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Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
Innovation and Technology Set
coordinated by
Chantal Ammi
Volume 8
Innovation in the Cultural and

Creative Industries
Edited by
Estelle Pellegrin-Boucher
Pierre Roy
First published 2019 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
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The rights of Estelle Pellegrin-Boucher and Pierre Roy to be identified as the authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019944508
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ISBN 978-1-78630-379-0
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Estelle PELLEGRIN-BOUCHER and Pierre ROY
Chapter 1. Nintendo in the Pursuit of the Blue Ocean . . . . . . . . . . 1

Pascal AURÉGAN and Albéric TELLIER
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Blue Ocean strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. The video game industry: observation method and characteristics . . . 6
1.3.1. The methodological system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2. The video game industry: a presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4. Nintendo’s strategy: mixed results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1. A spectacular recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2. How can recovery be achieved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5. What lessons can be learned from Nintendo’s strategic directions? . . . 18
1.5.1. The Nintendo Wii: a case study of Blue Ocean strategy? . . . . . . 18
1.5.2. Sailing on the blue ocean: how far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.3. The launch of the Switch: a return to the fundamentals
of the Blue Ocean strategy?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 2. Omnichannel Innovations in the Bookstore Business:

The Case of the Libraires Ensemble Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Carole POIREL
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2. The transition from multichannel to omnichannel:
a strategic innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3. Research methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
vi Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
2.4. A presentation of the bookstore sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.5. The analysis of the innovative strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.1. The role of networks in the omnichannel strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.2. An omnichannel model adapted to the singularities of bookstores . 45
2.6. Feedback on concepts and best practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 3. The Innovative Business Model of Daft Punk . . . . . . . . 55

Alexandre PERRIN
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2. The definition of a business model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3. The business model of the music industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.1. Recorded music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.2. Live music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.3. Current business models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4. First historical attempts to break the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.1. Attempts concerning value propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.2. Attempts concerning value architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.3. Attempts concerning business equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6. Daft Punk: an innovative model in electronic music . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6.1. Innovation concerning the value proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6.2. Innovation concerning value architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.3. Innovation concerning the business equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.8. Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 4. Innovation through Visitor Experience in Museums:

The Case of the Lascaux Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Juliette PASSEBOIS-DUCROS
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2. Innovation through and in consumer experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1. The concept of consumer experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.2. Innovation through the creation of memorable experiences . . . . . 79
4.2.3. Innovating through UX Design or how to simplify
the user experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.4. Innovating by analyzing and understanding
the customer journey or how to personalize consumer experience . . . . . 81
4.3. Heritage institutions: a sector in the throes of change . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Contents vii
4.3.1. The weight of assets in the French economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.3.2. The economic structuring of the cultural heritage “industry” . . . . 85
4.4. A presentation of the Lascaux case and the analytical methodology . . 86
4.4.1. The case study methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.2. The context of recent innovation in Lascaux: a brief account
of 70 years of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.3. Towards the creation of a center worthy of Lascaux’s worldwide
reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5. Innovation at the service of the visitor experience in Lascaux . . . . . . 91
4.5.1. Lascaux and the “prehistoric experience” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.2. Visitor data to improve the individual experience . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.3. Data at the service of the organization’s management . . . . . . . . 95
4.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Chapter 5. Tale Me, Green Innovation for the Textile Industry . . . . 101
Arthur CARÉ
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2. The theoretical framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.1. Green innovations: semantic diversity and definition . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.2. The nature of green innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.3. Blue Ocean strategy and the strategic framework . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3. The research method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3.1. A sectoral qualitative study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3.2. Data collection and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4. The textile and clothing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4.1. Historical landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4.2. Textiles, the flagship of French industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.4.3. Fashion is passing, waste remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5. Ready to rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.1. Tale Me and clothing rental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.2. Tale Me casts off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.6. Case lessons and good practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.6.1. “From cradle to plateau”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.6.2. Green Ocean strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Chapter 6. Identity for Innovation: The Strategies of Cinema Sites . 131

Ève LAMENDOUR
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
viii Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
6.3. A changing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

6.4. The identity and strategy of cinema sites: tensions in Nantes . . . . . . 139
6.4.1. The tension between city-center and periphery . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.2. The magic of cinema sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4.3. Programs, the DNA of cinema sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.6. Glossary of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.7. Sources and archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Chapter 7. Coopetition Between Architects:

Designing Innovative Projects with Competitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Estelle PELLEGRIN-BOUCHER and Pierre ROY
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.2. Coopetition: an example of an innovative strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2.1. Presentation and definition of coopetition strategies . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2.2. Different types of coopetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3. Methodological choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4. Presentation of the architecture sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4.1. Architecture as a profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4.2. Recent developments in the sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.5. The different types of coopetition between architects . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.5.1. Type 1: improving commercial prospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.5.2. Type 2: reducing geographical distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5.3. Type 3: a successful project from A to Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.6. Lessons learned and good practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.6.1. Choosing coopetitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.6.2. Managing coopetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.6.3. Exploiting the benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Introduction
In a globalized context where standardization is becoming the norm,

cultural and artistic heritage certainly embodies one of the greatest tangible
and intangible assets of a country. In Europe, the cultural and creative
sectors thus represent 4.2% of the Union’s GDP and nearly 7.1 million jobs,
mainly in small businesses (EY 2013). In France, as shown by the studies
conducted on the subject, the cultural and creative industries (CCIs) are also
a lever for national influence. Indeed, the panoramas of these industries
highlight the economic (104 billion euros) and social (nearly 1.7 million
jobs) value of these sectors (EY France Créativité 2013; BPI 2017).
Because of their innovative nature and the value creation they generate,
these sectors represent a real source of wealth and job creation, particularly
since they are rarely relocatable. In addition, they require rare talents and
knowledge that is difficult to substitute, rooted in specific know-how,
heritage, etc. The figures also highlight that the development of these sectors
is linked to the increasing use of digital technologies (EY France Créativité
2013). Indeed, software, Big Data and artificial intelligence reduce technical
constraints and help creators to concentrate on their production while freeing
up their creativity. They also make it possible to get closer to the needs of
consumers.
Yet these sectors have long been neglected by academia and the business
media, partly because of their heterogeneity and apparent complexity. They
cover a wide range of activities, from film and publishing to the more recent
video game industry. The first objective of this book is to better define this
Introduction written by Estelle PELLEGRIN-BOUCHER and Pierre ROY.

x Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
set of activities and give it greater visibility. Our second objective is to show
the innovative nature of CCIs and to identify useful best practices for
companies. We believe that, despite the specificities of each cultural and
creative industry, and precisely because of the innovative and avant-garde
nature of CCIs, some innovations are transferable to other sectors and
industries.
I.1. Definition, characteristics and scope of CCIs
In the field of economics, or in management sciences, some specialists

have defined and characterized these industries. For example, Busson and
Evrard (2013) identified seven sectors of activity that are part of the CCI:
heritage, performing arts, the book industry, the music industry, video
games, film and television. Paris (2010) considers that the cultural and
creative industries encompass all activities characterized by a creative
process. He thus integrates fashion, advertising, gastronomy, design, etc. He
identifies three characteristics common to CCIs:
– the creative act (the supply) exists independently of any market
demand;
– the value of a good is linked to a social dimension (listening to the
same music as our friends, going to the cinema in a group, wearing clothes
that set us apart, etc.);
– prescription plays an essential role and contributes significantly to the
success of the works.
Other researchers have highlighted the economic particularities of these

industries (BPI 2017). First, they include editorial institutions responsible for
the selection and distribution of products to consumers. Actors within the
sector have the function of selecting works and promoting them to the
general public (Caves 2002). Second, in these industries, success is never
predictable. As a result, a few major successes finance a majority of
commercial failures (Karpik 2007). A film, book or music album is indeed a
prototype whose commercial success is always uncertain. Third, the value of
creative and cultural goods is revealed in experience. As these goods only
reveal their benefits in use, they require the implementation of judgement
mechanisms (criticisms, opinions, etc.) to help consumers in their purchasing
decisions. Fourth, dematerialization weakens some parts of the cultural
industries (music, cinema, books, etc.), so appropriate solutions must be
Introduction xi
found to avoid large-scale piracy. Finally, there is a geographical

concentration of cultural and creative activities (Hollywood for cinema,
Paris for fashion, Bangkok for jewelry, etc.). This grouping is conducive to
innovation and excellence, and it contributes to the creation of clusters
whose symbolic value reflects on works and brands.
In this book, we have also sought to clarify what these activities represent
and what are their characteristics.
In our opinion, the first point common to all these sectors is creativity
(Busson and Evrard 2013). Indeed, all these industries are characterized by a
very strong capacity to produce a new, original solution, which draws on the
imagination of its creators and whose value is more symbolic than utilitarian
(Bouquillion et al. 2013). The second common point is an anchoring in a
particular artistic field and a strong cultural capital; for example, fashion and
video games have their roots in drawing and are influenced by the graphic
and visual arts. The intangible and symbolic aesthetic dimension may be
more or less strong in these sectors, but it is always present. It can also
override the effectiveness of the product or service being marketed. Finally,
the third point is the innovative nature of creative and cultural productions
(Evrard and Busson 2018). Indeed, the cultural and creative industries
produce objects and services that are new to their markets and create value
for consumers.
Based on these elements of definition, here are the sectors that we have
grouped together in the CCIs for this book (see Table I.1): architecture,
cinema, photography, the art market, plastic arts, design, fashion (textiles,
clothing, accessories, perfumes, cosmetics, luxury), heritage (museums,
monuments), advertising, performing arts (shows, theaters, festivals,
concerts), radio, TV, music, video games, gastronomy, living arts
(decoration, furniture, tableware), publishing (books, press). For greater
clarity, these industries can be grouped into 10 sectors of activity (BPI
2017).
In France, the CCIs embody a strong symbol of the country’s identity and
a lever for international influence. This is particularly linked to the weight of
culture in the country and its very rich heritage. Thus, more than 500,000
companies are active within the CCIs. The BPI France organization in a
study published in 2017 shows that these industries represent 104 billion
euros (or 5.3% of the national GDP) and have totaled more than 1.7 million
xii Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
jobs (or 6.3% of paid employment). As an economic comparison, CCIs

represent slightly more than twice the size of the accommodation and
catering sector (BPI 2017).
As a % of
Added value Number
CCIs Description total value
(in euros) of jobs
added
Architecture Architecture 3.9 billion 40,000 4%
Textile, clothing,
Fashion,
accessories, 33.5 billion 593,000 32%
luxury, beauty
perfumes, cosmetics
Museums,
Heritage 1.7 billion 40,000 2%
monuments
Advertising Advertising 8.8 billion 149,000 9%
Live Shows, theaters,
7.5 billion 172,000 7%
performance concerts
Radio, TV, cinema,
Audiovisual
music, video, video 14.1 billion 125,00 14%
media
games
Gastronomy Wines 3.5 billion 61,000 3%
Photography, art
Visual arts market, plastic arts, 9.3 billion 179,000 9%
design
Tableware, furniture,
Lifestyle 10.6 billion 217,000 10%
decoration
Printed media Book, press 10.1 billion 134,000 10%
Table I.1. Cultural and creative industries in France (source: BPI France, based on
INSEE data (2017))
I.2. Innovative strategies at the heart of CCIs
Many recent transformations have impacted the different CCIs described

in section I.1. These include technological revolutions (Internet,
dematerialization via digital technology, artificial intelligence, etc.), new
sociological and consumer trends, increasing internationalization, changes in
legislation or the convergence of certain activities (cinema and video games,
for example). Faced with these profound changes, the historical and/or
newly arrived companies in these CCIs have thus been confronted with new
strategic challenges. The answers provided by companies are at the heart of
this book. We would like to highlight the innovative strategies of companies
located in CCIs, starting from an idea that has the status of a gamble:
Introduction xiii
managers and employees involved in CCIs are more creative than average,
and companies’ strategies must necessarily benefit from this additional
creativity compared to other sectors. In other words, we are convinced from
our empirical research in these sectoral contexts that the profile of actors has
a positive effect on the innovative dimension of the strategies carried out
there.
The objective of this book is thus to offer a first overview of innovative

and effective strategies carried out in CCIs. We considered innovation from
a strategic point of view, that is, how a company innovates in defining its
offer, in its approach to the market and/or in its internal organization. Thus,
this book discusses strategies whose innovative character lies, for example,
in the characteristics of the company’s business model, in the type of
distribution channel, in the nature of customer relations, in the combination
of cooperative and competitive relations, in open innovation or in the
consideration of environmental issues. Each chapter is structured around five
elements:
1) a theoretical framework focusing on a specific concept;
2) the methodological design used;
3) a presentation of the CCI concerned;
4) the analysis of the innovative strategy;
5) a feedback on the lessons learned and good practices of the case.
The design of this collective work has led us to select authors who are
specialists and recognized within the field of CCIs. Prior to their
participation in this book, they all carried out empirical research in one or
more CCIs, and their work gave rise to different types of developments:
scientific articles, books, press articles, communication at conferences, etc.
This book also aims to create links between authors working on CCIs and to
promote the work of this community of established or future researchers.
The selection of authors necessarily leads us to focus on some CCIs at the
expense of others. The seven CCIs discussed in this book are video games,
books, music, museums, fashion, cinema and architecture. We are also aware
that this book embodies a first step in our desire to promote the work carried
out in the field of CCI strategy in the months and years to come. We intend
not only to fully pursue the exploration of the industries discussed in this
book but also to tackle those excluded from it.
xiv Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
I.3. Summaries of the chapters and the structure of the book
In Chapter 1, Pascal Aurégan and Albéric Tellier analyze Nintendo’s

Blue Ocean strategy using Kim and Mauborgne’s tools (2004). Through a
longitudinal analysis of the game console industry conducted from 2006 to
date, the authors show that this industry has grown steadily. Within this
sector, Nintendo pursued a Blue Ocean strategy with the launch of the Wii in
2006, which allowed it to become the world leader in video game consoles
again in 2011. However, the failure of the Wii U from 2012, and the
aggressive imitation strategies of its competitors Sony and Microsoft,
quickly reduced its competitive advantage. The authors show that imitating a
blue ocean can be quick and that the competitive advantage gained through
this strategy is sometimes short-lived. In order to innovate and maintain the
benefits of innovation within the creative and cultural industries, Pascal
Aurégan and Albéric Tellier make several suggestions. First, in order to
innovate and develop blue oceans, it seems essential to question and renew
the rules of the game commonly acquired within a sector. Second, it is
necessary to assess the long-term potential of a blue ocean. Finally, it is in
the interest of innovative companies to create links between the various
actors because their partners must adhere to their projects.
Chapter 2, written by Carole Poirel, is devoted to the study of

omnichannel innovations in the book trade concerning a group of
booksellers that has distinguished itself by its choices in favor of the
omnichannel since 2015. This Libraires Ensemble group, created in 2001,
currently has 54 bookstores located in major urban centers outside Paris. The
resulting innovation analysis, based on a case study and a qualitative
method, is part of the retail cooperative and has a collective resource-pooling
dimension. The author shows that, in order not to appear commercially
obsolete compared to other brands, self-employed people have developed
their online presence, connected their bookshops to the Internet and set up
networked CRM tools. This has enabled them to take advantage of the
complementarities between physical and virtual businesses that consumers
seek and appreciate. However, the omni-channel devices used by the group
do not constitute an ex nihilo innovation since they already existed in other
brands and in other sectors. The innovative character here lies in the import
and adaptation to the independent library of a managerial approach based on
the strength of its network. Carole Poirel draws many lessons and good
practices from this research. We can mention in particular the importance of
the variety of the assortment (products and services), but also the strategic
Introduction xv
nature of merchandising and the customer experience in stores and on the

website in order to encourage people to stroll around and buy books.
Among CCIs, the music industry has also experienced major upheavals in
recent years. Alexandre Perrin explores some of these transformations in
Chapter 3 through the case of Daft Punk and the economic model developed
by the famous French electronic music duo. The author traces the group's
journey from its beginnings in 1993 to its recent successes and demonstrates
its ability to innovate in relation to the dominant models of the music
industry. The concept of the economic model and its components (value
proposition, value architecture, profit equation) serves as an anchor point for
Alexandre Perrin to compare the strategies of the various industry players
and the changes that have occurred. Based on Daft Punk’s accounting,
financial and organizational data, the author deciphers the various innovative
dimensions of their economic model. Thus, he highlights how the group has
been able to create a model adapted to the evolutions of the music industry.
Four key success factors embody the success of Daft Punk’s strategy
according to the author: an ability to “do things their own way”, to present
finished products, to finance their own work and to maintain close control
over it. Beyond the artistic aspects, the case thus reveals the role played by
the control of the financial dimension in both the creation and distribution of
musical works.
In Chapter 4, Juliette Passebois-Ducros studies innovation for the visitor

experience in museums, using the Lascaux caves as a case study. Thanks to
digital technologies, the establishment has not only been able to offer
innovative mediations concerning the built heritage of the caves, but also to
offer an “enhanced” and more personalized visitor experience (before,
during and after the visit), thanks to the analysis of personal data generated
by visitors’ behavior. Thus, Lascaux inaugurates the use of Big Data for
cultural organizations, extending the movement initiated by the major
creative industries. This study also examines in more detail the notion of
“User Experience” (UX). One of the challenges of UX is to make technology
easy, pleasant, and as intuitive as possible for a user, as well as to perfectly
meet the user’s needs. The objective is also to personalize his/her experience
and make it memorable in order to create a sustainable competitive
advantage. The author shows that the cultural industries are a prime area in
which to test experiential marketing but also different digital technologies.
The experiment must be carried out throughout the visitor’s journey in order
to offer opportunities for innovation and differentiation. When managing the
xvi Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
experience itself, it is good practice to use technological tools to complete

the visitor experience in a measured way. Finally, the study shows that it is
not a question of collecting data to obtain monetary benefits but rather of
using this data to continuously improve the visitor experience.
The fashion and textile industry is discussed by Arthur Caré in Chapter

5. The author challenges this creative industry in terms of green innovations
and the major issues to which this industry is exposed in terms of its
environmental impacts. The chapter is particularly interested in the
introduction of a green innovation strategy in textiles and clothing through
the case of Tale Me, whose core business is the rental of clothing for
customers whose bodies are rapidly changing (children, pregnant women).
Against the trend of actors embodying the dominant model of fast fashion
(H&M, Zara, Gap, etc.), the case of the company Tale Me highlights how
some companies are trying to develop alternative models based on a green
approach. When examined in a qualitative approach, the case of this
“clothing library” makes it possible to identify the ways of introducing a
green disruption but also the limits and obstacles to its widespread
dissemination. Arthur Caré shows how Tale Me manages to achieve a
certain success with the targeted niche but also the difficulties encountered
when it comes to extending the strategy to a wider market. This result leads
the author to compare the specificities of the Green Ocean strategy with
those of the Blue Ocean strategy. In particular, Caré stresses the importance
of seeking relays (through cooperation with dominant industry players) to
expand the green innovation strategy on a larger scale and meet the dual
objective of economic and environmental performance.
Chapter 6 gives Eve Lamendour the opportunity to question innovation

strategies in the cinema sector from the perspective of the identity and
positioning of supply (types of films offered, original or French version,
schedules, pricing policy, services, etc.). Starting from the transformations of
the film industry, such as digital projection or the development of streaming
platforms, the author studies the impacts on a step that takes place later on in
the process: the exhibition of films in cinemas. The stakes are multiple: how
to enhance the value of cinema screenings in the age of Netflix? How to
position the offer according to its location? How to balance cultural issues
and economic imperatives? etc. The competition between cinemas in the
Nantes urban area provides a stimulating empirical context for discussing the
strategic issues faced in this sector. In particular, the author shows how two
types of actors coexist on this market: those responding to an economic and
Introduction xvii
commercial type of logic versus those attached to the cultural and artistic
dimension of cinema. Tensions between the two cinema profiles as well as
that between geographical areas (city center versus suburbs) are discussed.
The case shows how cinemas position themselves, sometimes confront each
other and enter into games of aggression-reaction in terms of identities.
Finally, in Chapter 7, Estelle Pellegrin-Boucher and Pierre Roy explore

developments in the architectural sector and discuss the growing trend that
leads architectural firms to work together with their competitors. This
strategy, known as coopetition, is based on a mixture of cooperation and
competition and consists here in responding to a call for tenders with one’s
competitor in order to maximize the chances of winning it. The
generalization of this strategy embodies an innovative response to new
challenges in the sector such as fierce competition between agencies, the
growth of powerful brands associated with major names in the sector
(“starchitects”), the internationalization of the business and new customer
requirements. Based on qualitative empirical studies conducted in
Montpellier and Paris, the authors reveal several benefits associated with the
cooperation strategy among architects. First, agencies improve their
commercial prospecting and thus reveal new opportunities for future
projects. Second, cooperation offers a solution to one of the frequent
difficulties faced by architects: the geographical distance between the
location of the firm and that of the construction project. Finally, the case of
the renovation of the Montparnasse tower in Paris demonstrates how the
management of an architectural project carried out from A to Z makes it
possible to innovate at the product level but also at the commercial and
managerial levels.
I.4. References
Bouquillion, P., Miège, B., Moeglin, P. (2013). L’industrialisation des biens

symboliques. Les industries créatives en regard des industries culturelles.
Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, Grenoble.
BPI France (2017). Le lab, Industries French Touch, Créativité déroutée ou
augmentée. Banque publique d’investissement France, Paris.
Busson, A., Evrard, Y. (2013). Les industries culturelles et créatives : économie et
stratégie. Vuibert, Paris.
Caves, R.E. (2002). Creative industries: contracts between art and commerce.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
xviii Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
Chantepie, P., Le Diberder, A. (2010). Révolution numérique et industries de la

culture, 2nd edition. La Découverte, Paris.
Davies, R., Sigthorsson, G. (2013). Introducing the Creative Industries: From
Theory to Practice. Sage, Thousand Oaks.
Evrard, Y., Busson, A. (2018). Management des industries culturelles et créatives.
Vuibert, Paris.
EY France Créative (2013). Panorama des industries culturelles et créatives. Ernst &
Young, Paris.
Karpik, L. (2007). L’économie des singularités. Gallimard, Paris.
Kim, W.C., Mauborgne, R. (2004). Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create
Uncontested Market Space and Make the Competition Irrelevant. Harvard
Business Review Press, Boston.
Paris, T. (2010). Manager la créativité. Innover en s’inspirant de Pixar, Ducasse,
les Ateliers Jean Nouvel, Hermès, etc. Village Mondial, Pearson, Montreuil.
Vogel, H.L. (2011). Entertainment Industry Economics. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
1
Nintendo in the Pursuit of the Blue Ocean
1.1. Introduction
The book by W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne entitled Blue Ocean
Strategy, published in 2004, was very successful from its publication.
Translated into 44 languages, more than 3.5 million copies of the book have
been sold worldwide. According to the authors, the Blue Ocean strategy is
taught in more than 2,800 universities!
Designed with and for practitioners in constant search for the “winning
strategic recipe”, the book aims to propose to leaders an approach that will
enable them to create new strategic spaces, “blue oceans”, as opposed to
“red oceans”, where competition is fierce. Management researchers, despite
showing a definite interest in the concept of the “blue ocean”, are perhaps
more likely to question the theoretical robustness of the approach and its
ability to systematically produce winning strategies.
Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to test the work of Kim and
Mauborgne through the analysis of the Nintendo case over a long period,
from 2006 to the present day. This analysis seems to us to be conducive to
highlighting not only the interest but also the limits of the Blue Ocean
approach, particularly in the creative industries.
This chapter is organized into five main sections. Section 1.2 briefly
presents the Blue Ocean approach, its principles and analytical tools. Section 1.3
presents the methodological framework and the video game industry.
Chapter written by Pascal AURÉGAN and Albéric TELLIER.
Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries,

First Edition. Edited by Estelle Pellegrin-Boucher Pierre Roy.
© ISTE Ltd 2019. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries
Section 1.4 presents Nintendo’s strategy for launching its various console
generations and the results obtained. Finally, section 1.5 is devoted to the
discussion of the case, in the light of the Blue Ocean approach.
1.2. Blue Ocean strategy
Kim and Mauborgne’s work on Blue Ocean strategies is based on a

simple idea: at a time of hyper-competition, it is often more appropriate to
“stand where the competition is not” rather than to seek confrontation. Their
project is to propose an approach that will allow managers to discover and
exploit blue oceans that are untouched by any competition.
To build this approach, Kim and Mauborgne started from an observation:

leaders have a conception of strategy based on two more or less implicit
assumptions that nevertheless guide and limit their actions in a powerful
way. On the one hand, they consider that the boundaries of their market(s)
are given and that it is not possible to change them. On the other hand, in
this constrained environment, the company has only two options: it follows
the logic of either cost or differentiation. However, for the authors, these
assumptions, which are largely based on the Porterian approach (Porter
1985), are fallacious. In the long run, companies can only exhaust
themselves if they only seek to differentiate themselves or reduce their costs.
By playing on only one of these two types of logic, they cannot leave their
red oceans. Initiating a real strategic change can only come from joint
movements aimed at both differentiating oneself (and increasing the value
perceived by the customer) and reducing costs. It is this strategic move
(defined as “the set of managerial actions and decisions involved in making
a major market-creating business offering”, Kim and Mauborgne 2004,
p. 10) that will give rise to “innovation-value” and thus a blue ocean
(Aurégan et al. 2015). For a company, adopting a Blue Ocean strategy
means shaping the industry to its advantage rather than suffering it. Table
1.1 presents the characteristics of the Red Ocean and Blue Ocean strategies.
Table 1.1 requires some explanation. On the one hand, the creation of a
new strategic space is often associated with Schumpeter’s concept of
creative destruction: a new, more efficient technology replaces the old one
and the actors who mastered it. However, the authors note that it is also
possible to create a new market by disruption, as Christensen (1997) has
shown. In this case, a less efficient technology initially replaces the old one.
Nintendo in the Pursuit of the Blue Ocean 3
These two approaches are described as “disruptive creation” by Kim and

Mauborgne. Finally, they specify that it is also possible to create new
markets through non-disruptive creation. In this case, the aim is to create an
ex nihilo market, for example, the market for ringtones. In the end, it is not
so much technology that is important to create a new market (many new
markets have been created without the specific use of technology or when
this was the case, it was not what customers valued) as innovation-value,
that is the ability of a firm to open new, economically viable markets.
Red Ocean Strategy Blue Ocean Strategy
Compete in existing marketing space. Create uncontested market space.
Beat the competition. Make the competition irrelevant.
Exploit existing demand. Create and capture new demand.
Make the value-cost trade-off. Break the value-cost trade-off.
Align the whole system of a firm’s

Align the whole system of a firm’s activities
activities with its strategic choice of
in pursuit of differentiation and low cost.
differentiation or low cost.
Table 1.1. Red Ocean versus Blue Ocean strategy

(source: Kim and Mauborgne 2004, p. 18)
On the other hand, when Kim and Mauborgne suggest putting

competition out of the game, it is not a question of fighting it, imitating it or
doing better than it, but rather of delegitimizing it, by making a real leap of
value that will deskill it. Rather than competing to acquire existing
customers, Blue Ocean strategies seek to expand demand, paying particular
attention to the three levels of non-customers (imminent non-customers,
non-customers by refusal, unexplored non-customers).
Finally, the Blue Ocean strategy involves adopting simultaneously the

cost and differentiation approach, and in so doing challenging the cost/value
equation.
To formulate and execute a Blue Ocean strategy, the authors propose a

real toolbox for managers: the strategy canvas, the grid of the four actions,
the ERRC grid, the PMS (pioneer-migrator-sedentary) map, the three tiers of
non-consumers or the buyers’ utility map, etc. For illustrative purposes, we

present and comment on the three main concepts in this list in Table 1.2.
Remarks and
Tool Objective(s) Content/form
comments
Selection of key
competition
criteria in the
sector studied
(product attributes This tool is in
Represent the in particular). line with the
current state of Positioning in value analysis
the competition relation to the tools.
Strategic canvas in the strategic competition in Nothing is said
(diagnostic and action tool) reference area. terms of about how to
To establish the performance. Its select the
company’s value shape is a broken relevant criteria
curve. line joining the or areas to build
different criteria the curve.
placed at different
levels and forming
the company’s
value curve.
Prioritization of
Once again, the
criteria
Analyze possible tool is very
distinguishing
changes in the similar to those
between those to
characteristics of used in value
Grid of the four actions be reduced (pure
the new value analysis,
(tool for redefining the value and simple
proposition particularly
curve) mitigation or
(innovation- those focused
deletion), those to
value) proposed on customer
be strengthened
by the company. value analysis
and those to be
(CVA).
created.
This tool is only
The form is a
an extension of
matrix of four
the previous
Systematically boxes
one. Its different
identify the distinguishing
form gives a
criteria on which between the
ERRC grid systematic
value innovation criteria to be
character to the
will focus and to eliminated,
approach and
invent new ones. reduced, raised
forces the actors
and those to be
to make clear
created.
choices.
Table 1.2. Three analytical Blue Ocean tools

(source: freely inspired by Kim and Mauborgne 2004)
However, the use of these tools is not sufficient to allow the company to
create a Blue Ocean. It must be integrated into an overall strategic approach
based on six principles (see Table 1.3). Finally, in their latest book, and
probably in response to criticism about the lack of a framework for their
approach, Kim and Mauborgne (2017) propose a structured approach for
designing and implementing a Blue Ocean strategy.
Concrete implementation
Principles Objective(s)
modalities
Principles of formulation
Practice analytical exploration
in six areas: alternative
services on the market,
strategic groups in the sector,
Redraw the boundaries Find new strategic buyers present,
between markets. spaces. complementary offers
presented, emotional content
of communication in the
sector, time projection of
major sectoral trends.
Apply a four-step method
(visual awakening, visual
exploration, strategic canvas
competition and visual
Give priority to global Build the strategy
communication) in which
issues, not numbers. canvas.
communication aspects are
central. The authors also
propose a specific PMS map
(pioneer-migrator-sedentary).
Deepen the knowledge of non-
clients broken down into three
blocks (imminent non-clients,
Aim beyond existing Attract as many new
“anti” non-clients,
demand. customers as possible.
“unexplored” non-clients), to
attract them and transform
them into effective clients.
Formulate the strategy by
going through essential and
Build a business model ordered steps:
Successfully complete the robust enough to ensure 1) analysis of the usefulness
strategic sequencing. the profitability of for the buyer;
innovation and value. 2) price analysis;
3) cost analysis;
4) adoption analysis.
Principles of execution
Practice “management by the
Overcome the four
tipping point” by choosing to
internal obstacles:
focus on levers (individuals,
cognitive (resistance to
Overcome major internal actions, activities) that have a
change), linked to limited
obstacles. strong influence on results
resources, insufficient
and make it possible to
motivation and finally
overcome the four previous
struggles for influence.
obstacles.
Practice “fair management”
Involve stakeholders in
based in particular on the
Integrate implementation the field in the
three E’s: engagement,
into strategic development. development of the
exchange and enouncing
strategy.
consequences.
Table 1.3. The six principles underlying the Blue Ocean strategy
(source: freely inspired by Kim and Mauborgne, 2004)
In their books, Kim and Mauborgne multiply the examples of Blue Ocean
strategies successfully implemented in a wide variety of sectors: automotive,
circus, viticulture, etc. At the same time, in the video game industry, Nintendo’s
spectacular recovery in the mid-2000s has often been presented as a perfect
illustration of the power of this type of strategy. Many authors have presented
the launch of the Nintendo Wii system as the example of the Blue Ocean
strategy (Hollensen 2008; Johnson et al. 2008; O’Gorman 2008; Bonneveux
et al. 2010). However, after the undeniable success of the Wii, Nintendo’s
situation deteriorated again from 2010 onwards. Thus, an analysis of the
Nintendo case over a long period of time seems appropriate to highlight
the interest but also the limitations of Kim and Mauborgne’s work. This is
the objective of the rest of this chapter.
1.3. The video game industry: observation method and

characteristics
1.3.1. The methodological system
This research is based on a longitudinal study of the video game industry,

mainly at the level of game console manufacturers. For more than 20 years,
this sector has undergone significant changes, mainly due to the arrival of
new players from consumer electronics (Sony) and IT (Microsoft). These
successive entries have disrupted competitive positions and even led to the
withdrawal of historical manufacturers (Sega). Since the beginning, the
historical players in this industry have been required to make technological

leaps, but in recent years they have also had to deal with the collapse of
borders with related industries, particularly mobile telephony.
This research is essentially based on secondary data of two types. First of

all, we have “internal” secondary data involving the documents produced
and distributed by the firms concerned and compiled over the relevant period
of time. Then, we collected various secondary types of data from the business
press and newspapers dedicated to the video game industry. This “external”
secondary data was obtained by querying article banks such as Dow Jones
Factiva, which provides access to thousands of full-text titles from the French
and foreign press. Various automatic searches on these databases made it
possible to select articles by keywords. The use of the Google alert system and
the registration of developers and users in online forums also allowed the
detection of major events in the sector and facilitated the validation procedure
for the data collected. Finally, to enrich the reflection, research work on the
same case published in academic journals or books has been used (notably
Natkin et al. 2002; Schilling 2003; Benghozi and Chantepie 2017) as well as
reports for state authorities (Le Diberder and Le Diberder 2002; Friès 2003;
Beau et al. 2007) and studies by IDATE (Institut de l'audiovisuel et des
télécommunications en Europe).
1.3.2. The video game industry: a presentation
1.3.2.1. An industry in continuous growth

The video game industry is generally considered to be the latest in
cultural industries. While it has the key characteristics of this type of
industry (including the intensive use of intellectual capital, a chain organized
around creation-production-commercialization cycles, income based on trade
but also intellectual property rights), it is characterized by a very specific
user experience (Benghozi and Chantepie 2017). Indeed, the service offered
to a player is not only based on preconceived and fixed content but also
depends on the possibilities of appropriation and personalization of the content,
the scenario, the characters, the challenges to be met, etc. From now on, the
player is involved in the game. He chooses the level of difficulty, creates his
characters, acts on the story, invents his playing techniques, etc. This
interactive dimension in the gaming experience is undoubtedly unparalleled
in the cultural industries and can be summed up in a word well known to
video game enthusiasts: gameplay.
The video game industry is generally considered to have originated in the

United States in 1972 when Pong (Atari), the first arcade game, and the
Odyssey (Magnavox), the first console to be connected to a television set,
were introduced. Since then, this industry has grown considerably under the
combined effect of technological developments (machine capabilities,
programming techniques, artificial intelligence, computer networks), the
improvement of production processes and the specialization of players in
specific trades along the supply chain.
In 2016, the global video game market (including equipment) was

estimated at €74.5 billion (IDATE 2017). Games are now designed for four
types of platforms: arcade terminals, microcomputers, smartphones, and
consoles (home and portable). The arcade terminal segment is in a slump
with the disappearance of gaming rooms. In recent years, the console
segment has also suffered. In 2003, home consoles represented more than
70% of the platforms used (Friès 2003, p. 8). They represented only about
40% of the total market in 2017. Similarly, handheld consoles accounted for
13% of the global market in 2017 compared to 22% in 2013. These figures
are mainly due to the strong development of smartphones, whose power now
makes it possible to offer equally successful games.
The video game industry is organized as follows (Friès 2003):

manufacturers design and manufacture consoles; “intermediate”
manufacturers design hardware and software for game creation; development
studios design and produce games; publishers buy the rights to the games
created, produce them (in the sense of cinema) and deliver them to wholesalers;
distributors (specialized stores – large distribution) market them.
As a capital-intensive and technology-intensive sector, video games have

historically been an industry of “upstream-driven innovation” (Beau et al.
2007). Indeed, almost all console manufacturing is now carried out by three
companies: Microsoft, Nintendo and Sony. These three giants carry out most
of the R&D on machines, impose technical specifications on the various
players and take care of “technological crossovers” with other sectors (for
example, the integration of DVD specifications for the production of games in
disc form). The historical choice made by manufacturers to favor a
“proprietary” approach by retaining exclusive control over the equipment and
their economic weight strengthens their negotiating power over the entire
supply chain. Not only does a manufacturer reserve the right to refuse a
proposed title for its console, but it also requires high levels of royalties (at
least 20% on the selling price) accompanied by cash advances. Finally, by also
working as a publisher, manufacturers are exacerbating competition between
the games they sell.
Committed to a race for innovation, manufacturers have made a

significant contribution to making video games a short-cycle technology
industry, marked by the regular renewal of game consoles with ever-higher
performance. These cycles are costly and difficult to manage, particularly
because many actors have to integrate new technologies and renew their
skills and design/production processes. Many professionals consider that it is
very difficult to capitalize on the knowledge acquired over the long term
because it is called into question by the technological leaps imposed
upstream. Downstream, transitions between generations are also difficult for
publishers to manage, as they have to cope with the collapse of sales due to
manufacturers’ announcements.
The video game industry can thus be described as a “prototype economy”

because each game requires specific design and production financing that is
difficult to recover (Benghozi and Chantepie 2017). While the development
budget for a game with “global potential” for Sony’s Playstation 1 (PS1) was
€2 to €3 million, the next generation, Playstation 2 (PS2), needed between
€4 and €7 million. Since then, the amounts have skyrocketed. In 2013, the
average cost of a video game was $88.4 million: $34 million for
development and $54.4 million for manufacturing and marketing (IDATE
2014). For games with global ambition (such as Call of Duty: Modern
Warfare 2, GTA 5, Halo 4, etc.), the $100-million threshold is exceeded by
far.
At the same time, players must take into account the fact that 50% of a
game’s sales are made during the first three months of its commercialization
and that 80% of its sales are made with 20% of the games. Thus, video
games can also be described as “hit economy” (Friès 2003, pp. 10–11). It
may be the only consumer industry where sales are made almost exclusively
on new products. Unlike music or cinema, catalog collections are relatively
unexploited and 99% of games disappear from distribution channels
(excluding second-hand sales) in less than a year (Le Diberder 2002).
1.3.2.2. Console video games: key features

Typically, the job of console manufacturers is to create a platform that
will allow individuals to play games designed by development studios and
produced by publishers. This position as an intermediary between people

wishing to have fun and gaming specialists allows them to consider two
types of income. On the one hand, they sell consoles via distribution
networks. On the other hand, they give publishers the right to use their
technology in exchange for royalties. It is thus said that a console
manufacturer is in a “two-sided-market” situation since he can benefit from
two different but dependent customers.
While this type of situation can be very profitable (as long as the console
manufacturer remains an essential intermediary), it raises specific strategic
questions, particularly when launching a new generation of product1. The
main problem to be solved is the “chicken or egg dilemma”. When a new
console is introduced, players will be very sensitive to the number of games
available since a single console is not very useful. But on the other hand,
publishers will closely monitor the number of consoles sold before deciding
whether or not to launch the production of dedicated games. The challenge
for the console manufacturer is to have one category of actors initiate the
adoption process to encourage other categories to do the same. Three
strategies can be considered at the outset:
– take on a market side: some console manufacturers are involved in a
publishing activity to support the sales of their consoles;
– agree, at least for a time, not to gain anything on a market side: some
console manufacturers may be tempted to grant publishers operating licenses
at very low prices and/or offer console buyers very attractive prices;
– get a critical mass of users of an old technology involved by ensuring
compatibility with the new one: some individuals purchasing a new console may
be sensitive to the possibility of playing their old games with the new hardware.
If the manufacturer succeeds in triggering a “snowball effect”, he can set

himself up for success: the number of first-time buyers of the console
encourages publishers to offer games, which increases the usefulness of the
console, pushing even more players to acquire it, etc. It is said that there are
“increasing returns” here (Arthur 1988), because the more important the
diffusion of a console is at t, the more likely it is to spread more at t+1. The
process of technology adoption by users generates positive feedback: any
new adoption reinforces past (first customers made a “good” choice) and
1 Readers interested in these questions should consult Daidj and Isckia’s (2009) article.
future adoptions (future customers will benefit from making the same
choice). But on the other hand, if this process does not start, the
manufacturer may fall into a spiral of failure and, in the end, be out of the
market as Sega was after the catastrophic sales of its Dreamcast console
launched in 1998 and withdrawn in 2001.
In this “network industry”, where the usefulness of a console depends on

the number of users (developers, publishers and customers), manufacturers
regularly try to offer radically new products to shake up or strengthen
competitive positions. The historical study of the strategies and launches
carried out by the main console manufacturers indicates that, since the 1980s,
the console market has gradually stabilized around collectively adopted
practices that can be described as “rules of the competitive game”.
1.3.2.2.1. The rhythm rule

The sector is characterized first of all by a “tempo” that seems to be
accepted by all actors. The average time to market a console seems to have
stabilized around six years. Since the transition from one console generation
to the next is a critical time for many players in the industry, including
publishers and development studios, the latter need good visibility on the
console launch schedule. For example, if a publisher knows that at the same
time console manufacturers will offer machines that are roughly equivalent
in terms of power, he or she may consider creating a game for a console and
then “transferring” it to a competing machine.
1.3.2.2.2. The double power rule

A six-year commercial life in an industry that has among its suppliers
manufacturers of electronic components that evolve rapidly (including
processors that double in power every 18 months) encourages radical
changes between generations of consoles. Without a very significant
improvement, there is a great risk of offering equipment that is quickly
obsolete compared to the computer manufacturers’ offer. Thus, “video
games are caught up in a race for novelty, high-tech performance and
original creation” (Beau et al. 2007, p. 6). Thus, from the 8-bit console we
switched to 16-bit, 32-bit, then 64-bit, 128-bit, etc. This progression seems
to have become even more important since the development of 3D games:
the more a console is able to manage a large number of polygons at the same
time, the more detailed and realistic the graphics can be. The history of the
sector shows that between each generation of consoles, power is doubled.
1.3.2.2.3. The cost price rule

To make a significant leap in performance, manufacturers must integrate
very recent and therefore expensive components into their new consoles. The
counterpart of the doubled power is therefore an increasingly high
manufacturing cost. To disseminate a new game console in a short period of
time against competing offers, manufacturers have become accustomed to
selling their consoles at an average cost for two years. This practice was
introduced by Nintendo in 1985 with the launch of the NES. The enormous
success of this console has helped to impose this rule on all the
manufacturers who have since imitated the Japanese firm.
1.3.2.2.4. The rule of partially shared ownership

A console without games is useless. It is therefore important for
manufacturers to encourage game publishers to offer new products. For this
purpose, manufacturers grant operating licenses. A manufacturer retains full
ownership of the console but gives access to its technology to publishers to
develop games in exchange for royalties. Conversely, the usefulness of a
console can be increased by adding features. Coming from consumer
electronics, Sony quickly saw the interest in offering consoles that could play
audio and then video formats. Each of its consoles has brought additional
value to the customer on this point. The PS1 could play compact discs (CDs),
the PS2 could play CDs and DVDs, the PS3 and PS4 could play CDs, DVDs
and Blu-ray discs. This desire to exploit technological compatibilities has
forced manufacturers to integrate current technological specifications into
consumer electronics in order to offer games in “disc” format and to abandon
the “cartridge” format.
1.3.2.2.5. The rule of priority for big players

By offering increasingly complex and expensive equipment,
manufacturers have also had to focus on the “big players” (hardcore gamers)
of video games that multiple market studies have identified in detail: a male
individual between the ages of 15 and 34. As the industry has become a hit
economy, publishers tend to exploit highly reputable licenses (e.g. the FIFA
license for football games used by Electronic Arts) and to market successful
game series (e.g. the Uncharted series). Historically, the game market has
been segmented into four types of games: platform games, action games
(shoot them all), simulation games (sport, city management, flight, etc.) and
adventure games.
1.4. Nintendo’s strategy: mixed results2
1.4.1. A spectacular recovery
Nintendo is a Japanese company founded in 1889. Initially specialized in

the manufacture of card games, the company turned to video games in the
1980s. Nintendo has established itself as the leading manufacturer3 thanks to its
3rd and 4th generation machines. In 1992, the firm held 80% of the console
market. However, in 1994 Sony took advantage of a technological breakthrough
(5th generation machines) to disrupt competitive positions thanks to its PS1.
Sony’s domination was even greater from 2001 onwards. The company is the
big winner of the 6th generation console competition. The PS2 is currently
the best-selling console in the history of the industry, with approximately
120 million units sold.
Cumulative
Launch dates – Consoles Competitors (cumulative sales)
global sales
Sega Master System (13 million)

(1985) Generation 3 – NES 62 million
Nec PC-Engine (11 million)
(1990) Generation 4 –
49 million Sega Megadrive (35 million)
Super NES
(1996) Generation 5 – Sega Saturn (10 million)

32 million
Nintendo 64 Sony PS1 (100 million)
Microsoft Xbox (26 million)

(2001) Generation 6 –
24 million Sega Dreamcast (11 million)
Gamecube
Sony PS2 (120 million)
Table 1.4. Nintendo’s sales and competitors, 1985–2005 (source: based on data
compiled by the authors)
In December 2005, the era of the 7th generation of consoles began with
the arrival of Microsoft Xbox 360. Sony also entered the competition in
March 2007. Nintendo’s situation seemed to be difficult at this time. The
2 This section is largely based on two previous publications, by Aurégan and Tellier (2009)
and Aurégan et al. (2015).
3 Nintendo is also a leader in the handheld market (its current product on the market is the
DS). In order to simplify the following developments, this activity is not discussed in detail.
relative failure of its Gamecube console (24 million units sold) seemed to
indicate an inevitable decline in a market that was nevertheless growing. On
the other hand, Microsoft, the latest entrant in this market, has managed to
become the second largest manufacturer (26 million Xboxes sold, see Table
1.4). Sony and Microsoft’s 7th generation projects built on the sector’s
traditional “ways of doing things”. Both consoles were presented as
extremely powerful and proposed major technological changes.
In December 2006, one year after Microsoft, the Japanese company

entered the 7th generation battle with a very innovative product, breaking
with the history of the sector. Its console, called Wii, was offered at a price
of €250, the same as its previous model. The great novelty came from the
controller (called Wiimote). Similar to a remote control, it made it possible to
point objects at the screen and detect the player’s movements. This detection
was enabled by the presence of an “accelerometer”. Designed by Analog
Devices and manufactured by IBM, it detected the player’s movements in
3D. This remote control could also be connected to extensions or integrated
into accessories (car steering wheel, tennis racket, etc.). The player was no
longer sitting in front of his screen, he had to perform the movements
required by the game (for example, imitating the hitting of a baseball
player). On the other hand, the graphics were considerably simplified. The
Wii chip was not as powerful as those of the Xbox 360 or PS3. More
broadly, the technical performance seemed limited: no hard disk, no DVD
playback, no high definition, no Dolby 5.1 sound, limited connectivity, etc.
However, the success was dazzling. While sales were exploding (see Table
1.5), Nintendo’s share price increased fourfold between 2005 and 2007. The
firm ended its 2007 financial year with a 90% increase in turnover and a
77.2% increase in net income!
Launch Introductory Cumulative worldwide sales in millions of units

Console
date price 12/2007 12/2008 04/2009 01/2011 01/2012
Microsoft
12/2005 400 14 22.5 24.5 36.5 43
Xbox 360
Sony PS3 03/2007 600 5 16.5 19 34 42
Nintendo
12/2006 250 18.5 36 42 80 100
Wii
Table 1.5. Competition between 7th generation consoles: some figures

(source: based on data compiled by the authors, prices in euros)
1.4.2. How can recovery be achieved?
In January 2011, Nintendo once again became the world’s leading

manufacturer of video game consoles. The company has sold about
80 million Wii consoles, far ahead of Microsoft (36.5 million Xbox 360s)
and Sony (34 million PS3s). While its 2004/2005 turnover was 515.5 billion
yen, its 2008/2009 turnover exceeded 1,753 billion yen!
However, Nintendo is no longer alone in the market it helped to discover.

In September 2010, Sony launched the PlayStation Move, a device that can
be connected to its PS3 console and also detects player movement. Two
months later, Microsoft made its debut with the release of Kinect, a device
connected to the Xbox 360 console that also allows the development of
controllerless games. It was a success. In March 2011, Microsoft reported that
it had already sold 10 million Kinects.
The effect on Nintendo’s sales is significant. The firm is now facing a

slowdown in console sales. In March 2011, it announced a 29% decline in its
annual turnover and in net profits. The limited performance of the Wii is
increasingly seen as an obstacle to the development of new games and the
initial choice not to offer high definition is questionable at a time when this
type of TV screen is becoming popular with households around the world.
In June 2011, Nintendo announced the arrival of its new model, the Wii U.
This console was the first to be equipped, in addition to the joysticks with
motion recognition, with a tablet (the Gamepad) that allowed players to use a
new device for certain games. The gameplay can thus be “asymmetrical”:
the player on the tablet has features and information that other players do not
have. The Gamepad also makes it possible to do without a television screen.
It is indeed possible to finish a game started on television on a tablet,
provided however that the player does not move more than a few meters
away from the console.
This project marked an important change for Nintendo, both technically

and in terms of the target market. First of all, the technical characteristics of
the console were clearly comparable to those of competing PS3 and Xbox
360 consoles. The time for technically limited consoles seemed to be over.
In the announcements accompanying the launch of the Wii U, Nintendo
officials continued to praise the quality of the high-definition graphics and
the tablet’s capabilities. The tablet had a Wi-Fi connection, motion detectors
and a high-resolution display. Integrated cameras made it possible to offer

“augmented reality” games and videoconferencing between console owners.
It was also possible to download games via an online platform.
Nintendo’s new system was released in December 2012, just six years
after the Wii. Its price was €349. Even if it remained the cheapest console of
its generation (the Xbox One was sold for €499 and the PS4 for €399, see
Table 1.6), price differences were narrowing and, above all, the difference
with the Wii selling price was significant (€100). The commercial results
quickly became disappointing. In July 2013, the console had sold 3.45 million
copies (the initial target was to reach 5.5 million by the end of March); the
worst launch in Nintendo’s history. Even more worryingly, publishers did not
seem to show much interest in this machine and its asymmetric gameplay.
Noting the low level of sales, they gradually abandoned their projects for the
Wii U.
These poor results were all the more worrying as, in 2013, competitors
Sony and Microsoft officially launched their new consoles: the Xbox One
and the PS4. In line with the historical choices of these companies, these two
new machines were clearly intended for experienced players and once again
offered much higher performance levels than the Wii U. The arrival of these
new-generation consoles was likely to make it even more difficult for
Nintendo to convince new players.
Engaged in a spiral of failure, deprived of publisher support and without

games that exploited the Gamepad's potential, Nintendo’s management was
trying to rely on the release of very popular games like Mario Kart or Super
Smash Bros. in vain: in October 2016, the management made the failure
official. Since its release four years ago, only 13.36 million copies of the Wii
U have been sold. In the Japanese company’s offices, the focus is already on
a new model that can erase this disappointment: the Switch. Announced in
2015 and presented in October 2016, this console was launched in March
2017 at a price of €300 (see Table 1.6). Nintendo’s management presents it
as the first hybrid system, which can be used as a home console but also as a
handheld.
Indeed, the Switch includes several modules: a tablet associated with

removable controllers, which allow mobile use, and a charging dock that can
be connected to a television set. Thus connected, the Switch can also be used
as a home console; a player can easily start a game at home and continue it
in mobile mode. To promote a nomadic mode, the games are offered in
cartridges.
This hybrid product is a real change in the history of the video game
industry where manufacturers traditionally maintained strict boundaries
between the “home consoles” and “handheld consoles” markets to avoid
cannibalization phenomena. The element of risk is real for Nintendo, which
has always been able to profitably exploit the mobile market, particularly
with its Gameboy, DS and then 3DS consoles. However, since the arrival of
Apple’s iPhone, this very profitable market for Nintendo has been
challenged. In 2016, for the third year in a row, the Nintendo 3DS mobile
phone recorded a drop in sales.
Although the launch of the Switch raises many questions among

shareholders and industry analysts, it has been a success. Fifteen days after
the launch, 1.5 million Switch consoles had already been sold. The 10 million
mark was reached after only nine months on the market. On December 31,
2017, Nintendo announced that the Switch had already exceeded the total
sales of the Wii U with almost 15 million copies sold (see Table 1.6).
Initially driven by successive game launches leveraging Nintendo’s
successful licenses such as Super Mario Odyssey, Mario Kart 8 Deluxe and
The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, the Switch is now attracting third-
party publishers such as the giants Electronic Arts and Ubisoft.
Cumulative worldwide sales in

Introductory millions of units
Console Launch date
price
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Microsoft
11/2013 499 3 11 20 22 31.5
Xbox One
Sony PS4 11/2013 399 4.4 19 36.7 53.4 70.6
Nintendo
12/2012 349 5.3 8.9 12.3 13.4 13.6
Wii U
Nintendo
03/2017 300 14.9
Switch
Table 1.6. Competition between 8th-generation consoles: some figures

(source: based on data compiled by the authors, prices in euros)
1.5. What lessons can be learned from Nintendo’s strategic

directions?
This case, presented over a relatively long period of time, offers a

sufficiently long perspective to question the robustness of the Blue Ocean
approach, in the light of Nintendo’s successes but also its failures.
Nevertheless, some precautions should be taken. On one hand, since this is
still an ongoing case, it is probably too early to draw definitive conclusions,
particularly, of course, on the future of the Switch. On the other hand, if the
references to the Blue Ocean strategy are relatively constant on the part of
Nintendo’s management4, it is difficult for us to know to what extent the
approach has actually been mobilized by the manufacturer’s teams.
Moreover, if Kim and Mauborgne (or their assistants) demonstrate, in their
writings, their interventions in large companies, they do not mention the
Nintendo case.
1.5.1. The Nintendo Wii: a case study of Blue Ocean strategy?
The commercial success of Wii has been widely interpreted as a typical

illustration of a controlled Blue Ocean strategy (Hollensen 2008; Johnson
et al. 2008; O’Gorman 2008; Bonneveux et al. 2010). In particular, two
salient aspects make it possible to decipher this case in the light of the work of
Kim and Mauborgne: the abandonment of the collectively established rules
of the competitive game and a value proposition largely reviewed through
four types of actions.
First of all, for Kim and Mauborgne (2004, p. 37), the adoption of a Blue
Ocean strategy implies a break with the “competitive rules” in force. We
have already mentioned the five main rules that have governed the
4 The following verbatim account is an extract from an interview with Satoru Iwata, then
CEO of Nintendo. It appeared in the magazine Venturebeat (June 9, 2009), offering a good
example of this almost constant reference to the Blue Ocean. “Take the example of Wii Fit.
When we talked about it two years ago, a lot of people thought the Wii Balance Board was
crazy. They thought Nintendo would start selling a bathroom scale. But Wii Fit became a
success because we saw a ‘blue ocean strategy’. But now a lot of companies are fighting in
the red ocean of follow-up exercise games. When we introduced the Wii controller, we were
in the blue ocean and this year is still the blue ocean. But the year 2010 may become the red
ocean for motion-sensing controls, based on what Microsoft and Sony say. The advantage for
Nintendo is that we always try to do things that other companies don’t try to do.”
development of this industry. These rules, which can be seen as “behavior

specifications”, arise from interactions between organizations and gradually
constitute shared representations. If we compare the Wii project to the
current rules, it is quite easy to highlight its subversive nature. First, as the
industry is driven by technology, each generation of consoles generally
performs at a higher level than the previous one (the double power rule) and
is based on increasingly complex and expensive technologies. However, the
power of the Wii is far from reaching this level compared to the previous
model.
Then, to disseminate a new game console in a short period of time,

manufacturers agree to sell their consoles at cost price and rely on the sale of
dedicated games. Since the Wii largely incorporates older and less powerful
components, its production cost is lower. So, while offering the lowest price,
Nintendo can make margins from the start. This desire to keep the cost of the
system to a minimum also forced Nintendo to significantly limit
compatibility with other audio and video formats. Finally, manufacturers
have become accustomed to targeting early adopters, who are very sensitive
to novelty. With a less powerful console, it was not possible to target these
individuals. The firm then turned to casual players and even non-players.
Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata’s words are clear on this point: “We have
decided to follow a different path. Our objective is not to fight Sony or
Microsoft to take their customers away from them, but rather to convert
people who had not previously been interested in video games to video
games” (Johnson et al. 2008, p. 607).
Second, the service offered by Nintendo corresponds to a new “strategy

canvas” (Figure 1.1). This tool, which is prominent in Kim and Mauborgne’s
book, assesses the value proposition in terms of “competitive criteria and
investment areas characteristic of the sector in question” (Kim and
Mauborgne 2004, p. 31). Several authors have proposed a representation of
this strategy canvas for the Wii. While the representations differ
significantly, not least because the criteria taken into account are not
identical, this work emphasizes the modification of Nintendo’s “value
proposition” (O’Gorman, 2008; Hollensen, 2013). The manufacturer no
longer offers a technical performance but a new playful experience thanks to
its new controller.
Traditional features New features

High
Average
Weak
Price Hard DVD CPU High definition Motion sense Family User
disk integration power Connectivity controller oriented friendliness
: Nintendo : Microsoft : Sony
Figure 1.1. Analysis of the functionalities of 7th generation consoles

(source: inspired by O'Gorman, 2008 and Hollensen, 2013). For a color
version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/pellegrin/cultural.zip
For Kim and Mauborgne (2004), four typical actions lead to such an
original positioning. These actions involve eliminating, reducing, raising or
creating criteria that are characteristic of the sector. In our case, the
exclusion and mitigation actions have allowed Nintendo to reduce
design/production costs and thus offer a cheaper product while ensuring
margins. At the same time, actions carried out to strengthen and create
criteria were considered to increase the perceived value of the service.
Unlike its competitors, Nintendo has abandoned the “race to performance”
and designed an offer for a widely renewed audience. For example, in 2008,
Nintendo introduced the Wii Fit, a foot pressure-sensitive board that
determines the player’s center of gravity, weight, position and movement.
This has allowed the development of fitness programs, balance games, etc.,
all market that had not previously been tapped by manufacturers.
In the end, the analysis of the genesis and success of the Nintendo Wii
seems to show how this case corresponds to a Blue Ocean strategy,
characterized by the detection of untapped strategic space, the creation of
new demand and extremely profitable growth. The undeniable success of the
console even seems to reinforce the two authors’ thesis on the “three
characteristics of a good strategy” (Kim and Maubogne 2008, p. 45). There
is indeed a “focus” on a few criteria valued by the target audience, a
“divergence” from the strategy canvas proposed by the competitors and a

“striking slogan” with a very original communication highlighting the
playful and then useful side of the console, involving players a priori far
from the world of video games (families, actresses like Michèle Laroque in
France, etc.) and using new media for the sector (women’s press, media aimed at
the elderly, etc.) (Bonneveux et al. 2010, p. 26).
1.5.2. Sailing on the blue ocean: how far?
The Wii U console did not have the same fate as its predecessor. This
failure is irrevocable and has been acknowledged by Nintendo’s
management. Different questions then come to mind. Has Nintendo
intentionally abandoned the Blue Ocean approach for a more conventional
strategy? If so, why? If not, is Kim and Mauborgne’s approach robust
enough to replicate previous successes? Various arguments lead us to put
forward another hypothesis: Nintendo has inadvertently returned to the red
ocean it had tried to leave with the Wii, due to unclear or insufficiently
asserted strategic choices:
– poor customer targeting;
– an unsatisfactory attempt at technological convergence;
– an unclear value proposition;
– Nintendo’s inability to involve game developers in the new system.
The Wii U project is a general attempt to expand the market exploited

with the previous console. Satoru Iwata himself pointed out that this console
could satisfy all types of audiences, including avid gamers5. The Gamepad
was presented as both a “high-tech” and “fun” accessory, capable of
bringing together all types of players. The reasons for this strategic choice
are probably due to the relatively rapid decline of the Wii console. While
Nintendo has discovered a blue ocean of casual players, it has proven to be a
market with limited potential over the long term. This observation was
extensively detailed by Satoru Iwata during the annual presentation of
Nintendo’s results for 2012:
Wii has managed to reach a wider audience, but we have not

been able to retain new consumers. Nintendo has failed to set
5 Les Echos, June 9, 2011.

up an adequate situation to encourage these new consumers to

play frequently and over long periods of time.6
In other words, Nintendo found, with the Wii, that it was not enough to
discover a blue ocean of new players to automatically induce high and above
all sustainable growth. That is why the Wii U was designed to satisfy all types of
players. The new console was therefore technologically more advanced
(graphics quality, Wi-Fi connection, integrated camera, etc.) and comparable
to the PS3 and Xbox360. But the equation turned out to be impossible to
solve because gamers and casual players do not have the same expectations
and it is difficult to offer a product that can meet both targets at an attractive
price. As a result, price differences between competitors were narrowing and
the selling price of the Wii U rose to €349 compared to €250 for the Wii.
Moreover, as soon as the PS4 and Xbox One consoles were launched the
following year, the Wii U experienced a significant technological decline.
Gamers had undoubtedly anticipated this situation and preferred to postpone
their purchase for consoles that they knew would better meet their needs.
Casual players did not find in the Wii U the simplicity of use and user-
friendliness of the Wii. They were disrupted by the Gamepad and the
asymmetric gameplay it allowed. In fact, the value proposition developed for
the Wii U proved to be very difficult for these players to identify. Many first
thought that the Gamepad was an additional accessory for Wii, just as the
Wii Fit could have been. Its usefulness was also challenged by players who
essentially appreciated the detection of movements with the Wii and the
possibility of mimicking certain gestures. Finally, the possibility of playing
on the tablet screen while remaining close to the console (and therefore to
the television) was hardly highlighted. To create a blue ocean, it is certainly
necessary to offer a leap in value, but this must also be perceived by
customers. Obviously neither gamers nor casual gamblers have understood
this.
On the other hand, given the aforementioned factors and the low sales
volumes, game publishers did not follow Nintendo. For their part, it was the
concept of asymmetric play that was the main problem. Since the Wii U was
less powerful than its announced competitors, and had a new tablet, it was
extremely difficult for publishers to develop cross-platform games. The
dilemma of the “chicken and egg” disadvantaged Nintendo here. Very low
6 Nintendo, Financial Results Briefing for Fiscal Year, April 27, 2012.
console sales discouraged publishers from developing games. This position, in

turn, frightened many potential buyers. Nintendo’s attempt to take over the
development of new games through its publishing activity was not enough.
Nintendo’s development teams themselves found it difficult to imagine
asymmetric games for the tablet. In the Wii U version of the famous Mario
Kart 8 racing game, the Gamepad was almost exclusively used to toot a
horn!
This observation illustrates the imperative need to know how to mobilize

partners within a business ecosystem. Nintendo had successfully used its
flagship products (Mario, Pokémon, etc.) offered by its own publishing
subsidiary7 to launch its game catalog, in order to enable the distribution of
Wii consoles. Second, the launch managed to reassure studios and game
publishers. On the other hand, in the case of the Wii U project, the very early
disappointing sales of the console and the inability of Nintendo teams to
develop convincing asymmetric games, which could have been a proof of
concept for game publishers, led them to postpone or even cancel dedicated
projects.
1.5.3. The launch of the Switch: a return to the fundamentals of

the Blue Ocean strategy?
Today, the launch of the Switch is particularly successful. Some

observers even believe that it could do better than the Wii, which sold 100
million copies. Can we understand this success of the Switch's launch and its
original positioning as a return to a Blue Ocean approach? There are various
indications that this may be the case. Shinya Takahashi, Nintendo’s CEO,
says that:
During its design, we wondered about the discovery of this blue

ocean concerning our console. But the most important thing
was to put ourselves in the players’ shoes. How could they find
the Nintendo Switch useful and what would they like to do with
it? In the end, maybe we managed to reach this famous ocean,
but this was not our only concern.8
7 Nintendo was a very powerful publisher when the Wii began to be developed. In 2000, Nintendo
published 6 of the 13 games that exceeded €25 million in turnover, including the top four in the
ranking (the Pokémon series) (Natkin et al. 2002, p. 3).
8 Le point.fr, April 30, 2018.
Philippe Lavoué, Managing Director of Nintendo France, notes that

Nintendo, which is smaller than its direct competitors (counting fewer than 5,000
employees), is trying to avoid direct competition with Sony and Microsoft by
trying to create a Blue Ocean every time a new system is launched9.
Obviously, Nintendo has learned from the failure of the Wii U. Unlike
the previous system, Nintendo has been very careful to define a clear value
proposition, target customers, and provide a game offer rich enough to
accompany the launch of the system. Here are the ingredients that have
contributed to the Wii’s commercial success and that are likely to explain the
very encouraging debut of the Switch.
First of all, the value proposition of the Switch is easy to understand. As

was the case for Wii, this proposition is built around a few dimensions,
focused on uses and not technologies:
– mobility: that is, the possibility of starting a game on TV and ending it
on the console;
– simplicity: the “joy-con” controllers of the Switch, although very
sophisticated (accelerometer, gyroscope, infrared camera, near-field
communication reader), make it possible to handle the console in an extremely
simple and intuitive manner;
– a transgenerational experience: like the Wii console, children and
adults can come together to play the Switch together. But Nintendo has taken
this idea even further with the “joy-con”10.
As for customers, Nintendo is no longer trying to appeal to hardcore

gamers. The possibility of switching from one mode of use to another
(visible in the choice of name) can be enhanced by a clientele that is
increasingly reluctant to purchase a portable console at a time when
smartphones are becoming widespread. The objective is no longer to attract
seniors or non-players but to cleverly exploit a space at the convergence of
two historical market segments, that of home consoles and that of portable
consoles. Forgetting about the Wii Fit fitness programs and putting aside the
asymmetrical family games of Wii U, with the Switch Nintendo returned to
9 Gameblog, December 26, 2017.

10 Nintendo developed a set of cardboard boards to cut, fold and assemble into game
accessories for the Switch. With these additions, the manufacturer wished to attract children,
who really liked its portable consoles.
the great classics of video games (races, action games, etc.) without
abandoning movement recognition, which is now an essential feature in the
world of video games and which allows the design of complementary
products: “toy-cons” (guns, fishing rods, etc.). This attempt to exploit a new
Blue Ocean is once again leading Nintendo to abandon rules of the
competitive game which have been historically established. The failure of
the Wii U made it necessary to accelerate the development of the next
console (the Switch was announced less than three years later). The power of
the new console remained significantly lower than that of its competitors.
The use of cartridges limited the possibilities of compatibility with other
electronic products.
Finally, to support the launch of its system, Nintendo recalled a basic

principle of the video game industry: having “hits” is essential to sell a
system without good games. With Zelda: Breath of The Wild and Super
Mario Odyssey, Nintendo counted on two games that were attractive enough
to trigger the purchase of the system.
1.6. Conclusion
The objective of this chapter was to discuss the scope and limitations of
Blue Ocean strategies in a particular creative industry, that is, video games.
After a review of the work of Kim and Mauborgne, who started this type of
strategic approach, we proposed a historical study of the strategies deployed
by the console manufacturer Nintendo. This study showed that Nintendo
developed a Blue Ocean strategy with the Wii and that this has led to a
spectacular recovery. However, the events that have occurred since 2010,
and in particular the resounding failure of its Wii U model, raise questions.
In their book, Kim and Mauborgne (2004) write that in most cases the
company behind the Blue Ocean strategy can maintain a competitive
advantage for 10 to 15 years. They add (Kim and Mauborgne 2004, p. 216)
that the rapid imitation of a Blue Ocean strategy is very rare. These claims
must be put into perspective, to say the least, in view of Nintendo’s situation
from 2010 onwards.
Two main questions then emerge from the case analysis. How can we
explain the short duration of the competitive advantage obtained in the Wii
project? Why did the industry players (publishers, studios, etc.) agree to
participate in the Wii and Switch projects, and not in the Wii U project?
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Guise; mais le silence est ce que les princes écoutent le moins.
—Monseigneur, dit le cardinal de Tournon qui suivit le prince,
depuis l’affaire d’Amboise, vous avez entrepris sur Lyon et à
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couronne, répondit le président de Thou.
—Ah! vous êtes ici, président? s’écria le prince avec ironie. Y
êtes-vous avec tout le parlement?
Sur ce mot, le prince jeta sur le cardinal un regard de mépris et
quitta la salle: il comprit qu’on en voulait à sa tête. Lorsque le
lendemain messieurs de Thou, de Viole, d’Espesse, le procureur-
général Bourdin et le greffier en chef Du Tillet entrèrent dans la
prison, il les tint debout et leur exprima ses regrets de les voir
chargés d’une affaire qui ne les regardait pas; puis il dit au greffier:
Écrivez! et il dicta ceci:
«Moi, Louis de Bourbon, prince de Condé, pair du

royaume, marquis de Conti, comte de Soissons, prince du
sang de France, déclare refuser formellement de reconnaître
aucune commission nommée pour me juger, attendu qu’en
ma qualité et en vertu du privilége attaché à tout membre de
la maison royale, je ne puis être accusé, entendu, jugé, que
par le parlement garni de tous les pairs, toutes les chambres
assemblées, et le roi séant en son lit de justice.»
—Vous deviez savoir cela mieux que d’autres, messieurs, c’est

tout ce que vous aurez de moi. Pour le surplus, je me confie à mon
droit et à Dieu!
Les magistrats procédèrent nonobstant le silence obstiné du
prince. Le roi de Navarre était en liberté, mais observé; sa prison
était plus grande que celle du prince, ce fut toute la différence de sa
position et de celle de son frère; car la tête du prince de Condé et la
sienne devaient tomber du même coup.
Christophe ne fut donc gardé si sévèrement au secret par les
ordres du cardinal et du lieutenant-général du royaume, que pour
donner aux magistrats une preuve de la culpabilité du prince. Les
lettres saisies sur La Sague, le secrétaire du prince, intelligibles pour
des hommes d’État, n’étaient pas assez claires pour des juges. Le
cardinal avait médité de confronter par hasard le prince et
Christophe, qui n’avait pas été placé sans intention dans une salle
basse de la tour de Saint-Agnan, dont la fenêtre donnait sur le
préau. A chaque interrogatoire que les magistrats lui firent subir,
Christophe se renferma dans un système de dénégation absolue,
qui prolongea naturellement le procès jusqu’à l’ouverture des États.
Lecamus, qui n’avait pas manqué de se faire nommer député du
Tiers-État par la bourgeoisie de Paris, arriva quelques jours après
l’arrestation du prince à Orléans. Cette nouvelle, qui lui fut apprise à
Étampes, redoubla ses inquiétudes, car il comprit, lui qui savait seul
l’entrevue du prince et de son fils sous le Pont-au-Change, que le
sort de Christophe était lié à celui de l’audacieux chef du parti de la
Réformation. Aussi résolut-il d’étudier les ténébreux intérêts qui se
croisaient à la cour depuis l’ouverture des États, afin de trouver un
moyen de sauver son fils. Il ne devait pas songer à la reine
Catherine, qui refusa de voir son pelletier. Aucune des personnes de
la cour qu’il put voir ne lui donna de nouvelles satisfaisantes sur son
fils, et il en était arrivé à un tel degré de désespoir, qu’il allait
s’adresser au cardinal lui-même, quand il sut que M. de Thou avait
accepté, ce qui fait une tache à sa vie, d’être un des juges du prince
de Condé. Le syndic alla voir le protecteur de son fils, et apprit que
Christophe était encore vivant, mais prisonnier.
Le gantier Tourillon, chez qui La Renaudie avait envoyé
Christophe, avait offert dans sa maison une chambre au sieur
Lecamus pour tout le temps de la durée des États. Le gantier croyait
le pelletier secrètement attaché, comme lui, à la religion réformée;
mais il vit bientôt qu’un père qui craint pour les jours de son fils ne
comprend plus les nuances religieuses, et se jette à corps perdu
dans le sein de Dieu, sans se soucier de l’écharpe que lui mettent
les hommes. Le vieillard, repoussé dans toutes ses tentatives, allait
comme un hébété par les rues; contre ses prévisions, son or ne lui
servait à rien; monsieur de Thou l’avait prévenu que s’il corrompait
quelque serviteur de la maison de Guise, il en serait pour son
argent, car le duc et le cardinal ne laissaient rien transpirer de ce qui
regardait Christophe. Ce magistrat, dont la gloire est un peu ternie
par le rôle qu’il jouait alors, avait essayé de donner quelque
espérance au père désolé; mais il tremblait tellement lui-même pour
les jours de son filleul, que ses consolations alarmèrent davantage le
pelletier. Le vieillard rôdait autour de la maison. En trois mois, il avait
maigri. Son seul espoir, il le plaçait dans la vive amitié qui depuis
longtemps l’unissait à l’Hippocrate du seizième siècle. Ambroise
essaya de dire un mot à la reine Marie en sortant de la chambre du
roi; mais dès qu’il eut nommé Christophe, la fille des Stuarts, irritée à
la perspective de son sort s’il arrivait malheur au roi, et qui le crut
empoisonné par les Réformés, à cause de l’opportune soudaineté
de sa maladie, répondit:—Si mes oncles m’écoutaient, un pareil
fanatique serait déjà pendu! Le soir où cette funeste réponse fut
donnée à Lecamus par son ami Paré, sur la place de l’Estape, il
revint à demi mort et rentra dans sa chambre en refusant de souper.
Tourillon, inquiet, monta, trouva le vieillard en pleurs, et comme les
yeux vieillis du pauvre pelletier laissaient voir la chair intérieure des
paupières ridées et rougies, le gantier crut qu’il pleurait du sang.
—Consolez-vous, mon père, dit le Réformé, les bourgeois
d’Orléans sont furieux de voir leur ville traitée comme si elle eût été
prise d’assaut, gardée par les soldats de monsieur de Cypierre; et si
la vie du prince de Condé se trouvait en péril, nous aurions bientôt
démoli la tour de Saint-Agnan; car toute notre ville est pour la
Réforme et se révoltera, soyez-en sûr!
—Quand on pendrait les Lorrains, leur mort me rendrait-elle mon
fils? répondit le père désolé.
En ce moment on frappa discrètement à la porte de Tourillon, qui
descendit pour ouvrir lui-même. Il était nuit close. Dans ces temps
de troubles, chaque maître de maison prenait des précautions
minutieuses. Tourillon regarda par la grille du judas pratiqué dans sa
porte, et vit un étranger dont l’accent trahissait un Italien. Cet
homme, vêtu de noir, demandait à parler à Lecamus pour affaires de
commerce, et Tourillon l’introduisit. A la vue de l’étranger, le pelletier
tressaillit horriblement; mais l’étranger trouva le temps de se mettre
un doigt sur les lèvres; Lecamus lui dit alors en comprenant ce
geste: Vous venez sans doute pour m’offrir des fourrures?
—Si, répondit en italien l’étranger d’une façon discrète.
Ce personnage était en effet le fameux Ruggieri, l’astrologue de
la reine-mère. Tourillon descendit chez lui, en comprenant qu’il était
de trop chez son hôte.
—Où pouvons-nous causer sans avoir à craindre qu’on ne nous
entende? dit le prudent Florentin.
—Il nous faudrait être en plein champ, répondit Lecamus; mais
on ne nous laissera pas sortir, vous connaissez la sévérité avec
laquelle les portes sont gardées. Nul ne quitte la ville sans une
passe de monsieur de Cypierre, fût-il, comme moi, membre des
États. Aussi devons-nous dès demain, à notre séance, nous plaindre
tous de ce défaut de liberté.
—Travaillez comme une taupe, mais ne laissez jamais voir vos
pattes dans quoi que ce soit, lui dit le rusé Florentin. La journée de
demain sera sans doute décisive. D’après mes observations, demain
ou après vous aurez peut-être votre fils.
—Que Dieu vous entende, vous qui passez pour ne consulter
que le diable!
—Venez donc chez moi, dit l’astrologue en souriant. J’ai pour
observer les astres la tour du sieur Touchet de Beauvais, le
lieutenant du Bailliage, dont la fille plaît fort au petit duc d’Orléans.
J’ai fait le thème de cette petite, il indique en effet qu’elle sera une
grande dame et aimée par un roi. Le lieutenant est un bel esprit, il
aime les sciences, et la reine m’a fait loger chez ce bonhomme, qui
a l’esprit d’être un forcené guisard en attendant le règne de Charles
IX.
Le pelletier et l’astrologue se rendirent à l’hôtel du sieur de
Beauvais sans être vus ni rencontrés; mais dans le cas où la visite
de Lecamus serait découverte, le Florentin comptait lui donner le
prétexte d’une consultation astrologique sur le sort de Christophe.
Quand ils furent arrivés en haut de la tourelle où l’astrologue avait
mis son cabinet, Lecamus lui dit:—Mon fils est donc bien
certainement vivant?
—Encore, répondit Ruggieri, mais il s’agit de le sauver. Songez,
marchand de peaux, que je ne donnerais pas deux liards de la vôtre,
s’il vous échappait, dans toute votre vie, une seule syllabe de ce que
je vais vous dire.
—Recommandation inutile, mon maître; je suis fournisseur de la
cour depuis le défunt roi Louis XII, et voici le quatrième règne que je
vois.
—Vous direz bientôt le cinquième, repartit Ruggieri.
—Que savez-vous de mon fils?
—Eh! bien, il a été mis à la question.
—Pauvre enfant! dit le bonhomme en levant les yeux au ciel.
—Il a les genoux et les chevilles un tantinet broyés; mais il a
conquis une royale protection qui s’étendra sur toute sa vie, fit
vivement le Florentin en voyant l’effroi du père. Votre petit
Christophe a rendu service à notre grande reine Catherine. Si nous
tirons votre fils des griffes du Lorrain, vous le verrez quelque jour
conseiller au parlement. On se ferait casser trois fois les os pour être
dans les bonnes grâces de cette chère souveraine, un bien beau
génie, qui triomphera de tous les obstacles! J’ai fait le thème du duc
de Guise: il sera tué dans un an d’ici! Voyons, Christophe a vu le
prince de Condé...
—Vous qui savez l’avenir, ne savez-vous point le passé? dit le
pelletier.
—Je ne vous interroge pas, bonhomme, je vous instruis. Or, si
votre fils, qui sera mis demain sur le passage du prince, le reconnaît,
ou si le prince reconnaît votre fils, la tête de monsieur de Condé
sautera. Dieu sait ce qui adviendra de son complice! Rassurez-vous.
Ni votre fils ni le prince ne seront mis à mort, j’ai fait leurs thèmes, ils
doivent vivre; mais j’ignore par quels moyens ils se tireront d’affaire.
Sans compter la certitude de mes calculs, nous allons y mettre
ordre. Demain le prince recevra par des mains sûres un livre de
prières où nous lui ferons passer un avis. Dieu veuille que votre fils
soit discret, car il ne sera pas prévenu, lui! Un seul regard de
connaissance coûtera la vie au prince. Aussi, quoique la reine-mère
ait tout lieu de compter sur la fidélité de Christophe...
—On l’a mise à de rudes épreuves! s’écria le pelletier.
—Ne parlez pas ainsi! Croyez-vous que la reine soit à la noce?
Aussi va-t-elle prendre des mesures comme si les Guise avaient
résolu la mort du prince; et bien fait-elle, la sage et prudente reine!
Or, elle compte sur vous pour être aidée en toute chose. Vous avez
quelque influence sur le Tiers-État, où vous représentez les corps de
métiers de Paris, et quoique les guisards vous promettent de mettre
votre fils en liberté, tâchez de les trupher, et soulevez votre Ordre
contre les Lorrains. Demandez la reine-mère pour régente, le roi de
Navarre y consentira demain publiquement à la séance des États.
—Mais le roi?
—Le roi mourra, répondit Ruggieri, j’ai dressé son thème. Ce que
la reine vous demande de faire pour elle aux États est tout simple;
mais elle attend de vous un plus grand service. Vous avez soutenu
dans ses études le grand Ambroise Paré, vous êtes son ami...
—Ambroise aime aujourd’hui le duc de Guise plus qu’il ne
m’aime, et il a raison, il lui doit sa charge; mais il est fidèle au roi.
Aussi, quoiqu’il incline à la Réforme, ne fera-t-il rien contre son
devoir.
—Peste soit de ces honnêtes gens! s’écria le Florentin. Ambroise
s’est vanté ce soir de tirer le petit roi d’affaire. Si le roi recouvre la
santé, les Guise triomphent, les princes meurent, la maison de
Bourbon sera finie, nous retournerons à Florence, votre fils est
pendu, et les Lorrains auront bon marché des autres enfants de
France...
—Grand Dieu! s’écria Lecamus.
—Ne vous exclamez pas ainsi, c’est d’un bourgeois qui ne sait
rien de la cour; mais allez aussitôt chez Ambroise, et sachez de lui
ce qu’il compte faire pour sauver le roi. S’il y a quelque certitude,
vous viendrez me confier l’opération en laquelle il a tant de foi.
—Mais... dit Lecamus.
—Obéissez aveuglément, mon cher, autrement vous seriez
ébloui.
—Il a raison, pensa le pelletier. Et il alla chez le premier
chirurgien du roi, qui logeait dans une hôtellerie sur la place du
Martroi.
En ce moment, Catherine de Médicis se trouvait dans une
extrémité politique semblable à celle où Christophe l’avait vue à
Blois. Si elle s’était formée à la lutte, si elle avait exercé sa haute
intelligence dans cette première défaite, sa situation, quoique
exactement la même, était aussi devenue plus critique et plus
périlleuse que lors du tumulte d’Amboise. Les événements avaient
grandi autant que la femme. Quoiqu’elle parût marcher d’accord
avec les deux princes lorrains, Catherine tenait les fils d’une
conspiration savamment ourdie contre ses terribles associés, et
attendait un moment propice pour lever le masque. Le Cardinal
venait d’avoir la certitude d’être trompé par Catherine. Cette habile
Italienne avait vu dans la maison cadette un obstacle à opposer aux
prétentions des Guise; et, malgré l’avis des deux Gondi, qui lui
conseillaient de laisser les Guise se porter à des violences contre les
Bourbons, elle avait fait manquer, en avertissant la reine de Navarre,
le projet concerté par les Guise avec l’Espagne de s’emparer du
Béarn. Comme ce secret d’État n’était connu que d’eux et de la
reine-mère, les deux princes lorrains, certains de la duplicité de leur
alliée, voulurent la renvoyer à Florence; et, pour s’assurer de la
trahison de Catherine envers l’État (la maison de Lorraine était
l’État), le duc et le cardinal venaient de lui confier leur dessein de se
défaire du roi de Navarre. Les précautions que prit à l’instant Antoine
de Bourbon prouvèrent aux deux frères que ce secret, connu d’eux
trois seulement, avait été divulgué par la reine-mère. Le cardinal de
Lorraine reprocha sur-le-champ à la reine-mère son manque de foi
devant François II, en la menaçant d’un édit de bannissement, au
cas où de nouvelles indiscrétions mettraient l’État en péril.
Catherine, qui se vit alors dans un extrême danger, devait agir en
grand roi. Aussi donna-t-elle alors la preuve de sa haute capacité;
mais il faut avouer qu’elle fut aussi très-bien servie par ses intimes.
L’Hospital fit parvenir à la Reine un billet ainsi conçu: «Ne laissez
pas mettre à mort un prince du sang par une commission, vous
seriez bientôt enlevée aussi!» Catherine envoya Birague au Vignay,
pour faire dire au chancelier de venir aux États, malgré sa disgrâce.
Birague arriva, cette nuit même, à trois lieues d’Orléans, avec
L’Hospital, qui se déclarait ainsi pour la reine-mère. Chiverny, dont la
fidélité fut alors à bon droit soupçonnée par messieurs de Guise,
s’était sauvé d’Orléans; et, par une marche qui faillit lui coûter la vie,
il avait atteint Écouen en dix heures. Il apprit au connétable de
Montmorency le péril de son neveu, le prince de Condé, et l’audace
des Lorrains. Anne de Montmorency, furieux de savoir que le prince
n’avait dû la vie qu’à la subite invasion du mal dont mourut François
II, arrivait avec quinze cents chevaux et cent gentilshommes. Afin de
mieux surprendre messieurs de Guise, il avait évité Paris en venant
d’Écouen à Corbeil, et de Corbeil à Pithiviers par la vallée de
l’Essonne.
—Capitaine contre capitaine, il y aura peu de laine, dit-il à
l’occasion de cette marche hardie.
Anne de Montmorency, qui avait sauvé la France lors de
l’invasion de Charles-Quint en Provence, et le duc de Guise, qui
avait arrêté la seconde invasion de l’empereur à Metz, étaient en
effet les deux plus grands hommes de guerre de la France à cette
époque. Catherine avait attendu le moment précis de réveiller la
haine du connétable disgracié par les Lorrains. Néanmoins, le
marquis de Simeuse, commandant de Gien, en apprenant l’arrivée
d’un corps aussi considérable que celui mené par le connétable,
sauta sur son cheval, espérant pouvoir prévenir à temps le duc de
Guise. Sûre que le connétable viendrait au secours de son neveu et
pleine de confiance dans le dévouement du chancelier à la cause
royale, la reine-mère avait ranimé les espérances et l’audace du
parti de la Réforme. Les Coligny et les amis de la maison de
Bourbon menacée avaient fait cause commune avec les partisans
de la reine-mère. Une coalition entre des intérêts contraires attaqués
par un ennemi commun, se forma sourdement au sein des États, où
il fut hautement question de nommer Catherine régente du royaume,
dans le cas où François II mourrait. Catherine, dont la foi dans
l’astrologie judiciaire surpassait sa foi en l’Église, avait tout osé
contre ses oppresseurs en voyant son fils mourant à l’expiration du
terme assigné à sa vie par la fameuse sorcière que Nostradamus lui
avait amenée au château de Chaumont.
Quelques jours avant le terrible dénoûment de ce règne,
François II avait voulu se promener sur la Loire, afin de ne pas se
trouver dans la ville au moment où le prince de Condé serait
exécuté. Après avoir abandonné la tête de ce prince au cardinal de
Lorraine, il craignit une sédition tout autant que les supplications de
la princesse de Condé. Au moment de s’embarquer, un de ces vents
frais qui s’élèvent sur la Loire aux approches de l’hiver lui donna un
si cruel mal d’oreille qu’il fut obligé de rentrer; il se mit au lit pour
n’en sortir que mort. En dépit de la controverse des médecins qui,
hormis Chapelain, étaient ses ennemis et ses antagonistes, Paré
soutint qu’un dépôt s’était formé à la tête du roi, et que si l’on ne
donnait pas d’issue aux humeurs, de jour en jour les chances de
mort augmenteraient. Malgré l’heure avancée et la loi du couvre-feu,
sévèrement appliquée dans Orléans, alors exactement en état de
siége, la lampe de Paré brillait à sa croisée, et il étudiait; Lecamus
l’appela d’en bas, et quand il eut crié son nom, le chirurgien ordonna
qu’on ouvrît à son vieil ami.
—Tu ne prends pas de repos, Ambroise, et tout en rendant la vie
aux autres, tu dissiperas la tienne, dit le pelletier en entrant.
Il voyait en effet le chirurgien, ses livres ouverts, ses instruments
épars, devant une tête de mort fraîchement enterré, prise au
cimetière et trouée...
—Il s’agit de sauver le roi...
—En es-tu donc bien certain, Ambroise? s’écria le vieillard en
frémissant.
—Comme de mon existence. Le roi, mon vieux protecteur, a des
humeurs peccantes qui lui pèsent sur le cerveau, qui vont le lui
remplir, et la crise est imminente; mais en lui forant le crâne, je
compte faire sortir ces humeurs et lui dégager la tête. J’ai déjà
pratiqué trois fois cette opération, inventée par un Piémontais, et que
j’ai eu l’heur de perfectionner. La première s’est faite au siége de
Metz, sur monsieur de Pienne, que je tirai d’affaire, et qui depuis
n’en a été que plus sage: il avait un dépôt d’humeurs produit par une
arquebusade au chef. La seconde a sauvé la vie d’un pauvre sur qui
j’eus le désir d’éprouver la bonté de cette audacieuse opération à
laquelle s’était prêté monsieur de Pienne. Enfin, la troisième a eu
lieu à Paris, sur un gentilhomme qui se porte à merveille. Le trépan,
tel est le nom donné à cette invention, est encore peu connu. Les
malades y répugnent, à cause de l’imperfection de l’instrument, que
j’ai fini par améliorer. Je m’essaie donc sur cette tête, afin de ne pas
faillir demain sur celle du roi.
—Tu dois être bien sûr de ton fait, car ta tête serait en danger au
cas où...
—Je gagerais ma vie qu’il sera guéri, répondit Ambroise avec la
sécurité de l’homme de génie. Ah! mon vieil ami, qu’est-ce que
trouer la tête avec précaution? n’est-ce pas faire ce que les soldats
font tous les jours à la guerre sans en prendre aucune?
—Mon enfant, dit l’audacieux bourgeois, sais-tu que sauver le roi,
c’est perdre la France? Sais-tu que cet instrument aura placé la
couronne des Valois sur la tête du Lorrain qui se dit héritier de
Charlemagne? Sais-tu que la chirurgie et la politique sont brouillées
en ce moment? Oui, le triomphe de ton génie est la perte de ta
religion. Si les Guise gardent la régence, le sang des Réformés va
couler à flots! Sois plus grand citoyen que grand chirurgien, et dors
demain la grasse matinée en laissant la chambre libre aux médecins
qui, s’ils ne guérissent pas le roi, guériront la France!
—Moi! s’écria Paré, que je laisse périr un homme quand je puis
le sauver! Non! non, dussé-je être pendu comme fauteur de Calvin,
j’irai de bonne heure à la cour. Ne sais-tu pas que la seule grâce que
je veux demander, après avoir sauvé le roi, est la vie de ton
Christophe. Il y aura certes un moment où la reine Marie ne me
refusera rien.
—Hélas! mon ami, reprit Lecamus, le petit roi n’a-t-il pas refusé la
grâce du prince de Condé à la princesse? Ne tue pas ta religion en
faisant vivre celui qui doit mourir.
—Ne vas-tu pas te mêler de chercher comment Dieu compte
ordonner l’avenir? s’écria Paré. Les honnêtes gens n’ont qu’une
devise: Fais ce que dois, advienne que pourra! Ainsi ai-je fait au
siége de Calais en mettant le pied sur la face du Grand-Maître: je
courais la chance d’être écharpé par tous ses amis, par ses
serviteurs, et je suis aujourd’hui chirurgien du roi; enfin, je suis de la
Réforme, et j’ai messieurs de Guise pour amis. Je sauverai le roi!
s’écria le chirurgien avec le saint enthousiasme de la conviction que
donne le génie, et Dieu sauvera la France.
Un coup fut frappé à la porte, et quelques instants après un
serviteur d’Ambroise remit un papier à Lecamus, qui lut à haute voix
ces sinistres paroles:
«On dresse un échafaud au couvent des Récollets, pour

décapiter demain le prince de Condé.»
Ambroise et Lecamus se regardèrent en proie l’un et l’autre à la

plus profonde horreur.
—Je vais m’en assurer, dit le pelletier.
Sur la place, Ruggieri prit le bras de Lecamus en lui demandant
le secret d’Ambroise pour sauver le roi; mais le vieillard craignit
quelque ruse et voulut aller voir l’échafaud. L’astrologue et le
pelletier allèrent donc de compagnie jusqu’aux Récollets, et
trouvèrent en effet des charpentiers travaillant aux flambeaux.
—Hé! mon ami, dit Lecamus à un charpentier, quelle besogne
faites-vous?
—Nous apprêtons la pendaison des hérétiques, puisque la
saignée d’Amboise ne les a pas guéris, dit un jeune Récollet qui
surveillait les ouvriers.
—Monseigneur le cardinal a bien raison, dit le prudent Ruggieri;
mais dans notre pays, nous faisons mieux.
—Et que faites-vous? dit le Récollet.
—Mon frère, on les brûle.
Lecamus fut obligé de s’appuyer sur l’astrologue, ses jambes
refusaient de le porter; car il pensait que son fils pouvait demain être
accroché à l’une de ces potences. Le pauvre vieillard était entre
deux sciences, entre l’astrologie judiciaire et la chirurgie, qui toutes
deux lui promettaient le salut de son fils pour qui l’échafaud se
dressait évidemment. Dans le trouble de ses idées, il se laissa
manier comme une pâte par le Florentin.
—Eh! bien, mon respectable marchand de menu-vair, que dites-
vous de ces plaisanteries lorraines? fit Ruggieri.
—Hélas! vous savez que je donnerais ma peau pour voir saine et
sauve celle de mon fils!
—Voilà qui est parler en marchand d’hermine, reprit l’Italien; mais
expliquez-moi bien l’opération que compte faire Ambroise sur le roi,
je vous garantis la vie de votre fils...
—Vrai! s’écria le vieux pelletier.
—Que voulez-vous que je vous jure?... fit Ruggieri.
Sur ce mouvement, le pauvre vieillard répéta son entretien avec
Ambroise au Florentin qui laissa dans la rue le père au désespoir,
dès que le secret du grand chirurgien lui fut divulgué.
—A qui diable en veut-il, ce mécréant! s’écria le vieillard en
voyant Ruggieri se dirigeant au pas de course vers la place de
l’Estape.
Lecamus ignorait la scène terrible qui se passait autour du lit
royal, et qui avait motivé l’ordre d’élever l’échafaud du prince dont la
condamnation avait été prononcée par défaut, pour ainsi dire, et
dont l’exécution avait été remise à cause de la maladie du roi.
Il ne se trouvait dans la salle, dans les escaliers et dans la cour
du Bailliage, que les gens absolument de service. La foule des
courtisans encombrait l’hôtel du roi de Navarre, à qui la régence
appartenait d’après les lois du royaume. La noblesse française,
effrayée d’ailleurs par l’audace des Guise, éprouvait le besoin de se
serrer autour du chef de la maison cadette, en voyant la reine-mère
esclave des Guise et ne comprenant pas sa politique d’Italienne.
Antoine de Bourbon, fidèle à son accord secret avec Catherine, ne
devait renoncer en sa faveur à la régence qu’au moment où les
États prononceraient sur cette question. Cette solitude profonde
avait agi sur le Grand-Maître, quand, au retour d’une ronde faite par
prudence dans la ville, il ne trouva chez le roi que les amis attachés
à sa fortune. La chambre où l’on avait dressé le lit de François II est
contiguë à la grande salle du Bailliage. Elle était alors revêtue de
boiseries en chêne. Le plafond, composé de petites planches
longues savamment ajustées et peintes, offrait des arabesques
bleues sur un fond d’or, dont une partie arrachée il y a cinquante ans
bientôt a été recueillie par un amateur d’antiquités. Cette chambre
tendue de tapisseries et sur le plancher de laquelle s’étendait un
tapis, était si sombre, que les torchères allumées y jetaient peu de
lumière. Le vaste lit, à quatre colonnes et à rideaux de soie,
ressemblait à un tombeau. D’un côté de ce lit, au chevet, se tenaient
la reine Marie et le cardinal de Lorraine. Catherine était assise dans
un fauteuil. Le fameux Jean Chapelain, médecin de service, et qui
fut depuis le premier médecin de Charles IX, se trouvait debout à la
cheminée. Le plus grand silence régnait. Le jeune roi, maigre, pâle,
comme perdu dans ses draps, laissait à peine voir sur l’oreiller sa
petite figure grimée. La duchesse de Guise, assise sur une
escabelle, assistait la jeune reine Marie, et du côté de Catherine,
dans l’embrasure de la croisée, madame de Fiesque épiait les
gestes et les regards de la reine-mère, car elle connaissait les
dangers de sa position.
Dans la salle, malgré l’heure avancée de la soirée, monsieur de
Cypierre, gouverneur du duc d’Orléans, et nommé gouverneur de la
ville, occupait un coin de la cheminée avec les deux Gondi. Le
cardinal de Tournon, qui dans cette crise épousa les intérêts de la
reine-mère en se voyant traité comme un inférieur par le cardinal de
Lorraine, de qui certes il était ecclésiastiquement l’égal, causait à
voix basse avec les Gondi. Les maréchaux de Vieilleville et de Saint-
André, le garde-des-sceaux, qui présidait les États, s’entretenaient à
voix basse des dangers auxquels les Guise étaient exposés.
Le lieutenant-général du royaume traversa la salle en y jetant un
rapide coup d’œil, et y salua le duc d’Orléans qu’il y aperçut.
—Monseigneur, dit-il, voici qui peut vous apprendre à connaître
les hommes: la noblesse catholique du royaume est chez un prince
hérétique, en croyant que les États donneront la régence aux
héritiers du traître qui fit retenir si longtemps en prison votre illustre
grand-père!
Puis, après ces paroles destinées à faire un profond sillon au
cœur d’un prince, il passa dans la chambre, où le jeune roi était
alors moins endormi que plongé dans une lourde somnolence.
Ordinairement, le duc de Guise savait vaincre par un air très-affable
l’aspect sinistre de sa figure cicatrisée; mais en ce moment il n’eut
pas la force de sourire en voyant se briser l’instrument de son
pouvoir. Le cardinal, qui avait autant de courage civil que son frère
avait de courage militaire, fit deux pas et vint à la rencontre du
lieutenant-général.
—Robertet croit que le petit Pinard est vendu à la reine-mère, lui
dit-il à l’oreille en l’emmenant dans la salle, on s’est servi de lui pour
travailler les membres des États.
—Eh! qu’importe que nous soyons trahis par un secrétaire quand
tout nous trahit! s’écria le lieutenant-général. La ville est pour la
Réformation, et nous sommes à la veille d’une révolte. Oui! les
Guépins sont mécontents, reprit-il en donnant aux Orléanais leur
surnom, et si Paré ne sauve pas le roi, nous aurons une terrible
levée de boucliers. Avant peu de temps nous aurons à faire le siége
d’Orléans qui est une crapaudière de Huguenots.
—Depuis un moment, reprit le cardinal, je regarde cette Italienne
qui reste là dans une insensibilité profonde, elle guette la mort de
son fils, Dieu lui pardonne! je me demande si nous ne ferions pas
bien de l’arrêter, ainsi que le roi de Navarre.
—C’est déjà trop d’avoir en prison le prince de Condé! répondit le
duc.
Le bruit d’un cavalier arrivant à bride abattue retentit à la porte du
Bailliage. Les deux princes lorrains allèrent à la fenêtre, et à la lueur
des torches du concierge et de la sentinelle qui brûlaient toujours
sous le porche, le duc reconnut au chapeau cette fameuse croix de
Lorraine que le cardinal venait de faire prendre à ses partisans. Il
envoya l’un des arquebusiers, qui étaient dans l’antichambre, dire de
laisser entrer le survenant, à la rencontre duquel il alla sur le palier,
suivi de son frère.
—Qu’y a-t-il, mon cher Simeuse? demanda le duc avec le
charme de manières qu’il déployait pour les gens de guerre en
voyant le gouverneur de Gien.
—Le connétable entre à Pithiviers, il a quitté Écouen avec quinze
cents chevaux d’ordonnance et cent gentilshommes...
—Sont-ils accompagnés? dit le duc.
—Oui, monseigneur, répondit Simeuse, ils sont en tout deux mille
six cents. Thoré, selon quelques-uns, est en arrière avec un parti
d’infanterie. Si le connétable s’amuse à attendre son fils, vous avez
le temps de le défaire...
—Vous ne savez rien de plus? Les motifs de cette prise d’armes
sont-ils répandus?
—Anne parle aussi peu qu’il écrit, allez à sa rencontre, mon frère,
pendant que je vais le saluer avec la tête de son neveu, dit le
cardinal en donnant l’ordre d’aller chercher Robertet.
—Vieilleville! cria le duc au maréchal qui vint, le connétable a
l’audace de se présenter en armes, si je vais à sa rencontre,
répondez-vous de maintenir la ville?
—Dès que vous sortirez, les bourgeois prendront les armes. Et
qui peut savoir le résultat d’une affaire entre des cavaliers et des
bourgeois au milieu de ces rues étroites? répondit le maréchal.
—Monseigneur, dit Robertet en montant précipitamment
l’escalier, le chancelier est aux portes et veut entrer, doit-on lui
ouvrir?
—Ouvrez, répondit le cardinal de Lorraine. Connétable et
chancelier ensemble, ils seraient trop dangereux, il faut les séparer.
Nous avons été rudement joués par la reine-mère dans le choix de
L’Hospital pour cette charge.
Robertet fit un signe de tête à un capitaine qui attendait une
réponse au bas de l’escalier, et se retourna vivement pour écouter
les ordres du cardinal.
—Monseigneur, je prends la liberté, dit-il en faisant encore un
effort, de représenter que la sentence doit être approuvée par le roi
en son conseil. Si vous violez la loi pour un prince du sang, on ne la
respectera ni pour un cardinal, ni pour un duc de Guise.
—Pinard t’a dérangé, Robertet, dit sévèrement le cardinal. Ne
sais-tu pas que le roi a signé l’arrêt, le jour où il est sorti pour nous le
laisser exécuter!
—Quoique vous me demandiez à peu près ma tête en me
commettant à cet office, qui sera d’ailleurs exécuté par le prévôt de
la ville, j’y vais, monseigneur.
Le Grand-Maître entendit ce débat sans sourciller; mais il prit son
frère par le bras et l’emmena dans un coin de la salle.
—Certes, lui dit-il, les héritiers de Charlemagne ont le droit de
reprendre une couronne qui fut usurpée par Hugues Capet sur leur
maison; mais le peuvent-ils? La poire n’est pas mûre. Notre neveu
se meurt, et toute la cour est chez le roi de Navarre.
—Le cœur a failli au roi. Sans cela, le Béarnais eût été dagué,
reprit le cardinal, et nous aurions eu bon marché de tous les enfants.
—Nous sommes mal placés ici, dit le duc. La sédition de la ville
serait appuyée par les États. L’Hospital, que nous avons tant
protégé, et à l’élévation duquel a résisté la reine Catherine, est
aujourd’hui contre nous, et nous avons besoin de la justice. La reine-
mère est soutenue par trop de monde aujourd’hui, pour que nous
puissions la renvoyer... D’ailleurs, encore trois princes!
—Elle n’est plus mère, elle est toute reine, dit le cardinal; aussi,
selon moi, serait-ce le moment d’en finir avec elle. De l’énergie et
encore de l’énergie! voilà mon ordonnance.
Après ce mot, le cardinal rentra dans la chambre du roi, suivi du
Grand-Maître. Ce prêtre alla droit à Catherine.
—Les papiers de La Sague, secrétaire du prince de Condé, vous
ont été communiqués, vous savez que les Bourbons veulent
détrôner vos enfants? lui dit il.
—Je sais tout cela, répondit l’Italienne.
—Hé! bien, voulez-vous faire arrêter le roi de Navarre?
—Il y a, dit-elle, un lieutenant-général du royaume.
En ce moment, François II se plaignit de douleurs violentes à
l’oreille et se mit à geindre d’un ton lamentable. Le médecin quitta la
cheminée où il se chauffait et vint examiner l’état de la tête.
—Hé! bien, monsieur? dit le Grand-Maître en s’adressant au
premier médecin.
—Je n’ose prendre sur moi d’appliquer un cataplasme pour
attirer les humeurs. Maître Ambroise a promis de sauver le roi par
une opération, je la contrarierais.
—Remettons à demain, dit froidement Catherine, et que tous les
médecins y soient, car vous savez les calomnies auxquelles donne
lieu la mort des princes.
Elle alla baiser la main de son fils et se retira.
—Avec quelle tranquillité cette audacieuse fille de marchand
parle de la mort du dauphin empoisonné par Montecuculli, un
Florentin de sa suite! s’écria la reine Marie Stuart.
—Marie! cria le petit roi, mon grand-père n’a jamais mis son
innocence en doute!...
—Peut-on empêcher cette femme de venir demain? dit la reine à
ses deux oncles à voix basse.
—Que deviendrions-nous, si le roi mourait? répondit le cardinal,
Catherine nous ferait rouler tous dans sa tombe.
Ainsi la question fut nettement posée pendant cette nuit entre
Catherine de Médicis et la maison de Lorraine. L’arrivée du
chancelier et celle du connétable indiquaient une révolte, la matinée
du lendemain allait donc être décisive.
Le lendemain, la reine-mère arriva la première. Elle ne trouva
dans la chambre de son fils que la reine Marie Stuart, pâle et
fatiguée, qui avait passé la nuit en prières auprès du lit. La duchesse
de Guise avait tenu compagnie à la reine, et les filles d’honneur
s’étaient relevées. Le jeune roi dormait. Ni le duc, ni le cardinal
n’avaient encore paru. Le prêtre, plus hardi que le soldat, déploya,
dit-on, dans cette dernière nuit, toute son énergie, sans pouvoir
décider le duc à se faire roi. En face des États-Généraux assemblés,
et menacé d’une bataille à livrer au connétable de Montmorency, le
Balafré ne trouva pas les circonstances favorables; il refusa d’arrêter
le roi de Navarre, la reine-mère, le chancelier, le cardinal de
Tournon, les Gondi, Ruggieri et Birague, en objectant le soulèvement
qui suivrait des mesures si violentes. Il subordonna les projets de
son frère à la vie de François II.
Le plus profond silence régnait dans la chambre du roi.
Catherine, accompagnée de madame de Fiesque, vint au bord du lit
et contempla son fils d’un air dolent admirablement joué. Elle se mit
son mouchoir sur les yeux et alla dans l’embrasure de la croisée, où
madame de Fiesque lui apporta un siége. De là, ses yeux
plongeaient sur la cour.
Il avait été convenu entre Catherine et le cardinal de Tournon,
que si le connétable entrait heureusement en ville, le cardinal
viendrait accompagné des deux Gondi, et qu’en cas de malheur, il
serait seul. A neuf heures du matin, les deux princes lorrains, suivis
de leurs gentilshommes qui restèrent dans le salon, se montrèrent
chez le roi; le capitaine de service les avait avertis qu’Ambroise Paré
venait d’y arriver avec Chapelain et trois autres médecins suscités
par Catherine, qui tous trois haïssaient Ambroise.
Dans quelques instants, la grande salle du Bailliage offrit
absolument le même aspect que la salle des gardes à Blois, le jour
où le duc de Guise fut nommé lieutenant-général du royaume, et où
Christophe fut mis à la torture, à cette différence près, qu’alors
l’amour et la joie remplissaient la chambre royale, que les Guise
triomphaient; tandis que le deuil et la mort y régnaient, et que les
Lorrains sentaient le pouvoir leur glisser des mains. Les filles des
deux reines étaient en deux camps à chaque coin de la grande
cheminée, où brillait un énorme feu. La salle était pleine de
courtisans. La nouvelle répandue, on ne sait par qui, d’une
audacieuse conception d’Ambroise pour sauver les jours du roi,
amenait tous les seigneurs qui avaient droit d’entrer à la cour.
L’escalier extérieur du Bailliage et la cour étaient pleins de groupes
inquiets. L’échafaud dressé pour le prince en face du couvent des
Récollets étonnait toute la noblesse. On causait à voix basse, et les
discours offraient, comme à Blois, le même mélange de propos
sérieux, frivoles, légers et graves. On commençait à prendre
l’habitude des troubles, des brusques révolutions, des prises
d’armes, des rébellions, des grands événements subits qui
marquèrent la longue période pendant laquelle la maison de Valois
s’éteignit, malgré les efforts de la reine Catherine. Il régnait un
profond silence à une certaine distance autour de la porte de la
chambre du roi, gardée par deux hallebardiers, par deux pages et
par le capitaine de la garde écossaise. Antoine de Bourbon,
emprisonné dans son hôtel, y apprit, en s’y voyant seul, les
espérances de la cour, et fut accablé par la nouvelle des apprêts
faits pendant la nuit pour l’exécution de son frère.
Devant la cheminée du Bailliage était l’une des plus belles et plus
grandes figures de ce temps, le chancelier de L’Hospital, dans sa
simarre rouge à retroussis d’hermine, couvert de son mortier, suivant
le privilége de sa charge. Cet homme courageux, en voyant des
factieux dans ses bienfaiteurs, avait épousé les intérêts de ses rois,
représentés par la reine-mère; et, au risque de perdre la tête, il était
allé se consulter avec le connétable, à Écouen; personne n’osait le
tirer de la méditation où il était plongé. Robertet, le secrétaire d’État,
deux maréchaux de France, Vieilleville et Saint-André, le garde-des-
sceaux, formaient un groupe devant le chancelier. Les courtisans ne
riaient pas précisément; mais leurs discours étaient malicieux, et
surtout chez ceux qui ne tenaient pas pour les Guise.
Le cardinal avait enfin saisi l’Écossais Stuart, l’assassin du
président Minard, et faisait commencer son procès à Tours. Il gardait
également, dans le château de Blois et dans celui de Tours, un
assez bon nombre de gentilshommes compromis, pour inspirer une
sorte de terreur à la noblesse, qui ne se terrifiait point, et qui
retrouvait dans la Réformation un appui pour cet amour de révolte
inspiré par le sentiment de son égalité primitive avec le roi. Or, les
prisonniers de Blois avaient trouvé moyen de s’évader, et, par une
singulière fatalité, les prisonniers de Tours venaient d’imiter ceux de
Blois.
—Madame, dit le cardinal de Châtillon à madame de Fiesque, si
quelqu’un s’intéresse aux prisonniers de Tours, ils sont en grand
danger.
En entendant cette phrase, le chancelier tourna la tête vers le
groupe des filles de la reine-mère.
—Oui, le jeune Desvaux, l’écuyer du prince de Condé, qu’on
retenait à Tours, vient d’ajouter une amère plaisanterie à sa fuite. Il
a, dit-on, écrit à messieurs de Guise ce petit mot: «Nous avons
appris l’évasion de vos prisonniers de Blois; nous en avons été si
fâchés, que nous nous sommes mis à courir après eux; nous vous
les ramènerons dès que nous les aurons arrêtés.»
Quoique la plaisanterie lui allât, le chancelier regarda monsieur
de Châtillon d’un air sévère. On entendit en ce moment des voix

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Innovation in the Cultural and Creative

Innovation in the Cultural and

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

© ISTE Ltd 2019

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019944508

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Chapter 1. Nintendo in the Pursuit of the Blue Ocean . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2. Omnichannel Innovations in the Bookstore Business:

2.4. A presentation of the bookstore sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 3. The Innovative Business Model of Daft Punk . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 4. Innovation through Visitor Experience in Museums:

4.3.1. The weight of assets in the French economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Chapter 6. Identity for Innovation: The Strategies of Cinema Sites . 131

6.3. A changing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Chapter 7. Coopetition Between Architects:

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

In a globalized context where standardization is becoming the norm,

Introduction written by Estelle PELLEGRIN-BOUCHER and Pierre ROY.

I.1. Definition, characteristics and scope of CCIs

In the field of economics, or in management sciences, some specialists

Other researchers have highlighted the economic particularities of these

found to avoid large-scale piracy. Finally, there is a geographical

jobs (or 6.3% of paid employment). As an economic comparison, CCIs

I.2. Innovative strategies at the heart of CCIs

Many recent transformations have impacted the different CCIs described

The objective of this book is thus to offer a first overview of innovative

I.3. Summaries of the chapters and the structure of the book

In Chapter 1, Pascal Aurégan and Albéric Tellier analyze Nintendo’s

Chapter 2, written by Carole Poirel, is devoted to the study of

nature of merchandising and the customer experience in stores and on the

In Chapter 4, Juliette Passebois-Ducros studies innovation for the visitor

experience itself, it is good practice to use technological tools to complete

The fashion and textile industry is discussed by Arthur Caré in Chapter

Chapter 6 gives Eve Lamendour the opportunity to question innovation

Finally, in Chapter 7, Estelle Pellegrin-Boucher and Pierre Roy explore

Bouquillion, P., Miège, B., Moeglin, P. (2013). L’industrialisation des biens

Chantepie, P., Le Diberder, A. (2010). Révolution numérique et industries de la

Nintendo in the Pursuit of the Blue Ocean

Chapter written by Pascal AURÉGAN and Albéric TELLIER.

Innovation in the Cultural and Creative Industries,

1.2. Blue Ocean strategy

Kim and Mauborgne’s work on Blue Ocean strategies is based on a

To build this approach, Kim and Mauborgne started from an observation:

These two approaches are described as “disruptive creation” by Kim and

Red Ocean Strategy Blue Ocean Strategy

Compete in existing marketing space. Create uncontested market space.

Beat the competition. Make the competition irrelevant.

Exploit existing demand. Create and capture new demand.

Make the value-cost trade-off. Break the value-cost trade-off.

Align the whole system of a firm’s

Table 1.1. Red Ocean versus Blue Ocean strategy

On the other hand, when Kim and Mauborgne suggest putting

Finally, the Blue Ocean strategy involves adopting simultaneously the

To formulate and execute a Blue Ocean strategy, the authors propose a

non-consumers or the buyers’ utility map, etc. For illustrative purposes, we

Table 1.2. Three analytical Blue Ocean tools

1.3. The video game industry: observation method and

1.3.1. The methodological system