Department of Mechanical Engineering

Periyar Nagar, Vallam, Thanjavur - 613 403,

Tamil Nadu, India
Phone: +91 - 4362 – 264600,
Fax: +91- 4362 – 264660
Email: headmech@pmu.eduWeb: www.pmu.edu

XWP104/ XWP205
Workshop Practices
Lab Manual
Common to All Branches
(For 1ST and 2nd Semester as per PMIST Syllabus)

Regulation 2023

Lab Incharge HOD/ Mech

 PERIYAR MANIAMMAI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Our Institution is committed to the following Vision, Mission and core values, which guide us
in carrying out our Mechanical Engineering Department mission and realizing our vision:

INSTITUTION VISION

To be a Institution of global dynamism with excellence in knowledge and innovation

ensuring social responsibility for creating an egalitarian society.

INSTITUTION MISSION

Offering well balanced programmes with scholarly faculty and state-of-art

IM1
facilities to impart high level of knowledge.

Providing student - centered education and foster their growth in critical thinking,
IM2
creativity, entrepreneurship, problem solving and collaborative work.

Involving progressive and meaningful research with concern for sustainable

IM3
development.

IM4 Enabling the students to acquire the skills for global competencies.

IM5 Inculcating Universal values, Self-respect, Gender equality, Dignity and Ethics.

INSTITUTION CORE VALUES

• Student – centric vocation

• Academic excellence

• Social Justice, equity, equality, diversity, empowerment, sustainability

• Skills and use of technology for global competency.

• Continual improvement

• Leadership qualities.

• Societal needs

• Learning, a life – long process

• Team work

• Entrepreneurship for men and women

2
 • Rural development

• Basic, Societal, and applied research on Energy, Environment, and Empowerment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT VISION

To be recognized globally for outstanding education and research in all fields of

mechanical engineering leading to well qualified engineers, who are innovative,
entrepreneurial and successful in studies.

DEPARTMENT MISSION

To inculcate basic mechanical engineering knowledge to students through effective

DM1
teaching– learning practices with state of art facilities.

To impart quality education to enable the students for higher studies, research and
DM2
entrepreneurship.

To carry out research activities to satisfy the societal and industrial needs towards
DM3
sustainability.

DM4 To provide our students with educational experiences that gives them a sound basis
for global requirements, team work and lifelong learning.

DM5 To cater the needs of society in context of mechanical engineering with human
ethics values.

3
Semester I / II

Subject Name Workshop Practices

Subject Code XWP104 / XWP205

L –T –P –C C:P:A L –T –P –H

1- 0 – 2– 3 1:2:0 1- 0– 4 – 5

Course Outcome Domain/Level

C or P or A

CO1 Summarize the machining methods and Practice K1, P3

machining operation.

CO2 Defining metal casting process, moulding methods and K1, P3

relates Casting and Smithy applications.

CO3 Plan basic carpentry operations and Practice carpentry K1, P3

operations.

CO4 Plan basic fitting operations and Practice fitting K1, P3

operations.

CO5 Summarize metal joining operation and Practice welding K1, P3

operation.

CO6 Illustrate the basics of sheet metal work and Make K1, P3
appropriate models.

COURSE CONTENT

EXP.NO TITLE CO
RELATION

1 Introduction to machining process CO1

2 Plain turning using lathe operation CO1

3 Introduction to CNC CO1

4 Demonstration of plain turning using CNC CO1

4
5 Study of metal casting operation CO2

6 Demonstration of moulding process CO2

7 Study of smithy operation CO2

8 Study of carpentry tools CO3

9 Half lap joint – Carpentry CO3

10 Mortise and Tenon joint – Carpentry CO3

11 Study of fitting tools CO4

12 Square fitting CO4

13 Triangular fitting CO4

14 Study of welding tools CO5

15 Square butt joint – welding CO5

16 Tee joint – Welding CO5

17 Study of sheet metal working CO6

18 Rectangular open type Tray - Sheet metal working CO6

19 Hollow Cylinder – Sheet metal working CO6

20 Cone -– Sheet metal working CO6

TEXT BOOKS

1. Workshop Technology I,II,III, by S K Hajra, Choudhary and A K Chaoudhary. Media

Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay

2. Workshop Technology by Manchanda Vol. I,II,III India Publishing House, Jalandhar.

REFERENCES

1. Manual on Workshop Practice by K Venkata Reddy, KL Narayana et al; macmillan India

Ltd.

2. Basic Workshop Practice Manual by T Jeyapoovan; Vikas Publishing House (P) Ltd.,New
Delhi

5
3. Workshop Technology by B.S. Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai and Co., New Delhi.

4. Workshop Technology by HS Bawa, Tata mcgraw Hill Publishers, New Delhi.

E RESOURCES

1. Http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107145/

6
 Index

S.No Name of Experiment Page No

1 Introduction to machining process 9

2 Plain turning using lathe operation 12

3 Introduction to CNC 14

4 Demonstration of plain turning using CNC 24

5 Study of metal casting operation 27

6 Demonstration of moulding process 29

7 Study of smithy operation 35

8 Study of carpentry tools 42

9 Half lap joint – Carpentry 47

10 Mortise and Tenon joint – Carpentry 49

11 Study of fitting tools 52

12 Square fitting 57

13 Triangular fitting 60

14 Study of welding tools 64

15 Square butt joint – welding 71

16 Tee joint – Welding 73

17 Study of sheet metal working 76

18 Rectangular open type Tray - Sheet metal working 80

19 Hollow Cylinder – Sheet metal working 82

20 Cone -– Sheet metal working 84

7
Machining Process

8
 EXP 1 MACHINING PROCESSES

Machining is one of the processes of manufacturing in which the specified shape to the work
piece is imparted by removing surplus material. Conventionally this surplus material from
the workpiece is removed in the form of chips by interacting the workpiece with an
appropriate tool. This mechanical generation of chips can be carried out by single point or
multi point tools or by abrasive operations these are summarized below:

Machining Processes
Single point tool operations Multi-point tool operations Abrasive
operations
1. Turning 1. Milling 1. Grinding
2. Boring 2. Drilling 2. Lapping
3. Shaping 3. Tapping 3. Honing
4. Planing 4. Reaming 4. Super-finishing
5. Hobbing
6. Broaching
7. Sawing
The process of chip formation in metal cutting is affected by relative motion between the tool
and the workpiece achieved with the aid of a device called machine tool. This relative motion
can be obtained by a combination of rotary and translatory movements of either the tool or
the workpiece or both. The kind of surface that is produced by the operation depends on the
shape of the tool and the path it traverses through the materials. When the workpiece is rotated
about an axis and the tool is traversed in a definite path relative to the axis, a surface of
revolution is generated. When the tool path is parallel to the axis, the surface generated is a
cylinder as in straight turning (Fig.) Or boring (Fig.) Operations. Similarly, planes may be
generated by a series of straight cuts without rotating the workpiece as in shaping and
planning operations (Fig). In shaping the tool is reciprocating and the work piece is moved
crosswise at the end of each stroke. Planning is done by reciprocating the workpiece and
crosswise movement is provided to the tool.

Surface may be machined by the tools having a number of cutting edges that can cut
successively through the workpiece materials. In plane milling, the cutter revolves and moves
over the work piece as shown (Fig). The axis of the cutter is parallel to the surface generated.

9
Similarly in drilling, the drill may turn and be fed into the workpiece of the workpiece may
revolve while the drill is fed into it .

The machine tools, in general, provide two kinds of relative motions. The primary motion is
responsible for the cutting action and absorbs most of the power required to perform the
machining action. The secondary motion of the feed motion may proceed in steps or
continuously and absorbs only a fraction of the total power required for machining. When
the secondary motion is added to the primary motion, machine surfaces of desired geometric
characteristics are produced. .

Consider a situation where both the cutting motions as well as the feed motion (provided at the
end of each stroke) are rectilinear but perpendicular to each other. Here the machined surface
produced is a plane. The line generated by the primary motion (cutting motion) is called the
generatrix, while the line representing the secondary motion (feed motion) is called the
directrix (Fig.).

Depending upon the shapes of the generatrix and the directrix and their relative orientation
various geometries can be produced on the workpiece. Consider another case when the
generatrix is a circle and the directrix is a line perpendicular to the plane of the generatrix. It
is clear that in this situation the surface produced will be a cylinder (Fig.). A tapered surface
can be produced by merely changing the angle that the directrix makes with the plane of the
generatrix. When the directrix is in the plane of the circular generatrix (Fig.), lines are
generated which results in a plain surface when a number of generatrices and directrices are
placed side by side in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the generatrix. In actual
practice, the cutting is performed by cutting edge and not a point. Thus, a series of generatrix
directrix combinations are involved and the relative motion produces a surface rather than a
line.

Basically, there are two methods of producing new surfaces, the tracing method and
the generation method. In the tracing method the surface is obtained by direct tracing of the
generatrices and when the surface produced is the envelope of the generatrics the process is
known as generation. Figs. the plane and the cylindrical surfaces are obtained by direct
tracing, while the final surface geometry is the envelope of the generatrices.

10
 Fig. Straight turning Fig. Straight boring Fig. Shaping and planning

Concept of generatrix and directrix. (a) Rectilinear generatrix and directrix.

(b) Directrix perpendicular to the plane of generatrix. (c)
Directrix in the plane of generatrix.

11
 EXP 2 Plain Turning

AIM

To perform the facing and plain turning in a centre lathe on the given cylindrical work piece
for the given dimensions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Mild steel rod of diameter 25 mm and length 105 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED

Single point cutting tool, Vernier caliper, chuck key & tool post key

PROCEDURE

1. The dimensions of the given cylindrical work piece are checked

2. The work piece is held in the chuck properly and tightened by chuck key

3. The single point cutting tool is held on tool post and tightened by tool post key

4. The facing operation is done on both side of the work piece to get the required length

5. The plain turning operation is done on work piece to get the initial dimension

6. Then the plain turning operation is further continued to specific dimension to form steps

7. Finally, the dimensions are checked using Vernier caliper before work piece is removed from
the chuck.

12
RESULT

Thus, the work piece for the required dimensions is obtained by performing facing & plain
turning operations in lathe.

13
 EXP 3 INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINING

PROGRAM:
To machine a component on a CNC lathe, information’s like co-ordinate values and
other
Technical data which indicate, how, a tool should be moved in relation to a work piece to
Achieve a desired machining form, is to be given in the form of coded instructions to the
Control unit. These information’s are called a “PART PROGRAM”.
The data in the program block are namely:
A. Dimensional data (geometrical) and
B. Control data
Control data contains information’s like preparatory functions and auxiliary function
data
Like turret index, coolant ON / OFF etc.,

AXIS NOMENCLATURE:

Standard right hand Cartesian co-ordinate system is used. Always cutting tool moves with
Respect to the work piece.

X-AXIS: Always parallel to the work-holding surface or perpendicular to main axis.

Z-AXIS: It is always the main spindle axis.

Refer figure for the nomenclature.

C axis: Rotating axis around Z axis.

14
15
PROGRAM STRUCTURE:

Part program comprises of a string of blocks written one after the other. When writing a
program, a particular syntax is to be followed. As per part program structure:

A. Program starts with program number.

B. Consists of series of blocks – dimensional and non-dimensional data like feed,

Speed, auxiliary functions etc.
C. Program ends with program end code.

Character for program start, precedes the first block in the part program.

Character for main program start is given by “O”

To start program 1 – O 0001

To start program 2 – O 0002

16
Program start can also be called as program numbering. The program number is useful in
Identification of a program and calling a program.

Similar to main program we have sub-routine program. Sub-routine program is also called
sub-program. A sub-program could contain a fixed sequence or frequently repeated
Pattern.

Character for a sub-routine program start is also given by “O”

To start sub-program 1 – O ………
To start sub-program 2 – O ………
Character for program end is written in the last block of the part program.
Character for main program end is M02 or M30.
Character for sub-program end is M99

A sub-program can also call another sub-program up to two levels.

Sub-program call:

Example: M98 P …… …….

No. Of times Sub-program number.

Sub-program is called repeatedly

PROGRAM BLOCKS:

Program blocks contain data required to execute an operation. It is possible to write the
program
Blocks with or without a sequence number. Sequence number is given at the block head. It
need
Not be consecutive. It is used for the convenience of the operator. Sequence number is of 4
digits.
Examples:

17
 N0005 G00X20.Z5 ; Program block written with block number.
G00X20.Z5 ; Program block written without block number.
All the blocks end with block end character; or ✫
If no block number is given or same block number is given to several blocks, then there cannot
be a defined program jump or block search.
WORD:

A program is made up a number of blocks. Similarly a block is made up a number of words.

A word consists of an address character and a string of digits (alphanumeric character).
An address character is normally an alphabet.

X Z, S, F ….. Are all address characters.

The string of digits may be specified with or without a sign and with a decimal point.
The sign is written between the address letter and the string of digits. The positive sign may
be
Omitted

18
19
20
21
OFFSET PROCEDURE

22
1. Fix the work piece.

2. Select MDI Mode.

3. Call TOOL Number (ex: T0707)

4. Select EOB.

5. Select Insert Command.

6. Press Cycle Start.

7. Select JOG Mode.

8. Move X& Z (tool) axis Using Rapid and Hand wheel.

9. The tool should be in contact with work piece along Z axis.

10. Select Offset/Geometry page.

11. Type Z1.0 (Stock value), press Measure option.

12. Select Program number using edit mode.

13. Select Auto Mode.

14. Close the door and press cycle start.

23
 EXP 4 CNC LATHE – PLAIN TURNING

AIM: -

Machine the component for the specified dimension using CNC Machine.

Tools Used:

TNMG O8 OD Tool
TNMG O8 Insert
Vernier caliper
External threading tool
PROCEDURE:-

1. The work piece is measured for its basic dimensions.

2. Job is held in the hydraulically operated chuck.
3. Depending upon the operation, tools are selected and placed in turret.
4. By adjusting the turret, the tool off set is done.
5. As per the programme the machining operation is done.

PLAIN TURNING

Ø24

55
Programme:
O0001; (Program number)
N1; (Operation number)
G28 U0 W0; (Home position)
T0707; (Tool number) Calling Turning tool

24
S900 M04 (Spindle rpm& anti clock wise direction)
G00 X27.0 Z50.0 M07; (Rapid positioning & coolant on)
Z0.0;
G01 X-1.0 F0.2; (Facing F0.2=Feed rate)
W2.0;
X21.0 (Chamfer Dia)
Z0.0;
G01 X24.0 Z-3.0 F0.2; (Major dia & chamfer length)
Z- 55.0; (Over all turning length)
X26. 0F2.0;
G0 Z50. M9;
G28 U0 W0;
T0700;
M01;
M30;

RESULT

The component is machined for the specified dimensions using CNC machine.

25
Moulding and
Smithy

26
 EXP 5 Metal Casting

The word metalcasting refers to the process of forming a product or part from molten metal,
using any type of mold to govern its final shape. A metal casting, on the other hand, is a product
or part resulting from the metalcasting process. Throughout this article and elsewhere on our
website we use the word casting interchangeably, either as a stand-in for the process of
metalcasting or for the object, a metal casting.

General Steps of Metalcasting

1. Create the master pattern and corebox. The first step in metalcasting is to create an object
with a similar shape to that of the desired product, called a pattern. The pattern is a tool used
to produce the mold, and must be slightly larger than the final product in order to account for
shrinkage during solidification. In metalcasting, patterns are often produced through CNC
machining. Similarly, cores, as outlined in Step 2, are created using another type of tooling:
coreboxes. Casting methods that utilize reusable molds, like permanent mold casting, do not
normally require patterns or coreboxes. In these cases, toolmakers can produce the mold and
core directly.

2. Create the mold and core. In order to successfully produce a casting, the manufacturer must
first create a mold cavity to contain and form the molten metal. In many cases, they must also
produce a core that fits inside the mold, forming hollow cavities inside the final part. Molds
and cores can be reusable, as in the case of die casting or permanent molding, or single-use, as
in greensand casting or shell mold casting.

3. Melt the alloy. Next, the manufacturer must melt the metal. Often the metal used is an alloy,
or a mixture of elements that, together, provide optimal mechanical properties. Melting
processes vary: in its simplest form, melting consists of placing alloy in a receptacle with a
higher melting point and heating it over a burner or open flame. More contemporary melting
methods, like induction melting, rely on the physical properties of alloys to melt them and bring
them to casting temperature more efficiently.

4. Pour the molten metal into the mold. Once the manufacturer melts the alloy, they must pour
the molten metal into the mold cavity. Normally this is accomplished with a ladle system, which
supports the pouring process and allows operators to control pouring speed either manually or

27
automatically. Incorrect pouring techniques can lead to defects, as gases can become trapped
inside the mold, leading to holes in the resulting casting.

5. Allow the metal to solidify. After pouring, the manufacturer must create optimal conditions
for the metal to solidify within the mold. Again, manufacturers must consider shrinkage of the
molten metal as it cools, as well as release of gases that build up inside the mold during pouring.

6. Remove the casting from the mold. When the metal has cooled and solidified sufficiently,
the manufacturer must remove the casting from the mold. In methods employing single-use
molds, operators simply break the mold away from the casting. For reusable molds, special
coatings are often utilized to prevent sticking, and characteristics allowing casting removal
(like ejector pins) must be designed into the mold.

7. Finish the casting. Most cast parts must undergo finishing processes like cleaning (removing
excess material from the part); gate removal (removing the pouring channels from the part);
heat treatment (heating and cooling the castings in a controlled environment to augment
physical properties) and inspection for quality control. Many products also pass through CNC
machining processes to improve dimensional accuracy and aesthetic value

28
 EXP 6 Demonstration of moulding process
PATTERN

A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in

molding sand and suitable ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made.
The pattern is then withdrawn for generating cavity (known as mold) in molding
sand.

COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS

The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster, wax or
Mercury.

TYPES OF PATTERN

The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.

1. One piece or solid pattern 2. Two piece or split pattern 3. Cope and drag pattern 4. Three-
piece or multi- piece pattern 5. Loose piece pattern 6. Match plate pattern 7. Follow board
pattern 8. Gated pattern

9. Sweep pattern 10. Skeleton pattern 11. Segmental or part pattern

1. Single-piece or solid pattern: Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints,
partings lines or loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern.

2. Two-piece or split pattern: When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the
mold cavity, then solid pattern is split in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces
which are joined at the parting line by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting
line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern. A typical example is shown in

MOLDING SAND

The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular
elements of rocks, and deserts.

29
Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding
sands contain sufficient binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared
artificially using basic sand molding constituents (silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-
12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper proportion by
weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable equipments.

Binder

In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic
group includes clay sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the
clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s
earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses,
cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde
etc. Organic binders are mostly used for core making.

Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However,
this clay alone cannot develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture
in molding sand and core sand.

Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to
develop some special property in the sand. Some common used additives for
enhancing the properties of molding and core sands are discussed as under.

1. Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during
casting.
2. Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase
the collapsibility of the molding and core sand
3. Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a
manner similar to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the molds.
4. Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place
among the pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand
5. Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one
another.

30
6. Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which
increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores

KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which
are described below.

1. Green sand: Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a
just prepared mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture
content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is
fine, soft, light, and porous.
2. Dry sand: Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the
making mold and cores, is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity
and thermal stability.
3. Loam sand: Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste.
Loam sand possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is
directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal
when the mould is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mold
surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must
possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and
is used to fill the whole volume of the molding flask.
6. Parting sand: Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green
sand not to stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface
the cope and drag to separate without clinging
7. Core sand: Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known
as oil sand. This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil
which composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.

1. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to

withstand high temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating

31
 to get sound casting. It is a highly important characteristic of molding sands.
Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent
2. Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow
the escape of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when
the molten metal is poured into it. All these gaseous generated during pouring
and solidification process must escape otherwise the casting becomes defective
3. Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain
particles interact and attract each other within the molding sand
4. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have
sufficient strength and toughness to permit the making and handling of the
mould. For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, i.e. Thev must be capable of
attaching themselves to another body
5. Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture
in the sand layer adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer
must have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall
during the flow of molten metal
6. Flowability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave
like a fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and
distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions
7. Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of molding sand with inner wall of
molding box
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets
solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that free
contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid
the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

Fig.
Hand riddle: It consists of a screen of standard
circular wire mesh equipped with circular wooden
Fig. Strike off bar
F
frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for
removing foreign material such as nails, shot metal,
splinters of wood etc. From it. Even power operated

32
riddles are available for riddling large volume of
sand.

Shovel: It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used in mixing,
tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and
transforming the molding sand to the container and molding box or flask.

Fig. Sprue Pin

Fig. Rammers

Rammers: Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand
mass in the molding box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.

Sprue pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to
join mold cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.

Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould. Common
shapes of trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.

Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould
sand. Lifter is also used for removing loose sand from mould.

Strike off bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike off the excess sand from the
top of a box after ramming. It’s one edge made beveled and the surface perfectly smooth
and plane.

Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge

At one end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After

Ramming and striking off the excess sand it is used to make small

Fig. Vent Wire

33
Holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting.

Slicks: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are
generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after
withdrawal of the pattern

Fig. Slicks
Swab: Swab is shown in Fig. . It is a small hemp fiber
brush used for moistening the edges of sand mould,
which are in contact with the pattern surface before
Fig. Swab
withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away
the molding sand from the mold surface and pattern.

Gate cutter: Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to
cut runners and feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.

Fig. Gate Cutter

Bellows: Bellows gun is shown in Fig. It is hand operated leather made device
equipped with compressed air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used
to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the surfaces of mold cavities.

Draw spike: Draw spike is shown . It is a tapered steel rod

having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the
other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage
metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold.

Sprue Pin: It is a tapered wooden pin, used to make a hole in the cope through
which the molten metal is poured into the mould.

MOULDING BOX:

Moulding box is also called moulding flask. It is frame or box of wood or metal. It is
made of two parts cope and drag as shown in figure.

34
 EXP 7 Study of smithy operation

BLACKSMITHY

Blacksmithy or Forging is an oldest shaping process

used for the producing small articles for which accuracy
in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by
heating them in an open fire or hearth by the blacksmith metals at
and shaping them through applying compressive forces using hammer.

Thus forging is defined as the plastic deformation of elevated temperatures into a

predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted through some means of hand
hammers, small power hammers, die, press or upsetting machine. It consists essentially of
changing or altering the shape and section of metal by hammering at a temperature of about
980°C, at which the metal is entirely plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under
pressure. The shop in which the various forging operations are carried out is known as the
smithy or smith’s shop.

Hand forging process is also known as black-smithy work which is commonly

employed for production of small articles using hammers on heated jobs. It is a manual
controlled process even though some machinery such as power hammers can also be sometimes
used. Black-smithy is, therefore, a process by which metal may be heated and shaped to its
requirements by the use of blacksmith tools either by hand or power hammer.

Forging by machine involves the use of forging dies and is generally employed for mass
production of accurate articles. In drop forging, closed impression dies are used and there is
drastic flow of metal in the dies due to repeated blow or impact which compels the plastic metal
to conform to the shape of the dies. Applications of forging

Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels are readily hot
forged without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and
require greater care. Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron,
copper-base alloys, aluminum alloys, and magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel-based
super alloys, and titanium are forged especially for aerospace uses.

FORGEABILITY
The ease with which forging is done is called forgeability. The forgeability of a material can
also be defined as the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under compression without

35
rupture. Forgeability increases with temperature up to a point at which a second phase, e.g.,
from ferrite to austenite in steel, appears or if grain growth becomes excessive.

COMMON HAND FORGING TOOLS

For carrying out forging operations manually,
certain common hand forging tools are employed.
These are also called blacksmith’s tools, for a
blacksmith is one who works on the forging of
metals in their hot state.

The main hand forging tools are as under. Tongs

The tongs are generally used for holding work while doing a forging operation. Various kinds
of tongs are shown in Figure.

a) Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular and hexagonal
bar stock.
b) Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other work of circular
section.
c) Flat tongs are used for mainly for holding work of rectangular section.
d) Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or tapered.

Flatter
Flatter is shown in Fig. . It is commonly used in forging shop to give smoothness and accuracy
to articles which have already been shaped by fullers and swages.

Swage
Swage is used for forging work which has to be reduced or finished to round, square or
hexagonal form. It is made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work being reduced. It
consists of two parts, the top part having a handle and the bottom part having a square shank
which fits in the hardie hole on the anvil face.

Fuller
Fuller is used in forging shop for necking down a forgeable job. It is made in top
and bottom tools as in the case of swages. Fuller is made in various shapes and
sizes according to needs, the size denoting the width of the fuller edge

Punch

36
Punch is used in forging shop for making holes in metal part when it is at forging heat.

Rivet header

Rivet header Fig. is used in forging shop for producing rivets heads on parts.

Chisels

Chisels are used for cutting metals and for nicking prior to breaking. They may be hot or cold
depending on whether the metal to be cut is hot or cold. A hot
chisel generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig. The main
difference between the two is in the edge. The edge of a cold
chisel is hardened and tempered with an angle of about 60°,
whilst the edge of a hot chisel is 30° and the hardening is not
necessary. The edge is made slightly rounded for better cutting
action.

Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging:

a. The hand hammer used by the smith himself and

b. The sledge hammer used by the striker.

Hand hammers may further be classified as (a) ball peen hammer, (b) straight peen hammer,
and (c) cross peen hammer.

37
Sledge hammers may further be classified as (a) Double face hammer, (b) straight peen
hammer, and (c) cross peen hammer.

Hammer heads are made of cast steel and, their ends are hardened and tempered. The striking
face is made slightly convex. The weight of a hand hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg
whereas the weight of a sledge hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg

Set hammer

A set hammer generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig.. It is used for finishing corners
in shouldered work where the flatter would be inconvenient. It is also used for drawing out the
gorging job.

Anvil
An anvil is a most commonly tool used in forging shop which is shown in. It acts as a support
for blacksmith’s work during hammering. The body of the anvil is made of mild steel with a
tool steel face welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel
faced. The round hole in the anvil called pritchel hole is generally used for bending rods of
small diameter, and as a die for hot punching operations. The square or hardie hole is used for
holding square shanks of various fittings. Anvils in forging shop may vary up to about 100 to
150 kg and they should always stand with the top face about 0.75 mt. From the floor. This
height may be attained by resting the anvil on a wooden or cast iron base in the forging shop.

Swage block
Swage block generally used in forging shop is shown in figure. It is mainly used for heading,
bending, squaring, sizing, and forming operations on forging jobs. It is 0.25 mt. Or even more
wide. It may be used either flat or edgewise in its stand.

FORGING OPERATIONS:

The following are the basic operations that may be performed by hand forging:

1. Drawing-down:
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section locally.
Forging the tapered end of a cold is an example of drawing operation.

2. Upsetting:
It is a process of increasing the area of cross-section of a metal piece locally, with a
corresponding reduction in length. In this, only the portion to be upset is heated to forging

38
temperature and the work is then struck at the end with a hammer. Hammering is done by the
smith (student) himself, if the job is small, or by his helper, in case of big jobs, when heavy
blows are required with a sledge hammer.

3. Fullering:
Fullers are used for necking down a piece of work, the reduction often serving as the starting
point for drawing. Fullers are made of high carbon steel in two parts, called the top and bottom
fullers.

The bottom tool fits in the hardie hole of the anvil. Fuller size denotes the width of the fuller
edge.

4. Flattering:
Flatters are the tools that are made with a perfectly flat face of about 7.5 cm square. These are
used for finishing flat surfaces. A flatter of small size is known as set-hammer and is used for
finishing near corners and in confined spaces.

5. Swaging:
Swages like fullers are also made of high carbon steel and are made in two parts called the top
and swages. These are used to reduce and finish to round, square or hexagonal forms. For this,
the swages are made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work.

6. Bending:
Bending of bars, flats, etc., is done to produce different types of bent shapes such as angles,
ovals, circles etc. Sharp bends as well as round bends may be made on the anvil, by choosing
the appropriate place on it for the purpose.

7. Twisting:
It is also one form of bending. Sometimes, it is done to increase the rigidity of the work piece.
Small piece may be twisted by heating and clamping a pair of tongs on each end of the section
to be twisted and applying a turning moment.

Larger pieces may be clamped in a leg vice and twisted with a pair of tongs or a monkey
wrench. However, for uniform twist, it must be noted that the complete twisting operation must
be performed in one heating.

8. Cutting (Hot and Cold Chisels):

39
Chisels are used to cut metals, either in hot or cold state. The cold chisel is similar to fitter’s
chisel, except that it is longer and has a handle. A hot chisel is used for cutting hot metal and
its cutting edge is long and slender when compared to cold chisel. These chisels are made of
tool steel, hardened and tempered.

9. Iron-Carbon Alloy:
If the carbon is less than 2% in the iron-carbon alloy, it is known as steel. Again, based on the
carbon content, it is called mild steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel. The heat
treatment to be given to these steels and their applications are shown in table below.

Carbon Hardening Tempering Applications.

% temp. 0C temp. 0C
0.1 800-840 250-300 Chains, rivets, soft wire, sheet

0.25 800-840 250-300 Tube, rod, strip

Mild Steel
0.5 800-840 250-300 Girders

0.6 800-840 250-300 Saws, hammers, smith’s and general

purpose tools

Cold chisels, smith’s tools shear

0.75 760-800 250-300
blades, table cutlery
0.9 760-800 250-300
Taps, dies, punches, hot shearing
Medium
1.0 760-800 250-300 blades Drills, reamers, cutters,
Carbon steel
blanking and slotting tools, large
turning tool
1.2 720-760 250-300

1.35 720-760 250-300 Small cutters, lathe and engraving

High Carbon
tools, files drills
1.5 720-760 250-300
Extra hard, planning, turning and
slotting tools, dies and mandrels
Razor blades

40
Carpentry

41
 EXP 8 Study of carpentry tools

INTRODUCTION:
Wood work or carpentry deals with making joints for a variety of applications like door
frames, cabinet making furniture, packing etc.,

Timber: -
Timber is a name obtained from well grown plants or trees. The timber must cut in such a way
that the grains run parallel to the length. The common defects in timber are knots, Wet rot,
dry rot etc., Market sizes of timber:- Timber is sold in market in various standard shapes
and sizes. They are: - Log:- The trunk of a tree, which is free from branches.
Balk:-
The log sawn to have roughly square cross section.

Post: -
A timber piece, round or square in cross section with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150
mm in thickness and 2.5 to 6.5 mts length.

Board:-
A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 mm to 50 mm in thickness.
Reapers: -
Sawn timber pieces of assorted and nonstandard sizes, which don’t conform to the above
shapes.
WORK HOLDING TOOLS:
Carpentry vice: -
It is a work holding device. When handle vice is turned in a clockwise direction, the
sliding jar forces the work against the fixed sawn. The greater the force applied to the
handle, the tighter to the work held.

Bar clamp: -
It is a rectangular (or) square block with V-groove on one or both sides opposite to
each other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-Clamp:-
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or V -block.

42
MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:
Try square: -
It is used for marking and testing the square ness of planed surfaces. It consists of a
steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for flatness. The size of a try square
used for varies from 150 mm to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less
accurate when compared to the try square used in fitting shop.

Fig : steel rule fig: marking Gauge

Fig: steel tape fig: Try square

Fig: corpenter vice Fig: Bar clamp

43
 Fig: metal jack plane Fig: compass and divider

Marking gauge:-

It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edges of wooden pieces. It consists of a
square wooden stem with a riding wooden stock on it. A marking pin, made of steel is
fitted on the stem. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In these it is possible to adjust
the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.
Compass and dividers :-
This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines on the planed
surface of the wood.
CUTTING TOOLS:
Hack saw: -
It is used to cross cut the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerfs will
be wider than the blade thickness. Hard blades are used to cut hard metals. Flexible
blades are having the teeth of hardened and rest of the blade is soft and flexible.
Chisels: -
These are used for removing surplus wood. Chisels are annealed, hardened and
tempered to produce a tough shank and a hard cutting edge.
Rip saw: -
It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw makes a
sleeper angle about 60o whereas that saw makes an angle of 45o with the surface of
the stock.

44
Tenon saw: -
It is used for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet works. The blade of this saw is very
thin and so it is used stiffed with back strip. Hence, this is sometimes called back saw.
The teeth shapes similar to cross cut saw.

DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:

Auger bit:-
It is the most common tool used for boring holes with hard pressure.
Gimlet:-
This is a hand tool used for boring holes with hand pressure.
Hand drill: -
Carpenters brace is used to make relatively large size holes, whereas hand drill is used
for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with these tools. It is small light
in weight and may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill is clamped in the
chuck.

Fig: cross cut saw Fig: Tenon saw Fig: compass saw

Fig: Chisels Fig: Carpenter’s brace Fig: Auger bit

45
 Fig: Gimlet Fig: wood rasp file Fig: Mallet

Fig: Hand drill Fig: Trammel Fig: Claw hammer

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
Ball peen hammer: -
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for riveting.
Mallet: -
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, steel hammer
should not be used for this purpose, as it may damage the chisel handle. Further, for
better to apply a series of light taps with the mallet rather than a heavy single blow.
Claw hammer: -
It is a striking flat at one end and the claw at the others. The face issued to drive nails
into wood and for other striking purpose and the claw for extracting nails out of wood.
Pinches: -
It is made of steel with a hinged and is used for pulling out small nails from wood.
Wood rasp file: -
It is a finishing tool used to make the wood smooth, remove sharp edge finishing fillets
and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the
purpose. This file is exclusively used in wood work.

46
 EXP 9 HALF LAP JOINT

AIM:
To make a cross half lap joint.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Teak wood (30mm*150mm*50mm) TOOLS
AND EQUIPMENT USED:
1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file
OPERATIONS TO BE DONE
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given Figure
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.

47
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reaper should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done without parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiseling
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.
RESULT:

The cross-half lap joint is made success fully.

48
 EXP 10 MORTISE AND TENON JOINT
AIM:
To make a Mortise and Tenon joint.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Teak wood
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED:
1. Steel rule
2. Try square
3. Marking gauge
4. Rip saw
5. Tenon saw
6. Mortise chisel
7. Mallet
8. Jack plane
9. Wood rasp file
OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing
PROCEDURE:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given
Figure.
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.

49
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wood should be free from moisture
2. Marking is done with out parallax error
3. Care should be taken while chiseling
4. Matching of X and Y pieces should be tight.
RESULT:
The mortise and tenon joint are done.

50
Fitting

51
 EXP 11 FITTING TOOLS
Introduction:
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but there are occasions
when components are processed at a bench. Sometimes it becomes necessary to replace
or repair a component that must fit accurately with one another or reassemble. This
involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly machine tools, jigs, gauges
etc., involves certain amount of bench work.
FITTING TOOLS:
Holding tools:-

 Bench vice

 V-block with clamp

 C-clamp

Bench vice: -
It is a work holding device, when vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction the
sliding jaw forces the work against the fixed jaw, the greater the force applied to the
handle, the tighter is the work held.

V -block with clamp: -

It is a rectangular (or) square block with v-groove on one or both sides, opposite to
each other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-clamp: -
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v -block.

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:

1. Surface plate
2. Try square
3. Angle plate
4. Scriber
5. Universal scribing block
6. Odd leg caliper
7. Divider
8. Calipers
9. Dot punch

52
10. Vernier caliper
Surface plate: -
It is used for testing flatness of work piece, for marking out small works.

Fig: Bench wise Fig: V- Block

Fig: C – Clamp Fig: Surface plate

Fig: Angle plate Fig: Dot punch

53
Fig: try square Fig: scriber

Combination cutting pliers: -

This is made of tool steel and is used for cutting as well as for ripping work.
Taps and die holders: -
Tap and wrenches are used for cutting internal threads in a drilled hole.

Dies and die holders:-

They are used for making external threads. Dies are made either solid (or) split type.

TYPES OF FILES:
Hand file:-
It is a rectangular in section tapered in thickness but parallel in width.
Flat file:-

Rectangular in section and tapered for 1/3rd length in width and thickness.
Square file:-

Square in section and tapered for 1/3rd length on all sides.

Half round file:-

It has one flat face, connecting by a curved (surface) face & tapered for 1/3rd length.
Round file:-

Circular in cross section and tapered for 1/3rd length, it has double cut teeth.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
Ball peen hammer:-
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for riveting.

54
Screw driver: -
It is designed to turn the screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in different
lengths and diameters.
Spanners:-
It is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.

FITTING OPERATIONS:
Chipping: -
Removing metal with a chisel is called chipping and is normally used where machining is
not possible. Fitting:-
1. Pinning of files:-
Soft metals cause this; the pins are removed with a file card.
2. Checking flatness and square ness:-
To check flatness across thickness of plate.
MARKING AND MEASURING:
Measurements are taken either from a center line, for visibility of the non-ferrous
metals and oxide coated steels are used.

Fig: odd leg clamp and divider

55
 Fig: calipers Fig: Vernier caliper

Fig: Parts of hand file

Fig: Types of files Fig: ball peen hammer

56
 EXP 12 SQUARE (T) - FITTING
AIM:
To make M.S Plate into required model by T-fitting.
TOOLS REQUIRED: -

1. Bench vice

2. Steel rule

3. Try square

4. Ball peen hammer

5. Scriber

6. Hack saw with blade

7. Dot punch and Centre punch

8. Surface plate

9. Venire height gauge

10. Rough and smooth flat files

11. Flat chisel and triangular file

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Mild steel (M.S) plate of size 48 x 34–2 Nos.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: -

1. Filing

2. Checking flatness and square ness

3. Marking and measuring

4. Punching

5. Sawing

6. Chipping

57
7. Finishing

Fig: SQUARE (T) - FITTING

PROCEDURE: -

1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked
with a steel rule.

2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and the outer mating edges
are filed by using rough and smooth files.

3. The flatness, straightness and square ness i.e. Right angle between
adjacent sides are checked with help of Try-square.

4. Chalk is then applied on the surfaces of the two pieces.

58
 5. The given dimensions of the T-fitting are marked with help of vernier
height gauge carefully.

6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.

7. Using the hack saw, the unwanted portions are removed.

8. Using the flat chisel, the unwanted material in the piece Y is removed.

9. The cut edges are filed by the half round file.

10. The corners of the stepped surfaces are filed by using a square or
triangular file to get the sharp corners.

11. The pieces (X and Y) are fitted together and the mating is checked for
the correctness of the fit.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -

1. Care is taken to see that the marking dots are not crossed, which is
indicated by the half of the punch dots left on the pieces.

2. Apply pressure in forward direction during hack sawing.

3. Don’t rub steel rule on the job.
4. Fix blade in hack saw frame with correct tension.

5. During hack sawing the coolant like water or lubricating oil is to be

used.

6. Use precision instruments like vernier calipers and vernier height gauge
carefully.

7. Files are to be cleaned properly after using.

RESULT:
T-fit is made as per the required dimensions.

59
 EXP 13 V- FITTING
AIM: -
To make M.S Plate into required model by V- fitting.

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Bench vice

2. Steel rule

3. Try square

4. Ball peen hammer

5. Scriber

6. Hack saw with blade

7. Dot punch and Centre punch

8. Surface plate

9. Vernier height gauge

10. Rough and smooth flat files

11. Flat chisel and triangular file

MATERIAL REQUIRED: -
Mild steel (M.S) plate of size 48 x 34–2 Nos.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: -

1. Filing

2. Checking flatness and square ness

3. Marking and measuring

4. Punching

5. Sawing

60
6. Chipping

7. Finishing

PROCEDURE: -

1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked
with a steel rule.

2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and the outer mating edges
are filed by using rough and smooth files.

3. The flatness, straightness and square ness i.e. Right angle between
adjacent sides are checked with help of Try-square.

4. Chalk is then applied on the surfaces of the two pieces.

5. The given dimensions of the V-fitting are marked with help of vernier
height gauge carefully.

61
 6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.

7. Using the hack saw, the unwanted portions are removed.

8. Using the flat chisel, the unwanted material in the piece Y is removed.

9. The cut edges are filed by the half round file.

10. The corners of the stepped surfaces are filed by using a square or
triangular file to get the sharp corners.

11. The pieces (X and Y) are fitted together and the mating is checked for the
correctness of the fit.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Care is taken to see that the marking dots are not crossed, which is
indicated by the half of the punch dots left on the pieces.

2. Apply pressure in forward direction during hack sawing.

3. Don’t rub steel rule on the job.

4. Fix blade in hack saw frame with correct tension.

5. During hack sawing the coolant like water or lubricating oil is to be

used.

6. Use precision instruments like vernier calipers and vernier height gauge
carefully.

7. Files are to be cleaned properly after using.

RESULT: -
V- fit is made as per the required dimensions.

62
Welding

63
 EXP 14 WELDING

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from
combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction.

Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components.
It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical
components. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries.
Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels,
automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and
explosives, etc.

Elements of welding process used with common

Welding joints such as base metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and root
are depicted in Figure.

64
Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge
preparations may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.

Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two major
kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.

1. Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the
plate, is not recommended for most work. The
single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can
be used satisfactorily for joining two cylinders that
fit inside one another.

Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it requires twice as much
welding.

Tee Fillet Weld

This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an alternative design is
possible.

2. Butt weld joint

A. Single-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the technique
being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.

B. Double-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on both sides of
the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending
on the technique being used.

Welding Positions
As shown in Fig. , there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:

65
 a. Flat or down hand position
b. Horizontal
position c.
Vertical
position
D. Overhead position

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the
upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

Horizontal Welding Position

In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited weld head is
horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of
the force of gravity on the molten metal.

Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here
the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

66
ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Surrounding atmosphere.

 Switch box.
 Secondary terminals
 Welding machine.
 Current reading scale.
 Current regulating hand wheel.
 Leather apron.
 Asbestos hand gloves.
 Protective glasses strap
 Electrode holder.
 Hand shield

Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However,
some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important
components of arc welding setup are described as under.

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1. Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators
driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC
welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains
electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts)
to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the
selection of a power source:

a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded

b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment

2. Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminum cables.

3. Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and
conducting current to it. These are usually matched to the size
of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of the
arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.

4. Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is set up
between electrode and workpiece. Welding
Electrodes are classified into following types-

(i) Consumable Electrodes

(a) Bare Electrodes

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(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes

(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes

(b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without
any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as
an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of
joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
or zirconiated tungsten.

5. Hand Screen

Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.

6. Chipping hammer

Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

7. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

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8. Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat
to the body.

Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these
general safety recommendations which are given as under.

1) The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall not
be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically strong and
electrically adequate for the required current.
2) Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also;
consequently, the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter
glass to protect eyes
3) Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
seated he is doing welding.
4) For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
5) Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
6) Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
7) Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working
order at all times.
8) Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
9) All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual
service conditions.

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 EXP 15 BUTT JOINT

AIM:

preparation of butt joint as shown in figure using shielded metal arc welding process.

Material required: 2m.s flat pieces of given size.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Welding transformer,
2. Connecting cables,

3. Electrode holder,
4. Ground clamp,
5. Electrodes,
6. Hipping hammer,
7. 7. Welding shield etc.

V – butt joint

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PROCEDURE:

1. The given metallic pieces filled to the desired size.

2. On both pieces beveled in order to have V groove.

3. The metallic pieces are thoroughly cleaned from rust grease, oil, etc.

4. The metallic pieces are connected to terminals of Trans former.

5. Select electrode dia based on thickness of work piece and hold it on the electrode
holder.

Select suitable range of current for selected dia.

6. Switch on the power supply and initiates the arc by either striking arc method or
touch and drag method.
7. Take welding to be done before full welding.

8. In full welding process after completion one part before going to second part. Slag
is removed from the weld bed. With the metal wire brush or chipping hammer.
9. Then the above process will be repeated until to fill the groove with weld bed or
weld metal.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use goggles, gloves in order to protect the human body.

2. Maintain the constant arc length.

RESULT:

Butt joint is prepared as shown in figure by using arc-welding process.

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 EXP 16 TEE Joint

AIM:

Preparation of Tee Joint as shown in figure using shielded metal arc welding process.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
2m.s flat pieces of given size.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
 Welding transformer,
 Connecting cables,
 Electrode holder,
 Ground clamp,
 Electrodes,
 Hipping hammer,
 Welding shield etc.

PROCEDURE:

 The given metallic pieces filled to the desired size.

 On both pieces beveled in order to have V groove.
 The metallic pieces are thoroughly cleaned from rust grease, oil, etc.
 The metallic pieces are connected to terminals of Trans former.

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  Select electrode dia based on thickness of work piece and hold it on the
electrode holder.
 Select suitable range of current for selected dia.
 Switch on the power supply and initiates the arc by either striking arc
method or touch and drag method.
 Take welding to be done before full welding.
 In full welding process after completion one part before going to second
part. Slag is removed from the weld bed. With the metal wire brush or
chipping hammer.
 Then the above process will be repeated until to fill the groove with weld
bed or weld metal.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Use goggles, gloves in order to protect the human body.
 Maintain the constant arc length.

RESULT:

Tee Joint is prepared as shown in figure by using arc-welding process.

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Sheet Metal Work

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 EXP 17 Study of sheet metal working

Sheet metal materials: -

A variety of metals used in a sheet metal shop such as black iron, aluminum and
stainless steel. A sheet of soft steel which is coated with molten zinc is known as
galvanized iron. The zinc coat forms a coating that resists rust, improves the
appearance of the metal and permits it to be solderised with greater care.
Hand tools: -
The common hand tools used in sheet metals work are steel rule, usually of 60 cm
length, Vise gauge, dot punch, scriber, trammels, ball peen hammer, and straight peen
hammer, cross peen hammer, mallets, snips and soldering iron.
Trammels: -
Sheet metals layouts require marking of arcs and circles. This may be done by using
the trammels. The length of the beam decides the maximum size of the arc that can be
scribed.
Wire gauge:-
The thickness of the sheet metal is referred in numbers known as standard wire gauge
(SWG). The gaps in the circumstance of the gauge are used to check the gauge number.
Bench shears: -
Sheet metal may be cut by shearing action. In this the force is applied through a
compound lever, making it possible to cut sheet metal up to 4mm thick. The chopping
hole can shear a mild steel rod up to 10mm diameter.
Snips: -
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to 250mm
being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent snips are for
trimming along inside curves.
Hammers: -
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight peen
and similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle which can be
used conveniently for certain operations of folding. Stakes: -
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form seam,
bend, rivet sheet metal objects.

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Fig: Sheet metal joints

Fig: Stakes

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Snips: -
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to 250mm
being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent snips are for
trimming along inside curves.
Hammers: -
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight peen
and similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle which can be
used conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Stakes: -
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form seam,
bend, rivet sheet metal objects.

SHEET METAL JOINTS:

Various types of joints are used in sheet metal work to suit the varying requirement.
These are self-secured joints, formed by joining together two pieces of sheets metal
and using the metal itself to form the joints. These joints are to be used on sheets of
less than 1.6mm thickness.
Riveting: -
Rivets are used to fasten two of more sheets of metal together. It is the common practice
to use the rivets of the same material as that of the sheets having fastened.
Sheet metal screws: -
These are used in sheet metal work to join and install duct work for ventilation air
conditioning etc. These screws are also known as self-tapping screws since they cut
their own threads.
Soldering: -
Soldering is one method of joining two pieces of metal with an alloy that melts at a
lower temperature than the metals to be joined for a good job. The metals to be joined
must be free from dirt, grease and oxide. Solder is made of tin and lead in equal
proportions. It comes either in the form of wire and bar.

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Soldering iron: -
Soldering requires a source of heating. A common method of transmitting heat of the
metal surfaces is by using a soldering iron.

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 EXP 18 TRAY

AIM: -
To make a tray using the given G.I. Sheet.

TOOLS REQUIRED: -

1. Steel rule

2. Scriber

3. Straight snip

4. Bench vice

5. Stake

6. Cross peen hammer

7. Wooden mallet

8. Cutting pier
MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Galvanized Iron (G.I) sheet 110 x 125 mm size.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: -

1. Cleaning

2. Surface leveling

3. Marking

4. Cutting

5. Folding

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 PROCEDURE: -
1. Clean the given sheet with cotton waste.

2. The size of the given sheet is checked with the steel rule.

3. Flatten the surface of the given sheet with wooden mallet.

4. Check the G.I. Sheet for dimensions and remove extra material, if any.

5. Mark all the measuring lines on the given sheet with scriber.

6. Cut the given sheet with straight snips as required.

7. Fold the given sheet by using stakes and ball peen hammer to the required shape.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -

1. For marking purpose use scriber only. Do not use pencil or pen.

2. Sufficient care is to be taken while cutting and folding of G.I. sheet.

3. Remove the waste pieces immediately from the work place.

RESULT: -
Tray is prepared as per the required dimensions.

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 EXP 19 Cylinder
AIM: -

To make a Cylinder using the given G.I. Sheet.

TOOLS REQUIRED: -
1. Steel rule

2. Scriber

3. Straight snip

4. Bench vice

5. Stake

6. Cross peen hammer

7. Wooden mallet

8. Cutting pier

MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Galvanized Iron (G.I) sheet 160 x 80mm size.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: -
1. Cleaning

2. Surface leveling

3. Marking

4. Cutting

5. Folding

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PROCEDURE: -

 Clean the given sheet with cotton waste.

 The size of the given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
 Flatten the surface of the given sheet with wooden mallet.
 Check the G.I. Sheet for dimensions and remove extra material, if any.
 Mark all the measuring lines on the given sheet with scriber.
 Cut the given sheet with straight snips as required.
 Fold the given sheet by using stakes and ball peen hammer to the required
shape.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -

1. For marking purpose use scriber only. Do not use pencil or pen.

2. Sufficient care is to be taken while cutting and folding of G.I. sheet.

3. Remove the waste pieces immediately from the work place.

RESULT: -
Cylinder is prepared as per the given dimensions.

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 EXP 20 CONE

AIM:

To make a Cone using the given G.I. Sheet.

TOOLS REQUIRED: -
 Steel rule
 Scriber
 Straight snip
 Bench vice
 Stake
 Cross peen hammer
 Wooden mallet
 Cutting pier

MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Galvanized Iron (G.I) sheet 160 x 80mm size.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: -

 Cleaning

 Surface leveling

 Marking

 Cutting

 Folding

PROCEDURE: -

 Clean the given sheet with cotton waste.

 The size of the given sheet is checked with the steel rule.

 Flatten the surface of the given sheet with wooden mallet.

 Check the G.I. Sheet for dimensions and remove extra material, if any.

 Mark all the measuring lines on the given sheet with scriber.

 Cut the given sheet with straight snips as required.

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 Fold the given sheet by using stakes and ball peen hammer to the required shape.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -

1. For marking purpose use scriber only. Do not use pencil or pen.
2. Sufficient care is to be taken while cutting and folding of G.I. sheet.
3. Remove the waste pieces immediately from the work place.

RESULT: -
Cone is prepared as per the given dimensions.

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