order was soon restored. We got safely through that
particular part, but several times in the next mile or so we were
greeted with showers of arrows from concealed natives. A few shots,
however, generally persuaded them that discretion was the better
part of valour.
After a tiring march, with intervals of skirmishing, we reached
Munithu with our captures intact. When we reckoned them up,
however, they barely covered the value of the trade goods stolen, to
say nothing of the expenditure of ammunition and the personal risk
entailed in the collection. We were very tired and very hungry, but
before eating we dispatched native spies to try to obtain news of the
missing men. After lunch we retired for an hour to sleep off the
effects of our unusual exertion.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] Should the reader be inclined to consider my language to be
somewhat theatrical, it must be remembered with whom I was
dealing. I knew my man, and pointed my remarks accordingly.
CHAPTER VII.
RETURN TO M’THARA.
An ivory “shauri”—Death of Sadi ben Heri and his companions—

Purchasing ivory—El Hakim and I return to M’thara—A night in
the open—George ill—The Wa’M’thara at their old tricks—Return
of the Somalis from Chanjai—They refuse to return to Embe—I
interview an elephant.
In the afternoon Bei-Munithu paid us a visit in order to hear our
version of what had happened at G’nainu. He listened attentively to
our recital without making any comment. When we had concluded he
informed us that he also had sent spies back to G’nainu, as, in
addition to our five men, eleven of his own who had accompanied
them were missing.
We learnt further that the natives of a village about two hours’
march distant wished to sell us a tusk of ivory. We heartened
considerably at that, and asked Bei-Munithu to bring the owner along
to talk it over. He thereupon withdrew, presently returning with a very
aged and decrepit man, who tottered forward by the aid of a staff,
whom he introduced to us as the owner of the tusk. We politely
begged the venerable gentleman to seat himself, and waited till it
pleased him to open negotiations. In a few moments he had
collected enough energy to speak, and producing a reed some six
feet long, indicated that that was the measurement of the tusk.
“Very well,” we said. “It seems a good tusk. How much do you
want for it?”
After a little thought he remarked that one cow and three sheep
would be considered a very fair return.
“All right,” said we; “if the tusk is all it is represented to be, we will
give even the price asked, in order to save the trouble of a long
‘shauri.’ But first let us see the tusk.”
He assented to this, and in a little while rose and retired,
presumably to bring the tusk. For over two hours we waited
expectantly, but he did not return, and we were just thinking of
sending over to Bei-Munithu for an explanation when that gentleman
himself appeared, leading forward a native still more ancient than
our former visitor. This latter individual slowly seated himself in front
of our tent and solemnly chewed a twig which he drew from a bundle
of similar ones carried in his belt.[6] The ancient gentleman munched
away for some minutes, and finally condescended to speak. He
announced, between chews, that he owned a tusk of ivory which he
wished to sell us. We, metaphorically, hugged ourselves. Two tusks
in one afternoon! But we received a rude shock when the interpreter
informed us that the old gentleman was referring to the same tusk.
“Why,” we explained, “the owner has already called upon us, and
we have completed the bargain.”
“Oh no,” said the old savage, “that was a young man sent to
bargain with you” (practically testing the market). “I am the owner.”
“Very well,” said we. “We don’t care whom it belongs to so long as
it is sold to us; and the sooner the better.”
“But,” said the old savage, “I want a cow and four sheep!”
We grew heated, and told him to go to Heligoland, or words to that
effect; but he refused to depart thither.
“The other man,” he said, “like all young men, was very rash, and
exceeded his instructions. I myself could not think of letting such a
beautiful tusk go for less than one cow, a good cow, and four sheep.”
We remained firm, however, and he finally agreed to let us have
the tusk at the original price. He then retired, while we wiped our
perspiring foreheads and took a nice long drink of brackish water.
At that moment a messenger arrived from M’thara with a note to
me from George, asking me to return as soon as possible, he being
very ill with fever. El Hakim had intended returning on the morrow,
since we were still waiting for news from G’nainu of our missing men,
though we had lost all hope of their being still alive.
Next morning, therefore, we rose early, and sent a messenger
over to the people who had the tusk, inquiring why they had not sent
it over the day before as they had promised. The messenger
returned saying that they were close behind him bringing the ivory.
We waited with what little patience we could muster till nearly
midday, when a deputation of elders turned up leading a withered,
tottering skeleton, which on closer inspection proved to be an
extremely ancient native. He looked more like a fossil than a human
being, but, as we found, he still possessed, in a high degree, the
native cunning and keenness in a bargain. The deputation carefully
seated the fossil before us, and, grouping themselves respectfully
round it, relapsed into a dead silence, only interrupted by the clicking
of their jaws as they chewed their everlasting twigs. The fossil
moved, woke up, and for some time gazed at us out of its bleared
eyes, expectorating thoughtfully at intervals, while we in turn looked
at it with some interest. After we had satisfied our mutual curiosity
we spoke to the fossil, politely inquiring its errand. It gazed at us
once more, expectorated, coughed, and announced that it was the
owner of the much-disputed tusk, and had come to arrange the
purchase price!
“What!” we cried, “is this tusk owned by a syndicate? We have
already had two ‘shauries,’ and wasted two days over it. Who is the
owner, anyhow?”
The deputation assured us, with the utmost simplicity that this was
the real owner; the other two were only friends. We resigned
ourselves to the inevitable, and prepared to engineer yet another
bargain.
The fossil again condescended to speak, and declared that the
precious tusk should not go out of his possession except in
exchange for one very good cow, and three female sheep with
lambs! We refused to entertain any such advance on the original
price, and the matter was discussed with considerable animation and
some heat for an hour or more. At the end of that time, when our
patience was almost at vanishing-point, we agreed on a
compromise. We argued that we had not yet seen the tusk, and
consequently did not know if it was really as good as it was
represented to be. We would therefore send a man over to their
village, and on his return with a favourable report would give the
price last demanded. On the contrary, if it were not such a good tusk
as we had been led to believe, we would only give the original price
asked. This plan they eventually agreed to. Resarse ben Shokar was
ordered to accompany them to their village and report on the ivory.
The deputation then rose and withdrew, taking the fossil with them.
We retired to our tent, but had not been seated more than a few
moments when the sound of excited exclamations from the men
caused us, ever on alert for news of our missing men, to spring to
our feet. We rushed outside and saw an excited, heaving group of
our men volubly discussing some object in their midst. I shouted an
order, and the group separated and led towards our tent a man
apparently in the last stage of exhaustion. Commanding silence, we
called Ramathani to interpret. The man straightened himself, and we
were horrified to observe a great gaping wound in his right arm, that
looked like a sword-cut, which had been roughly stitched up with
fibre. He announced amid breathless silence that he was the sole
survivor of our five Swahilis and the eight native allies who had
accompanied them. Our men groaned and wept at the news, but we
again commanded silence, and bit by bit, by dint of careful
questioning, we extracted the whole wretched story.
“Your four Zanzibaris,” said the native, “Sadi, Hamiz, Abdullah, and
Marazuki, and one M’kamba, with eight of we Munithu people,
slipped away from Wa’sungu so that we might collect cattle and
sheep. We went very far and got many cattle. Presently we crossed
the border of G’nainu into Nimbere, and there Sadi ben Heri, who
commanded, seized many cattle and sheep from the Wa’Nimbere,
who at once attacked us; but your men drove them away with their
guns. We could not turn back, as the Wa’G’nainu were behind us,
and Sadi ben Heri said, ‘Let us go on through this country, and so
come to Munithu, where we shall be safe.’ We therefore crossed
Nimbere, being many times attacked by the ‘Washenzi’ (savages) on
the way, but the Zanzibaris always drove them off with their guns; but
afterwards they had not many cartridges left.
“We then got into N’dakura, where there are many people, and
there Sadi ben Heri said, ‘Let us take even more cattle and sheep
from these people.’ So we took many cattle and sheep from the
Wa’N’dakura, who then attacked us very fiercely; but your men again
drove away the Washenzi with their guns. But their cartridges were
very nearly finished, while the paths were narrow and the bush very
thick. The Wa’G’nainu and Wa’Nimbere were behind us, and the
Wa’N’dakura were in front. They came so close that we had to leave
all the cattle and sheep that we had taken, so that we might try to
save our lives. The enemy came closer and closer to us in the
plantations and the bush, and then your men fired their last cartridge.
Soon after that Abdullah was speared in the stomach, then Sadi was
killed with spears, while the M’kamba was killed with a sword, and
Marazuki and Hamiz were also killed with spears. There were very
many of the ‘Washenzi.’ I was cut on my arm with a sword, and I ran
away and hid in the forest. The other seven Munithu men were killed
while trying to run away. Some were killed with spears and others
with swords, and some with arrows. I waited till it was night, and then
I came here.”
Such was the story of the missing man, and a ghastly business it
was. It was entirely due to the disobedience of Sadi and his
companions, and also to their stupidity in not confining their
operations to the people with whom we were fighting. As it was, they
had now given offence to two powerful tribes who had hitherto been
friendly to us. In addition, four of our rifles were in the hands of the
enemy, which might well be a source of bitter trouble to us in the
future; as, indeed, it turned out.
At the conclusion of the narrative we sent the wounded man away,
with orders that his wants should be attended to, and talked the
matter over. It was then dusk, and much too late to think of starting
for M’thara.
A few moments later Resarse arrived in camp from the village
where the ivory was, and delivered his report. He informed us that it
was a fair-sized tusk, and would weigh perhaps 50 lbs. An hour later
the fossil and his friends turned up, and after a mild discussion we
agreed to pay the price demanded, viz. a cow and three ewes with
lambs—on the condition that they were to let us have the tusk very
early on the following morning, as we explained that we were greatly
desirous of starting early for M’thara; I, for one, being a little anxious
about George.
Therefore at sunrise next morning we despatched Resarse to the
fossil’s village with a cow, together with a message to the effect that
he (Resarse) was to bring back the tusk with him, accompanied by
one or two of their men, to whom we would hand over the balance of
the purchase price due to them, i.e. the three ewes and their lambs.
Partaking of an early breakfast, we next packed up the tent and
the numerous loads belonging to El Hakim which had been in Bei-
Munithu’s charge, though we had to leave some of them behind.
There were about fifteen loads of various beads, a 300-yard Alpine
rope, ten or a dozen loads of mardūf (English drill), about six loads of
iron, copper, and brass wire, some “bendera” (red cloth) and “kiniki”
(blue cloth), and also some loads of camp equipment, medicines,
and ammunition; which, together with some signal-rockets and
gamekeepers’ flares, totalled up to some forty odd loads. The
donkeys gave some trouble at first, as they were very fresh, and
strongly objected to being loaded again after twelve days’ idleness.
Finally, somewhere about ten o’clock we were ready for our long-
delayed return to M’thara.
All this time there were no signs of Resarse or the ivory. Half an
hour after we had finished packing he was descried approaching the
camp, but was still driving the cow; there were no signs of the tusk.
Our disgust and annoyance can be imagined when we heard that the
fossil had hidden the tusk and run away! Bei-Munithu was
peremptorily summoned, and we angrily demanded the reason of
this treatment, expressing our displeasure in sufficiently severe
terms. Bei-Munithu, much disturbed, departed to find out.
We simmered for another two hours till his return. From his
account it appeared that there were two tusks, and the owner, seeing
Resarse approaching with only one cow, thought we intended to
cheat him, and incontinently fled. Bei-Munithu, however, had now
persuaded him that we were honest, and he was now on his way to
camp with the two tusks. Again we sat down and waited, with as
much patience as we could command under the circumstances.
We unloaded the donkeys, and tried to rake out something
eatable, but failed, as there was nothing cooked. At two o’clock in
the afternoon we were still waiting. At that hour one of Bei-Munithu’s
men came into camp with the information that the fossil and his
friends had run away again, taking the two tusks with them. El Hakim
exploded at this aggravating news. He sent for Bei-Munithu once
more, and fairly made the old reprobate shake with fear, though, as
far as we knew, it was no fault of his.
“Go at once,” cried El Hakim, “and tell these people that I have
waited two days on their account. I will wait no longer. If they do not
bring that ivory within two hours, I will come and burn their villages
and destroy their plantations to the last muhindi stalk.”
Bei-Munithu became greatly agitated, and implored El Hakim to
have a little patience while he himself went to see the fossil and his
friends, in order that he might try to convince them of the error of
their ways.
He returned late in the afternoon, accompanied by the fossil and
the other two ancients, with whom we had bargained, bringing with
them the two tusks. We gave them a piece of our minds and the
price agreed upon, and allowed them as a special favour to pick their
three ewes, a proceeding which occupied the greater part of another
hour.
The tusks were only medium specimens, weighing 90 lbs. the pair.
We thanked Bei-Munithu for his efforts on our behalf, although we
had more than a shrewd suspicion that he had caused the whole
delay from first to last, though for what purpose we could not be very
certain.
It was very late in the day when we eventually started for Mathara,
and there seemed very little hope of reaching it that night, though we
determined to try, notwithstanding our many loads and our
miscellaneous collection of cattle, sheep, goats, and loaded
donkeys, all of which seemed to have contracted a malignant type of
perverseness, inasmuch as they would not keep to the path, needing
constant care and watchfulness and frequent halts in order to
recover stragglers. Fortunately, Dirito and one of his tribesmen
volunteered to accompany us and “chunga” (drive) the animals, an
offer which we gladly accepted.
We made fair progress until we reached the strip of forest
described in the account of our first march to Karanjui, on the
borders of which we arrived just before dusk. We were joined there
by Viseli, one of the head-men of Chanjai, and one of his people,
who proceeded to assist Dirito in driving the animals. In this manner
we reached Karanjui, and El Hakim proposed that we should camp
there. I was averse to such a plan, however, remembering George’s
note, so we pushed on.
Traversing the further belt of forest, we crawled out into the open
plain which stretches away to Mathara. The sun had already set, and
the wind became bitterly cold. The porters were tired and beginning
to straggle, but as there was no water nearer than a stream an
hour’s march on the hither side of our own camp, we had no choice
but to proceed in spite of the darkness. On we went, Dirito and Viseli
with the tired animals keeping close to us, while the porters were
strung out in an irregular line in the rear. It grew pitch dark, and a
cold wind, increasing in violence, nearly froze us.
Hour after hour we pursued our hopeless way in the blackness of
the night, until somewhere about 8 p.m., when we reached the small
stream. It was useless going any further, so we camped. We called
for the tent to be pitched and firewood brought, but to our surprise
met with no response. We could not understand it. We called again,
but beyond Dirito and Viseli and their two henchmen with the
animals, there were not more than three or four men with us, and
they were carrying loads of cloth. The others were scattered
somewhere in the darkness along the path by which we had come.
We were in a nice predicament, our small party being perched on a
bare, bleak hillside, exposed to the full fury of the icy blast without a
tent, a blanket, or a thing to eat, though nothing had passed our lips
since our hasty meal at daylight that morning. However, there was
nothing to do but to make the best of it, so we ordered a large fire to
be made, to try to mitigate in some degree the freezing horror of the
icy gale. Another disappointment awaited us; there was absolutely
no firewood to be had. Our few men searched diligently for an hour,
and brought back two or three handfuls of brushwood, which by dint
of a wasteful expenditure of matches, coupled with no small amount
of profanity, were transformed into a puny apology for a fire.
Presently, to our great joy, we heard shouts from the other side of
the stream, and soon we had the satisfaction of beholding a small
body of our porters approaching. We eagerly examined their loads,
but alas! they consisted, of course, of brass and iron wire, and, by
the irony of fate, one load of cooking and table utensils.
El Hakim and I resigned ourselves to a night of discomfort, and
crouched down over the miserable spark we dignified by the name of
a fire. An hour later a solitary porter struggled into our midst, and, lo
and behold, he carried the fly-sheet of the tent. We hastily uncorded
it, and found the tent-pegs rolled up inside; these were at once
sacrificed for firewood, and we soon had a moderate blaze going.
Then Ramathani discovered some pieces of raw meat among the
cooking utensils, the remains of a sheep we had killed two days
before. We very soon had them out, and cutting them into chunks,
toasted them in the frying-pan, which formed a nourishing though
somewhat indiarubber-like meal. El Hakim then spread the canvas
fly-sheet out on the ground, and we both crept under it and tried to
forget our discomfort in sleep.
The gale blew with great violence all night, blowing our protecting
fly-sheet up at the corners, and sending an icy draught up our
trouser-legs in a most disagreeable manner; so that, altogether, we
were unfeignedly thankful when the first grey streaks that heralded
the dawn appeared in the eastern heavens.
We arose and stretched our stiff and frozen limbs, and calling up
the few men who, huddled to the leeward of the animals, resembled
so many corpses under their scanty linen cloths, we started for our
camp at Mathara, which, having struck the right path, we reached in
an hour.
George had not yet risen, but, hearing our arrival, wrapped himself
in a blanket and came out of his tent. I was very disagreeably
surprised at his appearance. He was quite yellow and very thin and
haggard, the effect of a severe attack of fever, which, coupled with
anxiety on our account and differences with the Wa’Mathara in
camp, had given him a very bad time indeed. He looked more like a
ghost than a living being, but “all’s well that ends well,” and our
arrival safe and sound contributed in no small degree to his speedy
recovery. The Wa’Mathara, it appeared, had again been up to their
old trick of surrounding the camp with armed men, and on one
occasion they had actually attacked some of our camp followers
while on their way to the stream for water. In fact, George was
compelled to get up from his bed, where he lay racked with fever,
and, seizing his rifle, sally forth accompanied by four or five men in
order to drive off the enemy, who, however, fled at his approach
without further hostilities.
We now commenced preparations for our move northward to the
Waso Nyiro River, selecting what trade goods and cattle we should
require, intending to leave the balance with N’Dominuki. Food had
also to be bought and packed into loads, as, after leaving Mathara,
there were no other cultivated districts in the direction we intended to
travel, and we should have to depend for sustenance entirely upon
the food we were able to carry with us, and on any game we might
be able to shoot. An inventory of the contents of our food-boxes
showed that there was no reserve salt, and beyond an ounce or two
in use, there was absolutely none in the safari. I mentioned the
disconcerting fact to El Hakim, but he consoled me with the
assurance that we should certainly be able to obtain salt at a crater,
marked N’gomba on the map, a little to the south of the Waso Nyiro
and due north of the Jombeni Mountains. Our supply of English flour
was also finished, and we were then living on the native M’wele and
Metama.
In the afternoon I took a rifle, and, leaving camp, struck in a
northerly direction in search of game. Crossing the thorn forest, I
came out on to a gravelly highland, covered with thorn scrub, and
here and there isolated Morio trees. Underfoot a few small aloes with
red flowers grew in the patches of earth between the blocks of white
quartz plentifully bestrewn everywhere.
The Morio (Acocanthera Schimperi) is a curious-looking tree with
its bare stem, averaging about six feet in height, formed of several
thin stems twisted round each other after the manner of a vine.
Surmounting the bare stem is a spherical crown of leaves, giving it
the appearance of those little toy trees supplied to children in Noah’s
arks. It has a small leaf and small pink-and-white flowers, which
have a delightful scent. The A’kikuyu and Wa’Ndorobo use the
distilled sap of the roots for poisoning their arrows. It is also used by
the Somalis for that purpose combined with the sap of another
variety of the same species (Acocanthera Ouabaio) which grows in
the Arl mountains of northern Somaliland. The resultant poison is the
celebrated “Wabaio” of the Somalis. No other plant or tree will grow
near the Morio, consequently they are met with only in little groups or
as isolated specimens.
About two miles from camp I reached a small stony hill. On the
summit I discovered a small rudely constructed fort, built of flat
stones, containing small huts of stone roofed with brushwood. It
faced to the north, and I afterwards found that it was used by the
A’kikuyu as a watch-tower when expecting a Rendili raid. From the
top of this fort I obtained a good view of the surrounding country. To
the north the ground sloped away in a long incline to the Waso Nyiro,
the bed of which lies more than a thousand feet lower than M’thara
at the point in its course due north at that place. Beyond the Guaso
Nyiro showed dimly the shadowy outlines of Mounts Lololokwe and
Wargasse, 7750 feet and 10,830 feet in height respectively. Further
away to the north and east lay the desolate sandy wastes of
Samburu or Galla-land.
To the north-east beyond the Doenyo lol Deika (a hog-backed
ridge 6200 feet above sea-level) the great plateau of Lykipia
stretched as far as the highlands of Kamasia and Elgeyo. At the foot
of the Kamasia highlands lies Lake Baringo, distant a hundred and
twenty miles, the southern end of which is inhabited by the Wakwafi
of Nyemps. Fifteen miles south of Baringo is Lake Hannington,
discovered by, and named after, the late Bishop Hannington, who
was murdered by the natives of Usoga in 1885. The water of this
lake is lukewarm, and, being impregnated with mineral salts, is very
bitter. The Lykipia Plateau is terminated on the north by the Loroghi
Mountains, and on its eastern side by the Elgeyo escarpment, which,
together with its southern continuation, the Mau escarpment, forms
part of the eastern wall of the great “fault” in the earth’s crust which
extends from the sea of Galilee, over 33° north of the Equator, down
the valley of the Jordan, thence down the Red Sea, and southward
through North-Eastern Africa to Lake Tanganyika, 10° south of the
line, and which is known to geographers as the Great Rift Valley.
South-west of my point of vantage rose the lofty peak of Kenia,
veiled as usual by its curtain of cloud. To the south-east, and on the
eastern side of Kenia, lay the route we had just traversed, extending
through M’thara, Munithu, Zura, Moravi, Igani, Wuimbe, Zuka, and
M’bu back to Maranga on the Tana River. The first stage of our
journey was safely accomplished. Who could tell what Fate had in
store for us in the unknown regions to the northward?
On the way out I met with no game, but on my return I saw two or
three impala antelopes, at which I could not get a shot, chiefly owing
to the noise I unavoidably made in approaching them over loose
pebbles and quartz blocks. I returned to camp unsuccessful in
consequence.
We learnt from George that during our absence at Munithu one of
the donkeys had fallen sick and died. When El Hakim asked where
the carcase was, George told us that our Wakamba porters had
eaten it. They did not ask for permission to do so, possibly because
they feared the ridicule of the “M’sungu,” but the same night, when
all was still in camp, they sneaked out one by one, and, cutting up
the carcase, brought it into camp and cooked and devoured it during
the night. It became a standing joke against them with the rest of the
safari, who at once nicknamed them “Fisis” (hyenas) for the
remainder of the trip. When any of the Swahili porters felt particularly
jocular, they would sing out, “Nani amakula punda?” (Who ate the
donkey?) which earnest inquiry would be immediately answered by a
ringing shout from the rest of the Swahilis, “Wakamba fisi” (the
Wakamba hyenas), followed by a shout of laughter, accompanied by
cat-calls. The Wakamba themselves would smile a contented,
cheerful smile, and think lovingly of the magnificent gorge they had
enjoyed, and, I believe, rather pitied the Swahilis for their fastidious
prejudices.
The morning after our arrival from Munithu, the Somalis returned
from their sojourn in Chanjai, where they had been purchasing food.
They intended to start from the Waso Nyiro on the following day,
and, as we had expected, absolutely refused to entertain the idea of
another expedition into Embe. I concluded a little “deal” with Ismail
during the morning, exchanging twenty cartridges for a little coarse
salt.
Just before noon I went out alone with the 20-bore shot-gun, with
the intention of shooting guinea-fowl for the pot. I wore rubber shoes,
and in jumping a stream, strained my instep badly. The pain was
severe, but I tried to walk it off. I got into the thick forest between our
camp and M’thara, but saw no birds. Noiselessly threading my way
along a narrow game-track, while on the look-out for partridges, I
suddenly saw a large brown mass looming through the openings of
the foliage. Only small patches of it were now and again visible, and,
as I had not the least idea what it was, I cautiously crept closer in
order to get a better view. It was quite stationary, and at first I
thought it was a large hut, though what it was doing there I could not
imagine. I cautiously approached to within ten yards, and then halted
and watched. Suddenly the mass moved, a low rumbling noise was
heard, and then an enormous head swung into my field of vision,
flanked by vast outspread ears and a pair of magnificent tusks.
There I stood gazing straight into the face of the largest bull elephant
I had ever seen, with only a 20-bore shot-gun and No. 6 shot with
me! After a few seconds’ suspense I regained the use of my
scattered faculties, and it immediately occurred to me that this
particular part of the forest was not a good place for guinea-fowl, and
at once decided to look somewhere else. I am modest by nature,
and deprecate ostentation; therefore I made as little noise as
possible on my backward journey—at least till I was quite a quarter
of a mile from the elephant. I did not wish to alarm him. I took the
bearings of the place, and limped back to camp for a rifle. El Hakim
immediately went back with me, but we could not find the elephant.
He had evidently winded me on my first visit, and retreated into the
deeper recesses of the thorn forest.
On my return to Cairo, I happened to mention this encounter with
the elephant to an American friend of mine. He listened with a
twinkle in his eye, and remarked, “Why, if that isn’t strange! Do you
know, ’most the same thing happened to me last Fall; when I was
huntin’ in the Rockies with my brother. We had gone out pretty early
one morning to try and shoot a few by-ids. After a smart tramp along
the river-bank, through a lot of bushes, we were pulled up with a jerk,
as, on coming round a tree, we spotted an old grizzly b’ar reared up
on his hind legs, feedin’ on something in the bushes. As we were
only loaded for by-ids, we drew back and watched him. Pretty soon
‘old grizzly’ turned around and looked us straight in the face. My
brother thought it must be nearly breakfast-time, so we started for
our camp on the run! As we dodged among the bush we could hear
the pit-pat of the grizzly’s feet in our rear, and I tell you we ran good
and hard. Presently the sound of pursuing footsteps grew fainter and
fainter, and, taking a quick look round, durned if ‘old grizzly’ wasn’t
runnin’ hard’s he could the other way! What?”
FOOTNOTES:
[6] The sap of this wood possesses certain stimulating qualities,
and is extensively chewed by the natives of North Kenia. I tried it
afterwards, and found it of a somewhat peppery flavour. Its effect
upon me was rather nauseating, and it afterwards gave me a
slight headache.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE START FOR THE WASO NYIRO.
Some of El Hakim’s experiences with elephants—I am made a blood-

brother of Koromo’s—Departure from M’thara—A toilsome march
—A buffalo-hunt—The buffalo camp—Account of Dr. Kolb’s death
—An unsuccessful lion hunt—Apprehension and punishment of a
deserter.
Early the next day the Somalis left for the Waso Nyiro. Soon after
their departure we were aroused by a sound of altercation in our
camp. On sending to inquire the cause, we found that four of the
Somalis had returned, and were busily searching the tents of our
men for deserters from their safari. Summoning them, we asked by
what right they entered our camp and searched it without even
asking permission. They were so impertinent that I lost my temper,
and abused them soundly, and ended up by kicking them out of the
camp. The looks they bestowed on me, an Infidel, who had dared to
raise his foot against a follower of Mahomet, boded ill for my
personal safety, if it should ever chance that opportunity favoured
them.
We were not quite ready to march, as our loads gave us more
trouble than we had bargained for. N’Dominuki came to see us in the
morning, accompanied by a large number of his people bringing
food. We purchased about a fortnight’s rations, as we did not intend
to be away more than a month in any case, and we could easily eke
out the rations with game. We only took a month’s supply of tinned
stuff, soap, candles, etc., for ourselves, leaving two cases behind
with N’Dominuki as a reserve store to take us back to Nairobi. We
also left behind twenty loads of beads, large-bore ammunition, and
odds and ends of equipment, and all the cattle, except eight or nine
head which we intended to take with us. N’Dominuki had five young
camels belonging to El Hakim, which we also took along, as we
thought they might be useful for buying ivory from the Rendili.

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Emergency Psychiatry (PRIMER ON

SERIES) 1st Edition Tony Thrasher

Published and Forthcoming Titles

1. An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation: Pitfalls, Pearls,

7. Altered Mental Status and Neurologic Syndromes  109

12. Personality Disorders  220

Tony Thrasher, DO, MBA, DFAPA

Arpit Aggarwal, MD Heidi Burns, MD

Laura W. Barnett, DO Claire Drom, MD

Jennifer Baumhauer, MD Matthew L. Goldman, MD, MS

Victor Hong, MD Benjamin Merotto, MD

Scott A. Simpson, MD, MPH Seth Thomas, MD

Nicole R. Smith, MD Helena Winston, MD

The Biopsychosocial Model

Lazare10 developed a framework for clinical decision-​making by using a biopsychosocial

Table 1.1 Lazare’s Hypotheses in the Biopsychosocial Model

Psychological Social Impact Biological Consider First

Precipitating event Change in the social Probable

Adapted from Lazare.10

Structure of the Interview

Establishing Rapport and Building an Alliance

Establishing rapport allows for the development of a therapeutic alliance. Alliance is a

be cooperative and appropriate. Another patient might be overly solicitous or seductive.

Presenting Problem and the Patient’s Request

The History of Present Illness and Precipitant

Using open-​ended questions establishes rapport because it communicates to the patient

The Rest of the Story: History of Relevance

The following case presents an interview using a biopsychosocial framework and

Then the interviewer explores the question of complicated grief:

A thyroid-​stimulating hormone test confirmed hypothyroidism, and the patient was

Types of Patients: Interviewing Techniques and Tips

The Overtalkative Patient

The Silent Patient

The Paranoid or Psychotic Patient

The Suicidal Patient

The Grandiose Manic Patient

The Personality Disordered Patient

The Agitated, Hostile, or Uncooperative Patient

Box 1.1 Fishkind’s Principles of Verbal De-​Escalation

Respect the patient’s personal space.

Security is outside patient’s room.

Clinician: Hi, I’m Doctor Green from Psychiatry.

Another potential scenario, same patient.

Clinician: We really do need to take a break I’m getting annoyed.

Countertransference: When the Patient Pushes Your

Working with patients in behavioral or emotional emergencies inevitably gives rise to

Avoiding Interviewing Mistakes

Box 1.2 Avoiding Interviewing Mistakes

Secondary Traumatization and Burnout

A Word About Temperament

8. Lazare A, Eisenthal S, Wasserman L. The customer approach to patienthood. Attending to

Agitation is defined as a state of excessive psychomotor activity and irritability. It is best

When discussing agitation, recommendations often bypass the pre-​assessment—​that

control their impulses. If an individual has paranoia or is responding to internal stimuli,

Figure 2.1 Signs and symptoms of agitation.

“Safety first” is a central tenet of optimal management of agitation. When indicated,

Although previous history of agitation and violence is pertinent to assessing the

Agitation Related to Substance Use

Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder

Delirium and Dementia

Nonpharmacologic interventions take precedence over pharmacologic interventions

1. An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation: Pitfalls, Pearls,

7. Altered Mental Status and Neurologic Syndromes 109

12. Personality Disorders 220

Lazare10 developed a framework for clinical decision-making by using a biopsychosocial

Using open-ended questions establishes rapport because it communicates to the patient

A thyroid-stimulating hormone test confirmed hypothyroidism, and the patient was

Box 1.1 Fishkind’s Principles of Verbal De-Escalation

When discussing agitation, recommendations often bypass the pre-assessment—that