KNEC ECDE Diploma Study Manual - 2019 Edition

KNEC DIPLOMA
IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
EDUCATION
(ECDE)
2019 First Edition
Study Manual
Prepared and Compiled by

Samuel Kuria
The Institute of Teachers Professional Development (ITPD) 0710 673 108 | 0780 673 108 Page | 1
KNEC ECDE Diploma Programme
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
MODULE ONE (KNEC PAPER 1)
6011 (UNIT 1) Philosophical, Sociological and Historical Foundations of ECDE .....3
6011 (UNIT 2) Curriculum Development ...................................................................46
MODULE TWO (KNEC PAPER 2)
6012 (UNIT 3) General Psychology ............................................................................75
6012 (UNIT 4) Guidance and Counselling ................................................................104
6012 (UNIT 5) Personality Development ..................................................................128
MODULE THREE (KNEC PAPER 3)
6013 (UNIT 6) Child Growth and Development (i, ii & iii) .....................................148
MODULE FOUR (KNEC PAPER 4)
6014 (UNIT 7) Child, Rights and Protection .............................................................202
6014 (UNIT 8) Health, Nutrition and Care ................................................................239
6014 (UNIT 9) Children in Need of Special Protection ............................................291
MODULE FIVE (KNEC PAPER 5)
6015 (UNIT 10) Community Development ...............................................................325
6015 (UNIT 11) Training and Management of ECDE ..............................................351
6015 (UNIT 12) Research, Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................375
MODULE SIX (KNEC PAPER 6)
6016 (UNIT 13) General Methods of Teaching Young Children and Material
Development ..............................................................................................................422
6016 (UNIT 14-20) Curriculum Activity Areas .................................. Separate Booklet
(PP1 and PP2 curriculum Designs)
MODULE SEVEN
6017 (UNIT 21) Research Project Guidelines ...........................................................451
MODULE EIGHT
6018 (UNIT 22) Teaching Practice Guidelines .........................................................453
6011 (MODULE ONE - UNIT 1)

PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION (ECDE)
1.0 Introduction to the Unit
This unit outlines the philosophical and sociological basis on which ECDE operates. It also
highlights the historical development of ECDE in Kenya. In addition the unit touches on
selected countries for purposes of comparison.
1.1 Learning Outcomes of this unit
By the end of this module you will be able to:
1. Define the terms ECDE, philosophy and sociology
2. Explain the concepts of philosophy and sociology in relation to early childhood
development and education.
3. Compare the concepts of the child in an African and international context.
4. Discuss child rearing and socialization patterns in traditional education.
5. Trace the historical development of ECDE in Kenya during the pre and post-independent
era.
6. Evaluate the contributions of various philosophers and educators in the current ECDE
programmes.
7. Compare provision of ECDE in: policy, goals, objectives and organizational structure in
Kenya with Uganda, Mauritius, and Ghana.
8. Discuss emerging trends and issues affecting ECDE in Kenya.
1.2 CONTENT
1.2.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this topic you will be able to:
 Define the terms ECDE, philosophy and sociology
 Explain the concepts of philosophy and sociology in relation to early childhood
development and education.
DEFINITION OF ECDE
ECDE is an acronym for Early Childhood Development and Education. A child, according
to the Kenyan law, is any person below the age of 18 years. The word ‗child‘ may have a
variety of meanings. For example, an ageing woman will see her 50 years old son as a child
and call him ―my child‖. Another will call a middle aged woman ―a child‖ simply because
she behaves like a child.
We can now define early childhood to be that period of time when a person is below primary
school-going age, that is, from birth to primary school-going age usually about 6-8 years.
Development can be defined as gradual accumulation of relatively permanent age-related
changes involving intensity and complexity of functioning of the body and such changes are
typically irreversible. In our case, development has been taken to include growth.
The term ‗Education‘ comes from a Latin word education; which further comes from a Latin
verb educare. In ancient Rome, educare was used by their people to signify the general
process of growing up, rearing, bringing up. It was originally used for the rearing of plants,
animals as well as children. It is clearly seen from the above that education rises above the
mere process of content delivery to a group of learners, but includes much more: physical,
mental, spiritual aspects and so on. The idea is to bring up a whole person.
Many scholars have defined education. Among them are the following definitions: -
―Education is the total process of developing human ability and behaviour. Therefore it‘s an
organized and sustained instruction designed to communicate a combination of knowledge,
skills and understanding valuable for all activities of life.‖
Also
Education is a social process in which one achieves social competence and individual growth
carried on in a selected and controlled institutionalized setting.
It should be noted that there is no generally accepted definition of education. This is because
education is a multi-dimensional concept. What we should try to seek is a most useful
definition for purpose of our course; Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE).
ECDE can therefore be defined as;
―An institutionalized activity of providing all necessary materials, atmosphere, and
environment among others for the total up-bringing and rearing of children geared towards
all-round development of children to fully prepare them for the challenges of primary
school.‖
DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy comes from a Greek word philosophia, which is a compound of two words
namely: Philia meaning love and Sophia meaning wisdom. Philosophy therefore is the love
of wisdom.
Love is a strong feeling of liking, desiring a craving for something or someone.
It cannot be imposed on anyone neither can it be taught. It is personal involving the self.
However, it can be cultivated, developed, strengthened, and even improved.
Wisdom is the ability to make truly good decisions/choices based on knowledge and
experience. We are saying truly good decisions because some appear to be good when they
are actually very bad. Just like love. Wisdom cannot be imposed.
On one hand wisdom entails a rational behavior in all areas of life. On the other it means the
ability to search, find and abide with truth.
Philosophers
Philosophy is a world of wonder and wisdom, inhabited by philosophers whose curiosity is
like that of a child. They ask questions which may be simple but sometimes annoying,
difficult and thought provoking. They struggle day in day out to explain the world in order to
survive in it as human beings, trying to gain insight into the curious questions that they
themselves pose. They search for answers and wisdom. Therefore, the world of philosophy is
inhabited by philosophers who are constantly in search of and who try to come to terms with
life in the world today. Philosophy is therefore a difficult task and not everyone is prepared
for this type of struggle.
An example of philosophers is Socrates of Greece who lived thousands of years ago. His
father was a sculptor while his mother was a midwife. He worked with his father but later left
the job and spent most of his time in the streets of Athens discussing with people, taking
nothing for granted and questioning everything: what is good? What truth? What is
knowledge? What is justice? What is Courage? What is beautiful? What is life? What is
democracy? The state of Athens got fed up with him and finally put him to death.
Socrates is not alone. Here in Africa, less radical compared to Socrates, The old sages of
Traditional Africans were always in search of truth. Indeed the world of philosophy is not a
world of books but a world of people in search of wisdom. Doing philosophy
(Philosophizing) is any serious attempt by people to arrive at an answer or response to the
basic questions of human life. This needs not be put down in books as both Socrates and the
African sages did.
Sources of philosophical knowledge
 Intuition (the ability to understand or know something immediately without needing to
think about it, learn it or discover it by using reason)
 Telepathy (ability to know what is in someone else‘s mind or communicate with them
mentally, without using words or other physical signals)
 Empirical knowledge (based on what is experienced or seen rather than on theory)
 Visions/Dreams
 Reasoning/Thinking
 Experience
 Testimony (a spoken or written statement that something is true)
 Appeal to authority (those with the ability or legal right to do something)
Conditions of knowledge
If anything is said to be knowledge or if anyone says ‗I know‘, then that knowledge or what
they know must meet the following conditions:
 Truth (the knowledge must be true)
 Evidence/Grounds (there must be evidence to support that knowledge)
 Belief (the one claiming to know must believe in that knowledge)
1.2.2 CONCEPTS
1.2.2.1 How does Philosophy relate to ECDE?
When considering the relevance of philosophy and sociology to ECDE we are paying our
attention to the making of an effective ECDE teacher. Considering the philosophy of
education first, we discover that the study of philosophy creates what can be described as
Philosophic mindedness.
In summary Philosophy does, among other things the following to an ECDE teacher:
1. It enables the teacher to develop the ability to reason correctly and logically. This helps
the teacher to avoid unfair generalizations, bias and fallacies. He is enabled to see
particulars in a larger field, relating his/her thinking about immediate problems to more
distance and long-range goals. In short, he/she is a speculative teacher and never takes
things for granted. He/she with time overcomes illusions and faces matters with a
philosophic eye with a view to bettering ECDE.
2. It generates an inquisitive teacher who questions and probes what has been taken for
granted or what is seen as the norm. This he/she is able to formulate fundamental ideas,
questions, problems and assumptions which if grasped, will help advance the ECDE
program
3. It erodes dogmatism by making an ECDE teacher more flexible and accommodative to

the ideas of others. He is able to evaluate an educational idea without being tied to its
source, and is very eager to feed on (obtain) the ideas of others. He respects other people
points of view including the learners.
4. It enables an ECD teacher to examine philosophically what is truly good. He is careful to
examine the practice and to ask himself what ought to be and therefore strive for it.
5. His role is not merely passive but rather a very active one. He uses his ability and
creativity to the best for the learner and is constantly in search of what is truly good for
them.
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
The word Sociology originated from two words:
1. Socius - a Latin word meaning 'sharing' in a group of companionship.
2. Logos - a Greek word for ‗reasoning of science'.
For a long time these words made little sense to the then scholars until later in the 19th
century when a French man named AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) combined these words
and invented one word - SOCIOLOGY.
His initial interpretation as well as the definition was: Sociology is the science of society.
He explained that this new science would do the following:
1. Discover laws of social order that will explain the natural development of society
2. Contribute to social stability in society.
Over the years, scholars have defined sociology in many ways, as follows:
 Sociology is the science of society, According to Comte.
 Sociology is the science of scientific study of society.
 Sociology is the scientific study of social relationships.
 Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior in society
 Sociology is the science of social institutions in society.
 Sociology is the scientific study of social activities in society.
 Sociology is the scientific study of social interaction in society.
 Sociology is the scientific study of social change in society.
In general, Sociology can be defined as a scientific discipline, which addresses the social
phenomena occurring, and being observed in and are part of the human groupings in society.
NB: All these definitions are equally acceptable; Comte‘s definition is given prominence
because of its historical consideration.
Branches of Sociology
Sociology is a diverse discipline because of the diversity of social phenomena. Emile
Durkheim, a notable sociologist once remarked that there are as many branches of sociology
as there are varieties of social facts in human societies. Some of these branches are:
 Sociology of Education
 Sociology of Religion
 Sociology of Social Organization
 Sociology of knowledge etc
Issues or concerns of sociology

Just as the branches are many, the issues or concerns are equally many. Whatever touches the
human society and whatever the human society touches is a Sociological concern. Among the
many are:
 Social relationships and interactions
 Social institutions and structures
 Social behavior and activities
 Cultural forces and practices
 Socialization patterns
 Social stratification process
 Social groupings and influences
 Systems of beliefs, values, rituals, expectations
 Social change and continuity
 Systems of social organizations - formal and informal etc
Sociology of Education
Among the branches of Sociology is the sociology of education. It is a major and specialized
branch of sociological issues, problems and questions that occurs within the educational set-
up.
1.2.2.2 What is the relevance of Sociology to ECDE?
Here again we are looking at how to produce an effective teacher. The study of social
foundations of ECD will help the teacher to among other things:
1. Appreciate that no man is an island. Thus, he/she will encourage interactions among
learners in both curricular and co-curricular activities.
2. Understand that education does not proceed in a vacuum. A teacher who is well grounded
in the sociology of education will learn and appreciate the culture of people whose
children he/she is teaching. He will be effective agent of transmission of that culture to
his learners.
3. Promote and uphold norms values and cultural practices that are good for learners and
society at large, and be crusader against those that are bad. For example African cultural
practices such as child naming should be encouraged while bad practices like early
marriages be discouraged.
4. Serve as a role model for the learners to follow. He should be morally upright and be a
living example to all that is good for the children to learn. In other words 'preach water
and drink water'.
5. View the exercising of teaching and learning entirely as a process of socialization and not
merely a way of delivering information to children.
1.2.3 THE CONCEPT OF THE CHILD IN AN AFRICAN AND INTERNATIONAL
CONTEXT
LEARNING OUTCOME: By the end of this topic you will be able to:
 Compare the concepts of the child in an African and international context.
1. A CHILD VIEWED FROM THE AFRICAN TRADITIONAL CONTEXT

How the child was viewed and Treated in the Traditional African Society
In most African traditional societies, family roles were highly specialized along gender lines.
The man/husband/father was the breadwinner of the family. He participated in barter trade,
raiding, hunting, breaking the ground for cultivation, grazing and animal husbandry. In some
communities, he also constructed the houses. He was charged with the responsibility of
protecting women and children. Security provided by the father enabled children to be
psychologically well developed.
The woman/wife/mother, on the other hand, was a homemaker, caretaker for children,
companion, confidant, sex partner and nurse. She was expected to produce many children for
the following reasons:
1. To ensure labour supply and perpetuation of society
2. To curb high infant mortality rates.
3. As assets, especially the girl child, whose dowry brought wealth to the family.
4. There was enough food to cater for many people.
The pregnancy of a married woman (rarely did it happen to an unmarried lady) made her
husband, family, relatives, friends and the entire community happy. The eventual birth was
considered a blessing from God and the ancestors. It was the addition of a new member who
was expected to contribute to the community's well being.
Care for young children was a responsibility of all members of the community. At different
times, however, specific people took particular responsibilities as circumstances demanded.
Infants, for example were basically cared for by the mother, who could be assisted by siblings
and peers in the home. As the children grew older, socialization and training was tailored
more along gender lines. Aunts and grandmothers trained girls while mature men at home
and community trained boys. As can be clearly seen, there was nothing like care givers
outside the home for children. If for some reason an external helper came in, most cases they
became part of the family through marriage.
2. THE CHILD VIEWED IN THE MODERN SOCIETY
Modern societies, quite unlike the African traditional societies, are marked by increased
tendency towards married, neuronal families mostly found in urban areas. Men in most, if not
all, cases work and live away from home and family due to challenging economic changes
and only go home occasionally.
Unheard of in the Traditional African Societies is the idea of single parenthood most
prevalent in modern times resulting from death of ones spouse, divorce, separation,
demographic patterns and ones choice.
These trends have far reaching implications on the child. Couples and individual parents
especially mothers are more burdened with the responsibilities of childcare. Roles of family
members are not specialized like in Traditional societies. This ultimately means:
1. The man/husband and father are less dominant in the home.
2. Mothers are often employed outside the home to provide for the family. The man is still
the head although some families are striving for egalitarian (democratic) marriage, which
rejects male dominance and specialization in childcare, found in traditional societies.
However, some families are headed by women as single parents or because the husband
lives away from home,
3. Community's influence on family has weakened and this explains the increasing divorce
rates in modern societies.
Implications of the modern society on children
What we're witnessing in our modern societies about families grossly affects children.
1. The breaking of traditional extended family, decreased infant mortality and the
introduction of a money economy, which has brought poverty along with it, families are
forced to have limited number of children whom they can provide for, This limits the
socializing agents for the child as some families even opt for a single child.
2. Hired child caretakers in form of ‗ayahs‘, house helps and day care center caregivers,
have become inevitable.
3. Working mothers now use alternative feeds for children other than breast milk, which are
of lower quality.
4. Security and protection traditionally provided by fathers has now been commercialized in
the form of security guards, watchmen and police. This doesn't give the psychological
well-being children had as these agents are unknown, invisible and at times undependable
5. Living in urban areas or in small rural pieces of land means that the family has to
purchase all necessities such as food, clothes, energy, water etc. Since children don't earn
an income, they contribute very little to the family kitty and thus become dependants.
6. Child socialization is poor due to absence of parents at home most the time.
7. Some children end up being unruly and irresponsible due to idleness resulting from
unutilized energy, which results due to lack of duty assignment.
8. Parents have less authority over children especially with the wake of Children‘s Rights
which requires, among others that a parent:
a. Limits his/her Child‘s punishment
b. Send his/her children to school on time and properly dressed
c. Provides support
d. Control his/her own activities to ensure that the child doesn't witness certain conducts.
In some countries, the neglectful and abusive parent may lose custody of his/her child.
9. Efforts to ease parental responsibility through childcare centers, housing schemes for
lower income families, medical coverage and school meals have been introduced.
10. Parental supervision of children's homework especially by middle class parents eager for
their children's excellence in academic competition has a negative effect on parent-child
interaction since the exercise is task oriented. It reduces spousal interaction and denies
children time and opportunity to be with their family as most of the time they go for
private tuition.
Generally speaking, the modern society has deprived the family of its most significant duties
to the child.
Ernest Burgees says the family is moving from an institution to a companionship. Other
institutions have taken most of its functions. The family is left to:
1. Provide affection and guidance.
2. Exercise very limited child control.
Parental roles of feeding, nursing and housing have been infringed upon by schemes and
programs that provide such services. Demands of schooling have alienated the child from
parents and international bills and charters have undermined the authority of parents. The role
of the family in childcare therefore appears to be minimal a trend that may be a threat to the
foundations of families.
Summary and Conclusion

We have seen in this study that care of infants and young children was not only the
responsibility of the nuclear family but of the extended family and the community at large.
With time, bringing up and rearing of children has increasingly become the duty of the
nuclear family. Owing to weakening of traditional social setting, increase in single
parenthood, employment of mothers, school attendance of siblings and fathers living away
from home, other care providers have come in. In addition, hired housemaids commonly
known as 'ayahs' who care for children in their homes, institutions such as day-care centers
are taking over care for children. Watchmen, security guards and policemen and women
provide security formerly provided for by the fathers.
3. THE CHILD AS VIEWED FROM THE KENYAN CONSTITUTION, 2010
The constitution of Kenya is the Supreme law of the land from which all other laws draw
their basis. It contains the Bill of Rights, which guarantees fundamental rights & freedom to
all subjects. However, the constitution does not expressly and adequately provide for non-
discrimination on the basis of age. All persons including children are equal before the law.
Referendum: The people of Kenya, in exercise of their sovereign right to replace the
Constitution, ratified the proposed New Constitution of Kenya through a referendum held on
the 4th August, 2010, in accordance with the provisions of section 47A of the Constitution of
Kenya and Part V of the Constitution of Kenya Review Act, 2008;
Promulgation of the new constitution: In exercise of the powers conferred on the president
by section 47A (6) of the Constitution of Kenya and section 43A of the Constitution of Kenya
Review Act, 2008, Mwai Kibaki, President and Commander-in-Chief of the then Armed
Forces (now Defense Forces) of the Republic of Kenya, declared that the Constitution set out
in the Schedule shall be the new Constitution of Kenya with effect from the 27th August,
2010.
Children rights as provided in the new constitution
Every child has the right––
a) to a name and nationality from birth;
b) to free and compulsory basic education;
c) to basic nutrition, shelter and health care;
d) to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence,
inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour;
e) to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and
father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not; and
f) not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held –
i) for the shortest appropriate period of time; and
ii) Separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child‘s sex and age.
A child‘s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
The rights and freedom of an individual, both children and adults are contained in the
constitution. Even though citizen presumably including children are guaranteed the
enjoyment of all the rights and freedoms in the constitution, it is silent on the group rights of
the marginalized lot like children. The procedures prescribed in the constitution make it
difficult to obtain redress when the rights are infringed.
4. THE CHILD AS VIEWED FROM THE KENYAN CHILDREN‘S ACT, 2001
This Act No 8 of 2001 was passed for several reasons:
1. Kenya is a signatory to the UNCRC that came into force in 1989. Kenya signed this
convention in 1990, which goes without, saying that the government agreed with the
contents of that convention. Therefore this Act Creates a Kenyan Law that provides
similar provisions as the UNCRC. ;
2. The Act constitutes into one law a number of laws that affect children. These laws are:
a. The children and Young Persons Act
b. The Guardianship of Infants Act
c. The Adoption Act
The Act came into force 1st March 2002 after receiving Presidential assent on 31st Dec 2001.
There is now a children's Court, which is a subordinate court to the High court of Kenya with
a Presiding magistrate. The chief justice gazetted 73 magistrates to handle children's cases
throughout the country.
Principles of the rights of the child
 Best interest of the child
 Interrelation of the rights
 Rights apply to every child without discrimination on the basis of gender, race, age,
ability or religion.
 Children at risk should have their needs met and be protected
 Developmental rights depend on the appropriate stage
Safeguards for the Rights and Welfare of children
1. Every child has a right to Life; this includes the growth and development of the child and
is the responsibility of the Government and the family of the child
2. Every child has a right to education. This is the responsibility of the government and the
family of the child.
3. Every child has a right to religious education.
4. Every child has a right to health.
5. Every child has the right not to be discriminate against on the basis of where the child
comes from, sex, religion, beliefs, customs, language, opinion, conscience, colour, birth,
social, political, economic, status, race, disability, tribe, residence.
6. Every child has a right to live with the parents unless there is a special reason for the
child to be separated from its parents.
7. Every child has the right to be protected from child labour and armed conflict.
8. Every child has a right to be protected from any use of drugs that are not allowed by the
government
9. Every child has a right to be protected from sexual abuse like prostitution or exposure
to obscene material.
10. Every child has a right to be protected from physical and psychological abuse.
11. Every female child shall be protected from early marriage, female circumcision and
any cultural practice that affects the child in any way.
12. Every child has the right to be protected from torture, inhuman treatment and
unlawful arrest. If a child is arrested the child must be kept separate from adults and the
parents of the child notified.
13. Every child has a right to a name and a nationality.
14. Every child who is disabled has the right to be treated with respect and to be given
proper medical care, education and training free of charge when possible.
15. Every child has the right to leisure, play and recreation.
16. Every child has a right to privacy.
Anyone who acts in a way that affects any of the rights of a child can be imprisoned for
twelve months or fined fifty thousand shillings or both.
5. THE CHILD VIEWED FROM THE AFRICAN CHARTER
The African Charter takes the African approach to the children‘s rights. It takes cognizance
of the virtues of African cultural heritage and values of African civilization, which should
inspire and characterize the content of the rights of the African child. It is the most customary
and cultural sensitive international convention. At the time of drafting the African Charter,
the United Nation Convention of the Rights of the Child was also being drafted. Thus the
main objective of the charter was to approach the rights of children from the African
perspective. It also intended to create awareness on the convention on the Rights of the Child
within the African continent. However, the government of Kenya has not ratified the African
Charter.
Article 2: Definition of a Child
For the purposes of this Charter, a child means every human being below the age of 18 years.
Article 11: Education
1. Every child has the right to an education.
2. The education of the child shall be directed to:
a. The promotion and development of the child's personality, talents and mental and
physical abilities to their fullest potential;
b. fostering respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms with particular reference
to those set out in the provisions of various African instruments on human and
peoples' rights and international human rights declarations and conventions;
c. The preservation and strengthening of positive African morals, traditional values and
cultures;
d. the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of
understanding tolerance, dialogue, mutual respect and friendship among all peoples
ethnic, tribal and religious groups;
e. The preservation of national independence and territorial integrity;
f. The promotion and achievements of African Unity and Solidarity;
g. The development of respect for the environment and natural resources;
h. The promotion of the child's understanding of primary health care.
3. States Parties to the present Charter shall take all appropriate measures with a view to
achieving the full realization of this right and shall in particular:
a. Provide free and compulsory basic education;
b. Encourage the development of secondary education in its different forms and to
progressively make it free and accessible to all;
c. Make the higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity and ability by
every appropriate means;
d. Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of drop-
out rates;
e. Take special measures in respect of female, gifted and disadvantaged children, to
ensure equal access to education for all sections of the community.
1. States Parties should respect the rights and duties of parents, and where applicable, of
legal guardians to choose for their children's schools, other than those established by
public authorities, which conform to such minimum standards may be approved by the
State, to ensure the religious and moral education of the child in a manner with the
evolving capacities of the child.
2. States Parties should take all appropriate measures to ensure that a child who is subjected
to schools or parental discipline is treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent
dignity of the child and in conformity with the Charter.
3. States Parties should have all appropriate measures to ensure that children who become
pregnant before completing their education have an opportunity to continue with their
education on the basis of their individual ability.
4. No part of this Article should interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to
establish and direct educational institutions subject to the observance of the principles set
out in paragraph I of this Article.
NB: The African Charter has about 31 articles. We have only discussed articles 2 and 11.
Read all the other remaining articles and familiarize yourself with the titles. The articles are
discusses in details in Unit 06 – Child Rights and Protections
6. THE CHILD VIEWED FROM INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT
The world has witnessed challenges in demographic (population) patterns that have a strong
implication on the child. Rural-Urban migration has presented an ever increasing number of
people in our cities, a majority of whom live in slum areas with poor provision of social
amenities such as water, electricity and security.
More than ever before, the child is vulnerable to these global challenges among them poverty.
As earlier seen, these economic challenges result in both parents joining the labour market. In
other extreme cases children are also forced to join labour. It is clear therefore that children
are in danger.
It was in view of this danger that the child faces that the United Nation Convention on the
Rights of the Child (UNCRC) came into effect in 1989. Children and therefore the future
generation was threatened both at home by parents and outside. They (children) fell among
the group of persons in need of special attention and protection.
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
Children are born with fundamental freedoms and inherent rights as those of all human
beings. First adopted in 1989, the UNCRC has established new ethical principles and
international norms of behaviour towards children. Although there have been other
international treaties and instruments concerned with children‘s rights, the UNCRC is unique
in that it is all encompassing as discussed here below.
 It is comprehensive in that it ensures the children their civil, political, economic, social
and cultural rights.
 It is universal, that is, it applies to all children in all situations in virtually the whole
world in all communities
 It is unconditional in that it calls on all governments even those without resources to take
actions to protect children‘s rights.
 It is holistic in asserting that all rights are essential. Indivisible, interdependent and equal
Why the need for UNCRC
 In most societies, there are no legal or social structures specifically dedicated to
children‘s rights.
 The healthy development of children is uniquely crucial to the future of any society.
 Children are more vulnerable than adults to the conditions under which they live.
 Children are more affected more than any other age group by the actions and inaction of
governments.
 Children have no votes or political influence and little economic power. More often than
not their voices are not heard.
 Children are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
 In many societies, there is a mistaken view that children are their parents‘ property, adults
in the making or not yet ready to contribute to society.
Children rights under the UNCRC are categorized into four:
 Survival rights
 Development rights
 Protection rights
 Participation rights
a. SURVIVAL RIGHTS
Every child has the rights to:
 Survival and development
 An adequate standard of living
 The highest attainable standard of health and effective health services
 Special care, if he or she is disabled, that ensures dignity, promotes self-reliance and
facilitates active participation in the community
 Social security and child care services and facilities.
b. DEVELOPMENTAL RIGHTS
Every child has the right to:
 Free primary education (FPE)
 Access to secondary education and vocational training
 An education that develops his or her personality, talents, and mental and physical
abilities to their fullest
 An education that prepares him or her for an active adult life in a free society
 An education that fosters respect for his or her own family, cultural identity, and language
for his or her country; and for the natural environment
 An education in the spirit of understanding peace, tolerance and equality
 Leisure, play and the opportunity to participate in cultural and artistic activities
 The opportunity to enjoy his or her culture, profess and practice his or her religion, use
his or her language.
c. PROTECTION RIGHTS
Every child has the right to special protection:
 In emergency situations such as armed conflict, or when children are separated from
family or home.
 When he or she is in conflict with the law
 In situations of exploitation such as child labour, drug abuse, sexual exploitation or sexual
abuse, sale, trafficking and abduction
 From discrimination of any kind
d. PARTICIPATION RIGHTS
Children must be allowed as active participants in all matters affecting their lives and be free
to express their opinions. They have the right to have their views heard and taken seriously.
 Freedom of expression
 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion
 Freedom of association and peaceful assembly
 Information from a diversity of sources
Principles of the UNCRC
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has four general principles. The first two
apply to all people and the convention reaffirms them for children. The last two are of a
particular concern to children.
1. Children must not suffer discrimination irrespective of the child‘s or his parents, legal
guardian‘s race, colour, sex, language, religion or other opinion, national, ethnic or social
origin, property, disability, birth or any other status.
2. Children have a right to survival and development in all aspects of their lives, including
physical, emotional, psychological, cognitive, social and cultural.
3. The best interest of the child must be of primary consideration in all decisions and
actions that affect them as a group. This holds true whether decisions are made by
governmental, administrative or judicial authorities or by families themselves.
4. Children must be allowed as active participants in all decisions affecting them and be
free to express their opinions. They have the right to have their views heard and be taken
seriously.
1.2.4 CHILD REARING, SOCIALIZATION PATTERNS AND TRADITIONAL
EDUCATION
 Discuss child rearing and socialization patterns in the traditional society.
1. PERCEPTION OF PREGNANCY AND TREATMENT OF PREGNANT

MOTHER
In the traditional African societies, a man became famous in his community by the number of
wives and children he had. A wife who gave birth to many children was loved most by her
polygamist husband while the one who was barren did not find love and affection. For young
people, parents and the community had to make a choice for marriage partners. More often
than not, couples barely knew each other. Nevertheless, adjusting to marriage life was less
traumatic due to the support given by the extended family especially from the husband's side.
The news of pregnancy was received with joy in both sides of the families; the husband's as
well as the wife‘s. In many communities, controversy raged when a wife did not give birth.
Sometimes this led to divorce with the wife taking the blame for not giving his husband
children. Parents wanted to have grandchildren and to be named after them.
A pregnant wife received special attention. Her diet changed since it was believed that some
foods would interfere with the development of the foetus. She got support on domestic chores
especially as the pregnancy advanced. The older women who were considered more
experienced gave the pregnant mother advice as well as massaging her to keep her physically
fit as well as ensuring that the foetus is in its right position.
A point worth noting is that society considered it a bad omen to prepare for the newborn; for
instance buying necessities was considered a taboo. Family members as well as the larger
community received the birth of a child with great joy. The mother was assisted with
domestic chores until she was strong enough to work. She was also guided and assisted in
caring for the infant by girls and older mothers. Even when she started working, nursing the
young ones was still not a problem since women usually worked with and around her at
home.
Although members of the extended family cared for the infant and young children
collectively, there was informal assignment of care giving roles to different members. Most
were the primary care givers and had major responsibilities. Feeding, clothing, bathing,
nursing ill children and training them in life skills was the duty of the mother alongside
introducing the children to the social and cultural world they will be growing in.
The father on the other hand, was head of the family and had authority and power of
inheritance. He commanded the respect and was consulted on any important matter for
decision. His word was final. He provided for the family‘s economic needs as well as
protection. Note that these practices varied from community to community.
2. SKILLS, VALUES AND BEHAVIORS THAT CHILDREN WERE SUPPOSED
TO ACQUIRE
The traditional system of education was meant to prepare children for life and to make them
useful in their families and communities. The education was meant to impart value, and skills
and actual life experience. Learning took place throughout life anywhere. Their family and
community had collective responsibilities of educating children.
Education during Infancy
Soon after a child was born, education began and very small children were taught by their
mothers and caregivers. As they started to speak, children were taught correct manner of
speech. When they advanced the mother and caretakers evaluated them by asking them oral
questions such as 'what is your name? Who is your father? Who is your sister?‘ etceteras and
this way, children learnt their family heritage.
Education after Infancy
After infancy, education took a different angle. Children were now taught manners; for
example:
 Sitting posture, especially the girl child,
 Respect for elders, that they should greet them, give them way, assist and receive them
whenever they visit and to offer their seats to the elderly, among others
As they advanced they were taught how to use their hands in doing different activities. At this
point specialization began with the father educating the boys while the mother educated the
girls. The father and mother taught by example and practice.
The boy learnt, by observing his father to use his young hands to:
 Till the land,
 Hunt in the forest using bows, arrows, setting traps,
 Build and construct houses,
 Use various weapons etc.
He also learnt names of animals, plants and their uses through which some children became
traditional doctors. Herding animals was also learnt.
The girl, on the other hand learnt domestic duties and managing the affairs of the home from
their mothers. These included:
 Cooking
 Nursing babies
 Fetching water, firewood, as well as vegetables,
 Grinding maize etc
3. METHODS OF INSTILLING THE VALUES, SKILLS AND BEHAVIORS
Varieties of methods were used for educating children. A lot can be learnt from these
methods because of their effectiveness and appropriateness.
These were:
a) Participation in work
b) Playing games
c) Story telling
d) Observation
e) Reciting riddles
f) Songs
g) Lullabies
A. Participation in work
Participation in work served two functions:
 Children's participation taught them skills, which they would need in adulthood. The
adults showed what was to be done and how to do it. They encouraged their learners to
emulate and assisted them where children had failed.
 Children's participation in work taught them their responsibility to others, courage,
perseverance endurance, hard work and other moral values. The work done by children
was not more important than the behavior or skill acquired. They were to ask questions
and experiment individually until they could perform the required tasks perfectly. Moral
development and responsibility to family and community developed easily from the
child's active participation in co-operative labour. They learnt co-operation in labour and
social cohesion. Thus their participation was primarily to teach values and skills as well
as physical training. They felt a strong sense of belonging into their households and
communities by enabling them to see and feel the significance of their own contributions.
B. Story Telling
Active in this aspect were grandparents at night before and after the evening meal. Children
were free with their grandparents and loved them because of their understanding. Once a
child was caned he/she could run to the grandparent for protection. Stories conveyed a wide-
range or moral lessons. They had good and bad characters. Stories of successful and
hardworking wives and husbands versus lazy couples used to be narrated. Children were to
learn and choose the hardworking characters as their role models and to avoid at all costs the
lazy characters.
Stories about heroes of the kind were also narrated. Most of the heroes were courageous
people who were loyal to their community, putting aside personal good in favor of the good
or the community. This helped learners to be loyal and to have higher expectations in life.
Generally, stories played a major role in children's moral development. Each story carried a
lesson to be learnt. To enhance learning, children participated in the story and later answered
oral questions.
C. Playing Games
Games supplemented the knowledge gained through active labour participation. Through
various games children learnt to control their emotions such as careless crying was and still is
a strong tool of instilling discipline through obedience to instruction children. Play also
helped children release tension, temper and meet societal expectation especially on sex
matters. Play encouraged interaction among children.
Games were also a rehearsal prior to the performance of activities. Boys indulged in fighting,
played games of husbands and wives and built models of houses using locally available
materials. Girls likewise made pots out of clay and cooked imaginary dishes. In all these
activities children were imitating their parents. Like work, play provided physical training.
D. Observation
Children were taught to use their eye sight well. They had to be good observers. In many
African communities it was considered a taboo to count animals or people; hence children
were taught to reckon things by observation. During hunting, training was important and
intense due to intricacy of forest paths and the trouble of tracing the wild animals. Plants
were also learnt by observation.
E. Singing Songs
Songs were mostly accompanied by dance. Some songs were for ridicule while others were
praise songs children who did what was not expected were ridiculed while children who did
commendably were praised through songs. There were also songs for work to encourage the
labourers. Songs modified the behavior of children, who were not supposed to view labour as
a burden. During festivals, entertainment days, funerals and other events, songs were sung.
Both elders and children sang. While singing, children were encouraged to listen to the
words.
F. Reciting Riddles
Riddles were recited in the evening after meals or while food was being cooked to provide
mental exercise. They were recited by adults and children and they conveyed different
meaning to children. Their memories, remembrance and logical thinking skills were
sharpened by reciting riddles.
G. Lullabies
Mostly, lullabies conveyed messages about family history and tradition. By hearing them
daily, children found it easier to assimilate early teachings. It was also a channel through
which history and culture of the people passed from one generation to the next.
4. AFRICAN TRANSITION CEREMONIES/RITES
African people had their science of recognizing human growth and development. In their
understanding once a child was born, a journey begun from birth through death marked by
distinct stages that one had to go through. It is through this that Africans marked the
transition from one stage to another with ceremonies. A lot was learnt as far as culture and
history of the people are concerned. Let's look at some of the most common transition
ceremonies.
a) Child Naming
As we have earlier seen, the birth of a child was received with great joy, in some
communities, naming of children was done immediately but in most of the communities it
took time.
During the material day, for example, among the Giriama community, an elder gave the child
a name. It is strange how this was done because the elder would either hold the baby's ear and
speaks to it. Thereafter everybody would use the proposed name to refer to the baby. Naming
followed some criteria in some communities. It was not done just for the sake. Some of the
criteria used are:
 Naming after the dead people to continue the lineage
 Naming after seasons e.g. Mwaka.
 Naming after major events e.g. hunger, drought etc e.g. Mwanzala
 Naming according to the time of the day especially among Nilotic communities etc
The naming ceremony was followed by much feasting.
b) Circumcision
This was a very significant exercise among various communities. It involved the removal of
the fore skin of the male reproductive organ. There are, however, some communities in
Kenya who did not practice this. In its place they had other initiation ceremonies like the
removal of teeth.
Before this exercise, which took place around the age of 12 years, the elders isolated these
young men from the community for special training and teaching on adult life. It was an
important turning point in their lives from childhood onto adulthood. Among the things they
learnt were:
 Duties and responsibilities of a husband
 Leadership
 Hard work
 Duties to the large community etc
After this vigorous training came the actual exercise. In some communities like the Agikuyu
and Luhya it used to be done very early in the morning and the initiates were supposed not to
show any cowardice of the knife. The endurance of pain instilled courage in the face of
danger. No tear was to be shed or the sound of cry to be heard. Many hours were spent
teaching these young people as they nursed their wounds. During this time they ate well.
Animals were slaughtered for them. Upon healing the initiates were expected to behave more
maturely and take up more adult roles. This was in preparation for marriage.
Girls, on the other hand, went through training. In some communities in Kenya, women were
circumcised, although the practice has been fought and described as female genital mutilation
(FGM). In majority of the communities they were taught how to be good wives when they
were married. Mostly the grandparents did the training. Comparatively, girls married sooner
than the boys, who in many communities, served as warriors for sometime before finally
marrying.
Age-Groups and Age-Sets
This was an important, element in the organization of society. From childhood people lived
and did most things according to age.
 Age-Group
Age group began with young boys born about the same time, for instance, those between
seven and eleven years as age-groups. The members played together and herded livestock
together. As they advanced they performed different duties and were succeeded by young
age-groups.
 Age-Sets
Age sets was made up of age-groups whose members were circumcised together. We have
just seen that initiation was one of the most important ceremonies for the young people
especially boys. In some communities there were initiation ceremonies every year. However,
the Kalenjin circumcised males every twelve to fifteen years. Once started, the ceremony
continued over the space of four years. All boys initiated during the same period entered the
same age set. Each age set had a name and the Kalenjin had a set of seven names, which
occurred in a cycle namely Maina, Chumo, Sawe, Korongo, Kablelach, Kimnyige and
Nyonge. After Nyonge the cycle begins all over again with Maina. Other communities had
age-sets too. Age set members were like brothers. They formed smaller groups among who
were junior and senior warriors. These defended the communities and acted as policemen.
After marriage a new set took over the role while the older age-set became elders. Women
belonged to the age-set of their husbands: Age-set members never took one of the mother's
daughters for marriage.
c) Marriage
Marriage was a very serious but at the same time a cheerful event. Only grown-ups were
directly involved together with the help of relatives and friends. Parents normally chose a girl
for their son. The girl that was chosen had to be:
 Hardworking
 Well behaved
 From a respected family
Sometimes a young man met a girl secretly through dance, games, sports, ceremonies or
festivals. This was, however, not encouraged. In all cases a person was supposed to marry
outside his family and clan. It was against the norm to marry a relative.
Once the girl's parents were informed and accepted the marriage proposal, bride price was
discussed and paid in form of livestock. Other gifts were also offered such as food crops and
money. Bride price or dowry was meant to strengthen relations between the families of the
marriage partners. Finally the wedding day was fixed. Friend, relatives and a few elders
accompanied the bridegroom to the bride's home where marriage ceremony was held.
Visitors were entertained and sometimes participated in sports such as wrestling. Then the
married couples returned to the bridegroom home. At his home, additional ceremonies were
performed with much feasting and entertainment.
Marriages were very strong and the husband and wife helped each other to build up their
family. Often rich men married several wives since having many children was considered a
sign of wealth. Women and children were a source of labour and helped to effectively occupy
available land.
d) Death
In the past where people lived and worked so closely together, death was very sorrowful.
Almost all activities stopped as people were seized with grief and mourning for a number of
days. That was the case especially when an adult had died. Family members of the deceased
wore old dirty skins or garments. Relatives and friends brought the sorrowing family food as
they were too sad to cook and it was even difficult to eat. Beer was brought and milk to
reduce sorrow. Men dug a grave within the homestead and buried the corpse according to
their custom. For the Mijikenda, it was within the 'Kaya'. After the funeral ceremony a date
was fixed for another similar but less sorrowful event. On that occasion relatives offered
sacrifices at the grave. Animals were slaughtered and much food was eaten and beer was
drunk. People danced and sung to forget the sad experience and face the future cheerfully.
Communities such as the Embu, Agikuyu, Kalenjin and Maasai had no burials. They threw
the corpse in distant bushes where hyenas ate them. The Maasai, however, only buried the
rich old men under a small heap of stones. The Kalenjin also buried the aged and children in
a shallow grave in the cattle kraal.
5. COMMUNAL RESPONSIBILITY IN CHILD REARING
In most of the African traditional societies, the pregnancy of a married woman made her
husband, family and the entire community happy. The expectant mother did less work as
relatives and friends helped her. During childbirth a traditional midwife assisted her. There
followed great rejoicing and festivities. The birth of a child was a blessing from God and the
ancestors. It was an addition of a new member in the society who, as it were, was expected to
contribute to the community‘s well being.
Child rearing was a communal affair rather than a parental responsibility. First, in the early
days after birth, people came to see and touch the newborn. Along with them, they brought
gifts. In turn they would hold the newborn, teasing and musing at it. Much as it did not
understand, they would talk to it and stroke its joints. This gave the child the social
stimulation necessary for growth.
As the baby advanced young girls would take turn carrying it on their backs. Older women
assisted. Clearly it was not solely a duty of the mother but of the entire community. In the
event of ill health, immediate attention was taken to have the child treated by the local
medicine men. From what we have seen earlier parents were active in instilling skills values
and behavior in their children. The community had its share in the task. For instance, we have
seen that initiation was a major event in the education and growth of young people. This did
not involve the parents only but rather the whole community; those that were circumcised,
their parents, relatives and friends.
During game and dance the whole community would assemble to watch the skills played and
demonstrated by their children. On such occasions, young people had the opportunity of
meeting and knowing each other. Their skills abilities would be developed as well as
exercising their bodies for health. The older men would seize this opportunity to teach them
in order to produce young people who were strong and fit to serve whole communities as
warriors. Important to note is that a child could be punished anywhere at any time by any
person if found doing the wrong thing. Respect was cultivated not for one‘s own parent, but
for the whole community. No wonder if anything went wrong, for example, if there was a
case to be settled the whole community elders would be involved to settle the dispute. In
summary, child rearing was a communal affair.
1.2.5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ECDE IN KENYA
LEARNING OUTCOME: By the end of this TOPIC you will be able to:
 Trace the historical development of ECDE in Kenya during the pre and post-
independent era.
INTRODUCTION
Kenyan ECDE has a long history dating as far back as 1895 when East Africa was declared a
British Protectorate. What we are witnessing today in ECE is the work of dedicated men and
women, stakeholders and Partners. This topic will provide you with the necessary details
about how ECDE started up to and including where we are today. This will provide you with
the positive attitude and professional commitment to ECDE.
1. PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
In the previous unit we saw that the education of children was a communal responsibility,
although father and mother played the major role. The coming of the white man brought in
many changes. First and foremost the white man saw the Africans as barbaric, primitive and
uncultured. He quickly concluded that Africans did not have an education for their children.
Africans, however, had a system of education; The Traditional system of Education. Thus,
the white man did not bring or introduce education for the first time. What he did was to
introduce literacy and schooling, which were not part of our traditional system of education.
Colonization and its Effects on Children
Colonialism in Kenya officially started in 1895 when British declared East Africa a British
protectorate. Kenyans generally underwent drastic changes in its social organization, which
severely affected the education of children. Notable among the changes were:
 Working of children outside their families
 Perception of parents by children
 Destruction of children's behaviour control tools
 Prohibition of traditional Roles
a) Children working outside their families
Once the colonialists settled on our land, children were drawn into non-family labour with
very little or no payment at all. Instead of children being integrated in family labour as a way
of educating them, work for children took on a punitive connotation. Work was now
alienating children from family and community.
In 1901, ‗hut tax‘ was introduced. The purpose of this tax was:
 To draw men into migrant labour and obtain cash for it,
 To increase the tax force for the colonialists
When this happened, only women were left to care for children since men had to go and
labour for the white man.
In 1910, communal/forced labour was introduced. Chiefs were given quotas of the number of
labourers to provide. When the number was insufficient due to fewer men, the chiefs turned
to women and children to meet the target as a way of avoiding victimization.
In 1921, a meeting was held in Nairobi to voice complaints against child labour. Thus, there
was no time for children to learn and labour was now a form of punishment to children.
b) Children's Perception of their Parents
Prior to the coming of the white man, children had seen their parents as heroes and role
models. They saw them working without outside interference. The coming of colonialists
changed not only the status but also the position of parents in the community. Children saw
their parents in the hands of their captors as weak unable to do anything. This developed
negative perception of parents in the minds of children. Parents no longer commanded respect
of children and thus could not teach by word or example. Parents lost their status as educators
of their children.
c) Destruction of tools for controlling children's behavior
This mainly included land, which was taken by the colonialists. Africans became squatters in
their own land. Traditional authority over land was lost. The families, which had some land
the size of plots, weren't enough for all children. This eventually led to conflicts over land.
Parents lost their power over their children.
d) Prohibition of Traditional Roles and Activities
Activities such as hunting were declared illegal. Now it became pouching of wild game.
Some roles were declared evil and against human rights. Age grading was abolished. The role
of the family and community in child rearing and education was generally abolished.
African Involvement in World War II and its effect on ECDE
Between 1939 and 1945 Africa found itself entangled in a global conflict for which it knew
very little about. Kenyan men were recruited into the army and deployed to war zones in Asia
and the Far East, as far as Burma to fight this global war. Once again women and children
were left behind. Although the war had devastating effects as result of death of many African
people in battle, Africans saw the white man, for the first time, running away and at times
retreating from enemy lines. Africans saw fear in the Whiteman‘s eye and sometimes saw
them die.
This communicated a very crucial point in the African mind; that the white men were not
special, they are made up of flesh and blood and can die just like the blacks. This was to be
the basis for African Resistance and final victory over colonial rule. Women were left again
with the burden of labouring to provide for the family in the absence of their husbands. They
were forced to join the work force so that their children and the ageing could get a meal.
Children had no one to care for them when the older ones had gone to work. In time, women
found a solution to their predicament. They resolved to engage one of them to cater for the
children when they were away. All women brought their children to one woman to take care
of them. Here was the beginning of ECDE centers called custody centers. The primary
purpose was custody and there was no formal training. Children had an opportunity of
playing together the whole day.
African Resistance to Colonial Rule and its Impact on ECDE
War veterans came home during the post war period in the late 1940s. They had experienced
a lot of trauma and some of them had psychological problems. Many more had died but the
survivors had one message to tell their fellow countrymen: The white man wasn't a 'god' like
some had thought. He could be fought and conquered and finally sent to where he came from.
The early 1950s experienced a lot of secret formation or guerrilla fighters taking oaths to
fight for our country. Before long, the white man started feeling the pain of death as angered
Kenyans attacked him. This coupled with an increase in the education of Black men of our
land helped Kenyans to see that the colonialists had no right to colonize Kenya.
In 1952, a state of emergency was declared. Many detention camps were established while
men ran to the forest to fight colonial rule. Again women and children were left home.
Women had the task of fending for their children as well as taking food to the forest for their
fighting men.
The Mau Mau rebellion was staged in the same year. Parents and children were rounded up
and taken to detention camps. This was very traumatic for the children, for they saw the
cruelty and nature of violence, sometimes even death. Men were arrested because they were
suspected to be linked to Mau Mau. This led to an increase in the number of working
children. The rest, who were left behind, stayed in the custody centers.
Effects of British Colonial Rule on ECDE in Kenya
The effects are as follows:
a) Parents had no time to educate their children.
b) Children lost their confidence in their parents, seeing them helpless in the hands of their
captors.
c) Lack of moral education - children started to disobey their parents; something that was
unheard of.
d) Tools for controlling and educating children were destroyed.
e) Prohibition of traditional roles and activities limited the scope of children's education.
f) Discrimination - African children were discriminated as opportunities were given only to
whites and Asian children. African people were 3rd class people.
2. POST - INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
Kenya got her independence in 1963. Before then, there were no pre-schools for African
children. The first pre-schools were established in 1942 to cater for European and Asian
children. Europeans were first-class citizens, Asian second-class while Africans were third-
class citizens of the colonial government.
A few years before the achievement of independence in 1963, there was a growing concern
that a comprehensive survey of Kenya's educational needs was unavoidable to give direction
for the country's future generation; the children. This led to formation of commissions whose
reports contributed a great deal to the educational policies adopted in this country.
Immediately after independence in 1964 the minister for education appointed the Ominde
Commission to survey the existing educational resources of Kenya and to advise the
government on educational polices. This commission out-rightly welcomed the government
decision to ban racial segregation in our schools.
Harambee Philosophy on Resource Mobilization
This was obtained from the then ruling Party KANU slogan which meant 'Lets' all pull
together‘. In the late 1950s organized pre-schools for African children started to emerge.
Churches and welfare organizations to cater for African children established them. The
philosophy was the driving force behind the development of early Childhood education after
independence. Through the Harambee spirit communities and groups came together and
established their own pre - schools.
Missionaries and ECDE in Kenya
Christian missionaries arrived in Kenya from two directions:
a) Through the port of Mombasa
These missionaries were responsible for the establishment of education along the coastal
region in Kenya.
b) From Uganda
These missionaries occupied Nyanza and Western Kenya, although the Portuguese had
introduced Christianity to the East African Coast in the early 16th century, it was not until
Ludwig Krapf and Hohn Rebman that western education began in Kenya. In service of the
church Missionary Society (CMS), the two men established mission schools in Mombasa and
Rabai in the 1840s.
The coastal people were resistant to Christian education, except for the freed slaves at
Freretown, majority for two reasons:
a) They were not ready to forgo their own culture in favor of a new one.
b) Islamic civilization had taken root along the Coast for well over 800 years. In fact
there were Arabs who opposed the establishment of Christianity as a competitor of
Islam.
For these reasons, Christianity did not spread substantially in the coastal region. Up to now, it
is not the predominant religion. Mission centers remained at the coast until later when
colonial rule was established and when the Kenya Uganda Railway was built (1895 -1901)
that education and Christianity spread upcountry.
Missionaries regarded Africans as pagan, uncivilized, backward, uncultured and barbaric.
Anything African was considered evil. Their educations therefore aimed at removing these
bad traits and make Africans Christians and hence civilized. Their education became
naturally religious in which the lives of the upright and holy men were emphasized. In time
African culture was rejected because it was not in harmony with biblical doctrines.
In summary, missionaries disrupted the functioning of community groups. Children were
encouraged to escape from their parents to mission centers when they felt mistreated. In fact,
they were encouraging children to disobey their parents so that they could be punished and
have an excuse to go to the mission centers.
Missionary education led to new ways of thinking and values among children. Parents started
losing authority over their children because they were seen to present old pagan ways.
Respect for parents diminished. The missionaries preaching on the dignity of work justified
forced labour. This was due to the wrong notion that Africans were lazy. Converts were
exempted from labour as a reward for their acceptance of Christianity.
African response was that of indifference, hostile and apathetic because missionaries
preached against African culture. They therefore preferred their children to do domestic
chores rather than go to school especially when the utility of that education was not easy to
see. Manual work in mission schools overweighed classroom work. Africans did not cherish
being just handy men. Were it not for the fact that chiefs and headmen sent their own sons to
school and forced those of their wards to go too, mission education would have collapsed.
Moreover, as those who had received western education got employed and began enjoying
the benefits or their labour, more and more Africans came to accept mission education and
sent their children to mission centers.
Government Involvement in ECDE
It started in 1963, soon after independence. The Ministry of home affairs and that of Health
were charged with the responsibility of inspecting Nursery schools and Day Care centers to
ensure their health and safety for children.
In 1964, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta opened Thomas Barnardo House Nursery School. In his
address he said.
‗We want our children to find that life has a welcome for them; that they are loved
and that their love for others is valued. We seek to meet their material necessities
such as shelter, food and clothing, but we are mindful of less tangible needs that have
a close bearing upon the emotional social and intellectual growth of our children.
In 1966, the German volunteer services in Kenya assisted the Department of community
Development and social services to train local personnel to work in the Day-care centers.
Four to six months course were organized for teachers and supervisors at Embu and
Kakamega Multi-purpose Training center.
In 1968, there were 76 supervisors and 290 trained teachers.
In 1969 a survey was carried and revealed that 200,000 children were enrolled in 4,800 Day-
cares centers throughout the country, caring for a small proportion of children below six
years.
In the same year (1969), the Ministry of Housing and the Ministry of Social services formed
a ministerial committee on Day care center programme. It was to survey as advisory and it
contributed to the formulation of objectives and guidelines as well as recommendations on
instruction at the training and school levels. It was very active but lost strength in 1973.
Seminar on Pre-School Education
A seminar on pre-school education was held in 1969 to evaluate the status of pre-school
education in Kenya. The seminar made the following recommendations:
a) Formation of a national policy on pre-school education to encourage self-help efforts
b) Formation of a working committee to formulate the working principles of the programme
and co-ordinate the efforts of all agencies and to promote expansion of the programme by
reviewing training of personnel and conditions of service of personnel
c) Ministry of co-operatives and social services to function as the coordinator of pre-school
activities and other relevant ministries and organization to remain directly involved.
d) Central government to provide pre-school supervisors at provincial and district levels
e) Central government to contribute to or finance the highest category of District trainers
and supervisors. The Local authorities and parents communities to contribute by paying
teachers salaries and to subsidize their upkeep at the training center .There was also need
to have one certificate awarding body.
f) Central government to provide facilities for training at their provincial and district levels.
Candidates for supervisors course to be' least 22 years old, graduate teachers, nurses or
social workers. Course to take 18 months.
g) Candidates to be sponsored for training. Minimum qualification to be KCPE and age to
be 18 years. Field attachment to be an integral part of the course and the course to be
localized to allow use vernacular.
h) International standard to be adhere to. A teachers to teach 25 children with the ultimate
aim of achieving the recognized standard of 15 children Equipment pools to established
to benefit all pre-schools.
i) Parents committees to be established to give financial and moral support.
In 1970, a manual for pre-school education called ―The Day Care Center‘s‖ was published.
In 1971, the social Welfare Department of the Ministry of Housing and Social Services had
published a sessional paper No. 7. The paper gave priority to services for children including
Nursery school and restated the need to support community efforts to provide for social,
emotional, physical and mental development of children during formative years.
In 1971, the Kenyan Government and the Bernard Van Leer Foundation had agreed to
cooperate in developing a cognitively oriented experimental training program in Early
Childhood Education. Those trained by the project were to train others. The program was
known as Pre-school project. It had the following objectives
 To device training program for pre-school teachers and supervisors
 To develop pre-school curriculum
 To conduct research in early childhood education
The first trainees were from Nairobi from which the rural areas were reached. Since most of
the contents were foreign, one of the central objectives was to develop a curriculum, which
was educationally suitable and locally relevant. During the first phase, Teachers‘ and
Trainers‘ Guides were developed which consisted of the knowledge, experiences and
feedback gained during the training period. But when the program moved to rural areas, these
Guides proved to be limited in use, because they were in English. Both trainers and teachers
therefore had to draw heavily on their own experiences to build up curricular.
The advantage of this approach was that the materials developed were directly relevant to the
teachers and the children in their own localities. Teachers also encouraged the local
communities to collect stories, poems, riddles, and games which were then introduced into
the learning and teaching activities. A major challenge was to redesign the training
programme. The one year residential course had proved very costly and was too long for
county councils as well as teachers. A six-month in-service course was designed, which
alternated short-term residential training with fieldwork in the teachers‘ own classrooms. The
trainings were held during the school holidays so that schools would not lose their teachers
during the term. This proved to be a valuable training method, with its continuous alternation
of theory and practice.
The first rural training course was held in Murang‘a in 1975. The emphasis was on the
developing of the children and how activities could be organized to meet children‘s needs and
the use of local materials to facilitate these activities. The county councils agreed to assist by
releasing selected teachers for the training and by providing suitable training sites, materials
and transportation. The in-service courses were organized within the participants own
environments with follow-up sessions with trainees after completion of courses and the
identification of potential trainers among the course participants.
After receiving further training, the new trainers designed and conducted in-service courses
for other teachers in their areas. Thus although only 35 teachers had participated in the initial
Kiambu course in 1977, there were subsequent seminars and six-month courses for other 300
teachers. In Murang‘a, an initial 20-trained teachers later provided training for further 282 of
their colleagues.
Two other rural districts were included in the project‘s second phase between 1979 and 1982
that is Keiyo/Marakwet and Kilifi. It was hoped that through further training the trainees
would develop the skills and competence to organize and run in-service courses for teachers
in their own districts. In Kilifi, the project team had developed a system in which a group of
untrained teachers were attached to a trainer for a period of apprenticeship, enhanced by
consultations between the trainer and teachers. Most of the trained teachers in the district
have assisted in training others through this apprenticeship system. The project was subjected
to both internal and external evaluation. A report published in May 1982 found that the
participatory method of training and curriculum development increased the commitment and
dedication of the participants and skills acquired during training facilitated the involvement
of the local authorities and the community.
The introduction of Free Primary Education and the abolition of fees in the primary schools
in 1974 reduced the total enrolment of children in rural pre-school by half. This was because
primary education was made cheaper than pre-school education.
In 1976, pre-school education was established in the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) to
co-ordinate pre-school programme. In 1977, the Kindergarten Headmistress Association
(KHA) training centre for pre-school teachers was established which takes two years.
The 1980‘s saw further expansion of ECDE programme in Kenya. Following the Presidential
Circular No. 1 of 1980, the responsibility of Early Childhood Education (ECE) was
transferred to the Ministry of Education, which accelerated the expansion of ECD
programmes in Kenya.
In October 1982, the Ministry of Basic Education and the Bernard Van Leer Foundation
held a national seminar on pre-school education in Malindi, with the aim of reviewing the
progress achieved during the pre-school project‘s first decade, and making recommendations
for the rapid development of pre-school education in Kenya. The seminar was to be a crucial
stage in the growth of the project from a local to the national scale. In his opening remark to
the seminar, the Minister for Basic Education drew participants‘ attention to the fact that only
about 400,000 children in the 3-6 age range were enrolled in 8,000 pre-schools. He said:
―So far we have only done about a quarter of the job and I am trying to impress on you
that the job ahead of us in this area is a big one and I am counting on you to come out
with concrete proposals.‖
The outcomes of the seminar were as follows:
 A pre-school section was established in the Ministry of Education
 Clear policies were formulated to guide pre-school education in Kenya.
 National Centre for Early childhood Education (NACECE) was established. The
centre was expected to advise the government on the modalities and logistics of
disseminating the ECD program to national scale.
 Decentralize ECE within the framework of District Centers for Early Childhood
Education (DICECE)
The Role of NGOs in ECDE
The Ministry of Education, science and Technology launched the GOK/ World Bank ECD
Project in 1996 in partnership with the World Bank to fund activities in ECD. This was also
done in collaboration with six Non - Governmental Organizations, that is,
 Care Kenya
 Action Aid,
 Aga Khan Foundation,
 Bernard Van Leer Foundation
 Catholic Relief Services and
 AMREF - Kenya.
The Activities that were funded are:
 Improved teacher performance
 Community Capacity Building and Mobilization
 Health and nutrition

 Transition
 Monitoring and Evaluation
1.2.6 PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECDE
LEARNING OUTCOME: By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 Evaluate the contributions of various philosophers and educators in the
current ECDE programmes.
In this study we will discuss the contributions of various educational theorists/philosophers to
ECDE and their implications to the early childhood programme.
a) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778)
Rousseau, a writer and philosopher of the middle 1700s, brought forth the idea that children
were not inherently evil, but naturally good. He is best known for his book Emile in which he
raised a hypothetical (imaginary) child to adulthood. He reasoned that education should
reflect this goodness and allow spontaneous interests and activities of the children. Soon
children were actively involved in their own education. Each child was considered unique
and valuable. While he was not an educator, Rousseau offered insights that were valuable. He
suggested that school atmosphere should be less restrained and more flexible to meet the
needs of the children. He insisted on using concrete teaching materials, leaving the abstract
and symbolism for later years. His call to naturalism transformed education in such a way
that led educators to eventually focus more on the early years. Pestalozzi, Froebel and
Montessori were greatly influenced by him. Rousseau ideas are still followed today in early
childhood classes. Free play is based on Rousseau‘s belief in children inherent goodness and
ability to choose what they need to learn. Environments that stress autonomy and self-
regulation have their roots in Rousseau‘s philosophy. Using concrete rather than abstract
materials for young children is still one of the cornerstones of developmentally appropriate
curriculum in the early years.
b) Johann Heinrick Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827)
Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator whose theories on education and caring have formed the
basis of many common teaching practices of early childhood education. Like Rousseau, he
used nature study as part of the curriculum and believed that good education meant the
development of the senses. Rather than simply glorify nature, Pestalozzi became more
pragmatic, including principles on how to teach basic skills and the idea of ―caring‖ as well
as ―educating‖ the child. Pestalozzi stressed the idea of integrated curriculum which would
develop the whole child. He wanted education to be of the hand, the head and the heart of the
child. Teachers were to guide self-activity through intuition, exercise and the senses. Along
with the intellectual content, he proposed that practical skills be taught in schools. He differed
from Rousseau in that he proposed teaching children in groups rather than using a tutor with
an individual child. Pestalozzi‘s work How Gertrude Teaches Her Children and Book for
Mothers detailed some procedures for mothers to use at home with their children. Probably
his greatest contribution is the blending of Rousseau‘s strong romantic ideals with his own
egalitarian attitude that built skills and independence in a school atmosphere that paralleled
that of a firm and loving home.
c) Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782 -1852)
Froebel is one of the major contributors to early childhood education, particularly in his
organization of educational thought and ideas about learning, curriculum, and the teacher
training. He is known to many as the ―father of kindergarten,‖ not only for giving it a name,
but for devoting his life to the development of a system of education for young children. The
German word kindergarten means ―children‘s garden,‖ and that is what Froebel felt best
expressed what he wanted for children less than 6 years of age. Since his own childhood had
been unhappy, he resolved that early education should be pleasant. He advocated the radical
thought that children should be able to play, to have toys, and to be with trained teachers. He
started the first training school. Over 100 years ago, Froebel‘s kindergarten included blocks,
pets and finger-plays. In practice, Froebel advocated the radical notions of play in school, of
children having toys as learning tools, and of offering teacher training. Froebel observed
children and came to understand how they learned and what they liked to do. He developed
the first educational toys, which he called ―gifts.‖ Some of his theories about children and
their education later influenced Montessori and were reflected in the educational materials
she developed. Every day, teachers in centers and homes across the country are increasingly
practicing the Froebelian belief that a child‘s first educational experiences should be a
garden: full of pleasant discoveries and delightful adventure, where the adults‘ role is to plant
ideas and materials for children to use as they grow at their own pace.
d) Maria Montessori (1870 -1952)
Montessori became the first female physician in Italy. She worked in the slums of Rome with
poor children and with mentally retarded children. Sensing that they were lacking proper
motivation and environment, she opened a preschool, Casa di Bambini, in 1907. Montessori
designed materials, classrooms and a teaching procedure that proved her point to the
astonishment of people all over Europe and America. Before her, no one with medical or
psychiatric training had articulated so clearly the needs of the growing child. Her medical
background added credibility to her findings and helped her ideas gain recognition in the
country. The Montessori concept is both a philosophy of child development and a plan for
guiding growth, believing that education begins at birth and the early years are of the utmost
importance. During this time, children pass through ―sensitive periods,‖ in which their
curiosity makes them ready for acquiring certain skills and knowledge. Through her
enlightenment, child-sized furniture and materials are now used in classrooms. By focusing
on sequential steps of learning, Montessori developed a set of learning materials still widely
used today. One of her most valuable contribution was a theory of how children learn. She
believed that any task could be reduced to a series of small steps. By using this process,
children could learn to sweep a floor, dress themselves, or multiply numbers. Montessori
materials are graded in difficulty and emphasize her interest in self-help skills. To foster this,
she developed frames with buttons and laces so children could learn to be responsible for
themselves when dressing. The layout of the room and the distribution and presentation of
materials furthered this concept. Montessori placed great emphasis on the environment, the
―prepared environment,‖ as she called it. A sense of order, a place for everything, and clear
rationale are hallmarks of the Montessori influence. Her procedures as well as her materials
contain self-correcting features. Nesting cylinders, for example, fit together only one way
and are to be used that way. Montessori supported earlier educational ideas of sensory
development; she felt that cognitive abilities stem from sensory discrimination. Thus most of
her equipment was tactile and enhanced the senses as well as the mind. In the Montessori
Method, the role of the teacher is primarily one of observer and facilitator. Teachers
demonstrate proper use of materials and communicate as needed, avoiding any acts that
might cause the child to become dependent on them for help or approval. At the same time,
Montessori saw the goal of education as the formation of the child and development of
character.
e) John Dewey (1858 -1952)

By the end of the 1800s, a nationwide reform movement had begun in America. In education,
the progressive Movement, as it was called, got its direction primarily through one individual,
John Dewey. Dewey was the first real American influence on American education. Raised in
Vermont, he became a professor of philosophy at both the University of Chicago and
Columbia University. In the years that followed, Dewey would be responsible for one of the
greatest impacts on American education of all time. Dewey believed that children were
valuable and that childhood was an important part of their lives. Like Froebel, he felt that
education should be integrated with life and should provide a training ground for cooperative
living. As did Pestalozzi and Rousseau, Dewey felt that schools should focus on the nature of
the child. Until this time, children were considered of little consequence. Childhood was
rushed. Children as young as seven were regular part of the work force – on the farms, in the
mines, and in the factories. A new kind of school emerged from these ideals. Even the
buildings began to take on a different look. Movable furniture replaced rows of benches.
Children‘s projects, some still under construction were found everywhere. The curriculum of
the school began to focus on all of the basics, not just a few of the academics. If a group of 6-
year-olds decided to make a woodworking table, they would first learn to read in order to
understand the directions. After calculating the cost, they would purchase the materials. In
building the table, geometry, physics and math were learned along the way. This was a group
effort that encouraged children to work together in teams and so schools became a society in
miniature. Children‘s social skills were developed along with reading, science and math. The
teacher‘s role in the process was one of ongoing support, involvement, and encouragement.
The contribution of John Dewey to American education cannot be underestimated. Dewey‘s
ideas are part of today‘s classrooms in several ways. His child-oriented schools are a model
of child care centers and family child care homes, as learning and living are inseparable.
1.2.7 COMPARISON OF THE PROVISION OF ECDE IN KENYA WITH UGANDA,
GHANA AND MAURITIUS
 Compare provision of ECDE in: Policy, goals, objectives and organizational
structure in Kenya, Uganda, Mauritius and Ghana.
INTRODUCTION
The crucial importance of Early Childhood Development (ECD) programs is now fully
accepted. Proper nutrition, health care, and stimulation during the early years improve
learning and other abilities. Programs that facilitate the development of the child in all its
dimensions have considerable long-lasting effects on the child‘s life.
1. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN KENYA
A relatively young profession in Kenya, early childhood development and education (ECDE)
has experienced tremendous growth at all levels.
Recent years have seen a global endeavor to prioritize ECDE as a foundation for later
learning and development, as evidenced by the Global Guidelines for Early Childhood
Education and Care in the 21st Century (Association for Childhood Education
International/World Organization for Early Childhood, 1999). Such efforts are a response to a
variety of complex social issues and economic trends. These forces, which are referred to
here as "complex family stressors," include, but are not limited to, societal changes due to
industrialization, the increased number of women with young children entering the labour
force, families with two working parents, a rise in the number of single parents, and the
demise of traditional systems of child care and extended family support systems (Driscoll &
Nagel, 2002; Graves, Gargiulo, & Sluder, 1996).
This topic will provide an overview of ECDE in Kenya. Specific emphasis is placed on the
historical development of ECDE, the administrative organization, the collaboration among
various agencies in Kenya, ECDE curriculum, and teachers' professional training. Definitions
of ECDE differ around the world (Swiniarski, Breitborde, & Murphy, 1999). The more
industrialized nations consider early childhood to be the period from birth through age 8
(Essa, 1999; Wortham, 2000), while developing nations focus on birth through age 6 (Eville-
Lo & Mbugua, 2001; UNICEF, 2002). Regardless of such determinations, the increased
interest in early childhood education around the world reflects respective nations' and/or
societies' particular philosophical beliefs about children (Graves et al., 1996). Accordingly,
children may be viewed as: growing plants that need nurturance, miniature adults, natural and
national resources that need to be nurtured, and/or as future investments critical to the
sustenance of a society and its ability to compete in the technological age (Essa, 1999).
The belief that early learning begets later learning and success, just like early failure breeds
later failure, has been validated in both economic and educational research (Boocock, 1995;
Heckman, 1999). According to the World Development Report (Jaycox, 1992), education and
economic development are positively correlated, making education essential to development.
Therefore, the potential long-term benefits for children's cognitive and social development
(Barnett, 1995; Gonzalez-Mena, 2000) have inspired increased interest in early childhood
education and care. This interest continues to be championed by UNICEF's health and
nutrition programs (UNICEF, 2002).
The Historical Development of Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE)
Situated on the eastern coast of Africa, Kenya gained its independence from British colonial
rule in 1963. Nearly half of Kenya's population of 30 million is below the age of 15 (World
Fact Book, 2001). The infant mortality rate is 67.99 per 1,000 live births, while the life
expectancy is 46.5 years for men and 48.4 years for women (World Almanac, 2002). Kenya
is a multilingual and multicultural nation, with 42 different languages spoken, including
Bantu, Arabic, and Nilotic (Bogonko, 1992). English is the official language and the main
medium of instruction from preschool to tertiary levels of education. Ki-Swahili is the
national language and is taught from preschool to high school. As a result, most children in
Kenya are fluent in both languages, in addition to the vernacular spoken at home. This
multilingualism heightens Kenyans' understanding of other cultures.
Kenya is the only African nation with an established early childhood education program, and
the initiative has had a significant impact on its citizens. Kenyans perceive education as a key
to success in life, facilitating social mobility and personal development (Nkinyangi, 1982). A
number of theoretical perspectives focus on education's pivotal role in human growth and
development (Mbugua-Murithi, 1997). The modernization theorists contend that education
transforms individual values, beliefs, and behaviors, which leads to development (Benavot,
1992). As a result, Kenya has seen a clamoring for and expansion of education at all levels
(Mutero, 2001; Mwiria, 1990), including nursery schools, child care centers, kindergartens,
and preschools.
The first recorded school for young children in Kenya was founded at Rabai (a coastal
province) in 1886 by the Church Missionary Societies (Bogonko, 1992; Eshiwani, 1989). The
first early care centers can be traced to the 1940s, when British colonists established centers
to serve both European and Asian children. During the same period, the colonial government
established early childhood care centers for Kenyan children living on the tea, coffee, and
sugar plantations. These centers were set up in response to Mau Mau uprisings and struggles
for independence (Kanogo, 1988). The centers were nonacademic child care settings and only
provided custodial care, a situation that persisted until the early 1970s (Kabiru, Njenga, &
Swadener, 2003).
2. EARLY CHILDHOOD IN UGANDA
Expansion of Early childhood and development Activities
In 1992, the Ugandan Government White Paper was finalized and it observed lack of
government control of the quality of curriculum, teaching methods, facilities, age of entry,
quality of teachers and the pre-school charges. The report gave recommendations and
guidelines, which are being followed in order to achieve Education For All (EFA) goals and
targets. A new National Curriculum for Early Childhood Education (ECE) was produced for
the first time in many years.
There were teacher training institutions for Early Childhood Education e.g Makerere
University Child Study Centre, YMCA, YWCA, Sanyu Babies Home, Montessori (Entebbe),
Nile Vocational Institute (Jinja), Human Resource Development (Hoima), ITEK, Nangabo,
Madarasa and Makerere University external degree programme in the school of education.
Other than ITEK and Makerere University, the rest were private initiatives. The number of
registered pre-primary schools was 770 with an enrolment of 63,563 children. There were
1,985 trained teachers and 387 untrained teachers in the area of Early Childhood and
Development.
The training of ECD teachers was done at the Institute of Teachers Education Kyambogo
(ITEK), which provided a one year Nursery Certificate program, with senior four certificate
being the entry qualification. The training trend at ITEK revealed that very few teachers have
been trained to handle ECD issues in Uganda‘s training institutions of higher learning. The
family and the community contribute to ECD especially for the 0-3 age group through
provision of Maternal Child-Care (MCH). Childcare is one of the basic domestic
responsibilities especially for women as mothers. Traditional forms of childcare are still very
common.
There are very few Day Care Centers in urban areas. Some care givers are not trained and
therefore Early Childhood Development issues are not adequately observed. There are
Parents Teachers Associations (PTAs) and school management committees, and on school
open days parents visit the schools and interact with the learners and teachers. They inspect
the social aspects, learning experiences and learning environment at the pre-primary schools.
They contribute to school construction work and also buy educational materials and pay
tuition fees to their children.
There is interaction at family level whereby children learn to live with one another. Also
children are stimulated to learn their mother tongues through story telling by grandparents
and parents. Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) has facilities established in all districts
under the Education Assessment Resource Services (EARS) program. There are institutions
for child-care by Non-Governmental Organizations working for disadvantaged children e.g.
SOS Kakiri, Sanyu Babies Home, Salem Mbale, Nsambya Babies Home, etc. Various
qualitative factors and perceptions regarding the evolution of ECD Education in Uganda.
The beginning of pre-primary education in Uganda can be traced back to the 1930s initiated
by the Europeans Missionaries, Goans and Asians who were already aware of the need and
importance of preparing children early for formal education in their later years of education.
The pre-schools were private, established exclusively for the use of their own communities
but in later years the Africans within urban areas were also allowed to take their children to
these schools. The pre- school curriculum, including methods and educational materials for
the learners used at the time was developed in Europe, with very little reference to the
Ugandan situation.
Later when Africans became deeply involved in pre-school education, they opened up many
uncontrolled pre-schools (Nursery) especially in urban centers often with poor premises, lack
of educational materials, lack of trained teachers and often over-crowded. Pre-schools were
privately owned with the sole objective of preparing children for entrance into primary
schools and overlooking the fundamental concept of childhood stimulation, psycho-social,
mental and emotional development in ECD.
In 1973, the Government of Uganda became concerned and aware of the need for quality
education in pre-schools. It enacted a statute, which conferred upon the National Curriculum
Development Center, mandate for designing and developing curriculum and support
materials for all levels of education including pre-school.
In 1980, the responsibility for pre-schools was shifted from the then Ministry of Culture and
Social Services to the Ministry of Education and Sports. The Ministry of Education and
Sports recognizes the ECD period as extending up to age eight. It recommends the age of
entry for pre-primary school to be three years.
In 1992, the Government White Paper on the Education Policy Review Commission report
was finalized and it observed lack of government control of the quality of curriculum,
teaching methods, facilities, age of entry, quality of teachers and the pre-school charges
levied. The report gave recommendations and guidelines.
3. EARLY CARE AND EDUCATION IN GHANA
The present level of care and education offered to young children in Ghana is a direct
consequence of many events from the nation's past.
In 1957, Ghana was the first West African country to gain its independence from colonial
rule. During the infancy period of the new republic, the government was proactive in
recognizing the importance of the early years in the lives of Ghanaian children. In 1989,
Ghana became the first country to ratify the United Nations' Rights of the Child. Then, in
1998, the government passed The Children's Act (Act 560), which strengthened existing laws
on children's rights, justice, and welfare.
Nearly half of Ghana's 19.5 million citizens were younger than 15 (Ardayfio, 1999). The
most recent census data reported that about 16.5 percent of the population is under the age of
6 (Statistical Service, 1987). Unfortunately, only about 12 percent of the nation's very young
children had access to early care and education; this lack of access was acute in rural areas.
All policies and directives regarding early care and education in Ghana emanate from Accra
(capital city). Various early childhood personnel (government and non-government) are
working painstakingly to improve the care and education experiences of children in Ghana. A
look at the present state of early care and education in Ghana (known as the Gold Coast
Colony until 1957) is best served by first gaining a sense of its history. The present level of
care and education offered to young children in Ghana is a direct consequence of many
events from the nation's past.
A Historical Look at Early Care and Education in Ghana
The long defunct Elmina Castle School, founded in 1745, is the first recorded education
program for very young children in Ghana (Wise, 1956). Starting in 1823, a number of
missions from abroad were established to convert the native population to Christianity. The
colonial Ghanaian government, lacking money, ceded the responsibility of education to the
missions. The missions readily accepted this task, believing that schools were the best means
of spreading Christianity (McWilliam, 1959).
The first mission, Basel Mission Society, was reported to have attached some kindergartens
to their primary one classes (the Ghanaian equivalent to STD 1 in Kenya) by 1843. The term
"attached" refers to the inclusion of children within the group who are younger than the
typical age for the identified class. Several missions followed the Basel Mission Society, and
they reportedly attached some kindergartens and even a few nurseries (classes with children
younger than 5 years old) to their primary one classes (Opong, 1993).
In the early part of the 20th century, G. H. Morrison (1920), as Director of Education in
Ghana, objected to the inadequacy of education grants in the country, without which it proved
difficult to staff schools with the best-trained teachers and adequate supplies. He also stressed
the need for staff working with infants and kindergarten students to be trained in Froebelian
methods.
The Gold Coast Colony Education Department Schedule of 1930 included a syllabus for
infant classes as part of the primary schedule. Instruction was to be in the vernacular and
kindergarten methods of instruction were to be used. The subjects of instruction listed
included games and physical exercises, spoken English (vocabulary of 200-300 words),
singing, and arithmetic.
Before the middle of the 20th century, care giving for infants and toddlers was provided by
family members. By the 1940s and 1950s, however, day nurseries were reported in Ghana
(Acquah, 1958). The government provided grants to some of these nurseries. Voluntary
associations ran the government-supported nurseries under the supervision of the Department
of Social Welfare. Government also paid the salaries for teachers, attendants, and other staff.
Privately run day nurseries, which enrolled children as young as 2, were established to offer
working mothers a safe and healthy environment for the children.
Records indicate that some mothers not in the workforce also used the day nurseries. All
nurseries charged a fee; those that did not receive government grants (the majority) relied
solely on such fees for support. The programs that received federal grants charged a nominal
fee, which is still the case today. The accommodations and amenities of non-government-
supported programs often did not meet the high standards required of government supported
facilities (Acquah, 1958). The programs at the nurseries primarily consisted of organized
games, singing, stories, and alphabet and number activities.
4. EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN MAURITIUS
In Mauritius, the concept of Early Childhood Development (ECD) and Early Childhood
Education (ECE) as well as other supportive activities for the development of the child has
been recognised long before 1990 (although the terminology was not used).
Pre-schools were mostly run by private individuals, sometimes not in the proper way. The
schools provided a form of education in relation with the programme of grade 1 of the
primary sector. Due to economic or social reasons only a section of the children of that age-
group, that is 4 and 5 years could attend these schools. Gradually the number increased as
awareness increased and the policy of the government started focusing on the issue.
Hence, after Jomtien Conference, the Plan on Education came out with some policies and
goals for the ECD. The main aim was to have all children of age 4 and 5 years in pre-primary
schools located in appropriate buildings with trained teachers. To attain these objectives, it
was necessary to have the following measures taken:
 By the year 2000, all schools will be registered with the Ministry of Education, such
registration being dependent on the achievement of a minimum of infrastructure and
training for their teachers.
 Pre-primary classes will be set up in all Government primary schools, priority being given
to disadvantaged areas.
 Soft loans will be made available for helping pre-primary schools to improve conditions.
 Certificate courses will be organised for educators of pre-school teachers and also for pre-
school teachers themselves.
 The inspectorate will extend its work to pre-schools.
 The School Health Service will eventually be extended to pre-primary schools.
 Sugar estates and other enterprises will be encouraged to establish and support pre-
primary schools.
 A detailed survey will be undertaken of all pre-primary schools. An investigation will be
undertaken into the reasons why certain children do not attend pre-primary schools.
The Action Plan for a New Education System in Mauritius (1998) reinforced what was spelt
out in the previous Plan. The main objectives of the actual Plan regarding ECD are given
below:
School Infrastructure
 Pre-schools will continue to be built within the premises of primary schools. Eventually
each primary school will have its Pre-school.
 By the year 2000, every child of 3 years and above will have a place in a Pre-school.
 Norms and criteria to regulating the operation of Pre-schools will be prescribed. Such
norms will refer to, among other things, staffing, buildings, furniture, equipment, teaching
methodology, teacher-pupil ratio, class size, building area per child, area per school, play
facilities, opening hours, hygiene and so on.
 Private pre-schools and nurseries will be allowed to operate provided they adhere to
prescribed norms and criteria, within a legal framework.
 All privately run pre-schools will be given a period of 3 years to satisfy all the prescribed
norms, failing which, their registration will be cancelled.
Curriculum
 Initially, each Government Pre-school will be linked to a cluster of private pre-schools
within the region. With the aim of leveling out of standard, there will be a constant
monitoring of the private pre-schools/kindergartens by the Inspectorate. Government will
provide relevant pedagogical tools and equipment to the private pre-
schools/kindergartens. They will be afforded necessary guidance to enable them to ensure
such links with the State‘s network of Pre-schools.
 The curriculum offered at this level will be enriched to cater for the proper growth and all
round development of the child. The programme will focus on psychomotor and sensori-
motor development, discovery of the child‘s environment, team spirit development,
identification of forms, sounds and colours and early artistic revelations through Creative
Arts and Living Skills based on inclusive pedagogical principles. The curriculum will be
light and flexible and shall not tire the child.
 Each school will be allowed sufficient margin of flexibility to adapt the curriculum to the
social environment of the child and to develop its own school-based curriculum.
 There will be close monitoring of the child‘s progress through the keeping of portfolios
for formative purposes. This will be called to become a compulsory practice.
 Transition from the Pre-school section to the primary section in primary schools will be
made as smoothly as possible. A Pre-school teacher will assist the class teacher in the
initial months of Standard 1.
Staffing
 The minimum qualifications and competence needed by teachers at this level will be
clearly enunciated and made publicly known.
 All teachers within this sector will be given the opportunity and encouragement to
improve professionally and to acquire the minimum qualifications prescribed within three
years.
 Teachers who fail, within the three- year period, to acquire the minimum qualifications
and competence prescribed will act as Teaching Assistants at Pre-school level.
 Existing teachers in private pre-schools will be given priority consideration for
appointment in the new Pre-school system proposed. They will become employees of the
Pre-school Trust Fund.
Management
 The role and functions of the Pre-schools Trusts Fund will be revisited with a view to its
revitalization.
 Pre-schools will be supported and monitored by Inspectors trained in early childhood
development.
 The present system of subsidy to private schools will be phased out.
 Special awareness and training programmes will be organized on a regular basis for
parents to enable them to play a more constructive role in the improvement of their pre-
schools and to provide a more supportive familial environment to their children.
Primary School Education
The primary schools are mostly government and aided schools. A decline in the number of
schools is observed as compared to 1990. This is mainly due to the closing of those primary
schools with very few children. These schools were converted into vocational schools.
However, new schools were built in new residential areas.
1.2.8 EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ECDE
 Discuss emerging trends and issues affecting ECDE in Kenya.
1. HIV AND AIDS
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus; is a very minute virus that weakens the body's
immune system and makes it less able to resist sickness. People with HIV in their body
eventually develop AIDS.
AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is a rapidly growing public health problem
in Kenya. In less than a decade, AIDS has evolved from a fulminate, rapidly fatal illness a
chronic disease. So far it is estimated that over 2 million people have been infected Kenya
since 1985 when the first case of AIDS was reported.
Modes of Transmission
HIV is found in the blood and in sexual fluid. This means that HIV is spread:
 Through Sex
 Through Infected blood
 From mother to baby
It is possible today however for infected mothers to give birth to healthy babies if they report
earlier. They can be given special treatment to prevent the unborn baby.
As soon as HIV enters your body you become infectious and can therefore infect others.
Myths and Misconceptions
A myth is usually a traditional story or belief used to explain something.
A misconception is largely a piece of information that contains half truth and half lie some
common myths include:
 AIDS is a Curse
 AIDS is a punishment from God
 AIDS has been here for centuries.
 Uncircumcised men are the ones who get AIDS.
 Breaking a taboo causes AIDS.
Misconceptions include the beliefs among people that people can get AIDS through
 Shaking hands
 Sharing beddings
 Sharing utensils
 Mosquito, bedbugs, flee bite and other insect.
 Sitting next to an HIV/AIDS victim
 Sharing toilet seats
 Sneezing & Coughing
 Hugging
 Sweating
 Yawning
 Playing with HIV/AIDS victims
 Visiting and consoling HIV/AIDS victims.
Practices that Promote Spread
 Keeping multiple sex partners
 Prostitution/Commercial sex
 Circumcision using unsterilized instruments
 Tattooing and other body cuts
 Wife inheritance
 Teeth removal
 Scarification (putting scars)
 Unhygienic treatment by quacks or witchdoctors
 Epiglottis removal
 Sharing of razors
 Blood brotherhood in oath-taking
 Ear piercing
 Polygamy
Signs and symptoms
 Loss of body weight within a very short duration
 Suffers chronic diarrhoea
 Prolonged fever
 Persistent cough
 Generalized itchy skin disease
 Recurrent herpes zoster (boils)
 Chronic herpes condition

 Thrush in mouth and throat
 Swollen glands
 Memory loss
 Loss of intellectual capacity
 Peripheral nerve damage
 Other persisted common infections like skin disease
 Tuberculosis
Socioeconomic consequences of HIV in Kenya:
1. Most of the Kenyan hospital beds are occupied by AIDS patients. This has increased
spending on health services.
2. Various sectors of government are losing experienced workers thus declined labour
productivity.
3. Majority of those infected are between 20 - 40 years of age. These are the breadwinners
in most families hence their dependents are suffering.
4. Most AIDS Victims are in urban areas. A lot is spent when transporting them to rural
areas.
5. The government is losing its think tank since the affected are in their most productive age.
This means the government is losing a lot in terms of retraining deployment and expense.
6. Insurance Covers are now very high.
7. HIV/AIDS affects ones chances for education, social security, as well as one‘s life span.
8. AIDS destroys ones self-esteem, curtails personal freedom, has devastating psychological
effects and is always a neighbour-scare
9. Many children have been orphaned & will be because of high death rate of parents, AIDS
orphans unlike other orphans suffer from stigma, rejection, discrimination and this may
lead to defiant and antisocial behaviour. ..
10. Increased child labour
11. Increased street children
EFFECTS OF HIV/AIDS ON ECDE
Effects of HIV/AIDS on ECD are numerous:
1. AIDS not only threatens children's lives it also denies them the opportunity to enjoy a
normal family with the security of having parents.
2. AIDS makes it extremely difficult for affected children to achieve the goals of survival,
development, protection and participation in life.
3. AI DS orphans unlike other orphans suffer from stigma; rejection discrimination and this
may lead them to develop defiant and antisocial behaviour.
4. The number of street children has increased alarmingly in all parts of Kenya going as low
as the age of 3 years.
5. Increased child labour and other forms of child abuse
Support for those infected and affected
1. Guidance and Counseling
2. Provide them with balanced diet.
3. Treat them whenever they fall sick.
4. Keep them clean
5. Provide spiritual nourishment
6. Educate them on HIV matters to avoid their getting infected or re-infected.
7. Give them love and affection
Community Involvement
There're a number of ways through which AIDS education activities can be carried in the
community. These include:
 Peer education:
 Formal
 Informal
 Non-formal
 Parental education
 Meetings:
 Public barazas
 PTA meetings
 Religious meetings
 Women's meetings
 Club and Societies meetings
Prevention/Control
There're many ways of preventing and controlling HIV/AIDS
1. Have one sex partner who is HIV negative.
2. Treatment of sexually transmitted disease
3. Abstaining from sex till marriage
4. Condom use (not 100% full proof; ideally abstinence is the best)
5. A void sharing of sharp instruments e.g. blades, knives, and ear piercing needles with
others.
6. A void sharing toothbrush and combs
7. Cover open wounds to avoid getting into contact with other peoples blood.
8. Avoid using un-sterilized needles, syringes.
9. Blood should be screened before transfusion.
10. Youth should be advised to have proper use of their free time.
11. Avoid wife inheritance.
2. GENDER ISSUES AND ECD
From time immemorial, the Kenyan people have had misconceptions of the terms gender and
sex roles. It is important to clarify that gender does not only refer to the girl child because in
some areas the boy child is also at risk.
Definitions of terms
a. Sex
Sex is a biological classification of male and female. sex is natural and unchangeable.
Nobody is to blame for their sex since they had no choice. Nobody chooses to be male or
female.
Sex roles are natural and unchanging. It is quite natural that females get pregnant and give
birth while males don't. This is unchanging.
b. Gender
Is a social construction between men and women, a pre-determined assignment of male and
female roles. Gender roles vary from one culture and one society to another for example In
Masaai community; it is women‘s duty and role to construct houses. In most Bantu
communities this is a male role.
Gender roles are not static

The involvement of the Kenyan population in issues of gender disparity has increased in all
sectors of education regarding enrollment, retention and performance. The United Nations
Charter 1945 stressed the need for equal rights between men and women. In 1979 the UN
Gender Assembly ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW). This came into force in 1981.
The Jomtien Declaration in 1990, Education for All (EFA) in the year 2000. The summit for
children, 1990 called for Universal Primary Education and the right for every child to
education. The Kenya government ratified all the above conventions.
In 1994, global statistics indicated that 130 million children had no access to primary
Education. Out of those 81 million were girls, 26 million of whom were in sub-Saharan
Africa. Gender issues in Primary Education are pegged at three major areas:
 Access/enrollment
 Retention/persistence
 Performance/achievements
Following the ratification by the government;
a) Expenditure on primary school education was increased.
b) Feeding programmes was introduced in selected areas affected by poverty.
c) Introduced boarding schools
d) Introduced bursary funds for bright students from poor families
e) Gender sensitization workshops were organized and carried out for stakeholders in
education.
f) A gender unit at the Ministry‘s headquarters was set up.
g) A National Task Force on Gender and Education (NTFGE) was set up.
h) A data bank on gender violation, which is useful in planning for education, was set up.
i) Currently, the ministry is in the forefront on the ongoing girl-child project which is
supported by UNICEF.
j) It is also involved in lobbying for the support of girls education.
Gender Disparities in Kenyan Education System
There are gender disparities in the Kenyan education system regarding access and
performance. The most affected are girls. The disparities increase as you climb the
educational ladder. There's need to find out and address the factors that contribute to these
disparities. Classical thinkers e.g. Rousseau and Plato assign different roles and an equal set
of mental and physical capabilities to women and men.
They propagated capabilities the theory that the ultimate aim of female education was to
produce women who would be admirable and pleasing to men and bear children. These
theories have tendered to promote the traditional fallacies and stereotype in terms of
education for girls. There is need to rise above stereotype in education planning and
implementation.
Most of these theories of gender identity and education try to explain how early childhood
Development and other forms of socialization shape gender roles. These theories should be
approached erratically because they form part of the social construction, which perpetuate
gender stereotypes. There is need for instruction and change of attitude of community
towards education for boys and girls. The whole education process should be geared towards:
 Equality of boys and girls
 Justice
 Human rights
 Equitable development
3. CHANGING FAMILY STRUCTURE
In an earlier discussion we saw that traditionally, the care giving of infants and young
children was not only the responsibility of the nuclear family. Presently, however, the family
structures have undergone a great transformation. It has become clear that, in modem times,
the nuclear family is responsible for the care of infants and young children.
In modern societies there is an increased tendency towards conjugal, neuronal families,
mostly living in urban areas. In a majority of cases, men work and live away from their
families and only go home occasionally. On the increase is single parenthood. This is due to:
death of spouse, divorce or separation.
In this case the care giving role solely rests on a single parent, hence the common stresses and
strains concerning money, childcare, ill health, housing and schooling may be heavier than
normal. Many single parents are frequently fatigued by the task of caring for their children.
Men rule with a rod of iron, frequently yelling at their children and use of unnecessary
abusive and vulgar language. They sometimes get depressed with feelings of hopelessness
and helplessness since the children sometimes challenge them. At some point they give up all
together and agree too easily to their children's demands. Resulting to indiscipline and
arrogance in children.
The biggest challenge facing single parents, however, is how to combine both childcare
responsibilities with job demands; which mostly involve being away from home and the
children most of the time. This may affect the relationship between parent and child. In
effect, the child may resent the parent for getting them into the present single parent family
circumstance.
The presence of an adult to talk to and share problems within family needs not to be
overemphasized. Single parents suffer loneliness. The number of single mother has been on
the rise in Kenya. Currently over one third of the families are headed by single mothers,
mostly living in slums (Swadener, 2000)
The past several decades have seen increasing number of women with children employed
outside the home. Consequently serious concern is voiced about the future of the world's
children. Many people fear that children of working mother lack supervision, love and
cognitive enrichment. A good number of working mothers also experience guilt for not
staying at home with their children.
However, research suggests that there's negligible difference in development of children of
working and non-working mothers. The findings further suggest that a working mother who
obtains personal satisfaction from employment, who doesn't feel excessive guilt and who has
adequate household arrangements is likely to perform as well or even better than a non-
working mother.
Research indicates that 50% of couples that divorce have children. Households of divorced
families are usually disorganized more than those with intact families. Communication
between parent and child in a divorce situation is very difficult, lack affection and are
seemingly inconsistent in discipline than parents in intact families (Blanchard Field et al
1988) Financial problems worsen the situation since many mothers do not receive enough or
any money from the children's fathers.
On average the negative effects of divorce seem less severe if the child lives with the same
sex parent or maintains a good relationship with at least one parent and is able to return to a
consistent reliable family routine. The adjustment of many children, especially those of
educated well-off parents improves by the 3rd year. In many cases they are less depressed
and do better academically than before the divorce.
Commuter marriages, a relationship where the spouses maintain separate residences in order
to meet the requirements of their work has emerged. This occurs as a result of the husband
and wife pursuing careers that require different geographical locations. The primary
motivation for commuter marriages tends to be the personal satisfaction and fulfillment
provided by career involvement as well as economic demands.
In summary, these pressure points in families have serious implications for infants and
children in their growth and development. This places a heavier challenge on institutions that
offer childcare services in our country. Children of 6 years form 20% of Kenya's population.
This statistics indicate that only 35% of children aged between 3 - 6 years are catered for in
the existing ECD centers. This goes without saying that 65% of the children aged between 3
and 6 year are not in ECD centers.
Amongst this, high percentages are street children, children with disabilities and children
affected and infected with HIV/AIDS. Children below 3 years, the most vulnerable are also
outside ECD program delivery services. More efforts are needed to reach out these children.
One out of three children is not growing and developing as expected for his or her age
(UNICEF, 1999)
ASSIGNMENT (Compulsory) - (Marked out of 100%)

1. Discuss briefly one major social issue that affects ECDE in your region. (2marks)
2. Find out a philosophy of any school in your area. Write the name and contact address of
the school. (2marks)
3. Find out and list down other 3 well-known philosophers. (3marks)
4. Write down the ‗Kenya National Philosophy‘ (2marks)
5. What is your personal philosophy of life? (2marks)
6. Give an example of increasing functioning of the body (or any part of the body) of a child
from one level of skill to another. (2marks)
7. At approximately what age do children in your community join primary school and Why?
(2marks)
8. How was a child (boy & girl) treated in your traditional community? (2marks)
9. Do you think the modern child will grow to be an all-rounded person? Why? (2marks)
10. Do you think the new Kenyan Constitution (2010) adequately addresses the rights of a
child? How? (2marks)
11. Briefly explain how, as an ECDE teacher, you will help the pre-schoolers attain the
highest standards of health in your school. (2marks)
12. Briefly discuss the advice you would give to parents who do not enroll their children to
school after they attain the school-going age and instead make them look after their cattle
or work in their farm. (2marks)
13. What steps would you take if you discovered that one of your students has been sexually
abused by the parent or a close person? (2marks)
14. As a teacher, briefly explain how you would deal with any child right violation?
(2marks)
15. From each of the four categories of UNCRC Children Rights, state and discuss any one
right that you think has not been adequately addressed in Kenya. (4marks)
16. Briefly compare the traditional view of pregnancy with the modern view. (2marks)
17. Write a short traditional children story from your community and give the moral of the
story. (2marks)
18. Write any traditional song meant for children from your own community. What is the
moral of the song? (2marks)
19. Write a short riddle from your own community. (2marks)
20. Write a lullaby from your own community in your own language and give an English
translation. (2marks)
21. Briefly describe how naming of children is/was done in your own community.
(2marks)
22. Briefly describe how the process of initiation into adulthood is done in your own
community. (2marks)
23. What are some of the emerging trends in modern marriage? (3marks)
24. Briefly describe how members of your community handle death of a member. (2marks)
25. Do you think nowadays there is communal responsibility in a child‘s upbringing? Why?
(3marks)
26. Briefly discuss the positive effects of British colonialism on the education of children in
Kenya. (3marks)
27. Discuss the achievement in early childhood education in your community in the past 2
years. (3marks)
28. As a teacher, how would you contribute to the development of ECDE in your
community? (2marks)
29. Find out the functions of your District Centre for Early Childhood Education (DICECE)
(5marks)
30. In your own words, briefly discuss Rousseau‘s philosophy of naturalism. (4marks)
31. Briefly explain the meaning of an Integrated Curriculum. (2marks)
32. ―Plants will grow well only in a good soil with sunlight and moisture and they need
pruning and training to promote a balance of growth and perfection of fruit and flower.‖
Explain the meaning of the phrase in relation to Froebel‘s view of a child. (3marks)
33. Briefly explain what tactile equipment is. (2marks)
34. Do you think Dewey‘s ideas are applied in the Kenyan ECDE Centers? Briefly discuss.
(2marks)
35. List down and briefly explain five ECDE practices that are similar in Kenya, Uganda,
Ghana and Mauritius. (5marks)
36. Discuss how each of the following trends and issues has affected ECDE in Kenya.
a) Urbanization (2marks)
b) Child Abuse (2marks)
c) Poverty and Hunger (2marks)
d) FPE (2marks)
e) FGM (2marks)
f) Early marriages (2marks)
g) Pastoralism (2marks)
NOTE: Lack of proper referencing of the assignment will attract a penalty of 5marks
Email your assignment with your NAME, ADM No. & UNIT TITLE as the subject of your
email to instituteofteachers@gmail.com
6011 (MODULE ONE - UNIT 2)

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
2.0 Introduction to the Unit
In this unit definition and various designs of curriculum are provided. Kenya Institute of
Curriculum Development (KICD) curriculum development process and other curriculum
institutions are included. The unit also outlines ECDE curriculum objectives, activities,
determinants and factors that influence changes in curriculum development.
2.1 Objectives of this Unit
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
a) Define the terms used in curriculum development
b) Analyse the main developmental theories and models of curriculum development
c) Discuss the national goals of education in Kenya in relation to curriculum development
d) Evaluate the contribution of early childhood educators in the development of early
childhood curriculum
e) Analyse the objectives of ECDE curriculum in Kenya
f) Describe ECDE curriculum areas in Kenya
g) Explain the role of Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) in development
of curriculum in Kenya
h) Discuss the stages of curriculum development in KICD
i) Describe the role of various curriculum development agents in Kenya
j) Describe the factors that influence curriculum change in Kenya
k) Assess the issues affecting the implementation of ECDE curriculum in Kenya.
2.2.0 CONTENT
2.2.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Define the terms and concepts used in Curriculum Development.
Education
Education is the training, acquisition of skills, and attendance in school according to different
people. It is associated with schooling, which involves planning, learning, growth i.e. from
one stage to another. Education is exposure to opportunities and challenges. It aims at
achieving an all round learning. It is modification of individual environment, a creation of
special environment enabling role creation in the society and influences man development.
Tom Brown says Education provides culture, professional, vocational skills. Develops man‘s
sensitivity, maintains a cohesive society. It is a route to material well-being, development of
the economy and promotion of the correct orientation to the society.
Education is a system of training and instruction especially of children and young people in
schools, colleges etc, designed to give knowledge and develop skills
Education is the knowledge, abilities and the development of character and mental powers
that result from such training e.g. intellectual, moral, physical education.
Education is a field of study dealing with how to teach.
Curriculum
These are the subjects included in a course of study or taught in a particular school.
According to Tanner and Tanner (1975), curriculum is all the activities planned and
unplanned under the control of the school. It is a discipline, field of study, programme that
we develop. A programme of instruction taking place in a school
The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the
school, for the learners‘ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence (Daniel
Tanner, 1980)
Curriculum takes two meaning:
 Range of courses from which the students choose what subjects matter to study
 A specific learning programme where curriculum collectively describes the teaching,
learning and assessment materials available for a give course of study
Syllabus
It is a document with an outline and summary of topics to be covered in a given course. It is
either set by an examination board or the one who teaches the course. It usually contains
specific information about the course e.g. how, where and when to contact the lecturer,
teacher and teaching assistants. It is an outline of what will be covered in the course, a
schedule of test dates and the due dates for assignments, grading policy for the course,
specific classroom rules etc.
It is the list of subjects, topics, texts etc included in a course of study. The syllabus serves
many purposes for the students and the teachers such as;
a) Ensuring a fair understanding between the instructor and the students such that there is
minimal confusion on policies relating to the course,
b) Setting clear expectations of material to be learned, behaviour in the classroom, efforts of
students to be put in the course,
c) Providing a roadmap of course organization and direction,
d) Relaying the instructor‘s teaching philosophy to the students,
e) Providing a marketing angle of the course such that the students may choose early in the
course whether the subject material is attractive
The syllabus must be clear and organized in its presentation of course objectives and the
grading break-down should leave no confusion or doubt in students mind as to how he/she is
scoring in the class. A helpful syllabus should encourage rather than intimidate students from
the course and should provide subject significance and illustrate connectiveness of material
relevance through the teaching process.
Subject
A subject is an area of interest also called a topic, an area of knowledge, the focus of a field
of study or the focus of a course of study.
Is a branch of knowledge studied in school etc e.g. physics
2.2.2 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT THEORIES & MODELS
Analyse the main developmental theories and models of curriculum
development.
Definition of the terms Theory and Model

The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge
depending on their methodologies and context of discussion. In science, a theory is a
mathematical or logical explanation or a testable model of the manner of interaction of a set
of natural phenomena, capable of predicting the future occurrences or observations of the
same kind and capable of being tested through experimentation or otherwise falsified through
empirical observations
A model on the other hand is a pattern, plan, representation or a description designed to show
the main object or workings of an object, system or concept.
A theory is bigger and more complicated than a model. A model forms part of the theory.
Models help us in theory building in the curriculum field. There are two types of models;
Graphical and Conceptual Models
a) Graphical model
This is in form of drawing or diagram that attempts to describe the components of a
curriculum and also explain the relationship among these components. Examples of graphical
model are: -
i) Tyler Model
ii) Taba Model
iii) Wheeler Model
 Conceptual models
Conceptual models deal with detailed ideas that explain a phenomenon and in this case the
curriculum components/elements. However the above models combine both graphical and
conceptual models
1. TYLER MODEL
Rhalp Tyler (1949) published a book entitled ‗Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction‘ He attempts to explain the rationale for constructing, viewing, analyzing and
interpreting the curriculum of an educational institution.
The first step involves raising four questions, which have to be answered if the process of
curriculum design is to proceed. They are:
i) What educational purposes should schools seek to attain?
ii) What educational experiences can be provided, that are likely to attain these
purposes?
iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
He explains that these four questions correspond with the four curriculum
elements/components, which respectively follow each other as:
i) Objectives
ii) Selection of learning experiences
iii) Organization of learning experiences
iv) Evaluation
Tyler‘s rationale recommends a simple four step process, by which curriculum is planned and
developed.
Formulation of objectives
Selection of learning experiences
Organization of learning experiences
Evaluation
According to Tyler the first step is the most crucial one in the whole process and the rest
proceed from it and are regulated by the statement of the objectives. The model is often
referred to as the Objective Model. He elaborated on this by recommending that the
educational objectives have to come from three sources:
a. Study of the learners
b. Study of the contemporary life in the society
c. Suggestions from subject specialists.
The objectives arrived at from the three sources:
Would be too many to be managed or could not be clear and specific. They therefore should
be filtered through the two screens.
 Philosophical screen
 Psychological screen
In psychological screens we deal with
 What interests the learner
 Mental abilities of the learner
 Needs of the student
In philosophical Screens we look at
 What knowledge is most worth?
 What knowledge should students obtain?
In this way a few final and well-refined objectives are arrived at. After they are formulated,
selection of appropriate learning experiences would follow, organization then suggesting how
learning will be evaluated to prove that objectives have been achieved.
A brief account of Tyler‘s model
a) Study of Learners – Involves identifying the needed change in learner‘s behaviour
pattern. The needs can be social, political or physical.
b) Study of contemporary life – Is identifying societal norms, values that children should
know. Children will live and work in the society therefore job analysis in world of work
is done. The societal problems are also considered.
c) Suggestions from subject specialist –teachers, writers and other educationist-Their

views are considered coz the basic concept of discipline taught in schools is based on the
subject specialist
Advantages of Tyler‘s model
i) It is logical and sequential
ii) It also forces curriculum developers to think seriously of the outcome of the intended
curriculum.
Disadvantages/criticisms
i) It is too simplistic and linear to be practical
ii) It does not adequately indicate the inter-relatedness of the component of the
curriculum.
iii) Does not provide for evaluation of objectives.
iv) It over emphasis the objectives thus ignoring the unintended (unplanned) outcome.
Due to the above criticisms, Tyler‘s students and other scholars later modified and refined the
Tyler‘s model.
2. TABA‘S MODEL
Hilda Taba was Tyler‘s student and 1962 wrote a book on ―Curriculum Theory and
Practice‖. In her book, she introduced the concept of Situational Analysis as the first step of
curriculum planning and development. In an attempt to show the inter-relatedness of the
stages of curriculum development, Taba came up with a quadratic model.
Hilda Taba‘s Quadratic Model
OBJECTIVES
EVALUATION LEARNING EXPERIENCES
CONTENT
Like Tyler, Taba‘s model stresses the importance of objectives. She says that ‗it‘s impossible
to make good decisions about the method of learning and teaching without considering the
objectives that students should attain. Taba emphasized the need for interrelating the
elements by saying this in her book ―it is especially important for a curriculum design to
make clear how the various elements are related to each other. A decision made about any
one element out of a relationship to others is bound to be faulty because each element
requires meaning and substance in the pattern that encompasses others.‘
NB: Taba replaces Tyler‘s organization of learning experiences with content
Similarities and differences of Taba‘s and Tyler‘s Model

 Both emphasis objectives
 Taba emphasizes relationship between various elements of curriculum but Tyler doesn‘t
Criticisms of Taba‘s Model
 Doesn‘t show the direction of relationship among the elements (no arrows)
 She isolates content from learning experiences yet it should be in the content of learning
experiences.
 She avoids the issue of organization of learning experiences
3. WHEELER‘S MODEL
In his book ‗The Curriculum Process‘ (1967), he reacted to the simplicity and linear nature of
Tyler‘s 4-stage model of the curriculum development process. He links up evaluation with
formulation of objectives to create a continuous cycle.
Aims/Goals/Objectives
Evaluation Organization & Integration of

learning experiences
Selection of content
Selection of learning experience
Disadvantages / Criticism
i) He doesn‘t bring out the dynamic inter-relatedness of the various curriculum elements
e.g. content is not related to aims, goals and objectives.
ii) Evaluation comes last, yet other scholars argue that evaluation should be done at
every stage.
iii) Relationship among the elements is one directional yet other scholars say that there is
inter-relatedness of every stage in the process i.e. it should be both directional.
2.2.3 NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION AND OBJECTIVES OF ECDE
CURRICULUM IN KENYA
 Discuss the national goals of education in Kenya in relation to Curriculum
Development.
 Analyse the objectives of early childhood education curriculum in Kenya.
Education in Kenya should:

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
Kenya‘s people belong to different communities, races and religion, but these differences
need not divide them. They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount
duty of education to help the youth acquire this sense of nationhood by removing conflicts
and by promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect, which enable them to live together in
harmony and foster patriotism in order to make a positive contribution of the life of the
nation.
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development
Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in
the life of the nation.
a) Social Needs
Education in Kenya must prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships,
which are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern economy. There
is bound to be a silent social revolution following in the wake of rapid modernization.
Education should assist our youth to adapt to this change.
b) Economic Needs
Education in Kenya should produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal
qualities that are required to support a growing economy. Kenya is building up a modern and
independent economy, which is in need of adequate domestic manpower.
c) Technological and Industrial Needs
Education in Kenya should provide the learners with the necessary skills and attitudes for
industrial development. Kenya recognizes the rapid industrial and technological changes
taking place especially in the developed world.
We can only be part of this development if our education system is deliberately focused on
knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare the youth for these changing global trends.
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and
personality. It should help children to develop their potential interests and abilities. A vital
aspect of individual development is character building.
4. Promote sound moral and religious values
Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitude that will
enhance acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow up into self-disciplined,
self-reliant and integrates citizens.
5. Promote social equality and responsibility
Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within an
education system, which provides equal educational opportunities for all. It should give all
children varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social
service irrespective of gender, ability or geographical environment.
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya‘s rich and varied cultures
Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures
and their valid place in contemporary society. The children should be able to blend the best of
the traditional values with the changed requirements that must follow rapid development in
order to build a stable and modern society.
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations.
Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and interdependent
network of peoples and nations. Education should therefore lead the youth of the country to
accept membership in this international community with all the obligations and
responsibilities rights and benefits that this membership entails.
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protections
Education should inculcate in the youth the value of good health in order to avoid indulging
in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It should foster positive attitudes
towards environmental development and conservation. It should lead the youth to appreciate
the need for a healthy environment.
2.2.4 OBJECTIVES OF ECDE CURRICULUM IN KENYA
The following are the objectives of Early Childhood Education Curriculum in Kenya.
a) To provide education geared towards development of the child‘s mental capabilities and
physical growth
b) To enable the child to enjoy living and learning through play
c) To develop the child‘s self-awareness, self-esteem and self-confidence
d) To enable the child develop understanding and appreciation of his/her culture and
environment
e) Foster the child‘s exploration, creativity, self-expression and discovery skills
f) To identify the child with special needs and align him/her with existing services
g) To enable the child to build good habits and acquire acceptable and behaviour for
effective living as an individual and a member of a group or society.
h) To foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child
i) To improve the status of the child‘s health, care and nutritional needs and link him/her
with health services such as immunization, health checkups and growth monitoring
j) To enrich the child‘s experiences to enable him/her cope better with primary school life
k) To develop the child‘s aesthetic and artistic skills.
2.2.5 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATORS CONTRIBUTION
 Evaluate the contribution of early childhood educators in the development of
early childhood curriculum.
JOHN AMOS COMENIUS
Comenius made a very important contribution in curriculum development as he was critical
of methods used at his time like violence. According to him, only extra-ordinary child would
acquire education.
He recommended that;
 Everything should follow the order of nature.
 There should be no more than one thing taught at a time
 Everything should be repeated many times to be understood
 Nothing should be memorized and instead it should be understood
 Everything should be taught without comparison with another

 Everything should be taught by experience and through step by step
 The Introduction of new knowledge should be associated with what is familiar.
Drama should be a characteristic of life not simply entertainment. He believed that a teacher
should build on foundation of spontaneous reactions. He also recommended four
grades/stages of instruction
a) School of birth (0-2years)
b) School of infancy (2-5years)
c) School of childhood (6-12 years)
d) School of adolescence (13-18 years)
JOHN LOCKE
He concerned himself with questions about development and general methods of education
for the young children, which have played an important role in curriculum development. His
Recommendations on how children should be taught included the following:
 Formation of right habits in early life
 The use of good parental examples than those rules that are hardly remembered
 Avoid excessive punishment on a child
 He suggested that children should be allowed to be children and not adults
 Closer attention should be paid to their different temperament and rhythms of
development-accommodate education programme to child.
 He associated a newborn baby with Tabula Rasa (empty slate) to be written by training,
circumstances, and experiences.
 Parents and tutors should pay attention to interests, words, and innate capacities and share
education plan in understanding the child.
 Formation of good habit was essential not sufficient. Careless parents were to blame for
upbringing of the child
 He stressed on inculcation of good manners and virtuous habits of mind as the main aim
of education.
The function of education is to help child know how to use his reason in learning how to
make decision. Unhappy experience cause student to dislike those parts of learning associated
with such experiences. Rewards are as dangerous as well as punishment as it means there is a
wrong motive behind child‘s disobedience. Rewards tempt the parent to over –indulgence
according to Locke.
He also proposed that, authority should be established firmly and quickly by the rod, if
necessary, to ensure the right kind of Child‘s effort. Praises and commendations are effective
in presence of other children. Faults are better revealed in private than in public. Playing
childish actions are to be left perfectly free and unstrained since they are necessary and
restrain will come naturally with time. Children should not be burdened by rules they cannot
remember, words and ideas they cannot understand.
Teachers must be of great integrity and take the place of parent laying foundation through
personal relations with each pupil or child. Locke recommends the use of facilitators rather
than schoolmasters as this gives the children a liking of what they propose to learn. Children
should be permitted to learn by themselves and be given enough time to learn. No coercion or
force should be used except in cases of disobedience.
JEAN PIAGET
Cognitive development refers to the ability to think, reason, and understand. It is not easy to
understand cognitive development in children and particularly infants because they cannot
tell us what they know and understand or what they think. However, we can study thinking
and knowing in children by observing their perceptions and their play as these reflects what is
going on in their minds.
Piaget theory of Cognitive Development
In his theory, Jean Piaget describes how children think and acquire knowledge. Piaget
believes that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage is characterized
by a particular way of thinking. There is also certain ways in which knowledge is obtained
from the environment during each of these stages. Piaget labeled the period of infant
intelligence as the sensorimotor period. During this stage infants obtain information
(knowledge) through their senses and action. As they develop, infants increasingly become
curious and seek to explore the environment. The sensorimotor stage extends from birth to 2
years of age. Thinking is displayed in action, such as the grasping, sucking and looking
schemes. The child gradually learns to discover the location of hidden objects at about 18
months, when the concept of object permanence is fully understood. Other stages that Piaget
suggested are: Pre-operational stage (2 to 6 years): Beginning of symbolic representation.
Language first appears and the child begins to draw pictures that represent things. The child
cannot represent a series of actions in his or her head in order to solve problems. Concrete
operation stage (6 to 12 years): the child encounters problems in understanding
conversations. The child has developed the ability to think of several dimensions or features
at the same time. They can now do elementary arithmetic problems, such as judging the
quantity of liquid containers and checking addition of numbers by subtraction. Formal
operation stage (12 years to adulthood): Thinking becomes more abstract and hypothetical.
The individual can consider many alternative solutions to a problem, make deductions,
contemplate the future and formulate personal ideas and values.
These stages have contributed in helping curriculum developers determine what level of
information or knowledge should be taught or learnt during a particular stage/age of growth
and development of a child.
Other Contributors such as Johann Pestalozzi, Maria Montessori, Fredrich Froebel and
John Dewey are discussed in UNIT 1
2.2.6 ECDE CURRICULUM ACTIVITY AREAS IN KENYA (CBC)
 Describe the Early Childhood Education Curriculum activity areas in Kenyas
Competency Based Curriculum – CBC).
Pre-primary Education
All learners are expected to begin their education at this level. It is a two year programme.
Subjects for Pre-primary (Two Years)
1. Language Activities
2. Mathematical Activities
3. Environmental Activities
4. Psychomotor and Creative Activities
5. Religious Education Activities
NB: Digital literacy and pertinent and contemporary issues will be integrated across all
Subjects.
Essence Statements for the Pre-primary Curriculum
1. Language Activities
Language is an important tool for facilitating learning as children use it to interact with their
immediate environment. It is a medium of communication and a critical component of
socialization as it equips learners with skills that are necessary for listening and speaking as
well as developing literacy skills. Language acquisition at the formative level of human
development is based on several theoretical frameworks attributed to a number of early
childhood specialists and theorists such as Tricia (2004).
The essence of this activity area is to develop oral, reading readiness and writing readiness
competencies in order to lay the foundation for language acquisition. In pre-primary
education, the medium of instruction is the language of the catchment area. The aim of
teaching language activities at pre-primary school level is to enable learners to express
themselves fluently and to assist them to improve the listening ability, concentration,
understanding and memory.
2. Mathematical Activities
Mathematical activities are important for laying a firm foundation for logical thinking and
problem solving. Learning mathematics at pre-primary level empowers children to engage in
basic analysis of problems and development of appropriate solutions in day to day life. It
enhances logical and critical thinking, accuracy and problem solving. During the early
childhood stage of development, learners are more engaged when using manipulative
(carbonneau et al, 201; Cocket and Kilgour, 2015). Similarly, Piaget and Bruner attest that
children at this level use hands-on manipulation to physically arrive at a mathematical
solution.
Pre-primary mathematics curricula should therefore comprise learning basic mathematical
concepts through manipulation of concrete objects and not abstract knowledge. Activities at
this level form a firm foundation for the acquisition of competencies in classification, number
and measurement skills.
3. Environmental Activities
Environmental activities entail the relationship between human beings and their environment.
These activities enable the child to develop positive relationships, appreciate the surrounding
environment and cultural heritage, develop observation and discovery skills, and acquire life
skills required to ensure safety in their environment. The curriculum must therefore offer
opportunities for the children to explore the environment around them in order to acquire
knowledge and skills that form the foundation for further learning. Exploration of the
environment allows unlimited opportunities for children to learn and satisfy their curiosity
and makes learning more fun for them.
The essence of environmental activities at the pre-primary level is to develop social,
experimentation and discovery, personal hygiene and safety skills among the children. Nature
study activities are best learnt through the inquiry method which includes simple
experimentation and observation. Social activities deal with acquisition of values and
attitudes which aid in the holistic development of an individual, while safety activities mainly
deal with life skills that ensure children remain safe and are not exposed to risks that may
endanger their lives.
4. Psychomotor and Creative Activities
Psychomotor and creative activities at pre-primary level enable learners to develop both fine
and gross motor skills which are necessary for the control and co-ordination of different parts
of the body. These activities enhance exploration and development of personal talents and
skills as well as appreciation of their cultural heritage.
Pre-primary physical and creative curriculum comprises play and learning activities through
which children exercise their bodies thereby facilitating blood and oxygen circulation for
healthy and strong growth and development as well creative activities through which children
develop their fine motor skills, imagination and creativity thereby developing their talents.
5. Religious Activities
Children need to participate in activities that integrate religion and moral values. Teachers
should help children to appreciate people of different religious backgrounds and to
differentiate right and wrong at an early age so they can grow up as upright members of the
society. Children need to be introduced to such values at an early age. Youniss et al (1999)
found that the importance of religion was consistently and positively associated with
engaging in service activities. It is therefore important to emphasize religious education in
schools in order to instil acceptable religious and moral values in young children.
Religious Education Activities at pre-primary level comprise learning about the supernatural
being (God). The aim of moral and religious activities at pre-school level is to develop
awareness and appreciation of the generosity, love and care of God in all He has created, and
to enable children to acquire the qualities of sharing, respect, kindness, getting along with
others.
2.2.7 KENYA INSTITUTE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (KICD)
 Explain the role of Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development in the development
of curriculum in Kenya.
 Discuss the stages of curriculum development at the KICD.
KENYA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION (KIE) – Now KICD
In Kenya, curriculum development is centralized. Its entrusted to the Kenya Institute of
Education
The events that led to the establishment of Kenya Institute of Education
In 1957, K.I.E started as an English Special Center (ESC) as a result of the need for
qualitative improvement for teaching of English.
In 1967 the Mathematics section was added for primary and secondary schools. This was
done within what was called the New Primary Approach (NPA).
The Kenya Institute of Education was established by the Education Act of 1968. Legal
Notice 105/1976 regulates the functions of the Institute. KIE plays an important role in the
development of curriculum implementation.
In 1968, KIE was established by an Act of Parliament as a full Curriculum Development
Center.
In 1976, KIE absorbed the school broadcasting division of the Ministry of Education, which
had grown into an education media service (EMS).
Today KIE is curriculum development and research center, which develops materials for use
in education at all levels, except universities.
In April 1964 as a direct result of the then University of East Africa (Makerere), KIE was
established after a conference on institute of education held in Mombasa and attended by
representatives from Ministry of Education in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda they were from
University of Dar-es-Salaam, Makerere and Nairobi.
The University of East Africa borrowed a leaf from University of London and established
institutes of Education at Makerere University College, Dar-es-Salaam and Kenya at
Kenyatta College now Kenyatta University.
In 1966, the curriculum development and research center and KIE at Kenyatta College were
merged to form the present KIE and was located at the Central Teachers College (was for
Indians) that‘s where KIE is located today.
The main functions and roles of the Institute are:
 Preparation of syllabuses for Pre-primary, Primary, Secondary, teacher and special
education, post school, technical and business education and adult and continuing
education; except for Universities.
 Preparation of teaching and evaluation materials that support syllabuses;
 Conducting in-service courses and workshops for teachers involved in carrying out
experiments and trials of any new syllabuses and teaching materials;
 Organization of seminars on all new and revised syllabuses and materials for inspectors
or schools and teachers in teacher training colleges;
 Organization of programmes for education officers to keep them informed of
developments that are taking place in education;
 Preparation of correspondence courses for students and teachers;
 Organization of courses, seminars and orientation programmes for the guidance of
teachers and education administrators;
 Co-ordination of educational research in Kenyan education institutions excluding
universities;
 Watchful in educational development in the world therefore see if there is a mismatch in
what is going on outside Kenya.
 Transmit programmes through mass media to support the development that take place in
education
 Hosting and course panels.
The products and services of the Institute include the following:
1. Early Childhood education syllabuses and books
2. Primary education syllabuses and books
3. Secondary education syllabuses and books
4. Special education syllabuses and books
5. Artisan technical training syllabuses, books and training manuals
6. Basic business studies syllabuses, books and training manuals
7. Syllabuses for proficiency training programs
8. Craft technical training syllabuses
9. Certificate business studies syllabuses
10. Non-formal education syllabuses and books
11. Diploma technical training syllabuses
12. Diploma business studies syllabuses
13. Higher diploma technical training syllabuses
14. Higher diploma business studies syllabuses
15. Educational videos and audio cassettes
16. Training of trainers/teacher programs and services

17. Video and audio cassettes dubbing services
18. TV and radio studio services
19. Outside TV and radio recording services
20. Library services
21. Printing services
22. Seminar and conference facilities
23. Special functions facilities
24. Catering services
STRUCTURE OF KICD
KICD has the following divisions
 Pre-School
 Primary
 Secondary
 Technical
 Teacher education division
 Research & Evaluation
 Education Media Services
K.I.C.D holds the following panels;
(i) Subject Panels: This is made up of subject specialists who review and advise on
curriculum matters of the subject areas. The monitor the curriculum and find out whether it‘s
meeting the objectives.
(ii) Course Panels: They are held at pre-primary, primary, secondary to teacher
education level. They also review curriculum at different levels and make recommendations
to proceed to the next level.
(iii) Academic board – This board concerns itself with academic matters that affect
education in Kenya and is answerable to the Director of Education.
2.2.8 STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AT THE K.I.C.D
Curriculum development can be defined as the process of choosing and defining the content
of an instructional programme. For example choosing what children should learn and
translate that choice to action. Curriculum development needs theory at the initial stages and
practice in the classroom. The process of curriculum development follows a certain sequence
or stages at the K.I.C.D.
1. POLICY FORMULATION
A policy is a strategic plan of action. It acts as guidelines on the activities to be carried out in
order to achieve a certain objective or goal. It is important to formulate policies in order to
know the extent of this process. Policies are formulated through a government directive to the
appropriate policy makers.
2. NEEDS ASSESSMENT
This stage is also known as situational analysis. It examines the needs of the society, learner,
community and the environment. In needs assessment one has to ask what are the needs and
interest of the people, and also identify what should be the practice. The difference between
the ideal and the practice is the discrepancy and the objectives of a curriculum are set to fill
these discrepancies or the gaps.
3. PLANNING
Curriculum planning is a broad process, which goes beyond making school programs. In the
curriculum planning, we outline broad policies, aims and objectives and program for
instructions in the whole of the organization of an education system. Curriculum planning
precedes all the stages like curriculum design, development, implementation and evaluation.
Process of curriculum planning
It involves two major processes;
a) Setting objectives or aims to be attained
b) Establishing an efficient procedure for attaining the objectives.
Long-term planning:
It is planning for education at all levels of the education system.
Short-term planning:
i) It is planning for specific aspects of the curriculum.
Curriculum Design
This is part of curriculum planning, which refers to the way in which the component parts or
elements of the curriculum have been arranged to facilitate instruction.
Central issues/problems of Curriculum Design include:
 The Scope: - It is the area coverage. The knowledge to be covered. It raises the questions
related to the breadth and depth of the content.
 Sequence: - The order in which to arrange the content
 Continuity: - Relates to the sequence. Refers to many occasions in which individuals will
experience content at various levels within an education system.
 Integration: - Emphasizes the horizontal relationship between various subject areas in an
attempt to inter-relate content or learning experience in order to enable students to
perceive a unity of knowledge e.g. mathematics (area) related to slope in geography.
Integration can be vertical or horizontal i.e. within a subject or subjects, across the
classes, different levels of education i.e. primary, secondary, and university.
Dimensions of Curriculum
Curriculum Design manifests itself along two basic dimensions of organization.
a) Horizontal Organization: - covers scope and integration. It is concerned with the side-
by-side arrangement of curriculum components.
b) Vertical organization: - covers sequence and continuity. Concerned with the
longitudinal arrangement of the Curriculum elements.
Importance of Curriculum Planning and Design
i) It assists the Curriculum developers focus attention on goals and objectives
ii) Increases the probability of success
iii) Facilitates communication and coordination of projects
iv) The economy of time, effort and materials is improved by designing
v) Reduces stress.
4. WRITING OF SYLLABUS
The syllabus outlines the main topics to be taught in a specific subject. The topics are
logically developed and presented by the teacher. The syllabus contains the national goals
and objectives of education in Kenya. It indicates teaching themes, the facilities and teaching
and learning resources needed at school, the sources of information or references, the period
and level of learning.
A syllabus is developed by subject specialists comprising of seasoned teachers, that is, those
teachers who have taught successfully for over 10 years. The panel also consists of Ministry
of Education officials from the KIE and the inspectorate and stakeholders in education like
the publishers
5. DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM SUPPORT MATERIALS
These are materials used during curriculum implementation. Examples include books,
educational videos, audiocassettes, educational guidelines and many more.
6. PREPARATION OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTERS
These implementers include the teachers, parents, society/community and the government.
Teachers are prepared by training them. The government is then charged with payment of
teachers‘ salaries.
Parents are prepared by creating awareness about the curriculum; they form part of the
community. This enables them understand the curriculum
7. PILOTING THE CURRICULUM
This involves testing the curriculum on the ground. Select schools of different characteristics
e.g. desert, agricultural, nomadic, lake region i.e. various environmental characteristics. At
the end of the pilot, evaluate what has been going on to determine the diagnostic, summative
experiences. If not satisfied go back to the curriculum called improvement.
8. IMPLEMENTATION
This is putting the curriculum into action. Make the curriculum clear to the people through
the following criteria:
a) Clarity i.e. making it clear to the people
b) Creating awareness
c) Provide resources i.e. textbooks, reading materials, pens, chalk, all facilities in the
workshop.
d) Change of attitude
e) Provision of skills, knowledge and attitudes to understand the curriculum.
f) Administrative support.
9. EVALUATION
This is the assessment done to establish whether the objectives of the curriculum have been
achieved. Evaluate what has been implementation. The following types of evaluation are
conducted.
 Diagnostic evaluation, which is done before implementation
 Formative evaluation, which is done during implementation
 Summative evaluation, which is done after implementation
10. SOCIAL MOBILIZATION
This includes the society at large. Here, we add what had not been implemented. The whole
curriculum process is being reviewed. The curriculum is improved and maintained.
In summary curriculum development can be narrowly defined as the process of choosing and
defining the content of the instructional program e.g. choosing what children should learn and
translate that choice into action. Curriculum development needs theory at the initial stages
and practice in the classroom.
The processes of Curriculum Development can be summarized as follows;
1. Selection of content for learning at subject level
2. Selection of learning experiences and activities
3. Organization of learning experiences and content
4. Creating an appropriate educational environment
5. Developing Curriculum materials or packages
6. Trying out the materials in sample schools
7. Training personnel and familiarizing the general public with the new curriculum
8. Curriculum implementation
9. Curriculum evaluation
10. Curriculum maintenance.
The aims should constitute
Goals: - guide education planners in planned specific curriculum tasks. Aims do not give us a
destination but direction. Goals give us destination. Goals limit education activities while
aims don not. Goals are deduced from aims. They are specific and provide teachers with what
is expected to be accomplished in a specific course, exist in a continuum. Course is specific.
A specific goal may include: learner should acquire, develop and maintain efficient body skill
fro body fitness.
Specific objective must contain
o Content
o Action
o Standard
ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
The components of curriculum include the following;
a) The Objectives
b) The content
c) Teaching and learning activities/experiences
d) Teaching and learning materials
e) Evaluation
A. AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
This refers to the end point/result. It is the first step of curriculum planning. Planning is not
possible without knowing the destination of the planner and the destination is normally the
objective towards which planning I directed. Curriculum is a means of achieving aims of
education.
B. TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Tyler (1994) explains that a learning experience is the interaction between the learner and the
external conditions. These external conditions include the content, teacher, fellow lecturers,
resource materials, teaching methods, aids and learning environment.
To achieve the identified objectives, the learner should undergo certain experiences. These
education experiences are the means of education. In school situation, there are a variety of
learning experiences and this can be perceived as a trinity comprising three dimensions of the
school curriculum namely: -
 Formal dimension
 Non-formal dimension
 Informal dimension
Formal Dimension
Refers to the common subjects of study e.g. math, Kiswahili, geography. The syllabus will
normally show objectives, content methodology, learning resources and the evaluation
procedures.
Non-formal Dimension
Includes activities which don‘t usually appear in the syllabus and yet they occupy a good part
of learners time also co-curricula, extra-curricula activities. These activities are normally
undertaken out of class in a free and relaxed atmosphere.
Informal dimension
This is a non-academic but educationally significant consequence in schooling. It is a non-
planned curriculum/hidden. Include the entire school environment comprising the programs,
personnel, and fellow students, guest in school and the physical environment of the school. It
is very difficult to plan.
According to Tyler, learning experience involves interaction between learner and conditions
within external environment to which the learners will react. There are ten criteria to govern
and guide the selection of learning experiences.
1. Conformity with objectives
The objectives selected should give students opportunity to practice the behaviour outlined by
objectives. Experience should conform to and be consistent with or even arise from the
objectives.
2. Validity
Learning Experience should be authentic or consistent with subject or knowledge area.
Knowledge should not be obsolete or out of date.
3. Significance
Learning Experience should be meaningful and contribute to the process of learning.
4. Learning Ability
Experiences should be adjusted to learners ability should be appropriate to students and
related to learners past or present life experiences.
5. Interest
Learning Experience should be stimulating, motivating, inviting and interesting.
6. Interaction
Learner should derive satisfaction from carrying out the kind of behaviour outlined in the
objectives.
7. Relevance
Learner must see school experience as being related to his / her life outside school. Learning
experience will reinforce what has been experienced at home. If what children experience at
school is similar to the experience before or should relate to a problem at home, they became
curious, attentive and eager to have a go at it.
8. Consistency with social reality

Learning of students should be supported by what goes on in the society e.g. sex education in
Kenya has found resistance because society does not encourage free talk on sex between
adults and children.
9. Economy
Learning Experience likely to bring about a number of learning outcomes rather than single
outcomes is usually more emphasized this permits economy in the use of time and space.
10. Reinforcement
Those experiences that reinforce previous or other experience in order to achieve objectives
are preferred.
Organizing of learning experiences
Learning Experience can be organized under subjects e.g. in: -
a) Subject centered curriculum design
b) Learner centered curriculum design
C. CONTENT
This is what the curriculum contains. There is a criterion for selecting curriculum components
as follows;
1. Utility
Useful content should be selected because can be used in solving some of the problems that
are outlined in objectives should be related or relevant to life outside school.
2. Goals of Human Development
Content should contribute to goals of human development that is should be adapted towards
improvement of human being therefore society. They focus on moral values, social problem
efficient and effective thinking processes and all round development of individual.
3. Validity
Content must relate to objectives of the curriculum. As objectives angled, content should also
be angled.
4. Interest
Selected content should be interesting to the learner therefore provide for learner‘s needs.
D. TEACHING AND LEARNING MATERIALS
These include the materials necessary for use during curriculum implementation in order to
achieve the intended objectives. Examples include books, chalkboard, charts, pictures, pens,
films, videos, realia etc
E. EVALUATION
It is the process of determining the extent to which curricula objectives are being or have
been achieved. It helps in making decisions related to changing developing and improving the
curriculums.
2.2.9 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AGENTS & CURRICULUM CHANGE IN
KENYA
 Describe the role of various curriculum development agents in Kenya.

 Describe the factors that influence curriculum change in Kenya.
There are various agencies, which deal with aspects of curriculum development alongside
and in addition to the KICD. These are: -
a) THE INSPECTORATE
Concerns with matters of curriculum development as the Chief inspector of schools and
chairman of course panel at KICD, inspector of schools are full members of all subject and
course panel at KICD according to their areas of specialization. In addition, inspectorate is
responsible for control of quality of education at instructional level of the education system.
The inspectorate controls the implementation of curriculum development. The inspectorate
coordinates exams at various levels. The chief school inspector is the chairperson of
professional committee of KNEC. The inspectorate therefore plays an important role at the
evaluation stage of curriculum development. It is also responsible for syllabus approval as
well as instructional materials before they are used in schools.
b) KENYA NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS (KNUT)
Involves itself in the following ways: -
i) Encouragement and improvement of the morale and efficiency of teachers, which
promotes effective curriculum implementation.
ii) Evolution of relevant code of behaviour for guidance of teachers in the service.
iii) Participates through representation at course and subject panel at KIE and various
professional committees at KNEC.
c) KNEC (KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL)
a) Its main curriculum development function of KNEC is that, it carries out summative
evaluation at school and college curricula. It achieves this by conducting such
academic, technical and professional exams within Kenya as it may consider desirable
in the public interest.
b) Strengthens curriculum implementation process by generating data on students‘
performance, which is readily utilised by curriculum developers in their curriculum
appraisal.
c) Involved in all aspects of curriculum development that is ;
 Planning
 Implementation
 Evaluation
PIE – Planning: Implementation: Evaluation.
KNEC maintains close working relationships with the KICD and Inspectorate
d) RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS
Participate effectively in curriculum development through representation at the KIE
governing council, Academic Board, Course Panels and the Religious Education Subject
Panel both at primary and secondary level.
e) TAC (Teachers Advisory Centers)
TAC is expected to:
Close the gap between curriculum developer and classroom teacher. In this respect provide
information to teachers, facilities, book loans, organize local in-service courses, informal
curricula meetings, consultancy services for teachers, give ideas on resources for teaching.
The TAC plays a major role in curriculum implementation maintenance at school level for
both primary and secondary.
f) TEACHERS SERVICE COMMISSION (TSC)
TSC employs teachers who implement the curriculum. It is also concerned with the
deployment of teachers to various schools where their services are required and also make
sure that each public school, both primary and secondary, has enough teachers and that all
subjects are catered for. TSC sets the code of conduct for teachers, rules and regulations,
terms and conditions of work and determines and strategizes promotion, demotion and
transfer procedures.
g) PRIVATE TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Private institutions and colleges play a very important role in implementing the K.I.E
curriculum. Since public institutions cannot handle all the training and implementation of the
curriculum, private institutions come in handy and assist in this curriculum development and
implementation. The evaluation of the curriculum is done by the same bodies e.g. KNEC.
h) UNIVERSITIES
Universities prepare curriculum implementers in form of graduate teachers who teach at
secondary and college levels. These teachers are also involved in the evaluation of the
curriculum by setting and marking of the examinations. Universities also conduct research in
curriculum development areas/fields, which form the basis of curriculum development, and
implementation in the schools in Kenya. University professors also assist in drawing or
designing the curriculum since they have a wide knowledge in the curriculum field. After the
evaluation of curriculum at secondary and college levels, those who pass are admitted to the
universities to further their education and develop their careers.
i) MADRASSA RESOURCE CENTRES
It plays a very important role in the implementation of the curriculum. It educates learners on
the morals values of the Muslim culture and religion. The centers provide materials that relate
to the Muslim faith e.g. books. Teachers are trained to examine a child carefully. For
example, a child‘s eyesight by showing him/her numbers from a chalkboard or by throwing
objects from different angles. They also test the child‘s hearing by checking his/her ability to
listen to various sounds. These centers also assist in curriculum development and
implementation since they prepare the Islamic subjects taught in schools, set and mark the
exams.
j) OTHER AGENCIES INCLUDE;
Kindergarten Headmistress Association (KHA), which is made up of kindergarten head
teachers who have come together to form an association concerned with Early Childhood
Education and Development and comes up with approaches/methods of teaching young
children. Montessori is also another agency that plays a crucial role in development and
implementation of the curriculum, since its founder Maria Montessori (an Italian) suggested a
number of methods of teaching and activities that young children should engage in, at ECD
centers. Her theories have played important role in the development of curriculum in Kenya.
2.2.10 CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION
There is nothing like a perfect curriculum for all ages. As the environment changes and the
societies portray new needs, the curriculum must keep changing to address these needs. A
change in the society will provoke changes in the school curriculum since the school is a
social institution, serving the society. Change usually aims to improve the curriculum.
Change can be minor, medium or major.
A minor change may involve rearrangement of sequence of subject content or addition of one
topic or method. A medium change may involve integration of subjects or introduction of a
new subject or a new approach. A major change may affect many aspects of the curriculum
e.g. content, methods, approaches, materials and curriculum revision and structural
organization. An innovation is a type of change in which something new is added to existing
phenomena. It is an idea or practice, which is perceived as new by people adopting it.
FACTORS CAUSING CURRICULUM CHANGE/INNOVATION
1. Social and Demographic factors
Changes in curriculum may come out of a need to deal with the current population problem
e.g. the idea of sex education, AIDS awareness, Social Education and Ethics in secondary
schools etc.
2. Economic factors
Many changes in the school curriculum have come about due to certain economic problems.
For example, unemployment has forced many educational institutions to change their
curricula in order to provide skills and knowledge needed in the labour market.
3. Politics
A government can either promote or block curriculum projects. Curriculum change can be
affected by a new government in order to align education to political framework or policies
ideology e.g. at independence in Kenya when aims of education were radically changed.
4. Technological factors
Schools may change their programme to cope with new technology. With the new computer
age, technology is putting a lot of pressure on the programmes and the activities of the
school. Technological changes may also raise moral problems such as pollution, birth control
and abortion, which must be addressed by the school curriculum. The use of electronic
machines e.g. computers has led to initiation of computer education curriculum.
5. Epistemological factors
Knowledge is the prime source of the curriculum and its change may provoke change in
curriculum. Knowledge is in a state of flux or expansion. New theories and concepts are
emerging daily. Hence the curriculum has to change in line with the new realities about the
nature of the child and how learning occurs.
6. Physical factors
Climatic change may cause curriculum change so as to teach the youth new skills and
attitudes of dealing with the new physical conditions. For example, Environmental Education
curriculum is a result of this.
7. Government policies
Government policies can influence curriculum change, for example, the introduction of the
Free Primary Education and subsequent introduction of Free Secondary Education in Kenya.
8. Emerging Issues
These are issues that have come up and affect curriculum change. They include;
 Post-elections violence that has left most people displaced
 Natural calamities e.g. floods in Budalangi
 Deadly diseases such as HIV/AIDS
 Increased rate of drug and substances abuse among the youth
 Child trafficking and abuse

 Gender inequality and discrimination
 Insecurity and rape cases
 Introduction of computers in schools
 High unemployment rate
 Rural-urban migration
 Globalization, the need to become global citizens.
2.2.11 ISSUES AFFECTING ECDE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN
KENYA
LEARNING OUTCOME: By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 Assess the issues affecting the implementation of ECDE curriculum in Kenya.
A. TEACHER ISSUES
a) Curriculum Balance
How to achieve balance in the curriculum causes a persistent dilemma in curriculum
decision-making and yet balance has been and remains an idealized criteria for deciding a
upon curriculum content.
A balanced curriculum implies structure and order in its scope, which leads to the
achievement of educational objectives. It is taken to mean an educational program, which
adequately ensures that each educational objective is achieved. It should contain just enough
of each kind of subject matter to serve its purposes and speed up development of the learner.
In Kenya curriculum balance problem can be seen in the following dimensions:
(i) Science subjects vs. Arts and Humanities
(ii) Rural vs. Urban dichotomy
(iii) Technical and Vocational subjects vs. Academic subjects.
Balance is not easy to achieve and conceptually an ideal balance should exist for each student
regarding all curriculum elements. True balance is unattainable due to the fact that curriculum
and the society are always in a state of dynamism or flux.
b) Teacher Wastage (attrition)
It‘s an important issue to education planners. The attrition rate is mainly brought about by
causes such as: -
(i) Retirement
(ii) Resignations – attributed to poor salaries, professional environment, personal factors,
job dissatisfaction and lack of professional growth (promotion).
c) Provision of curriculum equity and quality
 Gender disparity
 Cultural beliefs
 Ethnicity
 Endowment (rich and poor)

B. GENDER ISSUES IN ECD
From time immemorial, the Kenyan people have had misconceptions of the terms gender and
sex roles. It is important to clarify that gender does not only refer to the girl child because in
some areas the boy child is also an endangered special.
Definitions
Sex: Is a biological classification of male and female sex is natural and unchangeable.
Nobody is to blame for their sex since they had no choice. Nobody chose to be male or
female.
Sex roles are natural and unchanging. It is quite natural that females get pregnant and give
birth while males don't. This is unchanging.
Gender
Is a social construction between men and women, a pre-determined assignment of male and
female roles. Gender roles vary from one culture and one society to another for example In
Maasai community; it is women‘s duty and role to construct houses. In most Bantu
communities this is a male role.
Gender roles are not static.
The involvement of the Kenyan population in issues of gender disparity has increased in all
sectors of education regarding enrollment, retention and perform once. The United Nations
Charter 1945 stressed the need for equal rights between men and women. In l979 the UN
Gender Assembly ratified the convention on the Elimination of all forms of As crimination
Against women (CEDAW). This came into force in 1981.
The Jomtien declaration 1990 Education for All (EFA) the year 2000. The summit for
children, 1990 called [or Universal Primary Education and the right for every child to
education. The Kenya government ratified all the above conventions.
In 1994, global statistics indicated that 130 million children had no access to primary
Education. Out of those 81 million were girls, 26 million of whom were in sub-Saharan
Africa. The Ministry of Education on Gender Issues. Gender issues in Primary Education are
pegged at three major areas:
o Access/enrollment
o Retention / persistence
o Performance / achievements
a) Expenditure on primary school education was increased.
b) Feeding programmes was introduced in selected areas affected by poverty.
c) Introduced boarding schools
d) Introduced bursary funds for bright students from poor families
e) Gender sensitization workshops were organized and carried out for stakeholders in
education.
f) A gender unit at the Ministry headquarters was set up.
g) A National Task Force on Gender and Education (NTFGE) was set up.
h) A data bank on gender desecrated data, which is useful in planning for education, was set
up.
i) Currently, the ministry is in the forefront on the ongoing girl-child project which is
supported by UNICEF.
j) It is also involved in lobbying for the support of girls education.
Gender Disparities in the Kenyan Education System
There are gender disparities in the Kenyan education system regarding access and
performance. The most affected girls. The disparities increase as you climb the educational
ladder. There's need to find out and address the factors that contribute to these disparities.
Classical thinkers e.g. Rousseau and Plato assign different roles and an equal set of mental
and physical capabilities to women and men.
They propagated capabilities the theory that the ultimate aim of female education was to
produce women who would be admirable and pleasing to men and bear children. These
theories have tendered to promote the traditional fallacies and stereotype in terms of
education for girls. There is need to rise above stereotype in education planning and
implementation.
Most of these theories of gender identity and education try to plain how early childhood
Development and other forms of socialization shape gender roles. These theories should be
approached erratically because they form part of the social construction, which perpetuate
gender stereotypes.
There is need for instruction and change of attitude of community towards education for boys
and girls. The whole education process should be geared towards:
 Equality of boys and girls
 Justice
 Human rights
 Equitable development
C. HIV and AIDS
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus; is a very minute virus that weakens the body's
immune system and makes it less able to resist sickness. People with HIV in their body
eventually develop AID.
AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is a rapidly growing public health problem
in Kenya. In less than a decade, AIDS has evolved from a fulminate, rapidly fatal illness to a
chronic disease. So far it is estimated that over 2 million people have been infected Kenya
since 1985 when the first case of AIDS was reported.
Modes of Transmission
HIV is found in the blood and in sexual fluid. This means that HIV is spread ways:
a) Through Sex
b) Through Infected blood
c) From mother to baby
It is possible today however for infected mothers to give birth to healthy babies if they report
earlier. They can be given special treatment to prevent the unborn baby.
As soon as HIV enters your body you become infectious and can therefore infect others
Socioeconomic consequences of HIV in Kenya:
1. Most of the Kenyan hospital beds are occupied by AIDS patients. This has increased
spending on health services.
2. Various sectors of government are losing experienced workers thus declined labour
productivity.
3. Majority of those infected are between 20 - 40 years of age. These are the
breadwinners in most families hence their dependents are suffering.
4. Most AIDS Victims are in urban areas. A lot is spent when transporting them rural
areas.
5. The government is losing its think tank since the affected are in their most productive
age. This means the government is losing a lot in terms of retraining deployment and
expense.
6. Insurance Covers are now very high.
7. HIV/AIDS affects ones chances for education, social security, as well as ones life
span.
8. AIDS destroys ones self-esteem, curtails personal freedom, has devastating
psychological effects and is always a neighbour-rare
9. Many children have been orphaned & will be because of high death rate of parents,
AIDS orphans unlike other orphans suffer from stigma, rejection, discrimination and
this may lead to defiant and antisocial behaviour.
10. Increased child labour.
11. Increased street children
Effects on ECD
Effects of HIV/AIDS on ECD are numerous:
1. AIDS not only threatens children's lives it also denies them the opportunity to enjoy a
normal family with the security of having parents.
2. AIDS makes it extremely difficult for affected children to achieve the goals of survival,
development, protection and participation in life.
3. AI DS orphans unlike other orphans suffer from stigma; rejection discrimination and this
may lead them to develop defiant and antisocial behaviour.
4. The number of street children has increased alarmingly in all parts of Kenya going as low
as the age of 3 years.
5. Increased child labour and other forms of child abuse.
Support for Those Infected and Affected
1. Guidance and Counseling
2. Provide them with balanced diet.
3. Treat them whenever they fall sick.
4. Keep them clean
5. Provide spiritual nourishment
6. Educate them on HIV matters to avoid their getting infected or re-infected.
7. Give them love and affection
Community Involvement
There're a number of ways through which AIDS education activities can be carried in the
community. These include:
1. Peer education:
 Formal
 Informal
 Non-formal
2. Parental education
3. Meetings:
 Public barazas
 PTA meetings
 Religious meetings
 Women's meetings
 Club and Societies meetings.
Prevention/Control
There're many ways of preventing and controlling HIV/AIDS
1. Have one sex partner who is HIV negative.
2. Treatment of sexually transmitted disease

3. Abstaining from sex till marriage
4. Condom use (not 100% full proof; ideally abstinence is the best)
5. A void sharing of sharp instruments e.g. blade, knives, and ear piercing needles with
others.
6. A void sharing toothbrush and combs
7. Cover open wounds to avoid getting into contact with other peoples blood.
8. Avoid using un-sterilized needles, syringes.
9. Blood should be screened before transfusion.
10. Youth should be advised to have proper use of their free time.
11. Avoid wife inheritance.
D. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
This is the redistribution of populations from the rural to urban settlement. According to UN-
HABITAT 2006 Annual Report, the majority of people worldwide will be living in towns or
cities, for the first time in history. The migration from rural to urban centers affects the
implementation of curriculum in that, those in charge of its implementation, for example the
teachers, learners, parents and other members of the community have also move to the urban
areas in search of better livelihood and opportunities. This leaves a vacuum in the rural areas
because we tend to have concentration of teaching and learning resources in the urban areas
at the expense of those in rural areas.
E. FREE PRIMARY EDUCATION (FPE)
This was introduced in the year 2002. The introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) has
indeed affected the implementation of ECD curricula in Kenya. For instance;
a) Teachers are over-worked and therefore are unable to give individual attention to
children. Some single classes have been reported to house more than 100 pupils which
means there is congestion in classrooms living no space for movement.
b) Since the inception of FPE and the increased number of pupils in a given class, teachers
remain lowly paid, which translates to low performance and lack of much needed morale.
More teachers have not been employed to cater for the teacher-pupil ratio.
c) Most parents have chosen to delay their children until the age of primary school as a
result of FPE. This means that ECD curriculum is not implemented for lack of children at
the ECD centers
d) Introduction of FPE has led to over stretching of physical facilities, teaching and learning
resources needed for implementing the ECD curriculum, which has dealt a major blow in
its implementation.
e) When introducing the FPE, the government did not include the ECD centers and there has
not been a clear policy on ECD issues. This leads to lack of emphasis on ECD curriculum
and its implementation
F. DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Teachers are not willing to leave and work in areas that are affected by drought.
Consequently, children will not attend school with empty stomach, as this would interfere
with learning. Famine, which is brought about by prolonged drought, leads to lack of food;
water, which are basic requirements for child growth, development and learning. Other
ailments are as a result of malnutrition.
G. GOVERNMENT POLICY
The government through the Ministry of Education has not come up with clear policies on
issues relating to ECD for examples, ECD teachers employment guidelines and policies. This
makes ECD curriculum implementation difficult. The UNESCO and the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have undertaken a joint early childhood
policy review involving three regions of the world; Latin America, Asia and Africa. In the
African region, Kenya was selected to participate in the review given its notable experience
in the area of ECD and its relatively high rates of participation of young children in these
services. The purpose of the review is to provide an opportunity to critically review the
country‘s early childhood policies and identify concrete measures, both options and strategies
to improve them.
A stakeholder‘s consultation was convened on 28 September 2004 at the National Centre for
Early Childhood care and Education (NACECE) and Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and
presented the findings and discussed salient issues and concerns as regard to ECD policy
development in Kenya. The government of Kenya is a signatory to various international
commitments including Convention on the Rights of the Child, World Declaration on
Education for All (EFA), the EFA Dakar Framework of Action.
Stakeholders suggested the need for more information and accuracy on the number of
children being reached and those not being reached by ECD programmes, young children
orphans and those with special needs. They also suggested that ECD environment and
physical facilities be made disability-friendly. They argued that free primary education
should cover at least nursery class (pre-unit) with this stipulated in the ECD policy. Other
suggestions included;
 Harmonization of different ECD curricula, that is, Kindergarten Headquarters Association
(KHA), Montessori and the District Center for Early Childhood Education (DICECE)
 Specialized training for ECD teachers in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs)
 Curricula revision in training of primary school teachers to include the aspects of learning
and developmental transition from ECD to Primary school
 Special needs education to be streamlined into the ECD curriculum.
 Train ECD educators on psycho-social support to enable then handle special
circumstances, for example, young children affected by HIV and AIDS.
 Primary school head teachers and staff require a grasp of ECD principles
 Establish avenues for community health workers to be able to attend the needs of children
in ECD programmes
 The government should top-up salaries for ECD teachers and there should be community
based ownership of ECD
They came up with the following recommendations
 The need to establish a union for ECD teachers
 Male to seek employment as ECD teachers to bring gender balance in ECD centers
 Formulation of guidelines for employment and conditions of service for ECD teachers.
 Decentralize the sales of ECD books from the KIE to enhance distribution and access by
ECD teachers and ECD centers
 There should be more parent education, sensitization and community mobilization on
ECD issues.
The government of Kenya is expected to implements these recommendations and come up
with clear policy framework on issues relating to ECD.
H. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES
A major obstacle in the implementation of ECD curriculum in Kenya is poverty. Even with
the introduction of free education, most students still do not attend school for lack of basic
things like food, cloths (uniform), diseases and so on. Those who attend school are not
interested in learning but food that is provided as part of the schools feeding programme.
Most parents cannot afford a better living and therefore engage their children in commercial
activities in order to earn an extra coin. Studies show that most families in Kenya live under
less than a dollar a day or below poverty line. Since teaching is not one of the most lucrative
jobs in Kenya, most professionally trained teachers have changed their teaching careers to
more paying jobs, dealing another blow to curriculum implementation.
ASSIGNMENT (Compulsory – 50 marks)
1. List down 5 professional teacher documents used in your school. [5marks]
2. Find out how the Dr. Oluoch‘s Curriculum Model suits Kenya‘s curriculum development.
[5marks]
3. Do you think that the goals of education in Kenya have been achieved? Explain using
relevant examples. [5marks]
4. Suggest the most appropriate way of achieving each of the ECDE objectives in your
school. [5marks]
5. Which theory would you prefer to adopt while teaching pre-school children and why?
[5marks]
6. Why is it important to teach basic concepts to children in form of learning activities?
How would you prepare for such activities? [5marks]
7. What challenges do educators face while developing ECDE curriculum in Kenya?
[5marks]
8. Suggest other important agents OR institutions that have played a major role in
curriculum development and implementation in Kenya. [5marks]
9. Discuss the most current change in both Pre-school and Primary school curriculum and
the reason for the change. [5marks]
10. Discuss any five issues/challenges that affect Early Childhood Education in your school
or community. [5marks]
6012 (MODULE TWO - UNIT 3)

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction to the module
This unit examines the nature and scope of psychology as a foundation for understanding
human development. Learning theories relevant to ECDE and their contributions on how
children learn are discussed. In addition, key concepts in psychology such as intelligence,
memory, motivation, concept formation, sensation, perception, attitudes, emotions and
factors influencing learning have also been highlighted.
Objectives of this unit
1. Define the terms used in general psychology
2. Describe the nature and scope of general psychology
3. Discuss learning theories relevant to ECDE
4. Discuss factors influencing learning
5. Evaluate how teachers can apply the information on learning
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS
 Define the terms and concepts used in General Psychology.
Psychology: It is a scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It is a science that
studies observable behaviour and mental life or our conscious experiences. We talk of
behaviour rather than feeling or thoughts because we can observe or measure a person‘s
behaviour. Behaviour cannot be only seen but can be recorded and studied. To be scientific in
our study of psychology, we concern ourselves mainly in what is overt, observable and what
is measurable.
Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behaviour potential that result
from ones experience or practices. It is an enduring change in observable behaviour. It
excludes temporary or change in behaviour brought about by drugs, illness, maturation,
motivation, inhabitation or physical deformity. Not all changes in behaviour are brought
about and controlled by learning.
Memory: it is a term that cognitive psychologists used to describe the way in which people
retain information and retrieve it for use at a later time. It is mental function of retaining
information about stimuli after the original stimuli are no longer present.
Motivation: it is an internal process that activates, energizes and maintains behaviour over
time in order to satisfy some need. It gives impetus behaviour by arousing and sustaining and
directing it towards the attainment of a goal. Motivation regulates our behaviour and is
always purposeful.
Concept formation: It is a process of development from childhood to adolescence that takes
place by way of ‘qualitative new acquisitions‘ (Vygotsky). Concepts are mental categories
used to group objects, events, information, etc.
Sensation: It occurs when any sense organ receives a stimulus from the external or internal
environment. Most sensation occurs without our knowledge.
Perception: It is an endowing sensory experience with meaning and order. It is the way we
select, organize and interpret sensory input to achieve an understanding of our environment.
It is an internal analysis of sensations by the brain.
Intelligence: It is an individual ability to understand complex ideas to adapt effectively to the
environment, to learn from experience to engage in various forms of reasoning and to
overcome obstacles by careful thought.
Emotions: Comes from a Latin word emovere, which means excite, agitate, stir-up or move.
Emotions are complex patterns that include physiological and psychological responses that
influence perception, learning and response. Include feelings i.e. joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love
that generally have both psychological and cognitive elements that influence behaviour.
Attitudes: Is a learned predisposition or mental readiness to view social world within defined
categories of goodness and badness and the predictable manners. Attitude is an enduring
system of positive and negative emotional feelings and actions with respect to attitude,
objects which include people, items, structures, values and so on.
CHAPTER 2:
NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
 Describe the nature and scope of General Psychology.
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and the factors that influence it. Psychologists
use the term behaviour very broadly to refer both to actions that we can directly observe and
to inner processes such as thoughts, feelings, images, and physiological reactions. In their
search for the causes of these diverse forms of behaviour, psychologists take into account
biological, psychological and environmental factors.
The science of psychology relates to virtually every aspect of our lives. It explores the nature
and causes of our behaviour and feelings, our motives and thoughts. Psychology has also
assumed an increasingly important role in solving human problems and promoting the
welfare of the inhabitants of this complex and rapidly changing world. As you will discover,
psychologists are concerned with an enormous range of questions about behaviour. The
following is just a sample of the issues we will be viewing through the window of
psychology:
 How do we remember, think, and reason?
 How do drugs alter brain functioning and thereby affect consciousness and behaviour?
 What makes us fall in love?
 How does one‘s culture influence behaviour?
 What are the causes of aggression, and how can aggression be controlled?
 How do our genes affect our abilities, personality, and behaviour?
 Which child-rearing methods produce psychologically healthy adults?
 Why do we sleep, and what functions do our dreams serve? What brain processes regulate
sleep and dreaming?
 What are the causes of mental disorders and addictions, and how can they be treated or
prevented?
 To what extent are our actions controlled by unconscious factors?
 Can stress kill? What are effective ways of coping with stress?
Because behaviour is so complex and so personal, its scientific study poses special
challenges. As you become familiar with the kinds of evidence necessary to validate
scientific conclusions, you can become a better-informed consumer of the many claims made
in the name of psychology. For none thing this course will teach you that many widely held
beliefs about behaviour have no basis in fact. That‘s important to know for, as the American
revolutionary War General Artemus Ward pointed out, “It ain’t much so much the things we
don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so.” Perhaps even
more important than the facts you learn in your psychology course will be the habits of
thought that you acquire. As you develop the skills of critical thinking, you will learn to ask
several very important questions when told about a new ―fact‖:
 ―What exactly are you asking me to believe?‖
 ―How do you know: What‘s the evidence?‖
 ―Are there other possible explanations?‖
We want you to leave your introductory psychology course with improved critical thinking
skills, and with the ability to analyse behaviour and its causes. These skills will serve you
well in many areas of your life.
PSYCHOLOGY AS A BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE
As scientist, psychologists employ a variety of research methods for developing and testing
theories about behaviour and is causes. A distinction is sometimes made between basic
research, the quest for knowledge purely for its own sake, and applied research, which is
designed to solve specific practical problems. In psychology, the goals of basic research are
to describe how people behave and to identify the factors that influence or cause a particular
type of behaviour. Such research may be carried out in the laboratory or in real-world
settings. Applied research often uses principles discovered through basic research to solve
practical problems.
Let us consider an example of the link between basic and applied research. In this case a
classic research study carried out more than a generation ago inspired a more recent
educational strategy designed to reduce interracial conflict and increase learning in
multicultural schools.
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
As scientists, psychologists have four basic goals:
1. To describe how people and other animals behave
2. To understand (explain) the causes of these behaviour
3. To predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions
4. To control, or influence, behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes.
METHODS OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Research methods chosen depend upon:
 The problem being studied
 Investigator‘s objective
 Ethical principles
Research methods include:
1. Descriptive Research
The most basic goal of science is to describe phenomena. This method seeks to identify how
humans and other animals behave particularly in their natural settings. It gives information
about diversity of behaviour, can be used to test hypotheses, and may yield clue about
potential cause-effect relations that are later tested experimentally.
a) Naturalistic Observation
Researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting. It is used extensively to study

human behaviour.
b) Survey Research
Information about a topic is obtained by administering questionnaires or interviews to many
people. Survey questions typically ask about participants‘ attitude, opinions and behaviours.
For example, do you sometimes have difficulty falling asleep? Have you ever fallen asleep
while driving?
Two key concepts in survey research are ‗population‘ and ‗sample‘. A population consists of
all individuals that we are interested in drawing conclusion about. However, it is impractical
to study everyone. Therefore we would administer the survey to a sample, which is
group/subset of individuals drawn from a larger population of interest.
2. Correlation Research
It involves measuring variables, not manipulating them. Countless psychological questions
ask about associations between naturally occurring event or variable e.g. which factors
distinguish happily married couples from those headed for divorce? Is monetary wealth
related to happiness? To examine such relationship scientists typically conduct correlation
research, which in its simplest form has three components:
i) The researcher measures one variable (X), such as monetary wealth.
ii) The researcher measures a second variable (Y), such as happiness.
iii) The researcher statistically determines whether X and Y are related.
3. Experiments
They are powerful tool for examining cause-and-effect relations. For psychologists,
experimentation is the most direct method for testing explanations of why phenomena occur.
It tests different variables to come up with a conclusion:
a) Independent variables
Independent variables refer to the factor that is manipulated by the experimenter.
b) Dependent variable
A dependent variable is a factor that is measured by the experimenter and may be influenced
by the independent variable. To keep this distinction clear, remember that dependent
variables depend upon independent variable.
c) Experimental groups
It is the group that receives a treatment or an ‗active level‘ of the independent variable.
d) Control group
It is a group not exposed to the treatment. It receives a zero-level of independent variable. Its
importance is to provide a standard of behaviour to which our experimental group can be
compared.
THE SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
There are different fields within Psychology. Modern-day Psychology is a sprawling
intellectual domain that stretches the borders of medicine and biological sciences to those of
the social sciences and on into the realm of philosophy. Because of the enormous breadth of
psychology‘s subject matter, no psychologist can be an expert on all aspects of behaviour,
just as no physician can be an expert in all areas of medicine. As in other scholarly
disciplines, areas of specialization have emerged within psychology. Some major areas are
described below: -
a) Clinical Psychology
Deals with diagnosis and treatment of emotional disorders; research on personality and
abnormal behaviour.
b) Counseling Psychology
This deals with the consultation with clients concerning personal adjustment and vocational
and career plans, interests and aptitude testing.
c) Educational Psychology
It is concerned with the psychological aspects of educational process; curriculum and
instructional research; teacher training.
d) Experimental Psychology
Deals with research on basic psychological processes such as learning, memory, perception
and motivation, much of it conducted in a laboratory setting.
e) Industrial Psychology
It deals with the examination of behaviour in work settings, study of factors related to morale
and productivity, design of training programs, design of machines and tasks to fit human
capabilities.
f) Developmental Psychology
It is the study of physical, mental, emotional, and social development across the entire life
span.
g) Social Psychology
Social psychology deals with all aspects of social behaviour and the conditions that affect it.
h) Personality Psychology
Personality psychology deals with study of individual differences in personality and their
effects on behaviour, factors involved in personality development and change.
i) Physiological Psychology
Deals with biological foundations of behaviour; brain/behaviour relationships, genetic
processes, and the functioning of sensory and motor systems.
j) Quantitative Psychology
Deals with measurement and data analysis, development of mathematical models of
behaviour, computer science.
A career in most of the fields described above requires a doctoral degree based on four to six
years of training beyond the bachelor‘s degree. Graduate training in psychology includes
broad exposure to the theories and body of knowledge in the field, concentrated study in one
or more of these fields, and extensive training in research methods. In some areas such as
clinical, counseling, school and industrial organizational psychology, an additional year or
more of supervised practical experience in a hospital, school clinic, or workplace setting is
generally required.
CHAPTER 3:
LEARNING THEORIES
 Discuss various learning theories that are relevant to ECDE.
1. OPERANT CONDITIONING – B.F. SKINNER
Operant Conditioning is learning that is based on the consequences of behaviour (rewards
and punishment.) It is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened
depending on its positive/negative consequences. This approach to learning requires the
learners to first emit a response of some sort i.e. operates or work in the environment and
then associate this action with positive or negative consequences introduced. The organism is
instrumental in generating a reward or punishment for this activity or behaviour.
Skinner believed that organisms are inherently active to their environment and their
behaviour are more shaped or controlled by consequences of actions rather than by events
preceding the actions as Classic Conditioning.
Edward Thorndike was the first person to study instrumental condition systematically
through the puzzle box experiment. He placed a hungry rat in a cage and then put a small
piece of food outside the cage. The rat escaped by stepping on a small paddle that released
the latch/lever of the cage door. Eventually as it moved around the cage the rat would happen
to step on the paddle and the door would open and the rat would escape and eat the food.
Next time it took less time to step on the paddle and escape.
After a few trials the rat would deliberately step on the paddle as soon as it was placed on the
cage when hungry. The puzzle was then solved i.e. the rat would have learnt that pressing the
paddle was associated with the desired consequences of getting food. Therefore the paddle
pressing was learnt because it was associated with obtaining a reward.
Thorndike came up with the law of effect which states that ―responses that are satisfying are
more likely to be repeated and those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated‖ If
the effect of the response satisfies the object, the strength of the response increases.
Thorndike early research served as a foundation of the work of the most influential
psychologist, B.F. Skinner.
He developed the Skinner box, a chamber with highly controlled environment used to study
Operant Conditions. He was interested in specifying how behaviour varied as a result of
changes in environment
A hungry pigeon in the Skinner box explores the environment as a random manner. It will
take the key by chance and when it does so it would receive a food pellet. The first time this
happens, the pigeon will not learn the connection between the key and receiving and will
continue to explore the box. Sooner or later, the pigeon will again peck the key and receive a
pellet and with time the frequency of pecking response will increase. Eventually the pigeon
will peck the key continually until it satisfies its hunger thereby demonstrating that it has
learnt that the search for food is dependent/contingent on the pecking game hence Operant
Condition.
2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (C.C.)– IVAN PAVLOV
It is learning that other stimuli signal other than stimuli itself. It is a basic form of learning in
which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus.
During C.C. organisms acquire information about relations between various stimuli. Pavlov
did not set out to investigate C.C. His research was focused on digestion process in dogs.
During his investigation, he noticed a curious phenomenon i.e. the dogs in his study often
began to salivate when they saw or smelled food. But before actually tasting it some even
salivated at the mere sight of the food bowl, where the food was kept or at the sight/sound of
the person who brought food.
This suggested to him that these stimuli had become signals that whenever the sounds were
present, food would soon follow. He therefore recognized the potential importance of this
observation shifted his focus accordingly. In the conditioning trials a neutral stimulus that had
previously shown to have no effect on salvation (a bell) was presented. This was followed by
a 2nd stimulus known to produce a strong effect on salvation (meat powder) was presented
directly into the dogs mouth. Pavlov developed terminologies to describe this situation.
Unconditional stimulus-U.C.S. (meat powder)
Is the event that produces a response without prior training or learning. It is the neutral
behavior .It produces salivation automatically and did not depend on the dog having learnt
the response.
Unconditional response-U.C.R. (salivation)
It is a response that occurs automatically without previous learning/training. It is a neutral
response.
Conditional stimulus-C.S. (bell)
It is the stimulus that does not bring out the specific response prior to training but does so
after training. It has the ability to produce salivation depending on it being paired with food.
(Meat powder)
Conditional response-C.R. (salivation)
It is the response that occurs after conditioning. It follows a previously neutral stimulus. It‘s
the reaction produced by the C.S (bell).
After the bell has been paired repeatedly with the meat powder, the dogs salivated upon
hearing, even when the bell was not followed by the meat powder.
C.C. is a kind of learning in which a previous neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response
through its association with a stimulus that naturally brings about response.
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
a) Acquisition:
C.C. is a gradual process in which a C.S gradually acquires a capacity to elicit a C.R as a
result of repeated pairing with a new C.S. this process is called acquisition. It proceeds quite
rapidly at first and increases as the number of pairing between C.S. and U.C.S. increases.
However, there is a limit to this effect i.e. after a number of pairing of C.S. and U.C.S.
acquisition slows down and finally levels off.
b) Extinction:
This is the eventual decline and disappearance of a C.R. in the absence of a U.C.S. i.e.
gradual weakening and disappearance of a C.R. because the C.S. is no longer paired with the
C.S. is no longer paired with the U.C.S. It is unlearning what we have learnt or a
disconnection between the S-R connections e.g. If a dog has been trained to salivate in
response to the bell, paired with food and then the bell is repeatedly presented without food,
the number of saliva drops will decline gradually towards zero. This means the dog has
unlearned the newly acquired behavior and extinction has occurred.
c) Spontaneous recovery:
This is the re-appearance of an apparently extinguished C.R. after an interval in which the
pairing of C.S and U.C.S. hasn‘t been repeated or absent. Therefore the process of
spontaneous recovery show that, somehow learning is suppressed rather than forgotten, but
the response coming through spontaneous recovery is weaker than the initial response and
easily extinguished faster than before.
d) Stimulus Generalization
This is the tendency of the stimuli, similar to a C.S. to evoke a C.R. stimuli that are similar to
a C.S. e.g. a bell with a slightly different tone, will also elicit the C.R. Stimulus
generalization is performing a learned response in the presence of a similar stimulus.
J.B.Watson and Rayners (1920) in experiment with baby Albert.
e) Stimulus discrimination
This is the reverse of stimulus generalization. It is the process by which an organism learns to
differentiate among stimuli and restricting its response to one in particular i.e. learning to
make a particular response only to one particular stimulus among a variety of stimuli, present
in one physical and social environmental.
Educational importance of Classical Conditioning Theory
Emotional responses like fear, love, and hatred towards an object or event are learned through
classical conditioning process. Phobias constructed through C.C e.g. a teacher with a bad
method of teaching or improper may condition students to develop hatred towards them, the
subjects, the class or even the school environment.
On the contrary, love, care and affection given by the teacher in school may produce
desirable impact through conditioning. Much of our behaviour/learning is associated with
conditioning or learning. Teachers need to provide a safe and conducive emotional climate so
that the school and class is associated with a positive emotion. This will enhance the
relationship with the teachers and assist in development of positive attitudes towards school,
school curriculum and enhance academic performance.
Schools should be made friendly placed where children are treated kindly, lovely and warmly
to minimize wastage in schools. Teachers need to facilitate transfer of learning. They should
ensure that children are able to transfer what they learnt in similar situations within the class
or real life. Most of the behaviour we observe in children has come about through learning
and reinforcement. If some behaviour is undesirable it can be unlearned by eliminating or
controlling the reinforcing element.
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY – ALBERT BANDURA (1977)
It is the acquisition of new forms of behaviour, information or concepts through exposure to
others and the consequences we experience. It is learning through observing the behaviour of
another person called a model. They may be the teacher, parent or peer. We appear to learn
vicariously (by proxy) merely by watching the actions of another person and the
consequences they experience.
Basic Principles of Observational Learning (Factors that facilitate Social Learning)
a) Attention:
Paying attention to appropriate models and perceiving the most critical features of models
behaviour is crucial in social learning. We do not choose such models at random but focus
most attention on people who are attractive to us or those who possess signs of knowing what
they are doing. Such as status or success or those whose behaviour seem relevant to our own
needs and goals.
b) Memory retention:
It is our ability to retain a representation of other people behaviour in memory only if you can
retain some representation of their actions in memory can you perform similar actions at later
times
c) Production processes:
These are our ability to convert memory representation into appropriate actions. They depend
on our physical abilities and capacities to monitor our performances and adjusting until it
matches that of a model
d) Motivation or Reinforcement:
If a model is rewarded for particular behaviour, the chances of this behaviour being modeled
are high since the observer shares the models reward vicariously. Models who are rewarded
for behaving in a particular way are more aped than those who receive punishment.
Results of Social Learning
a) Modeling: - Is where a person engaging in a certain behavior and perceives it to be a
rewarding, one behaves in a similar manner with the hope of being reinforced in a similar
fashion.
b) Eliciting: - Is where the observer obliges (goes ahead) to engage in a similar behaviour. A
desirable behaviour by one student encourages other students to behave in similar manner
c) Inhibiting: - Is when a person does not want to engage in a certain behavior because he
has seen others go un-rewarded for such behaviour.
d) Disinhibiting: - Is when a behaviour that was inhibited is displayed as a result of exposure
for similar behaviour of a model. E.g. a student may control him/herself from engaging in
an undesirable behaviour but because others behave undesirably he/she may follow suit.
Educational implications/importance of social learning
a) Teachers need to be good models for the students to imitate
b) Should be hardworking, self-disciplined, organized, kind, generous, clean.
c) Need to reward desirable behaviour of students so that other students are also reinforced
vicariously.
d) Observational learning can be facilitated by having children work together in small
groups, so that those who perform better can serve models.
e) It recognizes ones potential impact as a model for others. as a teacher or parent i.e.
Resulting in self conscious monitoring of ones behaviour in the presence of those who
may be using one as a model for new learning.
f) Recognize the contribution of this theory of learning to the development of unhealthy
behaviour like smoking, physical aggression especially among adolescent in need of peer
acceptance.
4. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY - PIAGET
Cognitive development refers to the ability to think, reason, and understand. It is not easy to
understand cognitive development in children and particularly infants because they cannot
tell us what they know and understand or what they think. However, we can study thinking
and knowing in children by observing their perceptions and their play as these reflects what is
going on in their minds.
Piaget theory of Cognitive Development

In his theory, Jean Piaget describes how children think and acquire knowledge. Piaget
believes that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage is characterized
by a particular way of thinking. There is also certain ways in which knowledge is obtained
from the environment during each of these stages. Piaget labeled the period of infant
intelligence as the sensorimotor period. During this stage infants obtain information
(knowledge) through their senses and action. As they develop, infants increasingly become
curious and seek to explore the environment. The sensorimotor stage extends from birth to 2
years of age. Within this period, infants pass through 6 levels or sub-stages as follows: -
1. Stage one: - Reflexes (Birth to about 1month)
At this stage, behaviour is dominated by use of reflexes. With time they begin to think based
on their prior experience. What they think in-turn influences what they do. Example, an
infant suck anything that touches their lips (sucking reflex). They do not take long to
understand that sucking provides nutrients. So they classify objects, so that the object that
provides nourishment such as the nipple and teat of a bottle are sucked differently from those
that simply provide pleasure such as the thumb.
2. Stage two: - Primary circular Reactions (1-4months)
This occurs when a baby does anything that accidentally leads to an interesting result. The
baby tries to achieve the results again by repeating the original action, which again leads to
an interesting results and this goes on hence the reaction is called Circular because the
sequence the sequence is repeated over and over again. It is Primary because it involves only
the body and not anything on the environment e.g. cooing, thumb sucking. In cooing the baby
makes the sound, hears and enjoys it, make it again and so on.
3. Stage three: - Secondary Circular Reactions. (4-8months)
It is Primary Reaction except that they are centered on objects and events in the external
environment not just the baby‘s body. Example, when a hanging toy attached to a string is
tied to the baby‘s arm and the baby with no intentions, moves his/her arm such that the toy
moves. The baby notices that when he/she moves the arm, the toy moves. So he/she moves
the arm again to make the toy move and the cycle is repeated.
NB: - In both Primary and Secondary Circular Reaction, the first action is not intentional.
4. Stage four: - Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12months)
The baby can now perform an action with a specific goal in mind. The action the baby takes
is not new but the idea is e.g. a baby can crawl towards a ball and then grasp it when it is
within reach or a baby thinks of putting two actions together to achieve a goal. The baby has
developed the concept of Object Permanence, which refers to the ability to know that the
object continues to exist even when it is out of sight e.g. if you take the baby‘s toy and put it
behind him/her, (s)he can look around for it.
NB: - The previous four stages were cognitive development in Infants (birth-1year). The
remaining two stages are cognitive Development in Toddlers (1-3years)
5. Stage five: - Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18months)
The baby is less interested in achieving a goal but more interested in experimenting ways of
achieving it. They discover or invent new ways of acting on the world e.g. dropping
experiment with spoons, plates etc. The baby experiments different ways of dropping them.
6. Stage six: - Invention of new means through mental combinations.
The stage is marked by development of symbols. The baby begins to use symbols to represent
an object e.g. a child can pretend that a stick is a spoon and use it accordingly. The child
understands that the symbol is separate from the object. Other characteristics develop e.g.
imitation and object permanence.
CHAPTER 4
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING IN ECDE
 Discuss factors influencing learning.
 How teachers can use the factors to influence learning/education
1. PERSONALITY
It comes from Latin word Persona meaning mask. A mask is what an actor wears on stage
to portray his/her character on stage. Personality is a relatively stable and enduring
organisation of a person‘s character, temperament, intelligence and physic or body build
which determine his unique adjustment to its environment. It‘s a relatively stable and
distinctive style of thought and behaviour. It covers such traits as physical characteristics,
emotions, attitudes, motivation, honesty, generosity, cruelty, goodness and general ways of
thinking, feeling and interacting with other people.
Characteristics of personality
a) Personality is unique and specific to an individual.
b) It is stable and consistent over a period of time.
c) It exhibits self-consciousness and gives us individual identity.
d) Although the personality of an individual remains stable to a large extent, it cannot be
said to be static, therefore it‘s a dynamic growing and changing entity.
e) Learning and acquisition of experiences contribute towards growth and development
of personality. Every personality is the end product of this process of learning and
acquisition.
Factors Influencing Personality
(a) Heredity (Genetic Factor): -
Inherited genes lay down the blue print / plan or potentially of personality. Certain physical
characteristics are inherited like skin colour, hair colour, colour of eyes or sex (gender).
Heredity also lays down temperamental tendencies research has shown that genetic factors
account as much as 50% of individual variability in the tendency to behave aggressively.
(b) Environment: -
The physical conditions of the environment plays an important role in initiating personality
for example people living in deserts, highlands and plains have various differences in their
physique, height and skin colour.
The social environment of home and school are also important. The types of training and
early childhood experiences play an important role in the development of personality. At
home and school we have different styles of management.
a) Democratic style
b) Autocratic/authoritative
c) Laissez faire / permissive style
Other environmental factors that affect personality include:
 Parent child relationship
 Teacher - child relationship

 Nutrition
 Child health
 Learning and playing materials
 Stimulation
 Gender
(c) Culture : -
The internalization of societal values, beliefs and customs influence our personality e.g. we
acquire our sex roles from our socialization process.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PERSONALITY BY TEACHERS
a) Psychologists believe that personality can play an important role in whether one
experiences success or failure in life therefore teachers constantly interact with students
with the singular objective of facilitating their success in school and the world of work.
This is because personality affects learning and development of students.
b) For teachers to enhance their understanding of themselves as well as the student that they
work with because they constantly make judgement about the affective qualities of our
students, our colleagues and ourselves.
c) So as to be able to predict student‘s behaviour and deal with them in a productive and
meaningful way.
d) Personality traits are also acquired through learning and hence the development of
personality can be controlled or modified by exposing students to appropriate school
experiences.
2. MEMORY
Memory is a term that cognitive psychologists used to describe the ways in which people
retain information and retrieve it for use at a later time. It‘s the mental function of retaining
information about stimuli after the original stimuli are no longer present.
Memory has three stages: -
a) Encoding: - Which is converting information into a form that can be entered into
memory.
b) Storage: - Is retaining information over varying periods of time in the memory.
c) Retrieval: - It‘s locating or accessing specific information when it‘s needed at later times.
Types of memories
Psychologists have divided memories into 3 parts: -
a) Sensory memory
b) Short-term memory
c) Long-term memory
a) Sensory memory: - This is the memory that helps an individual to recall something
immediately after it is perceived. It holds information very briefly after it has reached our
senses normally less than one second for vision and a few seconds for hearing. This
memory has two other types: -
i) Iconic memory: - This is the process that reflects information from our visual system.
ii) Echoic memory: - Is the process that stores information from the ears (auditory
information).
If information that reaches the sensory memory does not pass to short-term memory. It‘s lost
for good.
b) Short-term memory: - (active/working memory) it‘s the information storehouse that
retains information as we consciously work with it. It holds a relatively small amount of
information for brief periods of time usually 30sec. or less.
The items that can be held are 7±2. This is memory for information that has received
minimal processing or interpretation. It performs mental operations such as decision-
making and problem solving. Working memory is limited in the number of items and the
amount of information it can retain.
b) Long-term memory: - Is a huge and relatively permanent storehouse of information that
represents our knowledge of the world and our impressions of past events and
experiences. It‘s the memory system that permits one to remember events that happened a
few hours ago yesterday, last month, or many years ago in the past. Its capacity is limited
and ones information is stored.
It‘s relatively permanent or at least difficult to lose information if sensory memory enters
short-term memory when it becomes focus on attention. Sensory information that does
not engage attention fades and disappears quickly. In contrast information in STM enters
the LTM through what is called elaborative rehearsal. ER occurs when you think the
meaning of information and relate it to other information already in the long term
memory. It occurs when material or information is considered and organized in some
fashion i.e. make it fit a logical framework, linking it to another memory and turning it
into an image. Unless we engage in such a cognitive effort, information in STM quickly
fades away & it‘s lost.
Types of memory for information (Memory information)
a) Semantic memory: - It allows us to present and mentally co-operate on object or
situations that are not present and not open to examination by our senses.
b) Episodic memory: - This is memory for information about specific events that we
have experienced personally also called autobiographical memory. Its memory of
personal knowledge and experience and record of things we have seen, done and
heard along with information about when this happened.
c) Procedural memory: - is memory for information relating to performance of various
skills or information regarding how to do things e.g. How to ride a bicycle play a
piano. Relay information to the psychomotor.
Factors facilitating memory/retention
a) Recognization: - Is the product of two set of information one being the stimulus and the
second information related to the stimulus already existing in the long term memory. The
2 must be matched and one must decide he/she has encountered a particular stimulus
before.
b) Rehearsal: - Is repeating or reciting the skill and information as may be necessary so as
to store it in the long-term memory. Memory for information improves with the #of
rehearsals.
c) Organization: - If the information to be learnt is well organized by breaking it into

smaller units and trying to link this to each other in the way they relate to each other so
that remembering one unit can lead to remembering another unit.
d) Meaningfulness: - If the information being learnt has inherent or latent meaning, it will
be retained in the long term memory so that whatever we teach must be relevant to the
future life of our students.
e) Mnemonic devices: - (Acronyms) are special phrases or symbols used to group
information e.g. Use of BODMAS. They facilitate both the encoding and retrieval of
information and provide a context for the organization of unfamiliar information. Also
provide the learner with retrieval cues, which are embedded in the information that is
being learnt.
f) Attention: - What is learnt and retained in our memory system is the function of our own
attention paid to the experiences.
FORGETTING
It‘s the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to recall, recognize or reproduce that
which was previously learnt. It‘s a retrieval failure. Forgetting occurs because of failure in the
mechanism responsible for remembering i.e. absence of retrieval cues.
Psychologists have suggested the following causes of persistent forgetting.
i) Trace/decay theory: - It occurs when information entered into the long term memory
fails or decays with the passage of time. This occurs if information is not renewed
through constant rehearsal. According to this theory over time and without rehearsal,
information representation becomes weak and eventually disappears due to none use. E.g.
the memory of a book read last week.
ii) Interference theory: - Is where information in memory displaces or blocks out other
information preventing its recall. It‘s the confusion of one memory with another similar
one because the old retrieval cues are no longer specific enough. Psychologists have
identified 2 forms of interferences.
a) Retroactive inhibition: - Is interference with the retention of information already
presents in memory by new information being entered into memory. New information
makes it difficult to remember old information. So that as more learning is acquired
old learning fade away. The old information is affected by new information.
b) Pro-active inhibition: - Its where previously learnt information present in long term
memory interferes with information you are learning at the present .Old information
makes it difficult to remember new information.
iii) Motivated Forgetting: - We forget because we want to or as a matter of choice. It‘s the
active elimination from consciousness of memories or experiences we find threatening,
embarrassing, anxiety producing or those that cause guilt or shame
This is the foundation of Freud trend theory of human personality and his view of the causes
of psychological disorders.
Educational implications/effects of Memory and forgetting
 Information should be retrieved from child‘s memory by using more than one method like
recognition, re-caller, and meaningful organization of the subject matter.
 Allow active participation of student in lesson activities to effect rehearsals.
 Learning should be distinct and meaningful for easier remembrance and state how
relevant information is to student future life.
 Teachers shouldn‘t associate what is being learnt with what is threatening or u unpleasant
but should be success and pleasure to avoid motivated forgetting.
 Interference can be controlled by studying what is likely to be conflicting at different
times and mastering one set of information before proceeding to another.
 Teachers can facilitate student‘s memory by presenting the subject content at a moderate
pace and engaging student in various activities such as note taking, recitations,
assignment and discussions.
3. MOTIVATION
It‘s an internal process that activates, energizes and maintains behaviour over time in order to
satisfy some need. It gives impetus behaviour by arousing and sustaining and directing it
towards the attainment of a goal. Motivation regulates our behaviour and is always
purposeful.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1) Instinct theory of motivation (by William MacDougall (1908)
Motivation is a result of inborn patterns of behaviours that are biologically determined rather
than learned. Instincts are innate or unlearned patterns of behaviour that are universal in a
species, independent of experience and elicited by specific stimuli or condition. He believed
that people and animals are born with 3 programmed sets of behaviour essential for their
survival.
a) Curiosity (urge to find out about something)
b) Reproduction (procreation)
c) Gregariousness (living in groups)
d) Flight (flee from danger)
e) Altruism (having the interests of others met before yours)
f) Aggression (powerful argument in support for something) etc.
2) Drive Theory (by Clark Hull (1943)
Biological needs arising within our bodies create unpleasant state of arousal e.g. hunger,
thirst, fatigue, sex driver. In order to eliminate such feelings and restore a balanced
physiological known as homeostasis, we engage in certain activities.
Motivation is basically a process in which various biological needs push or drive us into
actions designed to satisfy this needs e.g. eat food, drink water, have sex.
Behaviours that are successful in relieving drives are strengthened and tend to be repeated
when the drive is aroused again. Behaviours that fail to reduce the drive are weakened and
are less likely to recur when the drive is aroused once again. The theory focused only on
primary drives but didn‘t explain human behaviour at higher cognitive levels such as drives
of status, achievements, power, and money.
3) Arousal Theory (by A. Berlyne (1967))
Suggest that human beings seek an optimum level of arousal and not minimum levels. It says
we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activities by increasing or decreasing
them as necessary. Optimal arousal is a level best suited to our personal characteristics and
activities in which we are currently engaged for example if one is reading and if competing in
sports events a much higher arousal will be achieved.
4) Expectancy Theory (by C. Tallman (1959)

It‘s a cognitive appraisal and focuses on role and expectations about future outcomes and the
current sections that help us get what we want in life. It suggests that motivation is not
primarily a matter of being pushed from within by various urges or drives, but rather is more
a question from being pulled from without by expectations of attaining desired outcomes.
Such outcomes (incentives) are anything that will have value e.g. money, status, approval.
People engage in painful and complex things e.g. studying so hard because of the belief that
doing so will create the outcomes they wish to attain.
Types of Expectancy motivation
 Intrinsic: People participate in any activity for their own enjoyment and not for any
tangible reward it will get them. Its doing something for its own sake due to curiosity,
fun, pleasure, need to know and for feeling of competence or growth.
 Extrinsic – Is motivation by which people participate in activities to attain a goal or
avoid punishment from outside forces e.g. a student may engage in class activities for
purposes of good marks or receiving teachers compliment attention or praise.
5) Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs (By Abraham Maslow (1970)
It considers motivation needs to be addressed in a hierarchy and suggests that before more
sophisticated, higher order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied. He
developed a hierarchy of needs that he believed represented motivational factors throughout
lifetime. He categorised needs as: -
(a) Deficiency needs
(b) Growth needs
Deficiency needs are the basic lower level needs that human being require for physical and
psychological well-being e.g. water, sex, pain avoidance, sleep, safety, love and esteem
needs. They are needs whose absence energise or moves people to meet them and must be
satisfied before pursuing higher levels needs.
Growth needs are higher level needs which when satisfied enable human beings to grow
psychologically. They are never met in the same sense as deficiency needs but expands and
grow as people have experiences with them e.g. knowledge, aesthetic and self actualization
needs.
(a) Physiological Needs

They include Tissue Deficit needs they are also known as biological needs such as food,
water etc
(b) Safety / security needs
Need for protection from potentially threatening objects, situations or illness. People need a
safe and secure environment to function effectively.
(c) Belonging / Love
Need for love, acceptance, friendship, and affection from family and peers and being part of a
group. Most people want friends, a spouse, and children to be tender, affectionate, caring and
receiving similar treatment in return.
(d) Esteem needs
It involves recognition, achievement, independence, freedom, competence, prestige. People
want self-respect and respect, confidence and admiration of other people. They need to be
recognized. People who don‘t achieve these needs suffer from a feeling of inferiority,
weakness and helplessness.
(e) Knowledge Needs
Need to explore, know and understand oneself, other people and the environment. It‘s
exploration and manipulation of the environment.
(f) Aesthetic Need
Need for order, symmetry, beauty and truth. Human being need to appreciate and enjoy the
beauty of the world and the works of art.
(g) Self-Actualization
Highest growth need. Self fulfillment or desire to become all one is capable of being or
highest potential e.g. being a perfect parent, teacher, musician, artist.
6) Need For Achievement (Mc Cleland (1985)
Is a stable and learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and
attaining a level of excellence. It‘s the desire to accomplish difficult tasks and motivation to
engage in complex cognitive activities. People with high need for achievement seek out
situations in which they can compete against some standard e.g. money, prestige. They tend
to avoid situations in which success will come too easily or unchallenging tasks. Have a
stronger than average desire for feedback on performance so as to adjust their goals and make
them challenging but not impossible.
APPLICATION OF THESE THEORIES TO EDUCATION
a) Need for teacher to recognize the role of needs in creating conducive classroom
environment.
b) The concern of teachers is to find ways and means of making learners attend and respond
to learning tasks so that learning itself becomes a source of motivation.
c) There‘s a positive co-relation between motivation leads in better students attitude, fewer
classroom management problems and greater satisfaction with the school for both
teachers and students.
d) Motivation affects learning activities that students choose and the intensity with which
they engage in these activities.
e) Need to be aware of the impact of students self-esteem on their motivation by treating

them with dignity, human worth and being proud of them.
4. CONCEPT FORMATION IN CHILDREN
How Are Concepts Formed? What Are Concepts?
Concepts are mental categories used to group objects, events, information, etc. For example,
despite the various available designs, brands, and unique structures of chairs, you know a
chair when you see one. That is because you have a concept of what a chair is. Another
example is the concept of clothes. Clothes may be in the form of a dress, a shirt, jeans, shorts,
etc., and may be worn by different people, even by animals and toys. Despite these variations,
you can easily identify which of the things you see around you are clothes and which are
chairs. That is because you have clear concepts of what chairs and what clothes are supposed
to be.
The Process of Concept Formation
Concepts are formed in two ways - according to its defining properties (classical model),
and according to the typical characteristics of its members (prototype model). The
classical model clearly defines a triangle as a geometric shape with three sides and 180
degrees interior angles. The prototype model, on the other hand, defines a concept according
to the general characteristics of its members. The prototype model is particularly useful when
not all the members share the same characteristics, only similar ones. For example, it is often
difficult to think of whales and bats as mammals because most mammals walk on land.
However, all of them have mammary glands, don't lay eggs, and have fur. The prototype
model was proposed by Eleanor Rosch (1993) when she argued that membership in a concept
is often graded according to how the members meet the defining characteristics of the
prototype.
The Functions and Purpose of Concepts
We use concepts for different purposes:
1. For generalizing information. We use concepts to generalize from membership patterns
and relationships. To illustrate, suppose we don't have a concept for ball pens. Every time
we see one, we would go through a lot of effort to know how it works, how to use it, and
what it is for, similar to a baby seeing a ball pen for the first time.
2. For making associations and discriminations. Some concepts are sub-concepts of a
more general concept. For example, the general concept of a book has sub-concepts for
novels, textbooks, dictionaries, etc. These sub-concepts are associated with each other in
terms of the general concept of "book", but they are discriminated to different sub-
concepts in such a way that you can distinguish them from each other.
3. For speeding up memory. Suppose you're reading a fiction novel titled "All about
Jimmie". In the first paragraph, the author describes what Jimmie looks like. Despite
mentioning Jimmie 's name only once, and further using "he" to refer to him, you know
that the paragraph is about Jimmie because you have a concept of what pronouns are and
how they are being used in a text.
4. For guiding actions and behaviors. Your concept of food tells you what to eat; your
concept of chair tells you where to sit; and, your concept of bed tells you where to sleep.
Imagine if you don't have concepts for each of those; you would eat just about anything,
and sit and sleep just about anywhere. An infant is an example of someone who has
undeveloped concepts of food, chair, and bed.
Research Studies on Concepts

Psychological research on concepts reveals that;
 How concepts are utilized influence the structure and organization of information in long-
term memory;
 That we have concepts not only for things, but also for events ;
 And that we can combine concepts to express new ideas, as with how we use noun-noun
and adjective-noun combinations to expand language.
5. INTELLIGENCE
This is an individual ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the
environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various form of reasoning and to
overcome obstacles by careful thought.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1) FACTOR THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
(a) Spearman’s theory of general intelligence (1927)- (Charles Spearman)
He viewed Intelligence as a general unified capacity or a single characteristic or dimension
along which people vary. Each intellectual activity or cognitive task depended on a primary
general factor which he referred to as ―g‖ which stand for general which it shares with all
cognitive activities under specific factor ―s‖ (specific) relating to that particular task, He
suggested that there is something called general intelligence which is a sort of mental energy
running through all different cognitive tasks. In addition to these general factors, there are
specific capabilities which give an individual the ability to deal with specific problems.
I = g+S1+S2+S3………….Sn
(b) Group Factor Theory of Intelligence (Thurstone – 1938)
This is a theory of primary mental abilities. While working on a test of primary mental
ability, he came to conclude that certain mental operations have a common primary factor
which gives them psychological and functional unity and which differentiates them from
other mental operations. These mental operations constitute a group factor where there are a
number of groups of mental abilities and each of these groups has its own primary factor. He
identified these factors as: -
i) A verbal / oral factor
ii) Numerical factor
iii) Spatial factor
iv) Memory factor
v) Word fluency factor
vi) Reasoning factor
(c) Guilford’s Model of the structure of the Intellect (by Guilford) (1961)
Concluded that every mental process or intellectual activity can be described in terms of three
different basic dimensions or parameters known as:
i) Operations
ii) Content
iii) Product
Each of these dimensions may be further sub-divided into some specific factors called
elements.
Operations: which is referred to the act of thinking gives five major groups of intellectual
abilities.
 Cognition
 Memory
 Divergent thinking
 Convergent thinking
 Evaluation
Contents: – Terms in which we think e.g. signs, words or symbols. It gives us four specific
abilities.
 Figural content – mat. Configured through senses
 Symbolic content – in signs and symbols form
 Semantic content – in form of verbal meaning of ideas
 Behavioural content – content for social behaviour
Products: – Ideas that we come up with. Take 6 different forms
 Units
 Classes
 Relations
 Systems
 Transformations
 Implications
2) COGNITIVE THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
They try to analyse and describe intelligence in terms of certain fundamental cognitive
processes.
(a) Cattell and Horn’s theory of Intelligence (1978)
It distinguishes between two types of intelligence:
i) Fluid Intelligence
ii) Crystallised intelligence
Fluid – Are aspects of intelligence that involve forming concepts reasoning and identifying
similarities. They consider it to be the mental capacity required for learning, problem solving,
adaptation, comprehension and identifying relationships. Its an innate or unlearned ability
that reaches full development by end of adolescence
Crystallised – Aspects of intelligence that grow on previously learned information as a basis
for making decisions or solving problems. It‘s the acquired fund of general information
consisting of knowledge, skills and experiences that are essential for performing different
tasks. Classroom tests, vocabulary tests and many social situations in which we must make
judgements or decisions about other persons draw on crystallised intelligence.
(b) Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Stenberg – 1985)
Suggests that there are 3 basic types of human intelligence
i) Componential / Analytical intelligence
ii) Experiential / Creative intelligence
iii) Contextual / Practical intelligence
Componential – It‘s the elementary information processes operating on internal

representation of objects or symbols. Involve the ability to think critically or analytically.
People high on this intelligence usually excel on standard tests of academic performance and
make excellent students.
Experiential – Emphasizes insight and ability to formulate new ideas. Those high in this
excel in zeroing in what information is crucial in a given situation and combining seemingly
unrelated facts.
Contextual – Ability to solving problems of everyday life. People high in this are intelligent,
practical, adaptive sense and they have what is termed as ―street smarts‖
(c) Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence (Howard Gardner- 1993)
Gardner proposed that we should not only focus on people with normal or average levels of
intelligence but also persons at the extremes (Gifted & impaired) He asserted that human
intelligence can be classified as multiple abilities, talent and mental skills related to the
domains of knowledge in a particular setting.
He had the following types of intelligence
i) Musical Intelligence
For example the ability to play virtually any tune on a piano without any formal training.
ii) Bodily Anesthetic Intelligence
Concerned with ability in using one‘s body to perform skilful movements e.g. gymnasts,
dancers, surgeons.
iii) Inter-personal intelligence
Ability to understand other people and getting along with them for social interaction e.g. sales
people, teachers, politicians, religious leaders, counsellors or psychotherapists.
iv) Logical Mathematical Intelligence
It is the ability in deductive and inductive reasoning and being good in arithmetic and
calculations.
v) Spatial Intelligence
Ability in the representing and manipulating space and relationship e.g partners, navigators,
chess players etc)
6. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
The basic sensory signals from the objects in the environment are the same but the way we
comprehend them differs because of the circumstances in which the sensory experiences has
occurred. We impose structures on our environment by building models from our sensory
experience.
We scan a scene through this or listen to sounds and pick out particular features, which
become the figure. The background against which the figure is reserved is known as the
Ground. To identify a shape, the contour line is important. It is the aspect of the figure,
which passes through the filter to the brain, and then immediate ground is temporarily stored
in the short-term memory. The figure ground discrimination applies to all sense modalities.
This conscious selection helps clarify the distinction between sensation and perception.
NATURE OF PERCEPTION
Theories of how we estimate perception and how things appear to us are of two basic types: -
(a) We learn to identify and interpret objects or arrangement of objects. Hebb

(1966), proposes that sensory experience is registered in the cortex of the brain in
form of Cell Assemblies (Neurons), which changes structurally as a result. Hebb saw
perception as learned or acquired characteristics.
(b) Gestalt School of Psychology proposes that perception is the ability to perceive
patterns as whole. Gestalt is a German word for Pattern, Whole configuration. The
total of this movement is meaningful than the sum-total of its parts. We perceive and
give meaning to objects by their characteristics in total and not considering the parts,
which go to make up the whole figure. The school gave various Laws of Perception
organizations. There are a series of principles that describe how we organize pieces of
information into meaningful wholes, rather than as separate or isolated parts.
Five (5) arrangements seem to be of importance in recognizing and determining the dominant
pattern or Gestalt. The formation of good perception pattern is referred to as the Law of
Pragnanz. The laws of organization include: -
i) Law of Similarity
Where a figure consists of similar elements, we tend to group them to form a pattern. This is
the tendency to perceive similar items as a group by looking at their shape, colour and form.
We prefer to order and arrange similar objects in rows rather than at random to avoid the
uncomfortable sensation, which is created by randomness.
ii) Law of Proximity
Objects are perceived in close proximity or nearness. Elements that are close in time or space
tend to be perceived together.
iii) Law of Good Continuation
Similar parts of a figure which appear in lines whether straight or curved tend to stand out
when they make recognizable shapes such as circles, they become conspicuous or distinct.
iv) Law of Closure
Groupings are usually made in terms of enclosed or complete figures rather than open ones.
Closed or partially closed figures are more readily perceived than open figures as the mind
has the tendency to complete imperfect wholes into perfect/closed wholes.
v) Law of Simplicity
It is the tendency to perceive complex patterns in terms of simpler shapes. When you observe
a pattern, you perceive it in the most basic and straightforward manner that we can. The
perception of stimuli in our environment goes well beyond the individual that we sense.
PERCEPTION CONSTANCIES
They are cases where perception succeeds or our tendency to perceive aspects of the world as
unchanging despite the changes in the sensory input we receive from them. It is
compensation where we allow for the distance of an object from our sense organs when
judging its magnitude. Physical objects are perceived as unvarying or consistent despite the
changes in the appearance or in the physical environment.
Perception constancies are in shape, colour and sizes. Without them, we will spend great time
and effort to re-identifying sensory information in our environment. Each time we experience
the information from a new perspective. The gap between our sensations and perceptions
provided by the constancies is beneficial. Two factors seem to account for this tendency: -
a) Size – distance invariance
b) Relative distance/size
Illusions are cases where perception fails. They are false interpretations of sensory
information. Illusions related to cognitive process exist in two categories.
i) Illusion of Size
ii) Illusion of shape
iii) Illusion of brightness
7. EMOTIONS
Emotion – comes from a Latin word ―emovere‘ which means excite, agitate, stir up, or
move. Emotions are complex patterns that include physiological and psychological responses
that influence perception, learning and response. They include feelings i.e. joy, anger, sorrow,
fear, love that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements that influence
behaviour.
COMPONENTS OF EMOTION
a) Physiological component
Are experiences of physical or bodily changes that occur in emotional circumstances e.g.
increased heart beats/rates, blood pressure, dry mouth, sweating, trembling.
b) Cognitive component
It‘s the understanding and evaluation of meaning of what is happening that prompts our
feeling.
c) Behavioural component
It‘s the outward sign or expressive action due to the internal reactions.
FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS
(a) Preparing us for action – Emotions act as a link between events in the external
environment and behavioural responses that an individual makes. Emotions are stimuli
that aim in development of effective responses to various stimuli.
(b) Shaping our future behaviour – They serve to promote learning of information that
will assist us in making appropriate responses in the future e.g. avoiding fearful
situations, objects. Positive emotion act as reinforcement for prior behaviour and leads
an individual to seek out similar situations in future.
(c) Helps us to regulate social interaction. – Emotions we experience are obvious and
enable other people to predict our future behaviour this promotes more effective and
appropriate social interactions.
TYPES OF EMOTIONS
a) Integrative emotions
b) Disintegrative emotions
Integrative – are positive emotions that are adaptive, functional and maximizes an individual
effectiveness. Include emotions like love, joy, and hope.
Disintegrative – are negative emotions that interferes with an individual‘s effectiveness
leading to mal-adjustment or feelings of unpleasantness include : anger, fear, grief, pity,
remorse etc.
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
1) James – Lange Theory
William James and Carl Lange (1985) – believes that emotional responses / experiences are
reactions to bodily events occurring as a result of external situations. It suggests that
subjective emotional experiences are the result of physiological changes within our bodies.
―We feel sorry because we cry.‖ We are afraid because we are angry because we strike.‖
They suggested that for every emotion there is an accompanying physiological or gut reaction
of internal organs. These bodily changes are referred to as Visceral experience. We
experience emotions because of physiological changes that produce specific sensations. In
between these sensations are interpreted by the brain as particular ends of emotional
experience.
Stimulus – Physiological arousal – visceral changes interpreted as emotions.
(Bodily changes)
2) Cannon – Bard Theory
Cannon & Phillip Bard (1959). It suggests that various emotional provoking events induce
simultaneously the subjective experiences we label as emotions and the physiological
reactions that accompany them. The theory believes that both physiological and emotional
arousal is produced simultaneously by the same nerve impulses. The body reaction occur
along with feelings of emotion and ejects the view that physiological arousal alone leads to
the perception of emotion as put forward by James-large theory.
Physiological changes / reaction
Stimulus Emotions
3) Schatcher – singer’s 2 factor theory (1942)
They were the pioneers in the study of emotion & cognition. It believes that emotions are
determined jointly by a non-specific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation
based on environmental cues. In response to feeling of arousal, we search the external
environment in order to identify the causes of our feelings. A cognitive arousal interpretation
enables us to label a general state of physiological arousal as a specific emotion.
The factors in environment play a key role in determining the label to place on our arousal
therefore determining the emotion we experience. This theory is described as two factor
because. It considers both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal to confirm in our
efforts to identify the causes of such arousal.
Stimuli – General physiological changes – cognitive appraisal – specific emotion
4) Opponent Process Theory – Solomon 1982
It suggests that an emotional reaction to a stimulus is often followed automatically by an
opposite reaction and a repeated exposure to a stimulus causes the initial reaction to weaken
and the opponent process/reaction to strengthen e.g. anger is often followed by calm or even
regret over ones previous outburst of emotion. This theory suggest that a law of physics
―every action produces a reaction‖ may apply to emotions as well e.g. drug users initially
experience intense pleasure followed by unpleasant sensations of withdrawal with repeated
use of the drug, the pleasure becomes less intense and unpleasant sensations of withdrawal
with repeated use of the drug, the pleasure becomes less intense and unpleasant withdrawal
reactions strengthen in the end the addict begins to use the drug not for the pleasure it
provides but to avoid the negative feelings that occur when they don‘t use them.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONS

(a) Helps teachers to understand the emotional based causes of students behaviour e.g.
aggression may be based on frustration of the students goals or desires. It enables
teacher‘s help.
(b) Enable teachers help students overcome negative emotions e.g. in a situation where a
student perceives a threat, the teacher can help diagnose the situation forever.
(c) It‘s important for teacher to appreciate the cognitive bases of an emotional experience
and that low levels of arousals improves performance in a task.
(d) It‘s important for teachers to know emotions plays a crucial role in many aspects of
student‘s behaviour including personal health mental problems.
(e) Teachers should know how to interact with and influence many aspects of cognition.
8. ATTITUDE
Is a learned predisposition or mental readiness to view social world within defined categories
of goodness and badness and the predictable manners.
An enduring system of positive and negative evaluation, emotional feeling and action with
respect to attitude object which include people, items, structures, values etc.
ATTITUDE HAS THE FOLLOWING COMPONENT
a) Cognitive component – Is the knowledge, belief or opinion about an attitude object.
b) Affective Component – Emotional feeling about an attitude object.
c) Cognitive Component (behavioural) – Tendency to act or disposition for action towards
an attitude object.
d) Evaluation Component – Liking or disliking an attitude object or the true and negative
judgment passed on an attitude object.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES
a) Attitudes are specific to certain objects.
b) Attitudes are usually evaluative or judgmental, liking or disliking, negative or positive
c) Are relatively stable tendencies therefore enduring and persistent.
d) Are learned, subjective or irrational.
FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE
a) Predictions of behaviour. There is a general prediction of attitude in ones future
behaviour.
b) Have instrumental functions formed temporarily to obtain the reinforcement from the
environment.
c) Have a knowledge function i.e. act as knowledge framework to help us have a stable
concept of the world.
d) Are formed in order to protect ones ego through defense mechanisms e.g. rejection,
rationalization etc.
e) Have valuing expressive function by enabling us express our value systems.
ATTITUDE & ATTITUDE CHANGE
Persuasive communication approach
We need to conceive attitude change as a problem of effective information communication
flow between two people. Psychologists are interested in both the conditions under which
people are persuaded to change their attitudes and the condition under which they desist
attitude change.
To investigate the effectiveness of persuasion in function differences of : -
a) Source of message / communication
b) The message / communication
c) Type of receiver / audience of the message / communication.
A. SOURCE OF MESSAGE / COMMUNICATION
We consider the following characteristics: -
i) Credibility of communicator – The more honest, trustworthy, objective, expert,
sincere the communicator, the more effective attitude change communication is
provided.
ii) Liking – the more people like the source of a discrepant communication, the more
likely it will be to change their attitude. Liking produces attitude change because people
buy to identify with a liked communicator and therefore tend to adapt to whatever
attitude, he/she has about an attitude object.
iii) Similarity – People tend to be influenced more by people similar to them than those
different.
iv) Reference groups – there is a strong tendency for individual to go along with the group
or conform the group. If people value the group, it becomes highly credible or esteemed
source of communication. Groups serve as standard for our own behaviour and
attitudes.
v) Sleeper effect – after a lapse of time a person will be more persuaded by the content of
the message and less influenced by the credibility or non-credibility of the source. The
effect of the source of communication is strongest immediately after exposure to the
communication and is much less important sometime later.
People forget source of communication quicker than message content.
B. THE MESSAGE / COMMUNICATION
Characteristics of the message
 Confidence expressed by message – statement beginning with such words as obviously,
I believe, I am quite sure – effect change in someone‘s attitude than statements beginning
with words as I don‘t know am not sure.
 Fear arousal – greater fear leads to more attitude change and effectiveness of a
persuasive communication.
 One or two-sided communication – A message with positive and negative side makes
the communication seem less biased, better informed and more objective and hence
greater attitude change.
 Novelty – the more new information is included in the message the more attitude change
is produced.
 Discrepancy in the message – the difference between the belief held by a person and the
action required in the message. The greater the discrepancy the greater the stress and
hence more attitude change.
C. RECEIVER/AUDIENCE FACTORS
a) Commitment – It‘s the strength of the receiver‘s commitment to his own initial attitude.
Greater commitment makes it harder for individual to change his attitude.
b) Inoculation and Support – Resistance to change attitude by the target due to his past
experience to the attitude object, subject with low self-esteem tend to be more persuaded
than those with high esteem.
c) Self esteem has been defined as the discrepancy between the ideal and the actual self
greater discrepancy indicate between esteem.
d) Intelligence – Those with high intelligence have high in their own opinion and can
quickly think of counter argument to the message hence less perusable than those with
lower intelligence.
e) Gender: - the gender of the one giving or being given the message.
COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY THEORY AND ATTITUDE CHANGE
Cognitive consistency is the tendency of people to keep their various cognition in relative
agreement with one another. People don‘t tolerate inconsistency and when they occur one is
motivated to reduce the conflict. Inconsistencies within our cognition makes us feel
uncomfortable and motivates us to reduce these states of tension. These conflict or
inconsistency is called Dissonance.
One of the most influential cognitive consistency theories is cognitive dissonance theory (by
Leon Festinger 1957)
By a cognitive element Festinger means a piece of knowledge, belief or opinion either above
the environmental of oneself. These cognitive elements can be in following relations:-
a) Dissonant Relationship: - One believes smoking that smoking is harmful but continues
to smoke.
b) Consonant Relationship: - One believes smoking is harmful and stops smoking.
c) Irrelevant Relationship: - He considers smoking harmful and at the same time, he cleans
his every Sunday. Cognitive attitude conflict with behaviour producing extreme
discomfort. One can reduce dissonance and relief tension in two ways
i. Change in behaviour
ii. Changing belief or knowledge
The resolution of conflict serves as the basis for attitude change in that belief patterns are
generally modified to be consistent with behaviour.
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT
Measure action to compare individual beliefs and also report changes within individual when
he‘s changed his attitudes. In the study of measuring attitude several techniques have been
proposed.
1. Thurstone Scale (by L.L. Thurstone – 1929
Given any attitude object, Thurstone believed one could construct a series of statement,
which ranged from extremely unfavourable to the extremely favourable. These statements
express conditions along the whole scale which have equal intervals between them. The
objective of this measure is enable one distinguishes between people as to the degree to
which they differ on an issue. The scale was of 11 points with much point indicate neutral
position.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree Neutral Strongly Disagree

Having development statement about the attitude object, respondent is expected to read
himself along the scale and by checking on numerical values attached to the statements the
researcher is able to obtain a measure of attitude.
2. Likert Scale
One would be asked to indicate which of the 5 ratings one agreed with: -
1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Undecided
4. Disagree
5. Strongly disagree
The subject uses his own degree of agreement to which a numerical value is assigned. The
total score of the subject is the sum of the values, which have been attached to all the items
on that issue. This scale has many items related to one issue.
3. Osgood‘s semantic differential measurement
Their original research was concerned with measurement of the meaning people attach to
words. With reference to concepts like attitudes the technique is to present subjects with a set
of semantic scales based on bipolar adjectives, example Father on different aspect.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Bad - - - - - Good
Ugly - - - - - Handsome
Weak - - - - - Strong
Passive - - - - -
Active
The subjects are asked to indicate with an (x) their own position on the scale. The individual
score is his total score on all scales for that concept. They found out that the meaning of a
concept has three main factors.
1. Evaluate factor e.g. being good / bad
2. Potency i.e. strong / weak
3. Activity i.e. active / passive
4. Sociometry
Attitude object is undefined and is left to the respondent. Every subject is asked to define his
preferred partner for specific activity and then rank others in order of preference. Within any
group one can get the picture of the over chosen person (the state) and the opposite whom
nobody chooses as a partner for that activity. These tests conclude on preferences with regard
to behavioural intentions.
IMPLICATIONS OF ATTITUDE TO EDUCATION

a) Teachers must consider existing attitudes that students have with regard to them,
classroom, school and subject matter so as to understand why students behave in
certain ways or predict their behaviour.
b) Teachers must recognize that successful learning is accompanied by and results to
triangles in attitude.
c) Students attitudes are the functions of teacher‘s attitudes and therefore teaches have to
project positive attitude about learning experience and schooling as a whole.
d) Teachers need to appreciate that student‘s background affects their general attitude
towards schooling.
e) The attitudes of the groups with which a student identifies will have a significant
effect on his attitude and behaviour.

1. Why is the study of psychology important in early childhood education? [5marks]
2. What field(s) of psychology would be most suitable for a teacher? Why? [5marks]
3. How does the understanding of child psychology by the teacher affect children learning in
school? [5marks]
4. Briefly explain five ways the learning theories will help you become an effective teacher.
[10marks]
5. Discuss the following theorists in relation to concept formation in young children.
a. Bruner [5marks]
b. Gagne [5marks]
6. How will you apply the theory of concept formation in classroom learning situation?
[5 marks]
7. Describe yourself in details in the following terms. Give reasons for each of your
description.
a. Memory [2marks]
b. Motivation [2marks]
c. Intelligence [2marks]
d. Emotions [2marks]
e. Attitude [2marks]
NB: Lack of proper referencing of the assignment will attract a penalty of 5marks
Email your assignment with your NAME, ADM No. & UNIT TITLE as the subject of
your email to instituteofteachers@gmail.com
6012 (MODULE TWO - UNIT 4)

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
INTRODUCTION
The goal of guidance and counselling is to increase and individual‘s knowledge, skills and
attitudes about oneself and others. In addition the knowledge and skills acquired will enable
learners understand and develop coping mechanism to challenges faced in life.
This unit examines counselling process, major principles in counselling and the differences
between guidance and counselling. It also emphasizes the role of the ECDE personnel in
dealing with children, parents and the community. This unit also addresses identification of
support and referral services. Various challenges faced by families such as HIV and AIDS,
drug and substance abuse will be discussed.
Objectives of this Unit
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
a) Define terms in guidance and counselling
b) Explain the differences between guidance and counselling
c) Explain the importance of guidance and counselling
d) Analyse ethics and principles in guidance and counselling
e) Discuss qualities of a good counselling
f) Discuss types of counselling
g) Discuss stages in counselling process
h) Explain the techniques in the counselling process
i) Discuss how to manage emotional and psychological problems in life
j) Analyse the roles of ECDE trainers, teachers and parents in guidance and counselling
k) Identify, counsel and refer children with emotional and developmental challenges
l) Identified, rehabilitate and refer children with special needs
m) Identify, counsel and refer children and parents affected by drug and substance abuse
n) Identify and create awareness on the available supportive and referral services.
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Define terms in guidance and counselling.
1. Guidance
Guidance can be defined as the expert direction of help given to someone through teaching,
directing, opinion giving, exemplifying, explaining, advising and instruction to enable the
person to make informed and responsible choice so as to adjust or cope with various
challenges in his/her environment.
With this definition the aim of guidance if therefore to help an individual to understand
himself better, discover personal needs, evaluate own abilities and gradually develop life
goals which are acceptable to the individual and society. Guidance also helps an individual to
develop mechanism of realizing these goals, leading to holistic development of the
individual.
2. Counseling
Counseling is a process by which an individual who has a problem or needs to make a

decision is helped to identify, explore and examine alternative course of action and their
possible consequences to come up with solutions to their own problems. It is aimed at
enabling the person with a problem to achieve a better personal adjustment and growth in
maturity by learning to use his/her resources and by developing and exploiting his or her
resources fully
Counseling does not however involve the counselor giving his opinion to the person being
counseled.
3. Counselor
A counselor is an expert who has professional training especially in counseling/psychology or
both in order to be able to help people facing life challenges to identify, explore and examine
alternative course of action and their possible consequences to come up with solutions to their
problems.
4. Counselee
This is a person who is facing a life challenge and needs expert help in order for him identify,
explore and examine alternative courses of action and possible consequences to come up with
solutions to the problem.
5. Client
This is a person who uses the services of a professional counselor. A counselee is a client to
the counselor.
6. Counseling Process
This refers to an identifiable sequence of events taking place over time in order to help people
grow, change, adjust to situation, make decision and cope with situation more effectively.
The process of counseling has five stages namely attending, responding, personalizing,
initiating and evaluating.
7. Career Guidance
This is the expert direction of an individual in choosing a vocation (career) that is in line with
his/her aptitudes and interest in order to achieve his/her full potential.
CHAPTER 2:
DIFFERENCES/IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 Explain the differences between guidance and counselling.
 Explain the importance guidance and counselling.
Writers in most cases find it difficult to distinguish between the two words. According to
Shertzer and stone (1976), the attempt to differentiate between guidance and counseling has
not met with any measure of success because it is difficult to make distinctions between the
two terms. On the basis of similarities, the terms could be interpreted to mean the same thing
because in terms of peoples‘ welfare the two words are out to achieve the same goals.
Although they are both educational services but contextually, they can be differentiated. The
table below shows some differences between the two terms.
COMPARING GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
Guidance Counselling
1. Counsellor directed. Locus of control 1. Student (client) directed. Locus of control moves
remains with the teacher (Counsellor) towards student (client). This means the client is
more involved at every stage in counselling.
2. The Teacher (counselor) is 2. The Teacher (counsellor) is a facilitator / guide.
information /advice giver. He is not the decision maker.
3. The teacher (counsellor) determines 3. Client and counsellor jointly negotiate a contract
objectives. about agenda and number of sessions.
4. There are no assessments taken. 4. Assessments/ diagnosis and evaluation is in the
domain of the counsellor.
5. Concern is with decision (decision 5. Concern is with the process of decision-making.
seen as product). The way it is Understanding how decisions are reached is as
reached is not regarded as especially important as the content of the decision.
significant.
6. Learning is seen as specific to the 6. Learning is seen as transferrable. What is learnt
problem in question. in one context is seen utilizable in another e.g.
the learning of a skill such as breaking down
problem into its component parts.
7. Feelings are not regarded as 7. Learning is an emotional as well as a cognitive
important in learning. process. This means the behavior, thoughts and
feelings are important.
8. Learning about a subject is not seen 8. Learning about a subject creates self-awareness
as involving self-discovery. on the client‘s part. (self-discovery)
9. Anyone who has the required 9. It requires training as skills and techniques are
knowledge on the topic being acquired. The counselor uses them during the
covered can facilitate. sessions to aid the client deal with their issue.
10. There is no limit in the number of 10. There is a limit in the numbers of the
clients per session. participants. i.e either individual of if in a group
not more than 12 people per session.
11. There is no confidentiality. 11. Confidentiality is only broken if the client
requests, if the counselor gets the impression that
the client will harm either themselves or
someone around them or if called upon by the
court of law.
12. The facilitator can be a friend. 12. The counselor is not allowed to counsel someone
they know due to being biased.
13. There are no hard guidelines that are 13. Is guided by ethics and one has to register in the
used govern guidance. counselors register annually.
14. The facilitator does not need 14. The counselor has to go for supervision after a
supervision. given number of sessions.
15. There is no limit to the relationships 15. The relationship formed is strictly professional
formed. i.e teacher-student, mentor- and not of any other nature. i.e counselor-client
student etc. relationship.
IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

The guidance and counselling purposes include: assisting individual students, teachers, adults
and the society in general to:
1. find out and make individuals aware of their basic personal prerequisites, abilities,
assets, liabilities and potentialities,
2. provide usable information on vocation and to correct or clarify misinformation,
3. assess an individual‘s chances to succeed in the labour market,
4. create awareness of clients in the availability of jobs and how to progress in it,
5. make available opportunities for further training and advancement in occupations,
6. suggest alternative careers and realisation of priorities summarized in the objectives in
schools thus,
7. assist students in making appropriate and satisfying personal, vocational and
educational choices;
8. assist student acquire a positive image of self through self-understanding the needs
and problems of each person,
9. assist teachers and school personnel in understanding the needs and problems of each
student,
10. assist school authorities / administrators in improving educational objectives and
programmes of interpersonal relationships;
11. contribute to educational planning;
12. mobilize all the available resources of the school or home for satisfaction of the
vocational, educational and socio-personal needs of the students;
13. supplement school instructional and administrative input into the learner;
14. help students develop proper attitude towards themselves, others, school, values,
interests, morals, beliefs and discipline;
15. help students develop to optimize and utilize their skills and correct the sources of
their weaknesses and to improve the standard of education;
16. help learners live within the framework of an institution;
17. help people achieve independence with a minimum of conflict with institutional
values;
18. promote in pupils good sense of awareness, ability to acquire a good knowledge of the
world of work, possibility of continuing education and ability to make realistic
decisions;
19. guard individual‘s mental health; and
20. Promote human effectiveness.
CHAPTER 3:
ETHICS AND PRINCIPLES IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 Analyse ethics and principles in guidance and counselling.
The basic principles of guidance and counseling as accepted by most authorities in the field
of guidance and counseling are described as follows:
(1) Guidance and Counseling is for everyone. The service is not only for those with
special handicaps but it is also meant for all ―normal‖, developing children and adults;
(2) Guidance and Counseling activities should therefore be based on the need and total
development of every person. It is the duty of all personnel in a setting to identify
the needs of individuals so that programme activities can be designed to meet such
needs;
(3) Guidance and Counseling must be provided in a way that ensures human dignity
and worth. The full and adequate development of the individual must be given
preference. It should be seen as encouraging individuals to attain maximum
satisfaction, to realize their potentials and to be aware to self. No one who has gone
through counseling should feel inadequate;
(4) Guidance and Counseling is a sequential, continuous and developmental process,
which starts from birth to death. This means that guidance and counseling runs from
the nursery school through primary, secondary to the tertiary institutions. It is not a
once-and-for-all event but a process which is an integral part of the total educational
programme throughout the school life of an individual;
(5) There is a close association between counseling activities and the instructional
process, each contributing to the other. Counseling can help make the instructional
activities to be more relevant and meaningful to the needs of students, while the
instructional activities can help to give necessary information and directives to a
student in planning his/her life goals;
(6) All guidance activities must emphasize the will for each student to learn more
about himself in an accurate and systematic manner. Through the use of well-
planned instructional strategies and appraisal techniques, individuals can become
more knowledgeable about themselves and about the world around them. Without
such knowledge, an individual cannot exercise intelligently the rights to free choice in
educational, vocational and personal-social fields.
(7) Every member of staff in a school and non-school setting should assume
responsibility for guidance activities. The principal, teachers and counselors are all
members of the guidance team and each member has prescribed functions and roles.
(8) Effective leadership is the watchword for any effective guidance and counseling
programme. Guidance counselors who are qualified, well - trained and competent are
expected to function in schools and other settings. Such professionals would be able
to enlist the support of staff members in effecting guidance activities.
(9) The practitioners should practice within ethical and moral limits. The ethical and
moral guidelines should be such that clients would feel secure and confident in using
the services provided. This also guarantees that counselors will not use techniques
and/or approaches for which they do not have competence; and
(10) The objectives of counseling should be based on clients‘ needs and not on the needs
of the counselors. In pursuing such needs of the client, the counselors must present a
positive image.
CHAPTER 4:
QUALITIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELLOR
 Discuss the qualities of a good counsellor.
Counselors play a very big role in shaping other people‘s lives. In this topic we examine the
qualities a counselor is expected to have in order for him/her to perform his role effectively.
These qualities include:-
a) Expertise
b) Competence
c) Genuine
d) Congruence
e) Attractiveness
f) Empathy
g) Patience
h) Confidentiality
i) Flexibility
j) Good listener
a) Expertise
The counselor should be a person who has been trained on guidance and counseling.
b) Competent
The counselor should have the necessary ability, skills and knowledge required in handling
the unique needs of his clients. Sometimes there may be need for specialization e.g. in child
counseling, marriage counseling etc. This specialization helps the counselor to become more
efficient since he has deep understanding in his/her area of specialization.
c) Genuineness/congruence
This implies that the counselor is real, transparent, open and sincere. It calls for a degree of
honest expression without cruel confrontation. It also means that the counselor expresses in
his words and actions, his real inner feelings, attitudes and beliefs. The counselors should not
hide their feelings about any situation the counselee may be in.
d) Attractiveness
They should be friendly and approachable for the counselee to be able to open up to them.
e) Empathy
The counselor should be to sense the client in a world or private and personal feelings as if it
were his own. He/she should sensitively and accurately understood the clients state of mind.
f) Patience
The counselor should allow the client enough time to express himself. He should not for
example be in a hurry to finish sentences for a stammering client. Patience allows the client
to feel valued hence can confide in the counselor.
g) Confidentiality
Effective counselor shouldn‘t as a rule discuss their clients even in academic situation and
public. Only under special circumstances e.g. where a client is contemplating suicide can
counselor confidentiality.
h) Flexibility
The counselor should not hold any stereotypes above any situations the clients may be in.
instead the counselor should be flexible enough and direct energy towards allowing of a
maximum of unique experiences and expressions from the clients.
i) Good listener
The counselor should be able to listen to understand the situation of his/her clients.
CHAPTER 5:
TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF COUNSELLING
 Describe types and classification of counselling.
TYPES OF COUNSELLING
There are two major types of Counselling, namely: individual counselling and group
counselling.
(a) Individual Counselling: This is referred to as one-to-one counselling. It occurs
between the professionally trained Counsellor (Therapist) and his client (Counsellee).
The goal of this is to help the client to understand himself, clarify and direct his
thought, in order to make a worthwhile decision. Through this, clients‘ problems are
alleviated. Frumboltz and Thoreson (1967) as cited in Ojo (2005) remarked that it is
mainly to bring about change in the client either by altering maladaptive behaviour,
learning the decision making process or preventing problems.
(b) Group Counselling: This is a counselling session that takes place between the
professionally trained counsellor and a group of people. Number of this group should
not be more than seven, or at least ten, in order to have a cohesive group and an
effective well controlled counselling session. Members of the groups are
clients/counselees whose tasks or problems that are meant for resolution are similar.
During group counselling, a free atmosphere is allowed and freedom of speech is encouraged.
The counselees are free to express themselves individually as counselling progresses so that
encumbrances surrounding the tasks or problems to be resolved would be open for all to
consider and benefit from. All counselees are expected to participate and express their
feelings. The responsibility of the counsellor during group counselling is to help remove the
marks covering the problem. He helps open up the problem with the professional
competence and knowledge he possesses. The counsellor is not just a member of the group;
he is to direct the affairs and situations.
CLASSIFICATION OF COUNSELLING
Counselling can be classified according to different spheres of life in which human beings
could encounter problems. These are:
(a) Educational Counselling: problems that could be of learning, teaching and that of
education generally are handled here.
(b) Marital Counselling: problems that could emanate from married life beginning from
spouse selection are resolved here.
(c) Personal Social Counselling: problems including personality and life in general are
taken care of here.
(d) Rehabilitation Counselling: problems emanating from life disruptions such as
accidents, retrenchment and natural mishaps are handled here.
(e) Vocational Counselling: problems from work and training, career choice making and
adjustment are handled here.
Only three of the above types of counselling will be mainly practiced in the school setting.
These are Educational, Vocational and Personal-social counselling which will be the full
responsibility of the school counsellor. However, a counsellor in private practice might need
to engage in the other types of counselling depending on the needs of his clients.
CHAPTER 6:
STAGES IN THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
 Discuss the stages in the counselling process.
INTRODUCTION
Counselling process is the procedure and ways by which clients‘ problems are worked
through. It is the procedure, which both the Counsellor and the client go through as they seek
to find solution to the problem of the client. Counselling process is therefore systematic and
procedural since it is one stage of solution finding that leads to the other and so, it is not a one
shot or single snap exercise. Proper counselling therefore involves careful step-by-step
encounter to reach the stage when the client will feel satisfied and the counsellor feel
accomplished that counselling services have been properly rendered.
In this Chapter, you will be taken through each aspect of this Counselling process.
Recognition of each aspect of the process will show how one leads to the other.
COUNSELLING PROCESS
The Counselling process is made up of four basic phases. Regardless of the type of client,
client‘s problem or nature of Counselling, the process of counselling is basic and the same.
The four basic phases are:
(a) Initial phase;
(b) Working phase;
(c) Termination phase; and
(d) Follow-up phase.
(a) Initial Phase
The initial phase is the same thing as preparatory or preparation stage. Essentially it involves
all the activities during the first meeting between the Counsellor and the client. This phase is
important because it is at this stage that the client presents the problem, which necessitated
the counselling encounter. An important factor or an essential ingredient in the stage is the
readiness of the client to want to present his/her problem.
Similarly, the nature of the problem and the client‘s personality are important for the initial
phase to take place. Sometimes in order to facilitate a quick take-off in this phase, the
Counsellor may start by welcoming the client and state why he was sent for (referral) i.e.
your teacher sent a note to me that we (the counsellor and client) should discuss about your
poor performance in Mathematics. If the client came on his own, the counsellor start by
welcoming him/her, and introduce each other. He/she will then find out why the client is
interested in seeing him/her.
The initial phase is strictly for familiarization, problem presentation and awareness of the
existence of the problem by the counsellor and the client. It is not the stage where problem is
discussed or solved.
(b) Working Phase
Immediately after the initial phase during which counselling relationship has been established
with an understanding that a problem to be discussed is in existence, then follows the
working phase. The working phase is the problem discussion stage. In this phase, the
counsellor assists the client to work through their feelings as they discuss their concern.
Here, good techniques and professional skills must be used by the Counsellor as the client
works through his/her problem to enable them gain better insights into them.
In this phase, the client should be able to gain better insight into his problem, understand
various and alternative course of actions to be taken and take positive actions to solve his
problems. Both the client and the counsellor may have an assignment to carryout in respect
of the problem being discussed before the next phase. For example, the assignment may be
to visit the parent, an industry, employment agency, an examination office or the teacher
handling a particular subject that is constituting a problem for the client. Each person is
however expected to give a feedback during the next session. The essence of the given
assignments is to gather sufficient information or data that will enhance smooth transition
into the next phase and ensure that a sound bases for the next stage is created.
(c) Termination Stage
The termination stage marks the end of counselling process. This stage is necessitated:
1. When client‘s problem have been successfully discussed and resolved;
2. When client has been referred to another professional counsellor; and
3. Due to client‘s lack of apparent problems.
(d) Follow-Up Phase
This is about the last stage in the Counselling process. The Counsellor must have told the
client during termination stage to keep in touch with him. Specifically, follow-up phase is a
counselling activity in which the counsellor finds out whether the acquired behaviour by the
client during the counselling session is maintained or not and whether the client has been able
to solve his problem or not. As follow-up, the counsellor can visit the client to have dialogue
on how his new behaviour has been maintained or has been helpful in his adjustment process.
Peradventure there is no improvement observed in the client, reassessment of the problem can
be done through exploration and new goals mapped out as they both go over through the
counselling process all over again.
CONCLUSION
The counselling process could be very effective in solving client‘s problem if the various
stages/phases are carefully observed and followed without necessarily rushing to take
decisions that may make clients to repeat or that may not work out well for the client.
CHAPTER 7:
TECHNIQUES IN THE COUNSELLING PROCESS
 Explain the techniques in the counselling process.
Technique can be defined as methods or ways of doing something or performing an act
efficiently. Another word which carries similar meaning with technique is strategy that the
Counsellor uses in a counselling encounter. Techniques are usefully acquired through
training by the professional Counsellor to assist their clients understand and solve their daily
problems. It is therefore basic that the acquisition and use of techniques in counselling helps
to distinguish a professional Counsellor from someone who is not trained but who tries to
practice counselling.
There are as many examples of Counselling technique as there are approaches or theories in
Counselling. Examples of some of the approaches are psychoanalysis, Behaviour
modification, Rational Emotive Therapy, Transactional Analysis, Gestalt, Logo therapy,
Reality Impressive, Client-cantered, Adlerian and Trait and Factor.
While each of these approaches is unique and therefore distinguishable from the others, there
still exists relationship among them because they are all tended towards helping the clients to
understand himself and lead a well adjusted life. It is therefore the technique in each of the
approaches that often shows which of the approaches is being employed in practice.
However, there are some techniques that cut across some counselling approaches.
Generally, examples of counselling techniques are listening, responding, emphasizing,
questioning, prodding, interpretation, reflection, confronting, restatement, probing, self-
disclosure, catharsis, assuring, immediacy, encouraging, clarifying, concretising,
summarising, homework, silence homework, catharses and exploring some of the major
techniques are discussed below:
Listening: Listening is a very crucial technique in the counselling relationship. It involves
every part of the body i.e. eyes, voice, ears and hears. Listening is often regarded as the
foundation stone upon which other lards of helping service are built. Active listening
conveys to chats that they are valued by the counsellor. If the counsellor does not listen
attentively, he may not be able to hear and understand what his client‘s problems are and
observe the exact nature of both the verbal and non-verbal responses by his client. Adedipe
(1997) states that listening is far from the passive state which some people think it to be.
Active listening is a skill of great sophistication, which is available to all counsellors.
The use of listening as a technique means being able to communicate understanding of the
client‘s problems, meaning content. Similarly, it means being able to show to the client that
you understand how he feels particularly to show the client that you have an idea of the
impact of the existing problems on his psychological well - being.
Responding: This is a technique of counselling that involves the counsellor‘s verbal and
non-verbal reactions to the problems presented by the client. Responding is very crucial in
the helping relationship. It is important to mention that adequate response depends on the
counsellor‘s attentive and understanding skills. It is important for the counsellor to respond
promptly and adequately to the client‘s verbal and non-verbal communications. With
appropriate and useful response, it is likely that the client would be able to get help in
understanding his problems and be able to take positive actions towards the solution of his
problems. It is essential that counsellors should be able to respond to the contents feeling and
the meaning of the client‘s expression if he, the counsellor would provide effective assistance
to the client.
Questioning: This technique helps the Counsellor in probing and thereby explores the
problem being presented by the client. It helps to bring to fore, some important fact that will
assist in promoting an effective discussion in the interpersonal relationship between the client
and the counsellor. Questioning readily helps the client in identifying and having clearer
understanding of his problem.
Restatement: This involves a process in which the Counsellor having heard and understood
what the client said, he (the Counsellor) repeats what was said for the sake of clarification.
Specifically, restatement assists the counsellor and the client to reach a lard of mutual
understanding of true nature of the problem as it represents the mind of the client. It also
affords the client the opportunity of explaining further if what he said was not properly heard
or understood by the counsellor.
When the counsellor restates the client‘s problem, the client is thereby reassured of the
counsellor‘s attentiveness and ability to follow with the client‘s explanation. According to
Adedipe (1997), he opines that, although it is important for the counsellor to maintain a
listening role, there are certain kinds of responses which communicate not only that, the
counsellor is listening, but also that the counsellor is a person with an active role. The
restatement is one of these responses. An example is the following interaction:
Client: ―I don‘t know whether to stay in school or to drop out and get a job but if I do, I don‘t
know what kind of job I can find‖
Counsellor: ―You are wondering whether to stay in school or to drop out and work;
Assuring: Assuring as a counselling technique, demands that a counsellor makes a conscious
effort to gain the client‘s confidence in the process of assisting him to solve his (client‘s)
problem. The counsellor exhibits a personal quality, which makes the client to trust and rely
on the counsellor as a worthy provider of assistance that can solve his problem.
Silence: This technique involves sudden cessation or suspension of sound by both the
counsellor and the client temporarily. It is important for the counsellor to know the
appropriate time and way of using silence if not it can be mistaken for his inability of
knowing what to say. In case the counsellor does not know a lot to say when silence is
applied, he could make statements such as:
You must be deeply touched by your problems. Are you thinking of a better way to state your
problems? You are not sure; you should discuss certain aspect of your problem with me.
These statements will enable the client to know that you are still in the process of helping him
to follow through his problem.
Self-disclosure: This technique refers to the act of making known someone‘s
feelings/reactions or uncovering someone‘s feelings or reactions to situations or persons.
Such feelings are of course secret until they are made known. A counsellor who uses self-
disclosure will definitely make known his feelings and reactions to his client‘s presentations.
It is, however, important to note that such feelings that are made known must be genuine,
sincere and authentic. The use of self-disclosure also demands that the counsellor must have
understood his client and in fact gained his confidence in their interpersonal relationship.
This is because if the counsellor disclosed his genuine feelings upon first contact with client,
the client may withdraw from counselling session. But if he understands the client, and the
client has developed trust in him, then self-disclosure will serve its functions in helping the
client to develop:
(a) develop appropriate honest behaviour;
(b) Complete counselling relationship.
When a Counsellor is genuine and transparent in his interaction with the client, he could be:
(a) seen as a model to the client who also learn to imbibe the counsellor‘s behaviour;
(b) able to succeed in expending less energy in withholding his real self;
(c) able to provide a conducive and facilitating environment for himself and the client.
Both the client and the counsellor are therefore able to feel very free in their discussion.
Where the client is initially reluctant, a good use of self-disclosure by the counsellor would
help the client express his problem fully. An example of self-disclosure is when the
counsellor ways ―I have heard similar problem before and it was resolved‖.
CHAPTER 8:
MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
 Discuss how to manage emotional and psychological problems in life.
1. ANXIETY AND STRESS MANAGEMENT
When you're feeling anxious or stressed, these strategies will help you cope:
 Take a time-out. Practice yoga, listen to music, meditate, get a massage, or learn
relaxation techniques. Stepping back from the problem helps clear your head.
 Eat well-balanced meals. Do not skip any meals. Do keep healthful, energy-boosting
snacks on hand.
 Limit alcohol and caffeine, which can aggravate anxiety and trigger panic attacks.
 Get enough sleep. When stressed, your body needs additional sleep and rest.
 Exercise daily to help you feel good and maintain your health. Check out the fitness tips
below.
 Take deep breaths. Inhale and exhale slowly.
 Count to 10 slowly. Repeat, and count to 20 if necessary.
 Do your best. Instead of aiming for perfection, which isn't possible, be proud of
however close you get.
 Accept that you cannot control everything. Put your stress in perspective: Is it really
as bad as you think?
 Welcome humor. A good laugh goes a long way.
 Maintain a positive attitude. Make an effort to replace negative thoughts with positive
ones.
 Get involved. Volunteer or find another way to be active in your community, which
creates a support network and gives you a break from everyday stress.
 Learn what triggers your anxiety. Is it work, family, school, or something else you
can identify? Write in a journal when you‘re feeling stressed or anxious, and look for a
pattern.
 Talk to someone. Tell friends and family you‘re feeling overwhelmed, and let them
know how they can help you. Talk to a physician or therapist for professional help.
STAY HEALTHY, MANAGE STRESS
For the biggest benefits of exercise, try to include at least 2½ hours of moderate-intensity
physical activity (e.g. rapid walking) each week, 1¼ hours of a vigorous-intensity activity
(such as jogging or swimming laps), or a combination of the two.
 5 X 30: Jog, walk, bike, or dance three to five times a week for 30 minutes.
 Set small daily goals and aim for daily consistency rather than perfect workouts. It's
better to walk every day for 15-20 minutes than to wait until the weekend for a three-
hour fitness marathon. Lots of scientific data suggests that frequency is most important.
 Find forms of exercise that are fun or enjoyable. Extroverted people often like classes
and group activities. People who are more introverted often prefer solo pursuits.
 Distract yourself with an iPod or other portable media player to download audiobooks,
podcasts, or music. Many people find it‘s more fun to exercise while listening to
something they enjoy.
 Recruit an ―exercise partner It's often easier to stick to your exercise routine when you
have to stay committed to a friend, partner, or colleague.
 Be patient when you start a new exercise program. Most sedentary people require about
four to eight weeks to feel coordinated and sufficiently in shape so that exercise feels
easier.
2. MANAGEMENT OF DEPRESSION
This section addresses the management of the psychiatric syndrome known as major
depressive disorder or often called simply "depression". This syndrome is being
diagnosed more frequently in developed countries, where up to 20% of the population is
affected at some stage of their lives. Patients are usually assessed and managed as
outpatients, and only admitted to an inpatient mental health unit if they are considered a
risk to themselves or others.
There are a number of different psychotherapies for depression which are provided to
individuals or groups by psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social
workers, counselors or psychiatric nurses. With more chronic forms of depression the
most effective treatment is often considered to be a combination of medication and
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice in people under 18.
The most studied form of psychotherapy for depression is cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT), thought to work by teaching clients to learn a set of cognitive and behavioral
skills, which they can employ on their own. Earlier research suggested that cognitive-
behavioral therapy was not as effective as antidepressant medication in the treatment of
depression; however, more recent research suggests that it can perform as well as
antidepressants in treating patients with moderate to severe depression.
For the treatment of adolescent depression, one published study found that CBT without
medication performed no better than placebo, and significantly worse than the
antidepressant fluoxetine. However, the same article reported that CBT and fluoxetine
outperformed treatment with only fluoxetine. Combining fluoxetine with CBT appeared
to bring no additional benefit in two different studies or, at the most, only marginal
benefit, in a fourth study.
Behavior therapy for depression is sometimes referred to as behavioral activation
Studies exist showing behavioral activation to be superior to CBT. In addition, behavioral
activation appears to take less time and lead to longer lasting change.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) a mindfulness form of CBT, which has
it's roots in behavior analysis, also demonstrates that it is effective in treating depression,
and can be more helpful than traditional CBT especially where Depression is
accompanied by Anxiety and where it is resistant to traditional CBT.
A review of four studies on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
(MBCT), a recently developed class-based program designed to prevent relapse, suggests
that MBCT may have an additive effect when provided with the usual care in patients
who have had three or more depressive episodes, although the usual care did not include
antidepressant treatment or any psychotherapy, and the improvement observed may have
reflected non-specific or placebo effects.
Interpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may
cause depression. There is evidence that it is an effective treatment for depression. Here,
the therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) as in
the case of CBT; however the focus is on relations with others. Therapy can be used to
help a person develop or improve interpersonal skills in order to allow him or her to
communicate more effectively and reduce stress.
Psychoanalysis, a school of thought founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the
resolution of unconscious mental conflicts, is used by its practitioners to treat clients
presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced technique, called
psychodynamic psychotherapy, is loosely based on psychoanalysis and has an additional
social and interpersonal focus. In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials,

psychodynamic psychotherapy was found to be as effective as medication for mild to
moderate depression.
3. ANGER MANAGEMENT
1. Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability - you feel devalued in some way.
2. When angry, think or do something that will make you feel more valuable, i.e.,
worthy of appreciation.
3. Don't trust your judgment when angry. Anger magnifies and amplifies only the
negative aspects of an issue, distorting realistic appraisal.
4. Try to see the complexity of the issue. Anger requires narrow and rigid focus that
ignores or oversimplifies context.
5. Strive to understand other people's perspectives. When angry you assume the worst or
outright demonize the object of your anger.
6. Don't justify your anger. Instead, consider whether it will help you act in your long-
term best interest.
7. Know your physical and mental resources. Anger is more likely to occur when tired,
hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied, distracted, or overwhelmed.
8. Focus on improving and repairing rather than blaming. It's hard to stay angry without
blaming and it's harder to blame when focused on repairing and improving.
9. When angry, remember your deepest values. Anger is about devaluing others, which
is probably inconsistent with your deepest values.
10. Know that your temporary state of anger has prepared you to fight when you really
need to learn more, solve a problem, or, if it involves a loved one, be more
compassionate.
4. GRIEF COUNSELLING
Grief counseling is a form of psychotherapy that aims to help people cope with grief and
mourning following the death of loved ones, or with major life changes that trigger
feelings of grief (e.g., divorce).
Grief counselors feel that everyone experiences and expresses grief in their own way,
often shaped by culture. They believe that it is not uncommon for a person to withdraw
from their friends and family and feel helpless; some might be angry and want to take
action. Some may laugh.
Grief counselors hold that one can expect a wide range of emotion and behavior
associated with grief. Some counselors believe that in all places and cultures, the grieving
person benefits from the support of others. Further, grief counselors believe that where
such support is lacking, counseling may provide an avenue for healthy resolution. Grief
counselors believe that grief is a process the goal of which is "resolution." The field
further believes that where the process of grieving is interrupted, for example, by
simultaneously having to deal with practical issues of survival or by being the strong one
and holding a family together, grief can remain unresolved and later resurface as an issue
for counseling.
 Grief counseling becomes necessary when a person is so disabled by their grief,
overwhelmed by loss to the extent that their normal coping processes are disabled or shut
down. Grief counseling facilitates expression of emotion and thought about the loss,
including sadness, anxiety, anger, loneliness, guilt, relief, isolation, confusion, or

numbness.
 It includes thinking creatively about the challenges that follow loss and coping with
concurrent changes in their lives. Often people feel disorganized, tired, have trouble
concentrating, sleep poorly and have vivid dreams, and experience change in appetite.
These too are addressed in counseling.
 Grief counseling facilitates the process of resolution in the natural reactions to loss. It is
appropriate for reaction to losses that have overwhelmed a person's coping ability.
 Grief counseling may be called upon when a person suffers anticipatory grief, for
example an intrusive and frequent worry about a loved one whose death is neither
imminent nor likely. Anticipatory mourning also occurs when a loved one has a terminal
illness. This can handicap that person's ability to stay present whilst simultaneously
holding onto, letting go of, and drawing closer to the dying relative.
 In March 2007, grief counseling and grief therapy were placed on a list of treatments that
have the potential to cause harm in clients in the Association for Psychological Science
(APS) journal, Perspectives on Psychological Science. In particular, individuals
experiencing "relatively normal bereavement reactions" may experience worse outcomes
after receiving grief counseling.
CHAPTER 9:
ROLE OF ECDE TRAINERS, TEACHERS AND PARENTS IN GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
 Analyse the roles of ECDE trainers, teachers and parents in guidance and counselling.
INTRODUCTION
There are some people whose interest and participation in guidance and counselling services
in the school setting are very important. These people‘s participation help determine the
success or failure of the guidance programme in the school. The guidance programme will
only be useful if the key persons play their roles individually and collectively for the success
of the guidance programme. In this chapter, you will be reading about some of the
responsibilities of these key persons. The key persons include the principal, teachers, the
pupils or students, the parents and even the entire community.
The school-principal, classroom teacher, school-guidance counselors, parents and guardians
of pupils and the pupils themselves are major stakeholders in school-guidance services.
These major-stakeholders have specific roles and responsibilities for the success and
effectiveness of school guidance programme. It should, however, be restated that only
through the team-approach could the guidance programme yield the best results. Perhaps, it
is important at this point to examine the functions of each of these major stakeholders.
A. SCHOOL HEADTEACHERS/PRINCIPALS
1. The head teacher/school-principal is the chief executive within the primary/secondary
school-system. He is by virtue of this position expected to provide leadership for all
school-based programme, including school-guidance. The following, however, are some
of the specific functions of the principal in school-guidance practice.
2. The principal should recognise and appreciate the need for and the importance of a
comprehensive school guidance programme for all pupils.
3. The principals should make provision in terms of budgetary allocations and physical plant
planning for effective delivery of school-guidance services.
4. Provide the needed facilities, equipment, supplies and clerical and administrative support-
systems for effective school guidance.
5. Direct and coordinate school guidance programme cooperatively with other members of
staff within the school.
6. Take responsibility for setting-up the school guidance committee after consultation with
the counsellor and other staff in the school.
7. Take responsibility for consulting with members of staff to arrive at unanimous decisions
on such matters pertaining to organizational structure, individuals‘ roles and functions of
all personnel involved in school-guidance programme.
8. Plan, initiate and develop a tradition of in-service training for school counselors.
9. Plan, coordinate and mobilize community based-resources to enhance school guidance
programme.
The most important guidance role of the school principal is perhaps to ensure that the whole
school climate becomes a growth-promoting environment where pupils and teachers are free
to be themselves even while still in teaching-learning contexts.
B. SCHOOL TEACHERS
According to Zeran and Riccion (1962), the following are the guidance functions of school
teachers:
1. Know and use the basic principles of human behaviour.
2. Develop skills in observing and analysing student behaviour in order to ascertain when
an incident is significant, and, also to be sure that it will not be reported out of context.
3. Provide the student with facts about himself and his environment as a basic framework
for thinking logically about his goals and then relating them to his abilities.
4. Place emphasis on self-understanding, self-direction, utilisation of potentials, and
acceptance of responsibilities for actions by the student.
5. Express to the principal the need for an organised programme of guidance services.
6. Cooperate with the principal in the evaluation of existing guidance services and in the
inventory to staff competencies useful in the guidance service.
7. Accept the opportunity to participate in the planning and development stages of the
programme.
8. Recognise the need for specialised guidance personnel and understand the relationships
so necessary between the guidance personnel and the classroom teacher.
9. Assist in providing data for the students‘ cummulative record folder and utilize these
data in a professional manner.
10. Develop home and classroom activity materials.
11. Integrate occupational, educational, and personal-social information into the respective
subjects.
12. Review constantly course content and curricular offerings to meet student needs.
13. Realise the necessity of becoming concerned with all phases of the student‘s
developmental patterns, rather than just with his intellectual achievements.
14. Participate in case conferences.
15. Assist students whenever possible and refer those whose needs are beyond their
competencies.
16. Request in-service assistance in the further development of old, and the acquiring of
new competencies useful in performing the guidance activities.
On the whole, teachers must realise that classroom teaching and learning is indeed a
therapeutic exercise. Every teacher therefore needs to have a guidance orientation to his/her
teaching-learning activities. Classroom teaching must be interesting, it must be interactive, it
must be animating; it has to have a personal touch. All these involve that the classroom
teacher must develop guidance competencies.
C. SCHOOL COUNSELORS
As discussed earlier, school counsellors perform functions that are very germane to both the
academic and personality well-being of school students. Several authorities in guidance such
as Makinde (1984), Ipaye (1980), Brammer (1996), Makinde & Alao (1987) and others have
advocated that the school counsellor must perform his functions in such a way as to carry
along the whole school environment where they are operating. While going through these
functions of a counsellor, it should be realized that the functions should be carried out
cooperatively with other professional members of the school system.
Zeran & Riccio (1962) beautifully spelt out the functions of the school counsellor as follows:
1. Evaluate his professional preparation and strengthen areas of deficiency.
2. Ascertain that his understandings coincide with those of the principal relative to his role
and responsibilities as well as line and staff relationships in the organisational pattern.
3. Obtain the cooperative participation of the staff.
4. Demonstrate a desire to have a built-in system of evaluation as part of the programme.
5. Recommend to the principal areas for research and study as well as those
supplementary competencies, which should be considered when employing new
personnel.
6. Assist in the development of in-service programmes and participate in those areas of
special competence.
7. Encourage teachers to identify students needing assistance and also those that have
special talents.
8. Identify the potential drop-out and seek to meet his specific needs in an effort to salvage
him so that he may complete his formal education.
9. Encourage students to accept the responsibility for full utilization of their potentials.
10. Provide help in developing and carrying on case conferences.
11. Stimulate teachers to provide materials for the student‘s individual cummulative record
folders and to use them in a professional manner.
12. Confer with parents.
13. Refer students needing assistance beyond their competency.
14. Maintain good public relations with community, country and stage agencies.
15. Assist the school librarian in obtaining and keeping current materials on occupational,
educational, and personal-social information.
16. Help teachers obtain materials in the area of the informational services.
17. Demonstrate his professional competency.
On the whole, the school counsellor is expected to provide technical leadership for school
guidance programme. Most of the functions highlighted above reinforce the role of the
school counsellor as the technical and professional leader of all guidance activities in the
school.
D. PARENTS OR GUARDIANS
Parents and guardians are expected to cooperate with the school in the education and
guidance of their children. Cooperation is the best word that summarises the functions of
parents and guardians (Zeran & Riccio, 1962). The following are some of the specific
cooperative functions of parents in the school guidance programme.
1. Parents should provide information. Parents have responsibility for providing
information which would be useful in providing proper guidance for their children.
2. Parents should also encourage their children to make use of guidance services.
3. Parents should also utilize guidance services in the school to learn more about their
children.
4. Parents should also examine their own home lives to determine if their children are
operating from a home environment that is conducive to learning.
5. Parents should ensure that they help the school by teaching their children proper attitudes
such as those of self-discipline, self- improvement, dignity of labour, acceptance of
responsibility, and honesty.
E. PUPILS/STUDENTS
The pupils, students or clients are expected to discharge their responsibilities too. Among
them are:
1. To cooperate with teachers and school administration when they are sent to the counsellor
for guidance.
2. To recognize and accept the counsellor as a professional.
3. To go for counselling as the need arises for them.
4. To make use of educational and occupational materials provided for them by the school
guidance services.
5. They are to open up i.e. ready to give the counsellor any information needed to help them
in the counselling process.
6. Pupils or clients are also to help create awareness for others of the importance of
guidance and counselling in the school. In so doing, they will strengthen the programme.
7. They are to assist the guidance programme by informing their parents of the material, and
other needs of the school guidance programme so that they can provide.
F. THE COMMUNITY
The community is where the school is located. It has a right to expect the best from members
of the school system. It is also the responsibilities of the community to provide facilities and
services that will allow the school to produce the best from the students and other members of
the school community. The attitude of the community affects the tone of the school.
The community must relate closely with the school. The school guidance counsellor should
tap from the pool of resources in the community in providing effective guidance services to
students. The following are some of the areas of where the community could be useful for
school guidance services:
1. The community comprises a referral resource base for the school guidance programme.
2. The community should show interest in the school guidance activities organised for them
and their children.
3. The community provides avenues or opportunities for work-study programme for the
students.
4. Organisation of field trips to places of occupational interest must involve community
participation.
5. Placement services must be based on the good understanding of occupational and
educational opportunities in the community.
6. The community can provide resource persons for career talks and information needed for
counselling.
CONCLUSION
On the whole, the school needs to harness the resources available in the community and bring
them to bear on the quality of services offered pupils in the school. The school counsellor
must always bear in mind that the cooperation of the community is needed in order to provide
effective guidance services to pupils within the school.
SUMMARY
Major stakeholders‘ roles in the school guidance services have been examined in this chapter.
Cooperation is highly regarded in the discharge of the various guidance roles and functions of
the stakeholders in school-guidance practice. The significance of community participation in
school guidance was also discussed in this chapter.
CHAPTER 10:
IDENTIFYING, COUNSELLING & REFERRING CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL
& DEVELOPMENTAL CHALLENGES
 Identify, counsel and refer children with emotional and developmental challenges.
Children with aggressive behaviour constitute one of the most common and difficult
challenges for teachers and parents. To work on this issue it is crucial that teachers and
parents have developed a relation (with the child) based on solid communication and trust.
Teachers and Parents must be willing to take a step back from the situation and view their
child‘s behaviour in context. What is unacceptable behaviour to a teacher/parent may seem
logical and appropriate to a child. The key to helping a child manage their own behaviour is
to teach them realistic, constructive alternatives to the behaviour habits they have already
developed.
A child with consistently aggressive behaviour may be taught how to identify when they are
feeling angry and then learn strategies to apply in such situations. Children, for example, may
be taught to count-to-ten, take deep breaths, run around the oval or visualise a peaceful scene.
Children should not be discouraged from feeling angry but rather taught how to deal
appropriately with anger when it arises.
In this section, we will take a look at some practical examples of aggressive children and
provide tips to deal with this challenge.
Why do Children become Aggressive?
Children often display aggressive behaviours, such as biting, kicking, hitting, screaming or
yelling to express feelings that they find too complex to articulate. Children may endeavour
to express frustration, anxiety, stress, fear or vulnerability through aggressive behaviour.
Successful anger-management involves teaching children effective alternatives to aggressive
behaviour. Aggressive behaviour often becomes a behavioural pattern for children because it
is inadvertently reinforced. Such behaviour is reinforced in a number of ways. The first of
these is when the behaviour solves a problem for a child.
For example:
Tina and Peter (both age 4) are playing independently in the sandpit at pre-school. Tina is
playing happily with one of her favourite toys, the yellow tip-truck. When Peter notices Tina
having so much fun, he decides he too would like to play with the yellow tip-truck.
Peter makes a beeline for Tina and promptly snatches the toy from her grasp. As she
struggles to pull the toy back, Peter whacks her with a sand rake. Tina becomes upset and
starts to cry. The pre-school assistant hears Tina‘s cries and quickly bundles her off to first
aid; thus leaving Peter free to play merrily with the yellow tip-truck.
In the scenario above, it has been reinforced to Peter that aggression pays off. Enough
experiences along these lines and Peter may repeatedly use aggression to solve his problems.
Aggressive behaviour may also be reinforced through parental or peer modelling. TV shows
and movies may similarly demonstrate that aggression and violence lead to glory and
supremacy.
For example:
Jane is 10 years old. She has a little brother, Josh, who is 7. Yesterday when Josh was
watching cartoons on TV, Jane snatched the remote control from him so she could watch her
Princess Diaries DVD. When Josh tried to grab the remote control back from Jane, she
smacked him firmly on the leg.
On seeing this behaviour, Dave, their father, grabbed Jane by the arm, hit her on the leg and
swiftly sent her to her room.
Whilst Dave was attempting to extinguish Jane‘s aggressive behaviour, he actually sent a
mixed message. Dave has modelled aggression as the solution to his disciplinary dilemma. In
this scenario, both Josh and Jane have learnt that aggression can be used as a method for
solving problems.
How to Deal with Aggressive Behaviour in children
1. Do not become aggressive yourself. Children often model their behaviour on what you
do, rather than what you say.
2. Do not try to ―talk things out‖ when your child is still angry. Wait until a quieter moment,
when the anger has diffused.
3. When things have calmed down, discuss the aggressive behaviour. Talk about what could
have been done differently to avoid the aggression.
4. Write down school/family rules. Agree together on what the rules will be and get
everyone to sign that they are in agreement. Refer to the rules when required.
5. If there are two teachers/parents in a class/household, stick together and be consistent in
your approach to minimising aggressive behaviour.
6. Rewarding assertive behaviour will ultimately be more effective than punishing
aggressive behaviour.
Practical Activity: Comic Strip
This activity is designed to assist children in developing their ability to identify times when a
choice can be made within the lead up to aggressive behaviour.
Instructions:
1. Ask the child to think of a recent occasion when they behaved aggressively.
2. Ask the child to describe what happened (in detail) leading up to the event.
3. On a large (A3) sheet of paper, ask the child to draw the lead up to feeling angry in a
series of comic strip frames (complete with speech and thought bubbles).
4. Ask the child to choose a frame in the comic strip in which they could have behaved
differently.
5. Brainstorm alternative ways of behaving (e.g. instead of yelling at Brian, I could have
counted to ten and ignored him).
6. Ask the child to re-draw the comic strip including this new behaviour and a likely
new ending.
CHAPTER 11:
IDENTIFYING, REHABILITATING & REFERRING CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
 Identify, rehabilitate and refer children with special needs.
When a crisis event occurs—in school, in the community or at the national level—it can
cause strong and deeply felt reactions in adults and children, especially those children with
special needs. Many of the available crisis response resources are appropriate for use with
students with disabilities, provided that individual consideration is given to the child‘s
developmental and emotional maturity. Acts of healing such as making drawings, writing
letters, attending memorial ceremonies and sending money to relief charities are important
for all children.
How adults express their emotions will influence the reactions of children and
youth. Further, children with disabilities (e.g., emotional, cognitive, physical, etc.) will react
to the trauma and stress based on their past experience and awareness of the current situation.
Caregivers and school personnel who know a child well can best predict his or her reactions
and behaviors because they have observed the child‘s response to stress in the past.
Triggers and Cues: Children with disabilities generally have specific ―triggers‖—words,
images, sounds, etc.-- that signal danger or disruption to their feelings of safety and
security. Again, these are specific to each child but come from past experiences, association
with traumas, seeing fear in adults, etc. Children tend to develop their own ―cues‖ in response
to these trigger events, warning signals that adults can ―read‖ to understand that the child is
having difficulty. These cues may include facial expressions or nervous tics, changes in
speech patterns, sweating, feeling ill, becoming quiet or withdrawn, complaining or getting
irritable, exhibiting a fear or avoidance response, etc.
When adults anticipate these triggers or observe these cues, they should provide assurance,
support and attention as quickly as possible. If adults miss these cues, children may escalate
their behavior to a point where they completely lose control. If this occurs, adults need to
remove the child to the safest place available, allow the child to calm down, and then talk to
the child about the triggering fears or situation.
Because parents and teachers see children in different situations, it is essential that they
work together to share information about triggers and cues. This is best done on a regular
basis, such as during the periodic review meeting, rather than in response to a crisis.
However, when a crisis occurs, parents, case managers and others who work with the child
should meet to briefly discuss specific concerns and how to best address the child‘s needs in
the current situation.
In the context of prevention and the development of effective IEPs, some children need
specific training and interventions to help them to develop self-control and self-management
skills and strategies. During the teaching process, these skills and strategies should be taught
so they can be demonstrated successfully under stressful conditions (e.g., school crises,
terrorism, tornado) so that children can respond appropriately and effectively. Adults should
still expect that children will demonstrate their self-control skills with less efficiency when
confronted by highly unusual or stressful situations.
All children benefit from concrete information presented at the proper level of understanding,
and maturity. Helping all children to stop and think about their reactions and behavior,
especially with regard to anger and fear, is recommended and often necessary in order for
them to make ―good choices.‖ For some students with behavioral disorders, training in anger
management, coping and conflict resolution skills are important additions to a comprehensive
intervention program. The following information addresses specific, additional considerations
for children with special needs.
Autism: Children with autism pose very difficult challenges to caregivers. It is difficult to
know how much information a nonverbal child is absorbing from television and
conversations. It is important to pay close attention to the cues they may provide regarding
their fears and feelings and provide them with ways to communicate. Remember that any
change in routine may result in additional emotional or behavioral upset. If the child‘s
environment must be changed (e.g., an evacuation, the absence of a parent), try to maintain as
much of the normal routine (e.g., meals, play, bedtime) as possible—even in the new
environment. In addition, try to bring concrete elements from the child‘s more routine
environment (e.g., a toy, blanket, doll, eating utensils) into the new environment to maintain
some degree of ―sameness‖ or constancy.
Many students with autism can be helped to comprehend behavior they observe but poorly
understand through the use of ―social stories.‖ The parent or teacher‘s explanation of what is
happening can be reduced to a social story. A storybook can then be kept by the child to help
reinforce the information on a concrete, basic level. For further information on the use of
social stories visit the Autism Homepage at
http://members.spree.com/autism/socialstories.htm.
Verbal children with autism may state a phrase repeatedly, such as, ―we are all going to
die.‖ This type of statement will serve to isolate the child socially from his peers and other
adults. To help the child avoid such statements, it will be necessary to provide very concrete
information about the situation and appropriate ways to react and respond that are within the
child‘s skill level.
Cognitive Limitations: Children with developmental or cognitive impairments may not
understand events or their own reactions to events and images. Teachers and caregivers need
to determine the extent to which the child understands and relates to the traumatic
event. Some lower functioning children will not be able to understand enough about the
event to experience any stress, while some higher functioning children with cognitive
impairments may understand the event but respond to it like a younger child without
disabilities.
Overall, children with cognitive limitations may respond to traumatic events based more on
their observations of adult and peer emotions rather than the verbal explanations that they
may receive. Discussions with them need to be specific, concrete and basic; it may be
necessary to use pictures in explaining events and images. These children will need concrete
information to help them understand that images of suffering and destruction are in the past,
far away (if true) and that they are not going to hurt them. A parent may offer words of
reassurance such as, ―We are lucky to have the Red Cross in our community to help all the
families who were hurt by the flood;‖ ―The boys who brought the guns to school are in jail,
they can‘t hurt anyone else now.‖
Learning Disabilities: Students with learning disabilities (LD) may or may not need
supports that are different from students without disabilities, depending upon their level of
emotional maturity and ability to understand the concepts discussed. Many students with LD
are able to process language and apply abstract concepts without difficulty, while others have
specific deficits in these skills. In particular, some students with LD interpret very literally;
therefore teachers and parents need to choose their words carefully to insure the child will not
misinterpret. For example, even referring to terrorism as ―acts of war‖ may confuse some
children who interpret language literally; they may envision foreign soldiers, tanks and
fighter planes attacking their country.
If your child or student appears to have difficulty following the news reports and class
discussions of the traumatic events and their aftermath, reinforce verbal explanations with
visual materials; use concrete terms in discussion; check for understanding of key
vocabulary. Remember that some students with LD have difficulty with time and space
concepts, and may be confused by what they see on television-- they may have difficulty
understanding what happened when, what is likely to happen next, etc. They may also be
uncertain as to where these events took place and might benefit from looking at simple maps.
Some students with LD have difficulties with social skills and self-management, and may
need additional instruction in anger control, tolerance of individual differences and self-
monitoring. Additionally, some of the suggestions listed for children with cognitive
impairments may be applicable to some students with LD who, despite their higher cognitive
ability, have similar difficulties with verbal learning, memory and communication.
Visual, Hearing or Physical Limitations: Children who do not possess developmental or
cognitive impairments but who are visually impaired, hearing impaired or physically
challenged will understand, at their level of development, what is happening and may become
frightened by the limitations their disability poses on them. In your explanations, be honest
but reassuring. Safety and mobility are major concerns for students challenged by visual,
hearing and physical impairments. As with all children, they need to know that they are
going to be safe and that they can find a safe place in an emergency. Review safety plans and
measures with them, provide lots of reassurance, and practice with them, if necessary. When
explaining plans that may take them into unfamiliar territory, provide very simple and
explicit explanations. Students with visual impairments will need to have the area carefully
described to them, while the students challenged by physical or hearing impairments may
need visual aids as to what they have to do and where they have to go.
 Vision-impaired: The child with a visual impairment cannot pick up on visual cues such
as facial expressions. Use verbal cues to reinforce what you are feeling and seeing. Many
children have seen video clips of the disaster or traumatic event and are talking about
them. The vision-impaired child may need a verbal description to reinforce what they
have heard about the events. Ask questions to clarify their understanding of what has
happened. Children with visual impairments may have extraordinary concerns about their
mobility and ability to move to safety during a crisis. Ask questions and give additional
orientation and mobility training if needed.
 Hearing Impaired: Children who are hearing impaired will generally not be able to keep
up with the fast talking of adults during traumatic events. Caregivers will need to be
aware of the child‘s frustration when trying to keep up with the conversation, if the child
has sufficient hearing to participate. Children who are unable to hear or lip-read will need
interpretation. Not being able to understand will result in greater fear reactions. Children
who are hearing impaired may not be familiar with all the new terminology used in
describing or explaining the events that are occurring. Be aware of the language you use,
be very concrete and check for understanding. Use visual materials in conjunction with
any verbal or signed explanations.
 For total communication students it is important to have a signer near them. They need
to know that someone will be there for them. For oral communicators distance may be an
issue as they may experience difficulty with lip reading. Darkness such as blackouts or
disaster drills in areas with poor lighting, presents problems for total and oral
communicators. In helping them understand that they are safe, that you are going to keep
them safe, be sure and show them a flashlight and let them know where they are going to
be kept and that they are a part of the safety plan and available for them in darkness.
Severe Emotional Disturbance/Behavior Disorder: Students who have serious emotional
and behavioral problems are at high risk for severe stress reactions following a crisis.
Typically these students have limited coping skills with which to handle ―normal‖ daily
stress; they are likely to be overwhelmed by unexpected and traumatic events such as a
terrorist attack or the loss of family member. Those who suffer from depression and anxiety
disorders are likely to exhibit exaggerated symptoms-- greater withdrawal, heightened

agitation, increased feelings of worthlessness and despair, increase in nervous behaviors such
as thumb sucking, nail biting, pacing, etc. Children with a history of suicidal thinking or
behavior are especially prone to increased feelings of hopelessness and need to come to the
attention of school personnel following any serious event likely to trigger these feelings.
Additional information on preventing suicide in troubled children and youth may be found on
the NASP website (www.nasponline.org).
Those children who experience conduct problems, noncompliance and aggression are also
likely to exhibit more extreme versions of problem behaviors—higher levels of disruptive
and oppositional behaviors, more frequent or more severe acts of aggression, etc. These
students thrive on the consistent, predictable routines that are difficult to maintain in an
emergency or crisis situation.
Summary
Staff and parents must consider how children with special needs respond to any form of stress
and anticipate these and more extreme reactions following a crisis. Strategies that have been
effective with these students in the past are the best strategies to implement now,
understanding that steps might need to be more concrete and consequences more immediate.
Consider the triggers and cues for these students and anticipate rather than react—prepare
students for changes in routines; allow time for discussion of the traumatic events in a safe
and familiar setting; provide choices in activities to the extent feasible to give these students
some sense of control over even a small part of their lives. Some students may need to be
more protected or isolated to minimize distractions and sources of agitation during the height
of a crisis, and adult supervision may need to be more intense for a while. Expect some
regression (increase in problem behaviors) and deal with inappropriate behaviors calmly and
consistently—it helps students to understand that despite a lot of other changes and
disruptions, there are some constants in class and family rules and expectations, and that they
can depend on their support network to be available
ASSIGNMENT – 50 marks (Compulsory)
1. Discuss how, as a counselor, you would deal with an abused child. (3marks)
2. How would you counsel a child affected and/or infected by HIV? (3marks)
3. Describe how you would help a child whose parents have separated. (3marks)
4. Suggest the most appropriate way of dealing with (i) street children and (ii) gifted
children. (4marks)
5. Describe how you would assist (a) a handicapped child and (b) an emotionally disturbed
child. (4marks)
6. Define the following terms.
a) Drug and substance (4marks)
b) Drug misuse and abuse (4marks)
7. Describe the commonly abused substances in Kenya. (4marks)
8. Discuss the signs and symptoms of drug abuse. (5marks)
9. What are the effects of drug abuse? (5marks)
10. How would you manage drug and substance abuse among pupils? (3marks)
11. State some of the guidance and counseling institutions in Kenya. (4marks)
12. Discuss the procedures, challenges and points to consider during referrals. (4marks)
6012 MODULE TWO - UNIT 5:

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Introduction to the module
Personality may be defined as the sum total of all behavioural and mental characteristics by
means of which an individual is recognized as being unique. The study of personality
development helps individuals to understand themselves and others for better interaction and
harmonious living.
This unit will examine the theories of personality, temperaments and factors influencing
personality development. It will also discusses life skills for psychosocial competence and
living values that help an individual to lead a healthy, well adjusted and productive life. Self-
awareness and effective communication skills are also be discussed in an attempt to help
learners develop better interactions within family, school and the community.
a) Define terms related to personality development.
b) Analyze theories of personality development and relate them to real life situations.
c) Explain personality types and temperaments.
d) Discuss factors that influence personality development.
e) Analyze various defense mechanisms causes and effects.
f) Discuss life skills for psychosocial competence and their importance in human
development and adjustment.
g) Evaluate important values and methods of imparting them in children.
CHAPTER 1
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Define terms related to personality development.
1. Personality
 Personality is defined as the enduring personal characteristic individuals.
 The sum total of all behavioural and mental characteristics by means of which an
individual is recognized as being unique.
2. Character Traits
 A character orientation is the direction of the libidinous or passionate strivings of a
man which makes it possible to describe his character.
 The permanent qualities of the characters.
 How characters behave in a story, specifically their needs and desires and their
motivation, obstacles, and personal choices.
 Traits describe a character‘s personality such as being stubborn, hardworking, open
minded or jealous.
 Qualities shown by a character (physical or personality).
3. Temperaments
In psychology, temperament refers to those as introversion or extroversion that are

often regarded as innate (inborn) rather than learned. A great number of classificatory
schemes for temperament have been developed, none, though, has achieved general
consensus.
 Temperament – disposition: Your usual mood ―he has a happy disposition.
 Temperament - excessive emotionalism or irritability and excitability (esp. when
displayed openly).
HOW TO APPLY THE PERSONALITY THEORIES IN A LEARNING SITUATION
a) Know the personality type of children, so to allocate appropriate activities.
b) Introverted children would prefer to work on their own while extroverts do well in group
activities.
c) Introverts need a lot of encouragement to participate in group activities, express their
ideas and feelings.
d) Extroverts may dominate others therefore the teacher may need to redirect their energies.
e) Do not give children negative labels, children can behave in certain ways because of the
situation. The child may not show anxiety if the teacher punishes him/her, but may be
anxious when sent to the head teachers office.
f) Identify, understand and accept individual differences in children, their strength, talents
and help them to improve.
g) Use different teaching methods to cater for their individual differences.
h) Identify their strengths and build on them, identify the weaknesses and help to correct
them in a warm and loving manner.
CHAPTER 2
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Analyse psychosocial theory of personality development and relate it to real life situation.
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of
personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality
develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory
describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to
ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of
life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child's caregivers.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings
of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief
that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11. Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
committed and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those
who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive
and uninvolved in the world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. Those who are
unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience
many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
CHAPTER 3
HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Analyse humanistic theory of personality development and relate it to real life situation.
During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and
behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on
understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the
conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both
psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of
emotions or failing to take into account the role of personal choice.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the
importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic
psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from
deviations from this natural tendency.
During the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss the
development of a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to
psychology. They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity and individuality
and related topics were the central theme of this new approach. In 1961, they officially
established the American Association for Humanistic Psychology.
In 1962, Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described
humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were
behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively.
However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements.
Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and
behavior. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic
view of the individual.
Major Thinkers in Humanistic Psychology
 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers
 Rollo May
 Erich Fromm
Important Events in Humanistic Psychology
1943 - Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in 'A Theory of Human
Motivation' published in Psychological Review.
1951- Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, which described his humanistic,
client-directed approach to therapy.
1961 - The American Association for Humanistic Psychology is formed and the Journal of
Humanistic Psychology was established.
1962 - American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed.
1971 - Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division.
Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology is often seen as too subjective; the importance of individual
experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How
can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we
cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of their experience.
Another major criticism is that observations are unverifiable; there is no accurate way to
measure or quantify these qualities.
Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology
One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the
individual. This school of psychology gives people more credit in controlling and
determining their state of mental health.
It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather than focusing solely on our
internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment's influence
on our experiences.
Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare and other areas.
Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it
more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential
through therapy.
Humanistic Psychology Today
Today, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many other areas
including other branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements and other
areas. For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on
humanist influences.
The goals of humanistic psychology remain as relevant today as they were in the 1940s and
1950s. As Maureen O'Hara, former president of the Association of Humanistic Psychology,
explained, "As the world's people demand freedom and self-determination, it is urgent that
we learn how diverse communities of empowered individuals, with freedom to construct their
own stories and identities, might live together in mutual peace. Perhaps it is not a vain hope
that is life in such communities might lead to the advance in human consciousness beyond
anything we have yet experienced."
How to use humanistic theories in the Learning situation
a) Ensure children basic needs for adequate and balanced diet, safe water for drinking and
cleaning, clothing and clean environment are met.
b) Encourage such administration, parents and community to organize feeding program.
c) Ensure psychological needs for safety and security are met at home and at school.
d) Use child centered method that actively involve children and respect their ability to solve
their own problems. This teaches them to be independent and have positive self esteem.
e) Help each child achieve full potential, recognize individual differences and help them
develop their unique gifts and abilities.
f) Help them identify their goals in life and to obtain information acquired good moral and
intellectual habits, virtues skills and attitudes in order to realize their goals.
CHAPTER 4
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Analyse psychoanalytic theory of personality development and relate it to real life situation.
What is Psychoanalytic Theory?
Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work
with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences
and unconscious desires influenced behavior. Based on his observations, he developed a
theory that described development in terms of a series of psychosexual stages. According to
Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on
personality and behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the
twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon Freud's
ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have
become perhaps the best known. Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development
describes growth and change throughout the lifespan, focusing on social interaction and
conflicts that arise during different stages of development.
Freud‘s psychosexual stages
Freud believes that at particular points in the child‘s development, a single part of the body is
particularly sensitive – sexual stimulation. These erogenous zones are the mouth, Anus and
the genital region. At any given time the child‘s Libido is focused on the primary erogenous
zones for that age. As a result the child has certain needs and demands that are related to the
erogenous zones for that stage.
Frustrations occur if these needs are not met, but a child may also become over indulged and
so may be reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and over indulgence may
lead to fixation where some of the child‘s Libido remains locked into that stage. If a child is
fixated at a particular stage the method of obtaining satisfaction that characterized that stage,
will dominate their adult personality.
Stages
1) Oral stage – 0 – 18 months.
2) Anal stage – 18 months to 3 years
3) Phallic stage- 3 – 6 years.
4) Latent stage – 6years to puberty
5) Genital stage – puberty onwards.
a) Oral Stage
This stage begins at birth when the mouth is the primary source of the libido energy. The
child who is frustrated at this age may develop an adult personality that is characterized by
pessimism, envy and suspicion. The over indulged child may develop to be optimistic,
gullible (easily cheated) and full of admiration for others.
b) Anal Stage
The child‘s focus on pleasure at this stage is on eliminating and retaining faeces. This
represents the conflict between the id which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily
wastes and the superego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the
parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of anal expulsive
character who is disorganized reckless and defiant. A child may opt to retain faeces, thereby
spiting his parents and may develop into an anal retentive character who is neat, stingy &
obstinate.
c) Phallic Stage
During this stage boys develop unconscious desire for their mother and become rivals with
their father for her affection. This was observed with little Han‘s case study. The boys
develop the fear that their father will punish them for those feelings so they decide to identify
with him rather than rival him.
As a result the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feelings
towards his mother. This is known as Oedipus complex. During recent years it‘s now
believed that girls go through a similar process called Electra complex. Freud believed that
the resolution of this female conflict comes much later is never truly complete.
d) Latency Stage
The period is not a psychosexual development as such but a state when sexual drives are
dormant. This is seen as a repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses.
e) Genital stage
This stage begins at puberty when urges are one‘s again awakened. Interest now turns to
Heterosexual relationships. The less fixated the child was in earlier stages the more chance
they have of developing a normal personality and thus develop helpful healthy, meaningful
relationships with those of the opposite sex.
Although many people view Freud‘s descriptions of personality development as pure fantasy,
his ideas are endured and have had far reaching influences both in and outside psychology.
He has changed the way we thing about the importance of childhood and also made us aware
of the unconscious elements of out psyche that are essential for development.
CHAPTER 5
TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Analyse trait theory of personality development and relate it to real life situation.
The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of
personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad
dispositions. Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are
that you would list a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can
be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain
ways.
Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the
trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The combination
and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each individual. Trait
theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics.
Gordon Allport‘s Trait Theory
In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone
contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized these
traits into three levels:
1. Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual‘s whole life, often to the point that
the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities
often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these
qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms: Freudian,
Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal
traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.
2. Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of
personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major
characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent,
honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.
3. Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.
Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while
waiting in line.
Raymond Cattell‘s Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport‘s
initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by eliminating uncommon traits and combining
common characteristics. Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171
different traits. Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified
closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits.
According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personality. He also
developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as the Sixteen
Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).
Eysenck‘s Three Dimensions of Personality
British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three
universal trails:
1. Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates
to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in
introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might
be sociable and outgoing.
2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysenck‘s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-
temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual‘s tendency to become upset or
emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.
3. Psychoticism:
Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a
personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high
on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile,
non-empathetic and manipulative.
The Five-Factor Theory of Personality
Both Cattell‘s and Eysenck‘s theory have been the subject of considerable research, which
has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck
focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five" theory
emerged. This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form
human personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each
dimension, the following are described most commonly:
1. Openness - Imaginative, prefers variety Independent, curious and interested in
intellectual pursuits.
2. Conscientious - Ethical, reliable, responsible, organized carefully and disciplined.
3. Extroversion - Sociable, outgoing, easy going, fun, loving, affectionate.
4. Agreeableness - warm, good nurtured, co-operative Friendly, trusting and helpful.
5. Neuroticism (emotional - Calm, secure, self satisfied, sober Stability) optimistic and
active.
Assessing the Trait Approach to Personality
While most agree that people can be described based upon their personality traits, theorists
continue to debate the number of basic traits that make up human personality. While trait
theory has objectivity that some personality theories lack (such as Freud‘s psychoanalytic
theory), it also has weaknesses. Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on
the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behavior. While an individual may score high
on assessments of a specific trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every
situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not address how or why individual
differences in personality develop or emerge.
CHAPTER 6
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Analyse social-cognitive theory of personality development and relate it to real life situation.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an
idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action." -Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
What is Social Learning Theory?
The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most
influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of
traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for
all types of learning.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and
behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this
type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.
Basic Social Learning Concepts
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that
people can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an
essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has
been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. Let's explore each of
these concepts in greater depth.
1. People can learn through observation.
Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate
behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura‘s studies observed an
adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a
room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
a) A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
b) A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
c) A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to
influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal
reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal
thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.
While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself
describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the
learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and
steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning
and modeling process:
a) Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is
going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there
is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to
learning.
b) Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information
later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
c) Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior
leads to improvement and skill advancement.
d) Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an
important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment.
For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on
time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
Conclusion
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had
important implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize
the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as
encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.
CHAPTER 7
PERSONALITY TYPES AND TEMPERAMENTS
Explain personality types and temperaments.
TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITIES
Type A people are competitive, achievement oriented and have a sense of agency. They find
it difficult to relax and they get angry when delayed or people they consider to be
incompetent. Though they appear confident usually try to do more than can be accomplished
in a given time. Research has shown that, type A people who are usually try to do more than
can be accomplished in a given time. Research has shown that, type A people who are usually
angry are more prone to heart disease. Repressed anger and hostility are more dangerous than
expressed anger. Anger and hostility tend to give rise to high blood pressure, raised heart rate
and secretion of hormones which tend to damage the heart and blood vessels. One can be
trained to relax in order to prevent or manage heart diseases.
Type B persons are able to relax peacefully and work without being agitated. They do not
have strong sense urgency. Impatience and are not easily roused to anger.
TYPE A TYPE B
 competitive  Relax
 Hostile  Patient
 Aggressive  even – tempered
 Achievement oriented  Less excitable
 Impatient  Willing to do less in a specific Time.
 Anxious  Do not get angry quickly
 Sense of urgency
 Appear confident – but have self – doubt.
 Busy throughout the day doing many
things at the same time.
 Over concerned with control their
environment
 More prone to heart disease.
FOUR TEMPERAMENTS
Four temperaments is a proto-psychological interpretation of the ancient medical concept of
humorism and suggests that four bodily fluids affect human personality traits and behaviors.
The temperaments are sanguine (pleasure-seeking and sociable), choleric (ambitious and
leader-like), melancholic (analytical and thoughtful), and phlegmatic (relaxed and quiet).
The Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) incorporated the four temperaments into his
medical theories. From then through modern times, they, or modifications of them, have been
part of many theories of medicine, psychology and literature.
1. Sanguine
The sanguine temperament is fundamentally sociable and pleasure-seeking; sanguine people
are impulsive and charismatic. They tend to enjoy social gatherings, making new friends and
tend to be boisterous. They are usually quite creative and often daydream. Sanguine
personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late,
and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often, when they pursue a new
hobby, they lose interest as soon as it ceases to be engaging or fun. They are very much
people persons. They are talkative and not shy. Sanguines generally have an almost
shameless nature, certain that what they are doing is right. They have no lack of confidence.
Sanguine people are warm-hearted, pleasant, lively and optimistic. They have been called
"people-oriented extroverts.
2. Choleric
The choleric temperament is fundamentally ambitious and leader-like. They have a lot of
aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill that in others. They are task oriented
people and are focused on getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now."
They can dominate people of other temperaments with their strong wills, especially
phlegmatic types, and can become dictatorial or tyrannical. Many great charismatic military
and political figures were cholerics. They like to be in charge of everything and are good at
planning, as they can often immediately see a practical solution to a problem. However, they
can quickly fall into deep depression or moodiness when failures or setbacks befall them.
They have been called "task-oriented extroverts.
3. Melancholic
The melancholic temperament is fundamentally introverted and is given to thought.
Melancholic people are often perceived as very (or overly) pondering and are both
considerate and very cautious. They are organized and schedule oriented, often planning
extensively. Melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry, art, and
invention – and are sensitive to others. Because of this sensitivity and their thoughtfulness
they can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world and are susceptible to
depression and moodiness. Often they are perfectionists. Their desire for perfection often
results in a high degree of personal excellence but also causes them to be highly
conscientious and difficult to relate to because others often cannot please them. They are self-
reliant and independent, preferring to do things themselves to meet their standards. One
negative part of being a melancholic is that they can get so involved in what they are doing
they forget to think of other issues. Their caution enables them to prevent problems that the
more impulsive sanguine runs into, but can also cause them to procrastinate and remain in the
planning stage of a project for very long periods. Melancholics prefer to avoid much attention
and prefer to remain in the background; they do, however, desire recognition for their many
works of creativity. They have been called "task-oriented introverts.
4. Phlegmatic
The phlegmatic temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from warmly
attentive to lazily sluggish. Phlegmatics tend to be content with themselves and are kind.
Phlegmatics are consistent, they can be relied upon to be steady and faithful friends. They are
accepting and affectionate, making friends easily. They tend to be good diplomats because
their tendency not to judge and affable nature makes reconciling differing groups easy for
them. Phlegmatics prefer to observe and to think on the world around them while not getting
involved. They may try to inspire others to do the things which they themselves think about
doing. They may be shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. Their fear of
change (and of work) can make them susceptible to stagnation or laziness, or even
stubbornness. They are consistent, relaxed, calm, rational, curious, and observant, qualities
that make them good administrators. They can also be passive-aggressive. They have been
called "people-oriented introverts."
CHAPTER 8
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Discuss factors that influence personality development.
Personality is the wide term, which is the result or net effect of different circumstances and
factors. There are many factors which affect personality or which determine the personality.
Few among them are as follows:
1. Heredity
2. Brain
3. Family Background
4. Social group (where we interact)
5. Situation
6. Cultural Factor
7. Physical Features
(1) Heredity:
Heredity is the transmission of qualities from generation to generation. This can happen due
to chromosomes of the germ cell. Heredity predisposes to certain physical, mental, emotional
states. It has been established through research on animals that physical and psychological
factor may be transmitted through heredity. It has been concluded from various researches
that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual‘s personality.
(2) Brain:
It is the second biological factor that affects the personality of a person. The role of brain in
personality formation is very important. If a person‘s brain is sharp, he can understand the
situation better and take prompt decision. This improves his personality.
(3) Family Background (Members):
Parents and other family members have strong influence on the personality development of
the child. Parents have more influence on the personality development of a child as compared
to other members of the family.
Family influences the behaviour of a person especially in early stages. The nature of such
influence will depend upon the following factors:-
o Family Size
o Birth Order
o Race
o Religion
o Geographic location
o Parent‘s educational level
o Socio- economic level of family
For Instance: - The study made by Newcomb showed that there is higher co-relation between
attitude of parents and children than that between the children and their teachers.
(4) Social Groups:
Besides a person‘s home environment and family members, there are other influences arising
from the social placement of the family as the person is exposed to agencies outside the home
(i.e. social groups) these social groups includes school mates, friends, colleagues at work
place or any other group to which an individual belongs because ―A man is known by the
company he keeps.‖ Similarly, socio-economic factors also affect personality development.
(5) Situation:
Situational factors may also play an important role in determination of human personality.
Many a times, the behavior of a person is determined not by how that man is but by what the
situation is in which he is places. An employee who is hard working and always gets ahead
may prove lazy and trouble maker if he is put under unfavorable situation. This aspect is very
important because it can be kept in control by the management.
(6) Culture:
According to Hoebel
―Culture is the sum total learned behavior trait which manifested and shared by the member
of the society‖
In other words ―It is a unique system of perception, belief, values, norms, pattern of
behaviour of individual in a given society‖
Culture is the factor which determines the decision making power of an individual. It
includes independence, competition, artistic talent, and aggression, Co-operation etc. Each
culture expects that the person should behave in a way, which is accepted by the group.
Personal belonging to different cultural groups has different attitudes. Every culture has their
own sub-culture also. However, a direct relationship cannot be established between
personality and given culture.
(7) Physical Features:
The physical features of the individual also have a great impact on personality of an
individual. Physical features include height, weight and such other physical aspect of an
individual.
CHAPTER 9
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Analyse various defense mechanisms, causes and effects.
You've probably heard people talk about "defense mechanisms," or ways that we protect
ourselves from things that we don't want to think about or deal with. The term got its start in
psychoanalytic therapy, but it has slowly worked its way into everyday language. Think of
the last time you referred to someone as being "in denial" or accused someone of
"rationalizing." Both of these examples refer to a type of defense mechanism.
In Sigmund Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality
that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with the conflicting
demands of the id and the superego. The id seeks to fulfill all wants, needs and impulses
while the superego tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and moral manner.
What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of
reality and our own moral standards? According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state
that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are not going right.
Freud identified three types of anxiety:
1. Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose control of the id's urges,
resulting in punishment for inappropriate behavior.
2. Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is usually easily
identified. For example, a person might fear receiving a dog bite when they are near a
menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid the threatening
object.
3. Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral principles.
In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the
ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego and reality.
Defense Mechanisms
Because of anxiety provoking demands created by the id, superego and reality, the ego has
developed a number of defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety. Although we may
knowingly use these mechanisms, in many cases these defenses work unconsciously to distort
reality.
While all defense mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be adaptive and allow us to
function normally. The greatest problems arise when defense mechanisms are overused in
order to avoid dealing with problems. In psychoanalytic therapy, the goal may be to help the
client uncover these unconscious defense mechanisms and find better, more healthy ways of
coping with anxiety and distress.
Researchers have described a wide variety of different defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud's
daughter, Anna Freud described ten different defense mechanisms used by the ego.
The following are defense mechanisms described by psychologists.
1. DENIAL
Denial is probably one of the best known defense mechanisms, used often to describe
situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth (i.e. "He's in
denial."). Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is
currently occurring. Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem, while
victims of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occurred.
Denial functions to protect the ego from things that the individual cannot cope with. While
this may save us from anxiety or pain, denial also requires a substantial investment of energy.
Because of this, other defenses are also used to keep these unacceptable feelings from
consciousness.
2. REPRESSION
Repression is another well-known defense mechanism. Repression acts to keep information
out of conscious awareness. However, these memories don't just disappear; they continue to
influence our behavior. For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered
as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships.
Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted information out of our awareness,
which is known as suppression. In most cases, however, this removal of anxiety-provoking
memories from our awareness is believed to occur unconsciously.
3. DISPLACEMENT
Have ever had a really bad day at work and then gone home and taken out your frustration on
family and friends? Then you have experienced the ego defense mechanism of displacement.
Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects
that are less threatening. Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense
mechanism. Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences
(like arguing with our boss), we instead express our anger towards a person or object that
poses no threat (such as our spouse, children or pets).
4. SUBLIMATION
Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by
converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For example, a person experiencing
extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration. Freud believed
that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially
acceptable ways.
5. PROJECTION
Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or
feelings and ascribing them to other people. For example, if you have a strong dislike for
someone, you might instead believe that he or she does not like you. Projection works by
allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize,
therefore reducing anxiety.
6. INTELLECTUALIZATION
Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way.
This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of
the situation and instead focus only on the intellectual component. For example, a person who
has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the
disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation.
7. RATIONALIZATION
Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior
or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. For
example, a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by saying
they were not attracted to the other person anyway, or a student might blame a poor exam
score on the instructor rather than his or her lack of preparation.
Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-esteem and self-concept.
When confronted by success or failure, people tend to attribute achievement to their own
qualities and skills while failures are blamed on other people or outside forces.
When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert
to patterns of behavior used earlier in development. Anna Freud called this defense
mechanism regression, suggesting that people act out behaviors from the stage of
psychosexual development in which they are fixated. For example, an individual fixated at an
earlier developmental stage might cry or sulk upon hearing unpleasant news.
Behaviors associated with regression can vary greatly depending upon which stage the person
is fixated at:
 An individual fixated at the oral stage might begin eating or smoking excessively, or
might become very verbally aggressive.
 A fixation at the anal stage might result in excessive tidiness or messiness.
8. REACTION FORMATION
Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse or behavior.
An example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an
excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings. Why do people behave this
way? According to Freud, they are using reaction formation as a defense mechanism to hide
their true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite manner.
Other Defense Mechanisms
Since Freud first described the original defense mechanisms, other researchers have
continued to describe other methods of reducing anxiety. Some of these defense mechanisms
include:
a) Acting out - The individual copes with stress by engaging in actions rather than reflecting
upon internal feelings.
b) Affiliation - Involves turning to other people for support.
c) Aim inhibition - The individual accepts a modified form of their original goal (i.e.
becoming a high school basketball coach rather than a professional athlete.)
d) Altruism - Satisfying internal needs through helping others.
e) Avoidance - Refusing to deal with or encounter unpleasant objects or situations.
f) Compensation - Overachieving in one area to compensate for failures in another.
g) Humor - Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a situation.
h) Passive-aggression - Indirectly expressing anger.
While defense mechanisms are often thought of as negative reactions, some of these defenses
can be helpful. For example, utilizing humor to overcome a stressful, anxiety-provoking
situation can actually be an adaptive defense mechanism.
CHAPTER 10
SKILLS FOR PSYCHOSOCIAL COMPETENCE
Discuss life skills for psychosocial competence and their importance in human development
and adjustment.
Life skills are abilities for positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with
the demands and challenges of everyday life.
They are a group of psychosocial/ competence and interpersonal skills that help people make
informed decisions, solve problems, think critically communicate effectively, build healthy
relationships, emphasized with others cope with and manage their lives in a healthy and
productive manner.
Importance of Life Skills
1. Protect themselves from danger and problems such as conflicts with others and HIV &
AIDS.
2. Deal and scope more effectively with challenges of life.
3. Evaluate critically their actions, views, feelings and values in order to behave more
responsibly.
4. Acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that help them to like more fulfilled lives in
their families and their communities.
5. To development five self esteem and self confidence.
6. Improve their social interactions in the society.
7. Development the ability to make more informed decision life.
8. Development team spirit which promotes better understanding and good co-operation in
the society.
9. Identify their potentials and limitations in order to understand themselves better.
10. Critically evaluate their environment and their culture in order to identify which areas
can threaten and endangers their lives and which can promote their healthy
development.
CATEGORIES OF LIFE SKILLS
1. Self – Management and coping skills.
Skills for increasing personal confidence and abilities to assume control, take responsibility
make a difference and loving change.
These skills help individuals in:-
 Building self esteem and confidence.
 Creating self awareness skills, including ones awareness of their rights, influences
values, attitudes, strengths and weaknesses.
 Setting goals
 Self-evaluation self – assessment of self monitoring.
2. Skills for Managing Feelings
These skills help individuals in:-
 Managing anger
 Dealing with grief and anxiety.
 Coping with loss, abuse and trauma
3. Skills for Managing Stress:-
 Time management
 Positive thinking
 Relaxation techniques
4. Communication & Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal Communication skills include: -
 Verbal and non-verbal communication
 Active Listening
 Expressing feelings, giving feed back/without blaming) and receiving feedbacks

negotiations and refusal skills include:-
 Negotiation and conflict management.
 Assertiveness skills
 Refusal skills
5. Empathy Building Include:-
The ability to feel with others, to listen to others, to listen to others, to be sensitive to the
problems of other and express this understanding in a sensitive manner.
6. Co-operation and teamwork include ability to:-
 Express respect for others contributions.
 Respect and appreciate different styles of solving problems and doing things.
 Assess one‘s own abilities and contribute to the group.
7. Advocacy Skills include:-
 Influencing skills and persuation.
 Networking and motivation skills.
8. Skills of making effective decision
Decision – making and critical thinking skills include:-
CHAPTER 11
IMPORTANT VALUES IN THE KENYAN SOCIETY
Evaluate important values and methods and imparting them in children.
Important Values in Society
Values are the good habits that are contagious. They are passed down through generations.
Values bind us together and set us apart. Today, our society is seeing a terrible amount of
lack of value. People are discriminating and being discriminated against. Nature is being
destroyed, while destruction is being planned. We seem to be leaving behind a legacy of
hatred and destruction for our future generations. What does our society need? It needs a
value check and mindset change. People are forgetting the values of extreme importance
which we need to focus on.
1. Empathy
The most important value in our life revolves around empathy. How can one concentrate on
co-existing on the same planet, without a speck of empathy? We need to be able to accept
others for what they are, not what they can do for us. We need to stop concentrating on how
we can reduce competition and focus on how we can grow together. While we all have to
look out for ourselves at the end of the day, we need to remember this quote, "The day we
stop fighting for each other, we stop being humans!"
2. Mutual Respect
It is clear; we all have our strengths as well as weaknesses. Mutual respect means having
respect in our minds for everyone. Even if you are up against a person, wherein it is your
honor against theirs, it is important to have mutual respect. It is this respect that makes us
human. Without this respect, we become like animals. We need to respect our friends for
their friendship and our enemies for their ability to be competitive and their conviction.
Mutual respect is one of the crucial values in a relationship.
3. Love
This may seem surreal, but honestly, love conquers all. With love in our hearts, we feel no
need to harm another. We will raise ourselves, rather than pull another down. We will focus
on the similarities of opinions rather than the difference of color, religion or sexual
orientation. We will punish, but not kill. We will request, but not steal. With love, we will be
people and not monsters! Yes, if we want our society to be good to us, we need to be good to
it, as well. After all, you give love to get love.
4. Loyalty
People often forget the meaning and importance of loyalty. Loyalty is an emotion that binds
us to a person, thing or sentiment. This emotion restricts us from ever betraying that person or
thing. As such, what our society clearly needs today is loyalty. We need to be loyal to each
other, to shudder at the thought of speaking, or thinking negative about each other. We need
this loyalty to gather the strength to stand up against something that will harm our society and
to stand up for the oppressed. It is this loyalty that will bring down the global walls and make
this world one big home.
5. Honesty
We all claim to follow the above values in society, right? In our own way, we think we are
perfect. Honesty in society is to accept yourself for what you are, and let everyone know that
as well. This honesty will help you make yourself better, simply because you had the ability
to admit your flaws and work towards improving yourself. It is this honesty that will make
others help you out, not because you need it. But, because they have flaws too, which you can
help out with. This honesty will help us follow the other values in society and, truly, "help the
world"!
While there are other values like education, empowerment of the weak and no discrimination,
etc., the above are some of the most important values to abide by, even for children. An early
start will make your little ones, a better global citizen.
1. Discuss the Abraham Maslow‘s theory in details using the relevant diagram and
examples. [10 Marks]
2. In details discuss Carl Rogers‘s theory of personality development. [10 Marks]
3. Explain why it is important (as at teacher) to study Piaget‘s Cognitive theory of
development in children. [10 Marks]
4. Discuss how each of the following factors influences the personality of a child.
a. Parents [5 Marks]
b. School [5 Marks]
c. Teachers [5 Marks]
d. Peer group [5 Marks]
6013 MODULE THREE - UNIT 6

CHILD GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
Introduction to the Unit
The study of child growth and development helps the learner to understand how children
grow, develop and learn, and the factors which influence their development. Relevant child
development theories are highlighted. The module focuses on the development of a child
from conception to adolescence stage. During this stage the child develops in all aspects. The
influence of peers, school and the community increases as the child interacts more outside the
family setting. Challenges of transition from home to school and the impact of child rearing
practices in the middle childhood are discussed. The module is designed to equip the teacher
trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable him/her understand pre-
adolescence and adolescent behaviour and prepare the teacher to guide and counsel them
effectively.
Learning Outcomes of this Unit
1. Define concepts of child growth and development and their relevance.
2. Differentiate child growth and development and describe their characteristics.
3. Evaluate various human development theories.
4. Discuss various aspects of child growth and development.
5. Describe growth and development milestones.
6. Discuss stages of child growth and development from pre-natal to post-natal.
7. Describe brain development and its functions and how parents and other caregivers
can promote its development.
8. Explain the factors that influence child growth and development.
9. Evaluate the importance of investing in early years of child growth and development.
10. Identify types, importance and how to enhance play in early childhood.
11. Describe ways in which children learn.
12. Analyze the role and challenges of care-givers.
13. Discuss the agents of socialization and their influence on the child.
14. Discuss gender and socialization.
15. Categorize institutions that offer child services.
16. Relate developmental aspects to school readiness.
17. Discuss the process of smooth transition from home to school
18. Explain how children and adolescents acquire social competence, life skills and
values.
19. Assess a child‘s cognitive, psychomotor and affective development.
20. Evaluate issues of teenage sexuality.
21. Compare health and feeding habits of pre-adolescence and adolescence stages.
22. Discuss the importance of guidance and counseling during pre-adolescence and
adolescence stage.
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Define the terms and concepts used in Child Growth & Development.
 Differentiate child growth and development and describe their characteristics.
Definition of Growth
Growth refer to increase in physical size i.e. height and weight, and changes in body
proportions. Between birth and age one, the average baby grows by 20 cm, increasing in the
overall length by some 40%. The infant gains about 7kg, tripling its birth weight while the
brain doubles in size. During growth of children, different parts of the body grow at different
times leading to changes in body proportions. For example, newborn head is relatively larger
than the adults with respect to the rest of the body.
Definition of Development
Development refers to change in the level of functioning. A more elaborate definition of
development is the gradual accumulation of relatively permanent age related changes,
involving intensity and complexity of functioning.
Human beings go through many types of changes and some of these changes are
developmental. Development is gradual and developmental changes build upon one another
e.g. infant‘s creeping movements combine with advances in strength and balance towards the
end of the year to produce walking. Developmental changes are also typically irreversible
under ordinary circumstances e.g. when a child learns to formulate sentences, it may not
reverse to using single word sentences.
Definition of Conception
Conception in relation to early childhood growth and development is the process whereby a
single sperm from a male person penetrates the ovum from the female and the seed (zygote)
plants itself in the uterus.
This happens when both partners are fertile and the sperms are introduced into the woman
body at the optimal point in the woman‘s monthly cycle.
Definition of Pre-natal Period
Pre-natal period is the period between fertilization and birth of a baby. It is approximately
266 days or 38 weeks.
Although growth and development during this time is highly continuous, Scientists have
divided pre-natal development into three periods, namely:
 Zygote period
 Embryo period
 Foetus period
Definition of Ante-natal Period
This is a period of time slightly before birth of a child. Antenatal care is the medical care
given to pregnant women few days before birth (about 15 days before birth of a child).
Antenatal complications can affect the child‘s health. Expectant mothers are advised to visit
antenatal clinics.
Definition of Post-natal Period

This is the period of time occurring after birth of a child. At least one in ten women suffers
from postnatal depression. Post natal care is given to a baby that has just been born.
Definition of a Milestone
A milestone is a very important stage or event in the development of something. In our
course, it is an important stage/event in the development of a human being from childhood to
adulthood. For example, when a child moves from crawling to walking his/her own, it is a
very important stage or a milestone.
Definition of Child Socialization
Child Socialization is the process in which people; especially young people and children
learn to behave in a way that is accepted by the society.
Socialization begins in earnest during the second year, once children are first able to comply
with parental directives.
Definition of Home to School Transition
This is the process of changing from one state or condition (in this case home) to another
(school).
In many cases children moving from home to school, usually loose familiar members of peers
and caretakers to meet strange age mates and caregivers. That sometime may cause stresses
in their daily activities.
Definition of School Readiness
This is the stage at which the child is ready for school (about 5-6 years) when virtually all
aspects of development (social skills, cognitive skills, psychomotor, language) have
tremendously developed.
Definition of Moral Development
The term moral refers to matters concerning the principle of right and wrong. Moral
development implies the ability to:
 Distinguish right from wrong
 Act on this distinction.
 Experience satisfaction when one does the right thing and shame or guilt when one
does not.
Morality, therefore consist of three basic components:
 An affective or emotional component comprising of feelings that surround right to
wrong actions (e.g. guilt and concern for other) and that, motivates moral thought and
actions.
 A cognitive component; referring to the way we understand right and wrong and
make decision on how to behave.
 A behavioural component that has to do with how we actually behave when faced
with situation with moral implications.
Definition of Social Competence
Social competence is the ability to initiate social interactions, responding positively to peers,
resolving interpersonal conflict effectively. Social competence is the ability of a person
(child) to solve social problems satisfactorily.
In children, social competence is not much developed, but as they grow, they develop more
effective strategies for solving the problems. Play has a critical role in children's development
of social competence. This is because play gives room for social conflicts among children
and children learn to solve these conflicts in their own ways.
Definition of Life Skills
Life skills are the abilities for positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively
with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Life skills are a group of social
competencies and interpersonal skills that help people make informed decisions, solve
problems, think critically, communicate effectively, build healthy relations, empathize with
others, cope with and manage their lives in a healthy and productive manner.
Definition of Values
Values are morals or professional standards of behaviour or principles. Example of values
include; cultural, family and social values. Children and young people have a different set of
values from their parents
Definition of Adolescence
This is the period in a person‘s life when he or she develops from a child into an adult at
about the age of 13 and 17 years.
Definition of Peers
Peers are those persons of equal status i.e. age, grade/class and developmental level, with
whom we interact on a regular basis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The term growth and development are often used interchangeably. While they remain inter-
related, the concept of growth and that of development differ essentially. The two terms
represent two concepts that are characteristic of human being from birth to death.
Characteristics of Development
1. Child development is gradual
2. Developmental changes build upon one another
3. Development is irreversible under normal circumstances
Determination of growth and development
A question may arise; what determines growth and development?
 To answer this question, we should understand that these changes are product of
certain factors and processes. We should not assume that, it takes places in a vacuum.
 Scholars have subjected the changes to much debate and one of the debates is referred
to as the nature –nurture controversy.
Differences between growth and development
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
1. It is increase in physical quantities of the -It is increase in level of functioning in the
child‘s body child‘s body
2. Involves increase in number and size of -Involves differentiation and specialization of
cells within the child‘s body. cells within the child‘s body
3. It gives rise to simple changes in a child -It gives rise to complex changes within
e.g. height increase child‘s body.

CHAPTER 2:
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
 Evaluate various human development theories.
1. PIAGET‘S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Through background in biology, Piaget viewed cognitive development as an adaptive process
influenced Piaget theory of cognitive development. By acting directly on the environment,
children move through four stages in which internal structures achieve a better fit with
external reality.
In Piaget‘s theory, psychological structures or sequences change in 2 ways; Assimilation and
accommodation. The second is through organization, the internal rearrangement of schemas
so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. Piaget assumed that the stages
are invariant and universal. He came up with 4 major stages of cognitive development.
Stages of cognitive Development
They include: -
a) Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2years)
b) The pre-operational stage (2-7years)
c) The concrete operational stage (7-11years)
d) The formal operational stage (11 and older)
a) The Sensorimotor Period/Stage
Piaget labeled the period of infant intelligence as sensor motor period or stage. During this
stage infants obtain information (acquire knowledge) through the senses and action. As they
develop, infants increasingly become curious and seek to explore the environment. Their
increasing physical and motor abilities increase the amount and types of explorative activities
they can do. By performing actions on objects in the environment, they obtain information
about their environment and consequently advance in their knowledge and understanding.
They also change their way of thinking. The sensor motor stage extends from birth to 2 years
of age within this period infants pass through six levels or sub stages as follows:
Stage 1: Reflexes (Birth to about 1 month)
As discussed in this module, the infant is born with reflexes that are involuntary responses to
the environment. At this stage, behaviour is demanded by the use of reflexes. Infants for
instance, will suckle anything that touches their lips. They do not take long to learn that
sucking provides nourishment.
The baby begins to classify objects so that the object that provides nourishment such as the
nipples, the teat of a bottle are sucked differently from those that simply provide pleasure
such as a thumb. Their thinking is based on their prior experience. What they think in turn
influences what they do.
Stage 2: Primary circular reaction (1-4month)
Increasingly, the baby seeks pleasure sensations. A primary circular reaction occurs when a
baby does something accidentally that leads to an interesting result. The baby tries to achieve
the results again by repeating the original action, which again leads to an interesting result.
This again makes the baby repeat the action again and on. The reaction is called circular
because an action is repeated in sequence and it is repeated over and over again. It‘s primary
because it involves only the baby and not anything in the environment. A good example of
primary circular reaction is cooing. The baby makes the sound, hears and enjoys it, makes it
again and so on. Thumb sucking is also primary circular reaction.
Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction (4-8months)
Secondary circular reactions are like primary circular reactions, except that they are centered
in an objects and events in the external environment not just on the baby‘s body. For example
a hanging toy attached to a string is tied to the baby‘s hand and the baby with no intention
moves his/her arms such that the toy moves.
By moving the arm the toy moves, so he moves the arm again to make the toy move and the
event is repeated. This reaction is circular because it involves something beyond the baby‘s
body. In both primary and secondary circular reaction the first action is not intentional.
Stage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reaction (8-12months)
is not new but the idea is. For example a baby can remove a mother‘s arm that is blocking the
breast in order to get the breast. In this case the baby thinks of putting two actions together to
achieve a goal.
This is made possible by the fact that the baby has now developed the concept of object
permanence. This concept refers to the ability to know that an object continues to exist even
when it is out of the baby‘s sight. This enables the baby to look for the object that is not
immediately at sight. For example if you take the baby‘s toy and put it behind him, he can
look around for it. The infant also shows interest in quality of objects. They anticipate events.
For example a baby may hide her mother‘s shoes, if the mother acts as if she is getting ready
to leave, to prevent her from going.
Stage5: Territory circular reactions (12-18months)
The baby is less interested in achieving goal and more interested in experimenting ways of
achieving it. In the course of these experiments they often invent and discover new ways of
acting on the world. Good example of this stage/behavior is the dropping experiment that
most parents recognize. Baby will drop a spoon onto a plastic plate. He picks up the spoon
and drops it: this time on a pillow, repeats this twice then drops it on a sufuria, then in to a
basin of water. The baby is experimenting with different ways of dropping the spoon.
Stage6: Invention of New means Through Mental combination (18-24)
This stage is marked by the development of symbols .The baby begins to use symbols to
represent objects. For example a child can pretend that a stick is a spoon and use it
accordingly.
The child understands that the symbol is separate from the object. The other characteristics
that progressively develop this stage are:
 Imitation
 Object permanence
Imitation
Piaget believed that the baby‗s ability to imitate others moves through a series of steps. In
stage 1 and 2 the baby cannot imitate at all. In stage 3, the baby can imitate an action that he
already has in his repertoire, that is, if he already has a scheme. In stage 4, the baby can
imitate something new while deferred imitation occurs in stage 6, the infant is now capable
of deferred Imitation in which he sees some action and then imitates it at a later time. For
example, he baby can see a bigger child jumping and be able to imitate the jumping action at
a later time.
Object permanence
Another thing that an infant learns in stages is object permanence. This is the knowledge that
objects exist even when we cannot see them. As adults we know that objects we see on two
different occasion existed somewhere; unseen by us, in the mean time. A six months old baby
does not make this assumption‘s. Such a child sees a favorite toy being covered by a piece of
cloth, he or she will not pick up the cloth to get toy. It is out-of-sight–out–of mind. However
12 months old will search for the toy. The 12 month old has developed object permanence. It
develops at around 8 months of age. At this time the child begins to protest the disappearance
of people.
b) The Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 Years)
These are mainly pre-school age children aged between 2and 7 years. Children in this age are
in Piaget‘s pre-operational stage. Piaget believed that three behaviors emerge during the early
part of the pre-operational stage that affects the pre-schoolers use of symbols to represent
thought. These are:
Differed Imitation: Where the child imitates the earlier observed behavior. For example,
children act from TV programmes or what they have observed happening at home. In this
chance they represent the behaviors in form of reality.
Symbolic play: Play is where by children perform pretending activities. They role play
family situations like drinking from an imaginary cap. They also use objects to stand for
something else. Sand, for example, may be used to stand for food.
Use of language: Children acquire skills quickly during pre-school years. Initially, the word
and the object it represents are assigned the same properties. You may find the word cat
being associated with sound meow and soft fur, or even a child calling out word ‗cat‘ on
seeing its feeding bowl.
Characteristics of Pre-operational Thought
How will you distinguish a child operating at this level from the other levels or stages? This
stage is marked by minor characteristics that will be discussed here. They include:
 Ego-centricism
Ego-centricism refers to self- centeredness. Due to this quality the language of pre-schoolers
is full of I, me, mine, and my. Further they tend to assume that others think as they do, share
their views, feelings and desires. They also think things happen because of them. For
example, they blame themselves when things go wrong, such as parents fighting, separating
or divorcing. This can be carried on as childhood fixation in adulthood, making people
alcoholic or workaholic.
 Lack of knowledge of cause and effect
Children at this stage fail to see the relationship between the causes of things/events or the
effects of actions. Sometime they see cause and effect in relationship where there is name.
Take for example of a child gets hurt after falling on a slippery floor when others are loudly
cheering a football match in the field. The child may associate being hurt with the cheers and
come to fear noisy crowds. The child fails to see the slipperiness of the floor as the cause to
the injury.
 Animism
Pre-schoolers (Pre-operational stage) tend to assign human characteristics to inanimate (non
living) things. You may have children saying that a doll has refused to eat or sleep. In such
instances the child seems to treat this non-living toy like a living thing.
 Centration
The child tends to concentrate on one attribute or aspect of the object he/she observes.
The child centers his/her concentration on features of things that are most noticeable and
ignores the other features. Thus, if you present a pre-operate child with two glasses of milk,
one slender and tall, the other wider and short, but having the same volume and ask which
glass has more milk, the child is most likely to say the tall one. In this case, the child centers
on the height.
 Artificialism
Children believe that everything that happens has psychological reasons. This means that it
has a reason that is related to how a child reasons and feels. For example, flower grows to
make us happy. They do not think in term of physical reasons.
 Perceptual bound thought
Children judge the world by the way it looks to them. Two halves of an object looks like
more than the whole. In addition to the onset of pre-operational thought, children do not
group objects according to categories of size and shape but according to pattern. They
arrange them so that they look ―nice‖. These are termed by Inhaler and Piaget (1964) as
graphic collections. Given a set of circles, squares and triangles, for an example, a child may
place a triangle on top of a square and say it makes a house.
 Inflexible and irreversibility though
A child does not think backwards e.g. it is difficult for a girl to think of her only sister as
having a sister. They also cannot reason that if 2 + 1 = 3 then 3 – 2 = 1.
 Lack of conservation
Due to centration, the child is unable to perceive the reality of liquids, substances, numbers
and weights remaining the same in spite of changes in appearance owing to the space they
occupy.
 Overgeneralization
A child tends to over use the few acquired concepts e.g. all men are called daddy. People in
white coats are doctors and all aches may be termed as head ache. Piaget saw little value in
teaching operational skills to young children.
c) Concrete Operations Stage (7-12 Years)
Introduction
At about 6 to 7 years, the pre-operational disjointed representational acts lacking order and
consistency become part of the whole system of related act. The later (symbols) C.A.T. will
stand for the cat which represent an animal with soft fur, whiskers along tail and make the
sound ―mew‖ and feeds on milking from its bowl. They become concrete operations .The
child is now capable of making logical statements but only when dealing with physically
present, real objects that they have experience or logical things.
Development of Concrete Operation
This allows the child to deal with the concepts of class, relations and quantity. The child at
this stage develops the following skills:
a. Classification
This refers to the ability to perceive logical similarity among groups of objects and to sort
them according to their common features, classification abilities, increase in level of
difficulty from simple classification, through class inclusion and multiple classifications. To
give mathematical examples:
Children begin to conceptualize one to one corresponded i.e. sorting and grouping, matching
and pairing, corresponding number symbols and items on objects etc. They then move to
understanding the fact that one number is included in another (class inclusion) for example 1
is included in 2 and 3 and so on. Hence number value. Later they understand that there is a
hierarchical relationship between subordinates and super-ordinate classes. In learning number
places values, they come to realize for example that there are 10 units in 1 ten 10 tens in one
hundred etc.
This knowledge goes beyond numbers to all other areas of learning e.g. Roses belong to class
of flower, which to a super class of living things. It also enables them to see the relationship
of social/political structures such as towns/villages, locations, divisions, districts, provinces,
countries and continents.
b. Serialization
This is the ability to arrange objects in orderly series, for instance from the longest to
shortest, thickest to thinnest, lightest to darkest and so on. This ability enables children to
engage in transitive thinking. Transitive thinking refers to ability to recognize a relationship
between two objects by knowing their relationship to the third. For example, if A>B and B>C
then A>C. However, children find it easier to think of concrete objects or persons than
abstracts like ABC, hence concrete operations.
c. Conservation
What is conservation of quantities? Understanding conservation of quantity involves
awareness that regardless of change in physical appearance, quantity remains the same unless
material is added or subtracted. Piaget maintained that conservation occurs gradually and that
different form of conservation emerges at different times in the child life.
d. Information processing
Pre-schooler (Pre-operational stage) children have difficulties in paying attention to one task
for a long time; they are easily distracted by various stimuli in their environment.
The concrete operational children have developed selective attention ability, which enable
them to concentrate on specific tasks. Selective attention refers to the ability to focus
attention on relevant aspects of the environment and ignore the irrelevant. School age
children are therefore less distractible than pre-schoolers.
The ability to pay attention to a task enhances children‘s capacity to develop memory, which
is important for learning. To retain information longer, school age children like adults resort
to: -
 Rehearsal until it sticks in the mind.
 Mnemonic such as ―Richard of York…….‖ (To remember colours of the rainbow)
 Organization of information in clusters, for example, a child may organize item in
categories such as farm implements, means of transport, plants, school items, games and
the like.
 External aids like writing a diary, drawing, tying a finger and so on.
d) Formal Operations Stage
This is the stage of thinking at which adolescents and adults operate. It is the highest level of
cognitive development. The stage is characterized by:
Hypothetical thinking
Deductive thinking that one is able to consider possibilities rather than only relying on what
is real. One is able to set up probabilities or hypothesis and then test to see whether they are
correct.
Abstract thinking
Here the child progresses beyond relying on the concrete to start imagining and think of
things that are not tangible. One can then solve problems mentally, as well as perceive
abstract concepts like democracy, religion and justice.
Contrary to facts reasoning
The adolescent mind is dominated by possibility instead of reality. They spend much time in
the world that would have been, instead of the world that is. They are therefore seen as
idealists, nonconformist, daydreamers or even troublemakers.
Topics of identity, society, existence, religion, morality, friendship and the like are examined
in detail and are contemplated with high emotions as well increased cognitive ability.
Thinking ahead and planning
Adolescents, more often than younger children think before acting. They are therefore able to
approach problem solving in a systematic and efficient manner, rather than by trial and error.
They can integrate what they have learned in the past and consider all possible combinations
of relevant factors to a solution.
Meta cognition
At this stage, a child is capable of thinking about the processes of thinking and how to make
them efficient. For example, an adolescent is able to formulate an argument before presenting
it and then evaluating it to find out whether or not it‘s strong and convincing.
They also tend to probe their ideas about the nature of things. In short, adolescents have
unlimited capabilities in academic pursuits in terms of cognitive development.
NOTE: Not all people reach the formal operational stage. In addition, some people are able
to think abstractly and systematically in some subjects, but not in others. This is because the
ability to think abstractly depends in part on the level of education and one‘s interest in
knowledge of different topics. People remain in the concrete operation stage unless they have
schooled or have other experiences that encourage their abstract thinking skills.
2. KOHLBERG‘S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg theory of moral development comes up with 6 stages of moral development that
have no much specific age group, but rather a transition from one stage to another.
He organized his 6 stages into 3 general levels and made strong statements about the
properties of this sequence. First he regarded the stages as invariant and universal sequence
of steps that people everywhere through in a fixed order. Second he viewed each new stage as
more equilibrated way of making and justifying moral judgments. That is, each successive
stage builds on the reasoning of the preceding stage, resulting in a more logically consistent
and morally adequate concept of justice. Finally, each stage was believed to form an
organized whole-a qualitatively distinct pattern of moral reasoning that a person applies
across a wide range of situations.
Furthermore, Kohlberg believed that moral understanding is promoted by the same factor the
Piaget thought were important for cognitive development: dis-equilibrium, or actively
grappling with moral issue and noticing weaknesses in one‘s moral conflicts in more complex
and effective ways. As we examine Kohl berg‘s developmental sequence and illustrate it with
responses to the Heinz dilemma, look for changes in cognition and perspective taking that
each stage assumes.
Levels and Stages of Moral Development

1. Pre convention Level
Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation
Stage 2: The instrumental purpose orientation
2. The Conventional Level
Stage 3: The ―good boy- good girl ―orientation or the morality of interpersonal co-operation.
Stage 4: The social maintaining orientation
3. The post conventional or principled level
Stage 5: The social contract orientation
Stage 6: The universal ethical principle orientation
1. THE PRE CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
At the pre conventional level, morality is externally controlled. As in Piaget‘s heteronymous
stage, children accept the rules of authority figures and actions are judged by their
consequences. Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad and those that lead to
rewards are seen as good.
Stage1: The punishment and obedience orientation
Children at this stage find it difficult to consider two points of view in moral dilemma. As a
result, they ignore people‘s intentions and instead focus on fear of authority figures.
Avoidance of punishment are reasons for behaving morally.
Stage 2: The Instrumental Purpose orientation
Awareness that people can have different perspectives in a moral dilemma appears, but this
understanding is, at first, very concrete. Individual view right actions as what satisfy their
personal needs, and they believe others also act out of self- interest. Reciprocity is understood
as equal exchange of favour- ―You do this for me and l will do that for you‖.
2. THE CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
At the conventional level, individual continue to regard conformity to social rules as
important, but not for reasons of self – interest. They believe that actively maintaining the
current social system is important for ensuring positive human relationship and social order.
Stage 3: The ―good boy – good girl‖ orientation or the morality of interpersonal
co-operation
The desire to obey rules because they promote social harmony first appears in the Context of
cross personal ties. Stage 3 individuals want to maintain the affection and approval of friends
and relatives by being a ―good person‖- trustworthy, loyal, respectful, helpful and nice.
The capacities to view a two-person relationship from the vantage point of an impartial,
outside observer support this new approach to morality. At this stage, the individual
understands reciprocity in terms of golden rule.
Stage 4: The social- order – maintaining orientation
At this stage, the individual takes into account a larger perspective – that of social law. Moral
choices no longer depend on close ties to others. Instead, rules must be enforced in the same
even handed fashion for everyone and each member of a society has a personal duty to
uphold them. The stage 4 individuals believe law cannot be disobeyed under any
circumstances because they are vital for ensuring social order.
3. THE POST CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL
Individuals at the post conventional level move beyond unquestioning support for the rules
and the law of their own society. They define morality in terms of abstract principles and
values that apply to all situations and societies.
Stage 5: The social-contract orientation
At stage 5, individuals regard laws and rules as flexible instruments for further human
purposes. They can imagine alternatives to their social order and they emphasize fair
procedures for interpreting and changing the law when there is a good reason to do so. When
laws are consistent with individual rights and the interest of majority, each person follows
them because of a social contract orientation- free and willing participation in the system
because it brings about more good for people than if it did not exist.
Stage 6: The universal ethical principle orientation
At this highest stage, right action is defined by self chosen ethical principles of conscience
that are valid for all humanity, regardless of law and social agreement. These values are
abstract, not concrete moral rules like the Ten Commandments. Stage 6 individuals typically
mention such principles as equal consideration of the claim of all human being and respect
for the worth and dignity of each person.
3. FREUD‘S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
Freud constructed his psychosexual theory of development on the basis of adult
remembrance. He emphasized that how parents manage their child‘s sexual and aggressive
drives in the 1st few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development.
Three portions of the personality
These include:
1. Id
In Freud‘s theory, this is the largest portion of mind, inherited and present at birth. Id is the
source of basic biological needs and desires.
2. Ego
Ego is the rational part of personality (mind) that reconciles the demand of Id, the external
world and the conscience. It emerges in early infancy to ensure that Id‘s desires are satisfied
in accordance with reality. For example, aided with ego, the hungry baby of a few months of
age stops crying when he sees his mother unfasten her clothing for breast-feeding. And the
more competent pre-schooler age goes to the kitchen and gets a snack for her own.
3. Super ego
This is part of the personality that is seat of conscience and is often in conflict with the Id‘s
desire. Between 3 and 6 years of age, the super ego or seat of conscience appears. It contains
the values of society and is often in conflict with the id‘s desire. The super ego develops from
interaction with parents, who orientally insist that children control their biological impulses.
Once the super ego is formed, the ego is faced with the increasingly complex task of
reconciling the demand of id.
The external world and the conscience, for example, when the ego tempted to gratify an ld
impulse by hitting a playmate to get an attractive toy, the super ego may warn that such
behavior is wrong. The ego must decide which of the two forces (ld or super ego) will win
this inner struggle or work out a reasonable compromise, such as asking for a turn with the
toy.
Freud’s psychosexual stages
1. Oral stage (Birth – 1 year)
The new ego directs the baby‘s sucking activities towards breast or bottle. If oral are not met
appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, finger biting and
pencil in childhood and overeating and smoking in later life.
2. Anal stage (1 –3 years)
The stage entails young toddlers and pre schoolers crying, holding and releasing urine and
faeces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If the parent insists
that the children be trained before they are ready or make few demands, conflicts about anal
control may appear in form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or disorder and messiness.
3. Phallic stage (3 –6 years)
Id impulse transfer to the genitals and the child finds pleasure stimulation. Freud‘s Oedipus
conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls take place. Young children feel a sexual
attraction for the opposite sex parents. To avoid punishment, they give up the desire; instead
adapt the same parent‘s characteristics and values.
As a result, the super ego is formed. The relationship between the ld, ego and super ego
established at this time determines the individual‘s basic personality orientation.
4. Latency stage (6 – 11 years)
Sexual instincts die down and the superegos develop further. The child acquires new social
values from adults, the family and from play with some sex peers.
5. Genital stage (Adolescents)
Puberty causes the sexual impulses of the phallic stage to reappear. If development has been
successful during earlier stage, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, birth and rearing of
children.
4. ERIKSON‘S THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (PSYCHOSOCIAL)
Erikson, also a neo-Freudian, proposed stages of personality development that reflect the
social conduct of a person‘s life. How adequate person becomes as an adult depends on
satisfactory solutions to a psycho-social crisis at each stage. For example, in the first stage
basic trust is established.
There are eight stages referred to in Erikson‘s ―Childhood and Society‖ first published in
1951, but for the purposes of this section all the eight stages are listed taking the child from
birth through to adolescence then to adulthood:
Stage 1. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (Birth to 18 months)
In the first stage of infancy it is all important that the child acquires ―basic trust‖. He must be
made to feel secure by the ease of feeding, night comfort, and satisfactory relationships with
the mother. He must feel safe; otherwise his physical, mental, emotional and social
development will be impaired.
Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months to 4 years)
In this early childhood stage the child is progressing apace in all aspects of development. He
has to acquire autonomy which, will bring in its wake experiment ,exploration and conflict.
He will need support from his parents especially when he is asserting his own desire to do
things on his own, in his own way. Otherwise he will doubt his abilities and lack self-
confidence.
Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4 years to 7 years)
This is the time when the child is actively exploring the environment and is communicating
by language. He develops initiative and independence but because his explorations may
conflict with the ―moral code‖, he begins to experience guilt. This needs very careful
handling as guilt feelings may inhibit his further activities and lead to a passive personality.
Stage 4. Industry vs Inferiority (7 years to adolescence)
The child develops a sense of industry. He is ready to learn new skills and complete tasks. In
all cultures the child at this stage is given systematic instruction and in most cultures this is
done at school. The danger at this stage is that the child may fail and feel inferior and
inadequate. This may occur if the family has failed to prepare him for school life or the
school fails.
Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
At this stage childhood ends and adolescence begins. There is a rapid body growth
comparable to the first 6 years of life. With the advent of puberty the youth‘s body is
changing to that of an adults and he is faced with an identity crisis. Some young people are
unable to decide upon what their adult role will be. Typical of this age is hero worship and
the formation of cliques. Adolescents, in fact, help each other by stereotyping themselves.
5. Others are;
i) Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood)
ii) Generativity versus Stagnation (middle adulthood)
iii) Ego integrity versus Despair (old age)
CHAPTER 3
ASPECTS OF CHILD GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
 Discuss various aspects of child growth and development.
 Describe growth and development milestones.
Introduction
Process of growth and development is one of the most exciting attributes that many parents
seem to enjoy. The process does not happen in a vacuum rather there are aspects in child life
that determine the extent of growth and development:
The following are aspects of a child growth and development:
1. Physical/psychomotor
2. Cognitive/mental
3. Social
4. Emotional
5. Spiritual
6. Moral
7. Aesthetic
8. Language
1. Physical and psychomotor

This aspect involves physical increase in size and weight, changes in body proportions and
development in neural muscles coordination that brings about fine movement (manipulation)
in the baby. It involves development of fine muscles, hardening of bones, teething and
advancement of sense organs
2. Cognitive
Cognitive aspects of child growth and development involves, child mental process of
knowing and understanding his or her immediate environment of understanding who are the
parents, siblings and objects, numbers, colours etc
3. Social
Social aspects involve child‘s ability to interact with other people in their environment. In
doing so they may initiate these interactions or simply respond to them or both and they are
also capable of terminating them. They do all these by using signals i.e. crying, gazing, social
smile.
4. Emotional
This aspect involves baby-experiencing feeling as a result of conduct with people around
her/him. The child may experience positive emotions e.g. joy, love, affection, pleasure,
excitement etc. The child may also experience negative promotion e.g. anger, fear,
resentment, aggression etc.
5. Spiritual
Another aspect in child growth and development is spiritual aspect. This normally happens
much later in a child‘s life. When he/she starts reasoning and asking questions concerning
supernatural powers/God, death, life etc
6. Moral
These attributes involve the child judging things as either right or wrong. Although it comes
later in a child‘s life much of moral is inculcated by the parents and other adults in the baby‘s
environment.
7. Language
It involves child developing both productive language and receptive language. Productive
language is the speech they produce whereas receptive language is the speech they
understand. Language develops in stages i.e. from simple crude speech/signal such as crying
and cooing to complex refined speech.
8. Aesthetic
This aspect has much to do with how the child perceives things as beautiful and orderliness in
life organization.
They will develop a habit of liking some objects, or colours and hate others. They also start
arranging their objects /toys in an orderly manner.
CHAPTER 4
STAGES/MILESTONES/FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHILD GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT/BRAIN DEVELOPMENT IN A CHILD
 Discuss the stages and milestones of child growth and development.
 Discuss factors that influence child growth and development
 Describe brain development in child growth and development

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Pre-natal period is the period between fertilization and birth of a baby. It is approximately
266 days or 38 weeks. Although growth and development during this time is highly
continuous, Scientists have divided pre-natal development into three periods, namely:
i) Zygote period
ii) Embryo period
iii) Foetus period
i) Zygote period
It is the period of the first two weeks after fertilization. For about first three days of this
period, the zygote (fertilized egg), will remain in the fallopian tube. At 36 hours after
fertilization the original cell divide into 2 and by 72 hours it develops into a ball of cells,
which is transported along the fallopian tube towards the uterus. Once in the uterus, it will
continue to grow while it floats for another 3 to 4 days. Blastocyst is a fluid filled ball of cells
at the beginning of 2nd week. Seven to nine days after fertilization, the Blastocyst implant
itself into the lining of the uterus and the placenta rapidly begins to form.
Definition of terms
 Endomentrium is the lining of the uterus.
 Placenta is an organ through which a baby is connected to its mother‘s blood supply in
the womb before birth.
ii) Embryo period
The period of embryo extends from the beginning of the 3 rd week to the 8th week of
pregnancy. By the 14th day of pregnancy the growing ball of cells begin to differentiate into 3
distinct layers of cells i.e. the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm destined to form specific
organ system.
a) Ectoderm layer is the outermost layer of Blastocyst, which develops into brain, skin,
spinal cord and nerves.
b) Mesoderm layer is the intermediate layer, which develops into skeletal system, muscles,
heart and kidney
c) Endoderm layer is the innermost layer that develops into digestive system, liver and
pancreas
During this critical 6 weeks (end of 2nd week to end of 8th week), the structure of major organ
system (except the genital) is established. This establishment is known as organogenesis.
Critical period is the time when an organ is most rapidly developing e.g. the heart begins to
emerge at/in the middle of 3rd week and structurally complete at the end of the 8th week. By
the end of the embryonic stage/period, the organism takes a distinctive human form and many
of its system have begun to function e.g.:
a) By the end of week 4, the ectoderm has folded over to form neutral tube (crude brain and
spinal cord) and primitive heart begin to beat
b) By the end of week 8, the nervous system, heart, liver and kidney have started to function.
NOTE that all the above have been accomplished in an organism approximately 3cm long
and 1/5 kg.
Principle of Child Growth and Development

In pre-natal and post-natal periods the following principles apply.
a) Cephalocaudal Growth
This means that growth develops down from the head. The head develops first and the limbs
develop last. The fetal brain is well developed before the legs reach their final form, and the
first effective motor control is exerted over the muscles which lift the head when the baby is
lying prone. Later control reaches the shoulders moving on to the arms; the trunk and
reaching the legs last of all.
b) Proximodistal Growth
This means that growth develops outwards from the axis of the body. The central parts
develop and function first before those on the periphery, e.g. a sequence being the shoulder,
then the arm, next the hand and finally the fingers.
c) Gross Movement to Refined Movement
This implies that following the pattern of proximodistal growth, a child‘s body movements
develop from the use of large to small muscles, from gross overall body movement to refined
or specific activities. A young baby‘s initial attempts at grasping are gross and clumsy but do
develop into refined thumb and forefinger movement. A consideration of the first attempts by
a baby to pick up an object, say a small cube, and the ability of, say, a four year old to
manipulate the Montessori Pink Tower illustrates how skilful and refined the child‘s muscle
co-ordination has become.
The first stages of movement or locomotion are accompanied by excess body movements.
The child moves with its whole body but, later, only the appropriate limbs and muscles are
used. The adolescent growth acceleration occurs in all children but it can vary greatly in both
intensity and duration from one child to another. There is also a sex variation. The onset in
boys is, on average, age 121/2 years and it lasts on average to 15 years of age. The age for
girls is 101/2 years to 13 years.
These graphs, based on the work of Tanner, give some indication of the growth patterns of
different parts of the body. Most parts of the body follow the same curve of growth as the
curve of height, the outline of Graph A depicts this. It is a relatively gentle growth curve up
to approximately 12 years of age. At birth the child‘s total body weight is approximately 5%
of its final adult weight. By the age of 10 this percentage has risen to 50%.
The growth of the reproductive organs is much depressed until about 12 or 13 years of age,
and then this growth accelerates more rapidly (Graph B). In striking contrast, the brain attains
about 95% of its adult weight by the time a child is 10 years old The following tables
illustrate the rapidity of this growth.
Other definitions that will be used in this discussion include:
a) Pre-natal period, which is the period of time from conception to childbirth.
b) Antenatal care- medical care given to pregnant women few days before birth (15
days).
c) Post-natal period, which is the time after the birth of a baby.
PERIOD OF THE FOETUS
This is the final and the period of pre-natal development of the organism that extends from
the beginning of the 9th week of birth.
The major organ system continues to develop in size and function throughout this period. The
size of the foetus is multiplied by a factor of ten. Body movement increases steadily in both
intensity and variety, especially between the 10th and 16th weeks.
By week 16, the mother experiences the quickening, which is a sensation, which the mother
feels when the foetus is kicking against the mother‘s abdomen.
By 26 weeks, the foetus has reached the age of viability, which means it has reasonable
chances of survival if born pre-maturely.
THE PLACENTA
This is an organ that joins the blood supply of the mother and the developing baby that is
used to nourish the baby and remove metabolic waste from the baby to the mother for
excretion. The baby is joined to the placenta by the umbilical cord.
The placenta develops during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy from a thick spongy lining of
the uterus. As the foetus grows, the placenta and the umbilical chord also grows.
By the time of birth, the placenta may weigh about 500 grams and measure 20 cm across and
the umbilical cord measures about 50 cm in length.
Functions of the placenta
1. Nourish the developing foetus with food from the mother.
2. Provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, that is, the foetus gets oxygen from the
mother‘s blood stream and pass carbon dioxide back to the mother‘s blood through the
placenta.
3. Get rid of other metabolic waste from the developing baby to be passed across the
placenta into the mother‘s blood e.g. urea
4. Protect the foetus by filtering out germs.
5. Produce hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone, which regulate the pregnancy and
prepare the mother‘s body for childbirth.
AMNIOTIC SAC
It is a sac/bag filled with amniotic fluid where the foetus floats inside the womb. It consists of
water, salt, fat and small amount of foetal urine and skin cells.
Functions of Amniotic Fluid
1. Protect the foetus from knocks and bumps (act as shock absorbers)
2. Provide comfortable and suitable environment for growth and development e.g. the right
temperature.
3. Protects the foetus from infections
4. The fluid can be used to test abnormalities as it contains live skin cells shed by the foetus
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
For a long time, it was believed that the uterus, placenta and the amniotic fluid provided full
protection to the developing baby in pre-natal period
It is now known that some diseases, drugs and other harmful substances can be transmitted
from the mother to the developing foetus although the placenta may play a role of slowing
down of the movement from mother to child. However, the developing baby is still
vulnerable to the environmental influences.
Environmental factor include teratogens such as:
a) Drugs and medication
b) Social drugs
c) Maternal diseases
d) Rhesus factor
e) Maternal stress and emotion during pregnancy
f) Maternal nutrition
g) Exercises during pregnancy
h) Mother‘s age
i) Maternal care
j) Radiations
Teratogens
Many substances including chemical agents, viruses and bacteria, are capable of crossing the
placenta and entering the embryo/foetus.
Teratogens are agents that enter into the biological system of the embryo/foetus and influence
the development negatively. This word was derived from a Greek word ―teras‖ meaning
Monster.
NOTE that the key elements determining the effects of teratogens are:
 The dosage,
 Timing in relation to the organ development,
 Embryo‘s own resilience and
 Protective factors of the mother.
The following are the factors, which affect the pre-natal development of embryo/foetus
1. DRUG AND MEDICATION
Although medication is essential for pregnant mothers, it is true that some drugs affect the
development of the foetus. These effects differ from drug to drug and depend on the time it
was taken.
Here are some of the medication and birth defects that they cause:
MEDICATION USE BIRTH DEFECTS
1. Thalidomide Morning sickness Limb deformities
(Nausea) during Multiple defects in ears, digestive
pregnancy system, heart, kidney, liver etc.,
depending on when it was taken
2. Anti-convulsant Epilepsy Mental retardation, spina bifida (spinal
Cord damage that lead to paralysis)
3. Anti-cancer drugs Cancer Foetal death
(Chemotherapy)
Synthetic sex hormone Birth control Genital deformities
(oestrogen and
progesterone)
Antibodies Various bacterial  Discolouration of teeth
i) Tetracycline infections  Under developed enamel
ii) Streptomycin  Deafness
2. SOCIAL DRUGS
These include cigarettes, alcohol, bhang, narcotics and other street drugs.
a. Cigarettes: women who smoke continue smoking throughout their pregnancy putting
their babies at risk of poor development.
Effects of smoking;
i) Low birth weight
ii) Increases chances of miscarriage and still birth
iii) Increase chances of babies‘ death soon after birth.
iv) Foetal oxygen deprivation that may lead to abnormalities of both brain and heart.
NOTE: damage of the foetus is directly correlated with number of cigarettes smoked per day.
b. Alcohol: women who drink heavily during pregnancy have a high risk of giving birth
to babies with Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Characteristics of FAS
i) Deformities of the face, brain, heart, genitals, bones and joints
ii) Growth retardation
iii) The head may be abnormally small with inadequate development of the brain
iv) Babies have wide spread eye, flat nose and undeveloped jaw
v) Child later develops hyperactivity, distractivity, and short attention span.
vi) They delay perceptual and emotional development.
NOTE: the above is likely to happen if the pregnant mother takes alcohol during critical
period of prenatal development. There is no safe level of alcohol consumption for pregnant
mothers.
c. Heroin/Methadone (Narcotics)
When the mother takes these drugs it passes through placenta to the developing baby. The
foetus cannot metabolize the drugs as efficiently as the mother.
Effects of Heroin
i) Infants of the addicts are likely to be born pre-maturely or low birth weight.
ii) Infants are highly irritable and engage in a characteristics high pitched cry that cannot
be soothed, even by the mother.
d. Cocaine: it is highly addictive drug with severe teratogenic effects.
Effects of cocaine
i) Likelihood of spontaneous abortion and still birth
ii) Infant born pre-maturely at low birth weight.
iii) Abnormally small head circumference and other malformation
iv) Later the child develops poor learning and cognitive processes.
v) Children are easily over-stimulated, irritable and disorganized in their interaction with
caregiver.
3. Maternal Diseases
Not all diseases suffered by a pregnant mother are harmful of the foetus. However there are
some common diseases that have teratogenic effects on unborn babies.
a. Rubella: it is commonly referred to as German measles that causes mild cold symptoms
and a rash in adults.
If the mother contract the disease especially during the 1st trimester (3moths) the foetus is
likely to develop Foetus Rubella Syndrome (FRS).
Effects of Rubella
i) Spontaneous abortion or still birth
ii) Mental retardation
iii) Malfunctioning of eyes, ears and/or heart depending on the period of pregnancy during
which the disease was contracted.
b. Herpes: these diseases are among the common STIs that affect the foetus. We have two
types of herpes virus namely:
 Herpes simplex 2 (HSV)
 Cytomegalovitus (CMV)
Herpes simplex 2 is a very common STI that cause painful genital sore in adults. If mother
has HSV the foetus is likely to contact it at delivery. Sometimes it can infect the foetus before
birth. The effects on the foetus are catastrophic in that infected babies die within the 1st few
months of life.
CMV on the other hand is highly infectious disease with symptoms resembling mild col.
CMV can hide in the mother‘s system for some times and affect the foetus when the mother
becomes pregnant. Effect on fetus is just like that of HSV.
c. AIDS: acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a progressive maiming
of the immune system by human immune deficiency virus (HIV). Children get AIDS in a
variety of ways but the primary mode of transmission is from an infected mother to the
foetus in the uterus or at birth. Other ways in which it infects the held is by breast-feeding
or receiving bloods or blood product with the virus.
Effects of AIDS to the child
 Frequent infections and diarrhoea
 Loss of weight
 Brain damage is typical
 Certain death within few months after birth
d. Syphilis
It is a common sexually transmitted disease. It‘s contracted in the first few months of
pregnancy, the bacteria cannot pass through the placentas, and so syphilis can be cured with
anti-biotics before the foetus is affected. However later in the pregnancy, the foetus is
susceptible to bone, liver and brain damage or death.
e. Maternal diabetes
This involves higher than normal amount of blood sugar in the mother‘s blood. It causes
babies to be large and mature looking at birth, but they are immature in their functioning.
f. Toxemia
This is a condition caused by toxic substances in the blood, causing swelling of mother‘s
legs. Sometimes it may cause malfunctioning of the kidney and circulation system. This may
affect the foetus negatively to cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation and reading
disability.
4. RHESUS FACTOR
it causes hemolytic diseases of the newborn (erythroblastosis foetals). It happens because of
incompatibility between mother‘s blood and infant‘s blood. It is possible only if the mother is
rhesus negative and the baby has inherited rhesus positive factor from the father. This brings
about reaction in mother‘s blood (production of any anti rhesus antibodies), which eventually
attacks the foetus leading to miscarriage. Antibodies build up in other‘s blood, which attack
the foetus as if it were foreign in the mother‘s system.
The 1st born is not affected but subsequent babies can be damaged.
Effects of rhesus factors
i) Miscarriage and spontaneous abortion
ii) Baby may be born mentally retarded
iii) Causes death soon after birth
It can be prevents by physician through injection of rhesus immune globulin.
5. MATERNAL STRESS & EMOTIONS DURING PREGNANCY
Several factors ma\y cause material stress, e.g illness, divorce cases, mental conflicts,
economic pressure etc.
Effects of maternal stress and emotion
Prolonged high mount of psychological stress can affect the foetus leading to;
i) Premature
ii) Prolonged pregnancy
iii) Restlessness in the newborn.
Emotional reactions like extreme stress increases the level of adrenaline and other hormone
blood stream that causes the above effects. Stress also increases blood flow to the muscles
and brain and decreases blood flow to the uterus, reducing the supply of oxygen to the foetus.
6. MATERNAL NUTRITION
The mother needs adequate nutrients during pregnancy to support the foetus. Malnourished
mothers give birth to premature or low birth weight babies. Lack of calcium, phosphorus
leads to poor development of bones in the foetus. Lack of various vitamins lead to poor
neutral tube defect that cause paralysis.
7. EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY
Vigorous exercises e.g. vigorous cycling or running makes foetal heart rate to decline, as the
mother is exhausted. It then returns to normal within half an hour after the exercise has been
terminated. This denies enough oxygen to developing baby. Vigorous exercise may also lead
to accidents like falling that may injure the baby during prenatal development.
8. MOTHER‘S AGE
Physically, young mothers below 20 years are not adequately developed to handle pregnancy
well. Effects to foetus include:
i) Incidences of retardation
ii) Mortality rates increases at birth
Again old mothers over 35 years affect the foetus in the following aspects
i) High risk of premature birth
ii) Low birth weight babies and still birth
iii) High risks of giving birth to children with genetic diseases such as Down‘s syndrome
(mongolism) or Klinefeller syndrome.
9. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
Massive radiation in the environment cause congenital problems to foetus such as:
i. Deformities i.e. severe handicapped infants

ii. Infant born with cancer, leukemia etc.
Again environmental hazards can lead to spontaneous abortion and still birth.
Also environmental pollutants e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, lead and mercury may
lead to:
i. Low birth weight
ii. Poor neurological development
iii. Death soon after birth
10. MATERNAL/PARENTAL CARE
Pregnant mothers who don‘t attend prenatal care facilities may have much effect on prenatal
development of the babies because of ignorance. Third facilities in checking the development
of the foetus and determine whether the mother is suffering from some diseases e.g. syphilis
that can cause problems to prenatal development, create awareness in knowledge concerning
care of prenatal development etc. Failure to attend prenatal care facilities compounded by
ignorance may lead to many if not all problems discussed in the previous topics.
THE BIRTH PROCESS
Just before birth.
During the last month of pregnancy, the head of the baby turns down towards the mother‘s
pelvis and the uterus descends into the pelvic cavity. The ideal position for the baby‘s head is
down and facing the mothers back. This position allows the baby to move most easily
through the cervix and the birth canal.
Labour
Labour is the process by which women give birth to a baby. It is naturally triggered by
hormonal changes that are started by the foetus. Certain signs help the mother to realize that
labour has started.
Signs of labour
The onset of labour is marked by the appearance of any one of a combination of three signs
1. Labour pains
These are rhythmic contractions of the uterus. These contractions are perceived to come from
the lower back. They occur at regular intervals. As the labour progresses the interval
decreases and the intensity of contraction increases.
2. The show
This is a small blood-spotted mucus that is discharged from the cervical canal as a result of
dilation of the cervix.
3. Discharge of the amniotic fluid
This discharge occurs when the amniotic sac ruptures.
Stages of Labour
The process of labour unfold in three well defined stages
a. The first stage: Dilation
This stage begins spontaneously approximately 266 days after conception, with contractions
that dilate/open the cervix to allow the baby to pass through. The muscular walls of the uterus
contract, pushing the baby against the cervix.
The first contraction is short but painless. However they gradually become longer, stronger
and frequent. As the cervix approaches its widest aperture, the pain can reach extra ordinary
levels of intensity. Complete dilation to 10 cm, take 2-20hours for the first pregnancy and
shorter for later pregnancies. The first stage is divided into three phases
i) The early phase lasts until dilation reaches 4 cm roughly the width of two fingers. The
amniotic sac raptures, releasing trickle or possibly push of the fluid through
ii) Active phase of labour lasts from 2-6 hours for the first time mothers and the cervix
open to bout 8cm
iii) The transition phase is marked by the dilation of the cervix from 8-10cm. This phase
typically lasts about one hour. When the dilation is complete the baby‘s head moves
through the cervix and begin to descend into the birth canal. Contractions have
increased to maximum intensity, lasting about 2 minutes each and occurring in rapid
successions often without lapses between them.
b. The second stage: Descend and Birth
At the end of dilation stage the mother will have the urge to push the baby out. The second
stage start when the cervix is fully opened and ends when the baby is born and it takes few
minutes up to three hours. This depends on
 The size of the baby
 Resilience of the vagina and
 The strength of contraction
The descend is gradual and intermittent
When the baby‘s head appear at the vaginal opening, the opening of the vagina is stretched to
the limit. Episiotomy can be administered when the head cannot pass through the vaginal
opening. Episiotomy is the process of surgical incision that widens the vaginal opening to
allow the head to pass. The last few contractions expel the baby out of the mother‘s body.
The baby takes the first breath and the umbilical cord is clamped and cut
c. The third stage: Expulsion of the placenta/Afterbirth
These are mild contractions that expel the placenta and the few useless foetal membranes out
of the mother‘s body.
POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Mary Sheridan has examined many thousands of United Kingdom children and drawn up
their developmental sequences. Her full results, which encompass both the physical and
social skills of children, are published in ―The Developmental Progress of Infants and Young
Children‖ (HMSO London, 1968). Following is an outline of the physical development and
milestones of children and the gradual refining of their skills based on her findings.
4-6 weeks
 Prone: lies flat with arms flexed away from body. Momentarily lifts chin.
 Supine: lies with head to one side, limbs on face side more extended.
 Pulled to sit: head lags. Held sitting: back in one curve. Hands fisted.
 Ventral suspension: head in line with body-arms and legs semi-flexed.
 Visually follows dangling ball at 8 to 10 inches, through ¼ circle, side to midline.
 Still, may turn eyes or head to small bell, rattle or voice 6 inches from ear.
 Fixes eyes on mother‘s face when feeding.
3 months
 Prone: rests on forearms, lifts head and upper chest. Buttocks flat, legs extended.
 Supine: head rests in midline, limbs move rhythmically.
 Pulled to sit: head held erect, upper spine straight, lumbar curve.
 Held standing: sags at knees.
 Hands loosely open. Brought together in finger play. Holds rattle briefly and moves
towards face.
 Visually alert. Follows dangling ball horizontally and (usual lie) vertically through ½
circle.
 Converges eyes on near object. Defensive blink present.
 Attends to and (usually) turns towards nearby voice or meaningful sounds.
6 months
 Prone : lifts head and chest. Supporting on extended arms. Can roll over.
 Supine: lifts up head from pillow. Brings legs into vertical and grasps foot.
 When hands held, pulls self to sit, head erect, back straight. Sits with support.
 Held standing: takes weight on legs.
 Reaches for toys. Takes everything to mouth.
 Uses whole hand in palmer grasp. Transfers objects from one hand to the other.
9 months
 Sits alone for 10 to 15 minutes on the floor.
 Can stand holding on to support but cannot lower himself.
 Reaches immediately for toys and manipulates them.
 Still takes everything to mouth.
 Pokes at a small pellet with index finger.
 Grasps between finger and thumb in scissor fashion.
 Throws toys to ground deliberately.
12 months
 Sits well. Can rise to sitting position from lying down. Crawls rapidly on all fours.
 Walks with hand(s) held.
 Can pull to stand and let himself down again.
 Explores and manipulates energetically. Casts objects to floor repeatedly.
 Retrieves toy hidden before his eyes under cup or cushion.
18 months
 Walks well. Stoops to pick up toy from floor without overbalancing.
 Builds tower of 3 cubes after demonstration.
 Spontaneous scribble using preferred hand.
 Looks at pictures in book; turns several pages at once. Clearly demonstrates everyday
visual competence for near and far.
2 years
 Runs on whole foot. Walks up and down stairs two feet to step.
 Builds tower of 6 cubes. Imitates circular scribble.
 Gives first name. Talks continuously to self at play.

 Puts two or more words together to form simple sentences, but much of speech
unintelligible even to familiars.
 Enjoys picture books naming objects on request.
 Turns pages singly.
3 years
 Stands on one (preferred) foot momentarily.
 Goes upstairs with alternating feet. Downstairs two feet to step.
 Builds towers of 9 cubes. Imitates (3 years) and copies (31/2 years) bridge of 3 cubes
from model.
 Copies circle.
 Gives full name and sex.
 Large vocabulary, but owing to infantile mispronunciations speech often
unintelligible to strangers. Can undress when fastenings undone and take self to toilet.
 Eats with fork and spoon.
4 years
 Stands on one foot 3 to 5 seconds. Hops on one foot. Goes up and down stairs one
foot to step.
 Builds 3 steps with 6 cubes after demonstration or (sometimes) from model.
 Copies cross. Names three primary colors.
 Knows full name, age, sex and (usually) address.
 Speech wholly intelligible, shows only a few infantile substitutions.
 Can dress and undress alone except for back fastenings and laces.
5 years
 Stands on one foot with arms folded 3 to 5 seconds
BRAIN
The general function of the brain is to co-ordinate and regulates the activities of various parts
of the body.
The newborn‘s skull is relatively larger. This is because it must accommodate the brain. The
brain is about 25% its adult weight at birth by the age of 2 years; the infant‘s brain is about
75% of its adult weight.
Brain Growth and maturation
There are significant changes in the maturing nervous system (which consist of the brain,
spiral cord and the nerves) the nervous system is made up of long thin cells called neurons.
At birth it contains most of or perhaps all the neurons it will ever have.
Further development consists of the growth and branching of these cells into increasingly
dense networks that transmit messages in form of electrical impulses between the brain and
the rest of the body. As the nerve system mature it undergoes the process of myelination
(process whereby neurons becomes coated with a fatty insulating substance called myelin).
The development of the nervous system allows children to gain increasing control over their
motor functions and to experience refined perceptual abilities.
When myelination occurs in certain region of the brain, the child gains specific forms of
Motor skill and muscles control that are associated with those regions.
Consequently the timing of an infant‘s milestones- they usually directed grasp, rolling over,
sitting up, standing, walking etc. are directly related to development in that child nervous
system. Anything that interferes with myelination affects motor development.
STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
Brain has the following parts:
a) Medulla that contain parts that regulate vital activities such as breathing, heartbeat,
Salivation and vomiting.
b) Cerebellum that contains centers that regulate complex muscular movement (motor
activities)
c) Thalamus contains specialized centers that integrates sensory impulses from the eyes,
ears and the skin and then send them to sensory cortex of the cerebrum.
d) Hypothalamus contain specialized centers that regulate a wide variety of important
functions:
i) It has that controls thirst, appetite, sleep and wakefulness.
ii) Regulate body temperature
iii) Regulate and bring about water and salt balances
iv) Work together with the pituitary gland to control the secretion of many hormones.
Different regions of the brain develop different rates before and after birth. The motor region,
which controls gross body movement, develops first. The sensory region, which receives
information from the sense organ, develops next. These are the only areas of the brain that
function at birth. The sensory and motor regions continue to mature up until Eighth month of
life. The association region, which mediates thought, is the last to develop and their growth
continues well into adulthood. This is the reason why the child thinking ability is not very
much developed n infancy developed in infancy but improves with age.
Factors affecting Brain Growth and Development
The following are some of the factors that affect brain development in children:
1. Health: Certain diseases such as meningitis, cerebral malaria, brain tumors usually have
negative effect in child brain development.
2. Drug use: some drugs have shown negative effect on child‘s brain development. A very
good example of drugs is the one used in treatment of cancer i.e. chemotherapy.
3. Genetic factor: some children may inherit factors from their parents that can affect
negatively brain development e.g. Down‘s syndrome (mongolism) is congenital.
4. Nutrition: is a very important factor in brain development of a child. If in one way or
another a child fails to get right amount of nutritious foods, it will have an impact in his
or her brain development.
5. Teratogen: during prenatal period, if some Teratogen may get access to development
child, especially during critical period, the child will have poor brain development.
6. Process of child delivery: incase during this process the child lack oxygen. It will affect
brain development negatively.
CHAPTER 5
THE IMPORTANCE OF INVESTING IN EARLY YEARS OF CHILD GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT, TYPES OF PLAY, HOW CHILDREN LEARN & THE ROLE OF
A CARE-GIVER
 Evaluate the importance of investing in early years of child growth and development.
 Identify types, importance and how to enhance play in early childhood.

 Describe ways in which children learn.
 Analyze the role and challenges of care-givers.
IMPORTANCE OF EARLY YEARS/ LIFE
The importance of a child in any society can never be over emphasized because without them
the society cannot continue to exist. The following are some of the importance of early years
of child‘s life.
a) Foundation for total life for an individual. Early life is the basic building blocks of an
individual total life. If early life was poor in most if not all aspect of growth and
development, the total individual life is doomed, to total distraction.
b) Experiences of these years continue to influence the individual throughout life.
c) Fasts period of growth and development in all aspects. It is during this period that a child
attains most aspect of growth and development that changes his life from using basic
animal instincts to human life with all attributes that entails that life.
d) All ―windows of opportunities‖ open during this period. What a person attains in life was
one among so many opportunities that could be harnessed during early life.
e) Brain is most malleable at this period, hence influence by environment or care has greater
impact. To mould the child to be a good member of the society. We need to vet on what
the child learns at this early stage because in case of negative attributes in his
environment, at this stage the brain will accept it as normal. This in turn produces a poor
member of the society with so many negative perceptions about social life.
IMPORTANCE OF INVESTING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
1) Holistic development of an individual.
We need to invest much both physically, mentally and socially to ensure that the child
develops to be person with society values.
2) Socio- economic reason.
Child being the foundation of the society both socially and economically much has to be
pumped in his early years. This in turn produce individual who socially will fit the society
and benefit the society economically in activities engaged.
3) Child right.
Investment in early years is child right. It is his rights to be fed, cared for, educated and have
a conducive environment for growth and development.
4) Research finding.
Research finding have shown that without investing in early years the future of the society
drain into socio-economic destruction. So much have to be done during this period, to ensure
children in the society have enough of what they need e.g. food, education, affections, care,
clothes etc. this in turn will produce individual in the society that will make it develop more.
PLAY IN EARLY YEARS OF LIFE
Children‘s peer interactions are basically play episode. Play is any pleasurable, spontaneous
and voluntary activity that is an end itself and has no extrinsic goal. This means that play
experiences do not have to be taken seriously. In play the emphasis is on procedures rather
than products e.g. a child may be playing constructing a tower. The block tower falls over
and over again. The aim of the play can change instantly from constructing to destructing
with equal satisfaction and fun. In play the social partner can be real or pretend. For example,
the children can chase each other on their bicycles or they can pretend to be motorist in a
safari rally. In our discussion we will use term social play to refer to playful interaction with
real play partners and the term social pretend play to refer to playful interactions that involves
pretense.
Types of plays in early childhood
1) Solitary play: this is mainly characteristic of 2 to 3 years olds although all children
engage in it at some time. In solitary play the child happily plays alone and makes no
attempt to interact with other children around. Children under 2 years use only solitary
play.
2) Parallel play: children aged 2-3 years also engage in parallel play. The child plays
alongside other children but is unable to cooperate and share toys with them. Their
activities are unrelated although they play with similar objects or toys.
3) Associative play: this kind of playing is common with age 3-4 years. They may allow
and lend toys, talk about the same activity, or follow one another but there is no
organization of play. Each child in the group may be playing as he/she wishes, without
any one trying to change what the other is doing.
4) Co-operative play: children aged 4-5 years play in an organized manner. They take
different roles in the play activity to accomplish some goal or act some agreed upon play
themes. Then as children grow older, they become more social in their play.
5) Creative play: Allow children to use their ideas to make something. Children use
creative play to express themselves, as their language development is not skilled enough.
6) Physical play: this is the type of play that exercises the child limbs, develop muscles and
give practice in climbing and balancing. Physical play allows opportunities for ―letting
off steam‖ and releasing aggressive instincts.
7) Manipulative play: this is whereby the child is encouraged to use the hands skillfully and
to develop eye-hand coordination. Manipulative play starts as early as four months when
the baby can grasp a rattle.
8) Social play: involves children playing together as in children‘s game e.g. hide and seek
running etc. involvement in social play teaches children co-operation, sharing and
honesty. It also teaches the antisocial behaviour that can lead to punishment or loss of
friendship.
9) Discovery play: this involves children with different materials, feeling texture, smell
them, listening to their sounds, trying out its behaviour under different condition and so
on. This help children find about things. They learn about sizes, shapes, texture, colour
use, and component through this manipulation. It also helps them to learn to care for their
own and other possessions when they know that something get destroyed by poor
handling.
The following table shows development stages of different age brackets in early childhood
suggests appropriate toy for the age.
AGE DEVELOPMENT STAGE SUITABLE TOYS/MATERIALS
AND ACTIVITIES
2-3  Boundless energy  Tricycles
YEARS  Very curious  Painting and drawing
 Parallel and imaginative play e.g.  Dressing up clothes
bricks  Dough and plasticine
 Begins to form mental concepts  Swing and slides
 Enjoy being read to  Take apart and reassemble toys

 Shows concern for other children  Story book, coloured pencil
in distress  Jigsaws
 Toy utensils and office equipment
 Visiting and outings
 Peg boards to hammer
3-4  Independent  Bicycle without stabilizers
YEARS  Co-operative play  Musical instruments
 Very physical, can skip and climb  Climbing, swinging
 Hope and ride a bicycle  Football
 Enjoy swinging  Imaginative play
 Extensive vocabulary  Story and music cassette
 Ask a lot of number letter and  Jigsaw puzzles
colour  Constructional toys
 Look at books  Collage and mosaic
 Understands sharing  Crayons
 Scissors and cut out pictures.
4-5  Use of number and language  Toy household equipment
YEARS increased  Simple reading books
 More investigative and  Visiting and outings
imaginative  Picture dominoes
 Longer span of attention  Word and picture game
 Persevere and can get frustrated
 Use dramatic play to relieve
incidences
 Clock face
Factors that facilitate play among young children.
Among factors, which influence play in children, include:
a) Child experience.
b) Culture which influence the type of imaginative and make to believe play.
c) Availability of toys and other materials that the child utilizes in play.
d) Child imaginations whereby the child uses her imaginations and may use object to
represents many things.
e) Availability of space may also influence the type and amount of play.
f) Support from adults for example whether free time is provided and whether the care
providers and other participate in the child play may influence the amount and quality of
play.
Importance of Play in Promotion Growth and Development of Children
Over the years an increasing amount of research and experimentation has been done to try to
document the function served by play. The following are functions identified by some of this
research.
1. Play enhances cognitive development, especially diverse thinking and problem solving
(Christie and Johnson 1983). Further through play, children can learn the planning skills
that are needed to be efficient problem solvers (Casey 1990). Time spent in parallel
constructive play e.g. art, puzzles, blocks etc is positively related to cognitive competence
while parallel functional play was associated with low social and cognitive competence.
2. Development of language and literacy is supported by play activities of many kinds.

Story, re-enacted facilitate comprehension and retention. During play activities, child
tends to practice vocals that they have registered in their mind hence improvement of
language skills.
3. The social interaction during play facilitates social development by helping children
become less self centered and more able to see the point of view of others.
4. During play activities, emotional aspect of a child improves as he interacts with others.
Feelings such as joy, anger and frustration are expressed and learned how to be
controlled. For example, physical play such as swimming, playing football, running,
jumping and crawling, allows opportunities for ―letting off steams and releasing
aggressive instincts.
5. Play also help in development of large and small muscles as well as refine motor control
of children especially physical play. For example manipulative play improves eye-hand
co-ordination like in threading beads and building bricks. Physical play in other hand
exercises the child limbs, develop muscles and give practice in climbing and balancing.
6. Play activities in social play develop moral spiritual aspect of a child. It is from play that
we will learn to come up with rules, norms and deciding right from wrong through
consensus with the peer. Social play teaches children co-operation, sharing and honesty
and that anti-social behaviour leads to punishment or loss of friendship.
7. Aesthetic development of a child is much promoted by play. It is through play activities
that a child learns to perceive beauty, art works and other artistic value. He also learns the
aesthetic value and how to express them. For example in Discovery play, a child will
learn aspect of such good texture, colour and smell by activities as picking and arranging
flowers, threading beads etc.
Play and Learning
It is a privilege to work with young children for whom learning is an exciting voyage of
discovery, and also of a great responsibility, since experiences in early years have a vital part
in shaping future attitude to learning and in inspiring a continuing thirst for knowledge. The
application of child development knowledge in a program's practice is a major determinant of
quality for any early childhood intervention. For example, the fact that young children learn
most effectively through experimental play is now firmly established. To grasp basic
concepts and to develop sensory and motor systems, young children need a variety of
concrete hands on material.
The following are examples of how play influences learning:
1. Play enhances cognitive development, especially divergent thinking and problem solving.
Further through play, children can learn the planning skills that are needed to be efficient
problem solvers (Casey, 1990; Resen 1974).
2. Imaginative play experience relate positively to better attention span, self control and
ability to interact and communicate to others. And this is very necessary in process of
learning when they enter school.
3. Play with material aids children in using materials to solve later problems e.g. playing
with sticks help children later in life to be able to hold pens when writing, drawing in
classroom situation.
4. Through play such as social dramatic play, children learn the distinction between fantasy
and reality. Children who have imaginary playmates tend to be bright and healthy
imaginative and creative (Jalongo, 1984: Pines, 1978).
5. Through play and especially dramatic play can have therapeutic way for both normal and
children with emotional and behaviour problems (Brown, Curry and Tittnich 1971). They
learn how to control emotions and antisocial problems.
6. Development of language and literary is supported by play activities of many kinds. The
first stage of reading and writing is enhanced by teachers extension of children's literary-
related symbolic play through supplying literacy props in center e.g. papers magazines,
menu TV guide etc and encourage children's attempt to write things like shopping list.
7. The social interaction during play facilities learning of social skills by helping children
becomes less self centered and more able to learn to see the point of view of other;, social
roles, sharing, cooperation etc.
8. All children should play including those with disabilities (Wilson, 1986)
Play and Emotional Development
1. Play is important for expression of emotion by children. During play activities, children
opportunity to develop their emotion and especially to control negative emotion such as
anger and hostility as they interact.
2. It has been suggested that play is a safety value for pent-up emotion. Certain tendency,
such as pugnacity (quick to argue or fight) are inhibited by the very nature of social life,
but in fighting play, or in fantasy play, the child gets an opportunity to express this
tendency and the emotion subsides with it.
3. Play, especially physical play allows opportunity for "letting off steam" and releasing
aggressive instincts.
4. Emotions such as affection, love and joy are much developed especially in social play
where they seem to enjoy each other‘s company.
Play and Socialization
1. Involvement in play teaches children social skills such as co-operation, sharing and
honesty.
2. Play also gives a child opportunity to see other person/child point of view thus consensus
and understanding that is very important in social life.
3. It also teaches that anti-social behaviour leads to punishment or loss of friendship. This
make the child not become a social misfit later in life.
4. Young children‘s role-playing provides a window into their view of other people‘s social
roles and provides opportunity to learn social roles that are necessary in the society.
5. Play also helps children to act out their inner feelings (reducing stress) and learn at out
their world and people in it. So they get to understand better on how people live and learn
to relate to people.
6. Play facilitates holistic growth and development of children and the following are
examples of aspects developed by play in children:
a) Physical: during play aspect of physical and psychomotor develops as a child learns
to cope with their surroundings. For example a child learns to step on an object to be
able to reach as wing or during mixing of sand and water fine motor control also
develops.
b) Mental/cognitive: play provides opportunities for children to explore, manipulate and
experiment. These factors are essentials for learning and organizing of ideas and
children develop their imagination and creativity through play.
c) Social during play: children develop social skills such as sharing, taking turns,
following rules and leaderships.
d) Emotional: in play children control and express emotional feelings. A child for
example can express anger by hitting a doll.
e) Moral: in play children may make judgment of issues as either right or wrong. They
may set rules governing the play in that no one is offended in the play.
f) Language: play enhances language development, children learn new words related to
play and learn new ways of expressing self and communicating with other children.
g) Aesthetic: through play, children may appreciate beauty, colour or aspect of object
and value the aspect. Later they will be able to develop the aesthetic value involving
organization of their personal life e.g. arrangement of objects and toys in an orderly
manner during play.
LEARNING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
Learning is the process, which brings a permanent change in behaviour.
HOW CHILDREN LEARN.
Children use their senses to find out and know about things in their environment. The
following are ways in which children learn:
1) Exploration: children have a tendency of moving around and use their senses to learn
much in their environment e.g. after exploration they know soft toys, heavy objects, better
leaves etc.
2) Discovery: children also can identify new ideas through some experimental activities e.g.
playing with sand and water; he discovers proportion of mixtures by weighing sand and
water.
3) Imitation: child also learns through copying what other person‘s actions.
4) Observation: through observing or watching someone or something that he/she was not
aware of.
5) Manipulation: in the process of child activities, he can skillfully handle, control and use
something and learn more.
6) Play: through play children learn many aspects through sharing, arranging object,
communicating etc.
7) Other ways through which a child learns include:-
(a) Listening to sounds
(b) Experiencing
(c) Identifying something
(d) Practicing some activities
(e) Problem solving activities.
(f) Talking about
(g) Smelling
(h) Touching activities etc.
Factors that influence learning
The following are essential factors that make learning possible.
1) What is learnt must be specific
2) The specific knowledge must be built on previous experiences

3) There must be sequence in the presentation of what is learnt.
4) There must be relationship between the tasks to learn and the achievement at the end.
5) There must be mastery of what is learnt.
6) Motivation enhances learning
7) Other factors include: age, maturation, exposure, emotional adjustment, attention span.
8) Adult/child interaction, home background, previous experiences and learning
environment.
Types of learning of the child
(a) Cognitive: to do with mental process
(b) Affective: dealing with feelings.
(c) Psychomotor: to do with body co-ordination.
(d) Social emotional: involving inter and intra personal relationship.
CHILD CARE
Childcare refers to behaviors that support child development and ensure that children‘s needs
are satisfied. These behaviours include:
(a) Feeding and breast feeding
(b) Providing shelter and supervision
(c) Preventing and attending to illness
(d) Involving the child in social interaction
(e) Providing stimulation and safe environment for plays and exploration,
Qualities of good child care.
It involves.
1) High level of self-motion of child.
2) Skill in handling the child with love, guidance and support.
3) Consistency in following regular schedules or ways of training or guiding behaviour.
4) Responsiveness, that is, the positive way the person tries to meet the needs of the child.
CARE GIVER
This is the person who support child development and ensure that children needs are
satisfied.
Categories of care giver
1. Biological parents
2. Grand-parents
3. Siblings
4. E.C.D teachers
5. Children homes caregivers.
Their role is to care for children as we had discussed in childcare:
Challenges faced by caregiver
The following are some of the challenges faced by caregiver in promoting holistic child
development.
1) Poverty is factor that limits the ability of the caregivers to cater for children needs.
2) Some taboos or religious beliefs may negatively affects the provision of proper care
3) Changes in family structure from extended to nuclear family, which reduces the support
on women for childcare.
4) Many older children (siblings) attend schools and therefore, the time for assisting young
children is more limited.
5) Many women also work outside the home, which means that have less time to spend with
their children.
6) Some children are not easy to handle, creating problems to care giver.
7) Some caregivers like baby sitters are mistreated by their employers.
8) Some children are hard to handle.
CHAPTER 6
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION AND GENDER
 Discuss the agents of socialization and their influence on the child.
 Discuss gender and socialization.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is the process in which people; especially young people and children learn to
behave in a way that is accepted by the society.
Socialization begins in earnest during the second year, once children are first able to comply
with parental directiveness. Agents of socialization include:
1. The family
2. The peer
3. The school
4. Religious institution
5. Media
6. Children homes/Rehabilitation centers.
INFLUENCES OF THESE AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION ON THE CHILD
1. Family.
Since socialization start as early as 2 years, family plays a major/ very significant role in the
process of socializing the children. For example, if the family may be experiencing domestic
violence, the child may develop to be violent and show aggressive behaviour with peer even
at school. So, parent and caregiver should be sensitive to children‘s behaviours and needs, by
serving as warm models and reinforces of mature behaviours; by using reasoning,
explanation, and inductive discipline to promote morality and self-control; and by attributing
children‘s failures to lack of effort rather than low ability, thereby encouraging a mastery
oriented approach to challenging tasks that will benefit him and the society in general.
2. Peer.
Peers play a crucial role in children‘s social behaviours. Peers are those persons of equal
status i.e. age, grade, and developmental level with whom we interact on a regular basis.
Peers can serve as models of acceptable and unacceptable behaviours. Child to child
interaction provides wide opportunities to deal with a variety of social behaviour and
situation such as co-operation, competition, aggression, disagreement and negotiation that
may not be available in adult-child relationship. It is therefore advisable for parents to know
better, what peer is his child interacting with and what social model they portray, in what he
can control social behaviour of the child.
3. The School.
School being an institution with rules and goals makes each member of the school to co-exist
and plays an important role in child socialization. School rules and regulations guide a child
to be able to interact in a better way with peers, elder children and teachers. It is in the school
that children tend to first meet a wide range of people together. Through rewards the child
improves in good social behaviours e.g. being promoted to become a class prefect. And
through punishment, he again discards poor social behaviours.
4. Religious Institution.
Religious institutions such as Madarasa, Sunday schools, Church, Mosque, and Synagogues
etc have a very important role in child socialization. Every society rest on dependable
relationship among its members, that is, upon social order. The ethics of religious help to
define acceptable conduct, and promote child perception of what is evil and good in relation
to the people the child is living with. For example, almost all religious emphasize that
children should obey their parents and any wrong-doing to your neighbour leads to eternal
punishment. With these ideas children will learn to co-exist with others (society) by
controlling behaviours that would disrupt social order. This is an important social function of
religion.
5. Media
Media include Radio, TV, Newspapers, the Internet, Posters and Magazines considered as a
group. Media is one avenue that children are exposed to and learn a lot as far as social life is
concerned. Radio, T.V, and Internet have been very significant in the process of socialization
because of their aspect of entertainment. Children learn some social behaviour both negative
and positive through media.
For example, children exposed to violent T.V programmes tend to imitate and instill violent
vices in their social life and practice it in their interaction with other. Medial can again
inculcate good social ideas and behaviours among children especially good and entertaining
radio and T.V programmes that teach morals.
6. Children Homes and Rehabilitation Center
Children homes and rehabilitation center also have some impact in the process of child
socialization. In this center children are taught values to do with their interaction with other
thus promoting social order. Rehabilitation centers again instill good value and especially to
children with bad social behaviour through punishment (lack of freedom) and rewards (given
freedom) after learning social values.
GENDER IN CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The activity choice and behaviours of young children reveal that they have already adopted
many of the gender-linked standards of their cultural communities e.g. you may have heard a
baby saying ―the baby have refused to eat‖ referring to their role in their playing activities
and boys saying ―my truck beat yours in the motor race‖.
This is so because they have developed gender stereotypes, gender roles and gender-role
identity in their growth and development.
Gender stereotypes- it is a widely held beliefs about characteristics deemed appropriate for
females and males.
Gender roles- it is the reflection of gender stereotypes in everyday behaviours.
Gender role identity- it is the perception of the self as relatively masculine or feminine in
characteristics, abilities and behaviours.
GENDER SOCIALIZATION (Gender Typing)
It is the process of developing gender role and gender role identity.

In the 1960‘s, researchers began to ask people what personality characteristics they consider
typical men and women.
Instrumental traits, reflecting competence, rationality and assertiveness, were regarded
masculine.
Expressive traits, emphasizing warmth, caring and sensitivity, were viewed as feminine. Even
with emerging period of intense political activism over gender equality these stereotype
remained essentially the same. At around age 2, children label their own sex and that of other
people, using such words as ―boy‖ versus ―girl‖ and ―woman‖ versus ―man‖. As soon as
these categories are established, children start to sort out what they mean in terms of activities
and behaviours. Preschooler associate many toys, articles of clothing, tools, house hold items,
games occupation and even colours with one sex as opposed to others.
The rigidity of the preschooler. Gender stereotypes help us understand some commonly
observed behaviours e.g. shown a picture of Scottish bagpiper wearing a skirt; a 4-year old is
likely to say, ―men don‘t wear skirts‖. At preschool children can be heard exclaiming that
girls don‘t drive fire engines or boys cannot take care of babies. Here most of them have not
yet learnt that genital characteristics override social cues in determining a person‘s sex. They
define gender from physical appearance of hairstyle, toys, occupation and clothing.
By age 5, gender stereotyping of activities and occupation is well established and at the same
time, they begin to realize that gender stereotyping attributes are associated, not defined
features of infants. Primary school going children figure out which academic subjects and
skills area are masculine and which are feminine. Throughout the school years, the regard
reading, art and music to be feminine and mathematics, athletics and mechanical skills as
more for boys. Here they tend to achieve more in areas they have assigned to their gender.
NOTE: gender typing is not unitary aspect of development; instead it‘s more like ―an
intricate puzzle‖ that the pieces get together in a rather automatic way.
Significance of Gender Socialization
It has been documented that gender socialization have impact on child development and how
she/he is going to be treated by others.
 It prepares children to play their role in future adult life especially in traditional life.
 It increases their self-esteem by identifying themselves by their gender.
 They offer more nurturance to give and encourage boys to be more physically active.
CHAPTER 7
INSTITUTIONS THAT OFFER CHILDREN SERVICES
 Categorize institutions that offer child services.
INSTITUTION OFFERING CHILD SERVICES
There are several institutions that offer child services and it include:
1. Children / Orphanage homes:
2. E.C.D centers
3. Day care centers
4. School (Nursery and Primary)
1. Children / Orphanage Homes
These are center established by the government, NGOS, Churches, Mosques to help
neglected children and orphans. Here children stay full time till when they will be mature to
join the society outside there.
Services Offered
a) The institutions provide food, shelter and clothes to these children.
b) They also offer health facilities to the children.
c) They provide playing facilities and safe environment for play to help holistic
development of the children.
d) Some provide educational facilities to enhance learning in that children are prepare to fit
in the society.
e) Since there are no parents, the caregivers again take the position of parents in providing
love and affections.
f) Provide social environment for normal interaction of children (socialization).
g) Since many are sponsored by Churches, Mosques and other religious organization they
provide spiritual nourishment and teach morals.
2. E.C.D Centers
Early childhood Development centers are established by the Government in-cooperation with
UNICEF, UNESCO, USAID and other philanthropists worldwide to assist children especially
those from poor background. The centers assist or help any child with problems and
especially problems associated with poverty and ignorance by the society.
Services Offered
a) The centers offer educational facilities to help children learn in a conducive environment.
b) They also provide food to orphans and neglected as well as feeding others children
through food programmes.
c) In co-operation with other partners they formulate policies that benefit the child and
mother either directly or indirectly in areas such as education, food and nutrition and
health.
d) They also offer health facilities for children in their center.
e) Through their officials the centers ensure children rights are not abuse.
f) They liaise with other institutions that provide early children education to ensure quality
of education is given to all children.
3. Day Care Centers
These are centers established to take care of the children during the day because their parent
are committed during the day and cannot attend to them. The parent take the child to the
center in the morning when he/she is learning and pick up the child when he is going back
home. The services offered by the parents.
Services offered
a) They ensure the child is well fed, cleaned and have enough rest.
b) They provide safe playing facilities to ensure children are active in their play activities.
c) Some may provide educational facilities to children.
d) Some may provide health facilities because some children are below 2 years and at this
age they are very vulnerable to diseases.
e) The center through caretaker provide warmth, attention, stimulation and provision off rich
variety of developmentally appropriate activities
4. Schools (Nursery vs. Primary)
These institutions are basically established for educational purposes. Depending on the
facilities at school and the stage at which the child is, the service offered will vary from
school to school.
Services offered
a) They provide educational facilities and facilitate learning, y children through their
teachers.
b) The centers provide play facilities such as playground; ball swimming pool that ensures
the child is active and stimulated in the process of development.
c) Some may have feeding programmes in the school that ensure the child is well feed.
d) Some may have health facilities to take care for short come illness and accidents.
e) Depending on the status of school some may provide warmth, affection, attention and
stimulation that are appropriate for child development.
CHAPTER 8
SCHOOL READINESS
 Relate developmental aspects to school readiness.
 Discuss the process of smooth transition from home to school
SCHOOL READINESS
We should understand that pre-schoolers are still dependent of the adult but some education
mist feel that at a certain stage the pre schoolers, they should be more independent. They
based their argument on observation made on pre-schoolers to identify on set period of
schooling. All though we have institutions which offer services to pre-schoolers e.g. baby
care centers and nursery school, we shall base our discussion in primary school readiness.
Indicator of School Readiness
The following are indicators of school readiness:
1. Age: The age at which the child is ready for school is about 5-6 years when almost all
aspects of development have tremendously developed.
2. Social skills: Social skills at this stage are much developed that a child can fit in a wide
spectrum of social context, which is a school. At this stage, social attachment to parents is
not so much pronounced and is able to relate with peers and teachers. We should keep in
mind that teachers should win their trust.
3. Cognitive skills: At this stage the child is able to work out mental processes to solve a
problem. He is able to differentiate colours and symbols. With teacher's assistance,
cognitive development can be fostered through learning.
4. Psychomotor skills: At this stage (5-6 years) a child, if normal, can control both large
and small muscles e.g. can jump, hold a pen. He/she is also able to control if not precisely
neuro-motor co-ordination e.g. drawing, writing numbers etc.
5. Language skills: At this stage, the child can talk; express his feelings and thoughts that is
necessary for child/teacher interaction for learning processes.
Assessment Procedures for School Readiness
Many 5 and 6 year olds are already accustomed to school like setting since they have
attended pre-school and day care centers. Parents take pride in their children's readiness for
greater independence and responsibility. At the same time, they worry about how well
prepared their youngsters are for a more earnest approach to learning.
We should gather observational and interview data on children at the end of pre-school and
their Kindergarten years. Kindergarten will give official report to show that the child has
qualified to enter school. Observation and interview can give you further information on how
ready is the child to start schooling.
In gathering information, through observation, interview and kindergarten reports, the
following should be checked and evaluated.
1. Age: Should be appropriate for starting school.
2. Cognitive development, which can be evaluated through oval questions.
3. Social skills can be evaluated by teacher's interview parent about social attachment and
peer socialization. Kindergarten report can also give report about independency of the
child, peer socialization.
4. Language aspect can be assessed through oral questions and where necessary the parent
should be involved in communication and teachers just observe.
5. Psychomotor aspect can be assessed through Kindergarten report and general observation
of child activities e.g. if he cannot walk and grasp objects he can be referred to special
schools.
Tools used to assess School Readiness
In the process of assessing school readiness, teachers doing it may use appropriate tool of
assessment. Such an instrument should be selected with care; using the following criteria.
1. The instrument should be designed to be individually administered. A test that has been
designed and named for group administration is not appropriate.
2. Required child response should be mainly motoric (e.g. painting, constructing and
sorting), verbal e.g. naming an object or pictured objects, answering a question of require
responses to auditory stimuli e.g. following direction of sound discrimination.
3. Paper and pencil should be used only as a check of perceptual - motor functioning e.g.
copy a shape/writing of his/her name, draw a person.
4. The instrument should be broad in scope, sampling a variety of developmental art such
as: expressive and receptive language, reasoning, auditory reception, gross and fine motor
development, perceptual development and general behaviour.
5. The instrument should be relatively short, taking no more than 30 minutes to administer.
6. The instrument should be named on a large representative sample of children.
7. Information on validity and reliability should be the instrument manual.
8. Instruction for administration should be clear and specific so that teacher/parent or
teacher aid can easily do the administration.
The Placement Process
In the process of enrolment, the following should be done to assure the parent that her child is
in safe environment for learning.
1. Introduce staff by name to the parent and child.
2. Talk with and listen to the child, putting her/him at ease. Use props such as the
photograph album, the drawings equipment to encourage conversation.
3. Observe in particular the child social, physical and language skills.
4. Explain to the parent, for example, how the setting, routine, system of assessment, how
information is communicated between staff and parents, and about for parent help in the
setting. Show the parent the photograph album and talk about school activities.
5. Inform the parent of any equipment the child will need, such as a spare set of clothes,
inside set of clothes, inside shoes etc.
6. Ask the parent if there are any questions he or she need to ask or to be shared.
7. Ask standard questions (if these have not already been answered during the course of
conversation) and complete records.
8. Remind the parent that he/she is welcome to visit the setting, with the child, prior to
official starting date.
Following up Visits
 Plan starting dates for children, staggered if necessary.
 Inform parents of the official starting dates for their children.
 Prepare individual equipment such as name cards, milk tag, and coat peg label.
 Begin each child profiles e.g. diaries, files etc.
SMOOTH TRANSITION FROM HOME TO PRE-SCHOOL
Children‘s response to start their new setting will vary enormously. Some will enter on the
first day full of enthusiasm and confidence and eager to explore. Others will be much more
reserved, preferring to observe from a safe distance. Many may cope with a full session or
day while others will benefit from shorter session in the beginning. Every child is different
and practitioners must take their lead from the individual when devising programmes for
"setting in".
Need For Smooth Transition
In many cases children moving from home to school, usually loose familiar members of peers
and caretakers to meet strange age mates and caregivers. That sometime may cause stresses
in their daily activities. To avoid this, the transition from home to pre-school must ensure that
their programmes:
1. Should not affect the emotional, psychological aspect of the child negatively. In that the
transition should not be looked upon as punishment to a child for doing nothing wrong.
2. Should maintain the good child parent trust and relationship as well as child adult trust. It
should not be perceived by a child as deception.
3. Should encourage social development of a child i.e. not to see people and age mates as
strangers/outsiders in a wide social spectrum rather as social beings to co-operate, share
and respect each other in achieving certain goals.
4. Should ensure the setting and environment is familiar with child experiences, not as
another setting from a different planet.
Processes and Techniques of smooth Transition
 As a general rule, for three year old starting in a new setting, parents should be
encouraged to stay with their children for at least the first session, and for parts of or
complete, subsequent session until the child is settled. Invariably the child will soon be
entering the setting confidently and be happy to wave goodbye to the parent as soon as
the routine has been completed.
 This separation process between parents and child should progress in small steps not
―make the break‖ before feeling ready and in order to build up the child's confidence.
 The system should operate a system of ―key workers‖; each child should be assigned a
member of staff who will be responsible for greeting the child at the beginning of each
session, spending time working with and observing, the child during the session and
liaising with the parents.
 The crucial word in the process is trust. Adults must be consistent, reliable and truthful a
child should be told when a parent is about to leave the setting and when he/she will
return, slipping out of the door while the child is temporarily pre-occupied, will be
distorting the truth about where they are going and are not action conducive to build ling
up a relationship of trust with a child.
Challenges of Transition from Home to pre-school
1. The issue of social attachment is still very paramount because the child was so used to
staying with the mother or caregiver. Some children, the attachment is so strong that they
cannot think of separation and will experience social tantrums when the parent leaves, no
matter how the parent may be willing to co-operate.
2. The issue of difficult babies. These babies cry a lot and are difficult to sooth. They do not
adapt easily to new people and situations. They don't feel like joining the pre-school and
cause problems like temper tantrums that lead to hitting the peers, teachers even the
parents when in a new setting.
3. Caretaker/teacher‘s qualification in pre-school center is another challenge to the
transition. Majority of these centers employ unqualified staff that cannot handle a child
well in the process of transition.
4. Government policy have not described in detailed rules and regulations to this sector to
ensure that the transition is smooth. They have not invested enough in this sector in terms
of funds, training of staff and research in the programme that will ensure the transition is
benefiting the child.
Solutions to these challenges
1. The issue of social attachment can be handled much better by involving parents more in
the transition and encouraging the peers to involve the child in social interactions.
2. Difficult babies may involve parents and qualified teacher intervention and where
necessary a psychiatrist will address the issue professionally.
3. There should be liberalization of education and training centers to ensure production of
more labour force in ECDE programmes.
4. Government should formulate detailed policies concerning early childhood programmes
and especially in educational sector. These policies should include funding, training of
staff and encourage and support research in the ECDE.
TRANSITION FROM PRE-SCHOOL TO PRIMARY SCHOOL
Making the connections from pre-school to primary is the focus of concern. It is a public
responsibility to ensure that all families have access to the services and support needed to
provide the strong relationships and rich experiences that prepare children to succeed in
school. Supporting families and child bearing efforts is critically important to ensure that
more children enter school ready to succeed.
Need for Smooth Transition from Pre-school to Primary School
Many pre-schoolers are already accustomed to primary school setting because they have
attended pre-school. In the new setting (primary), children must accommodate the new
setting, adult authorities, daily schedules, peer companion in academics and academic
challenges that is the focus of primary school. So the transition needs:
1. To encourage positive social skills during the process i.e. helping them establish and
maintain peer ties e.g. grouping children in learning activities to maximize their contact
with peers.
2. Children‘s history or rich experiences should be appreciated and base learning upon it.
This is to ensure that the child does not perceive primary school learning as something
strange, rather as familiar concepts.
3. Ensure provision of comprehensive services to a wide range of individual needs that are
critical in lasting improvements in children achievement. This can be achieved by
developing appropriate curriculum that emphasizes child-related learning experiences as
opposed to teacher lectures.
4. Teacher motivation is also necessary i.e. praise must be given for real accomplishment.
Too much empty praise can actually lower self esteem.
5. Teachers need to cultivate adult and children goodness of fit. Teacher should work with
children at a developmental level that they find interesting and challenging. Primary
children are reaching for independence and for abstract ideas and need adults who can
support these efforts in the transition period and later learning stages.
6. Ensure that in the process of transition, concrete experiences and examples are used in
learning and begin to associate with abstract symbol such as letter and numbers.
Challenges in transition
1. Truancy: In most cases if a child cannot cope up with new primary setting, in academic
routine demands and incapability to socialize, he/she will be absent without reason. He
can leave home prepared to go to school but end up not reaching there but somewhere
else.
2. Child being un-cooperative: If may be the child is unable to cope with new primary
setting, he may be reserved and fail to accomplish his task, especially class work &
homework and engage in series of punishments for failure to do his task. He may even be
rebellious to teachers and the school staff.
3. Again if the new primary setting is so much demanding, he may be stressed, undergo
depression that is likely to be expressed as an illness.
Solutions to these challenges
It is the responsibility of both teacher and parent to get solutions to such problems. Teachers
may guide and counsel the child, and the parent on other hand must continuously check his or
her progress through school visits. Visits help to discuss issues together with the child
concerned, so that problems can be identified and come up with solutions by actively
involving the child.
CHAPTER 9
SOCIAL COMPETENCE, LIFE SKILLS AND VALUES
 Explain how children and adolescents acquire social competence, life skills and
values.
SOCIAL COMPETENCE
Social competence is the ability of a person (child) to solve social problems satisfactory.
In children, social competence is not much developed, but as they grow, they develop more
effective strategies for solving the problems. Play has a critical role in children's development
of social competence. This is because play gives room for social conflicts among children
and children learn to solve these conflicts in their own ways.
Social competence strategies
Children use one or all of the following strategies to solve personal social problems in
relation to another person (child) or in group conflicts.
The following are some examples of ways in which children make their ways into group play.
1. Competent: Polite request to play and other friendly comment.
2. Aggressive: Uses threats, physical force and banging in without asking to be permitted to
play.
3. Self- centered: Statements about the self, such as ―Hey, I know how to play that‖.
4. Passive: Shy, hovering response, such as waiting and ―hanging around‖ until the other
members of the play allow him.
5. Appeals to authority: For example ―The teacher said I could play‖.
Characteristics of socially competent child
 They are skilled at interpreting the social position of their peer e.g. who is the leader in
the play or game among the peers in school playground.
 Are good at reading peer social cues and identify what each peer expect from members in
the process of socialization Can pick up social - cultural knowledge by learning more
from peer. Later he/she is able to fit well because he has understood their way of life; and
can also practice it.
Development of Social competence
Development of social competence is a gradual change that takes place with advancement of
age. George Spivack and Myrna Shure conducted a research in development of children
social competence. Focusing on strategy generation, they asked young children to think of as
many ways as they could deal with hypothetical conflicts, such as wanting to play with a toy
someone else has. Their findings as well as the results of more recent studies, shows that the
ability to generate a variety of solutions to social conflicts increases over the pre-school and
early school years.
Beside quantity of strategies, the quality of strategies generated by children improves with
age. During middle childhood, younger children as well as children with especially poor peer
relations, describe strategies that impulsively meet their needs, such as grabbing, hitting or
ordering another child to obey.
Older children and these with good peer relations, assert their needs in ways that also
consider the needs of others. They rely on friendly persuasion and compromise, sometime
suggesting that a conflict might be solved by creating new natural goals. In doing so, they
recognize that solution to immediate problems have an important bearing on the future of the
relationship.
SOCIAL SKILLS
This is the ability of how good the child is at meeting and dealing with people i.e. peers, older
children and adults. The social skills develop in a series of sequence as the child advance in
age.
Aspects/Types of social skills
1. Self confidence
2. Drive for success
3. Communication
4. Selecting peer friends/mates (in adolescents)
5. Development of sex roles.
1. Self confidence
The child feels that he/she can do things well and that people appreciate his/her abilities. A
confident child is seen to fit well in most social context and they feel important in the context.
2. Drive for success
Both girls and boys child are success oriented in their daily activities. Both will strive to
achieve set goals in any activities they are engaged in, as a sign of success. Failure to achieve
the goals, usually lead to negative feelings such as anger, frustration and stress. What drives
their activities in their life is hope and confidence in achievement.
3. Communication
Through communication children improve their social skills i.e. they can express their
desires, hopes, needs to other through communication. This helps them to achieve their
personal and social needs e.g. friendship, engage in play or get a toy from peer.
4. Selecting Friends or Mates during adolescence
This is one characteristic type of social skills, where some children can easily make friends
among peers, while some cannot. The ability to do so lies in a child‘s self-esteem, confidence
and communication skills. During adolescence, the person can also be able to select mates.
This is because they are entering into adulthood.
5. Development of social skills
This goes hand in hand with advancement in age. For infants, it is so hard or impossible to
make friends, communicate well or even showing developed social skills. During pre-school
period there is advancement in social skills development and advances more when they are at
school stage. At adolescent stage virtually all skills are developed well but this depends on
the child‘s environment, experience and support from family members and society.
CHAPTER 10
ASSESSING A CHILD‘S DEVELOPMENT
 Assess a child‘s cognitive, psychomotor and affective development.
ASSESSMENT OF DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS

We have discussed different developmental aspect in child growth and to identify
development we need to assess these aspects over a period of time.
Methods of assessment
The following are some of the methods used in assessing development of a child:
1. Observation of children
2. Observation of children's work
3. Interviews
4. Self report
1. OBSERVATION OF CHILDREN
 The procedure whereby we gather information about child/children in their natural
environment through observations. The procedures used in the observation depend on
which aspects are assessed. Some investigators choose the specimen record, a description
of the subject‘s (child's) entire stream of behaviours (all aspects) for a particular period of
time.
 In other studies, information on only one or few kind of behaviours/aspects is needed and
preserving the entire stream of aspects as unnecessary. In this case the investigator may
select more efficient observation procedure.
 One common approach is event sampling, in which the observer records all instances
particular developmental aspect during a specific period of time, ignoring other aspects
e.g. he may be checking physical development and psychomotor skills of KG III pupils
over a period of one year.
 Another observation approach is time sampling. In this procedure, the investigator
records whether or not a certain aspect of development occur during a sampling of short
time intervals, e.g. in socialization aspects of pre-schoolers an investigator may divide
kindergarten time span into a series of time interval e.g. 30 minutes, 1 hour to check on
how child is related to other as far as social aspect of development is concerned.
2. OBSERVATION OF CHILDREN'S WORK
Information can be gathered about their development through observation of children work
especially when assessing cognitive and psychomotor aspects in class work activities.
Example
You can assess cognitive aspect by observing class work that involves reasoning such as Pre-
school or STD 1 mathematics book.
You can assess psychomotor aspect again by observing class work of a child that involves
drawing, painting and mould.
3. INTERVIEWS
This is where by, the investigator present him/herself before the subject (child or parent or
teacher) and ask question verbally. When interviews are conducted in a supportive and
respective way, they can be powerful source of information especially in societies where
children are not given opportunity to speak.
Example 1
Is when you ask a few open questions concerning his/her personal life such as how do your
parents help you? To check on expressive and receptive language attributes.
Example 2
Can give few mathematical problem to see how he solves and how fast, when you ask oral
mathematical questions.
4. SELF REPORT
Self report are instruments that ask subjects (children) to provide information on their
perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feeling, attitudes, beliefs and past behaviours. This is mostly
used by an investigator to identify the developmental stage of children in the following
aspects;
a) Moral aspects
b) Emotional aspects
c) Aesthetic aspects
d) Social aspects
e) Religious aspects
Very good examples of questions asked in self-report among children are:
a) What do you think death is and where do dead people go?
b) Where do the dreams come from?
c) In what ways does your mother and siblings show that they love you?
d) Who is God and where does he live?
NOTE: Answer will vary according to one immediate environment orientation and stage in
life.
Tools used in assessment of developmental aspects
Among the tools used include:
 Observation schedules
 Interview schedules
 Check list
 Rating scale etc
a) Observation schedules:
This is a plan of observational activities or events and when they will happen. In the
observation schedule, the aspect of development and subject of interest (child) must be
clearly specified; the importance of the timing of observations must be determined (time of
day, season etc) and the factual development aspect must be defined and broken down so that
it is recordable.
b) Interview Schedules
This is plan of interview activities and time when the interview will be taken. In the
schedules the following should be included:
 Target group (child age and class or teacher and parent concerned).
 Specific developmental aspect (s) to assess.
 How to quantify data collected in order to identify level of development.
 Period of interview i.e. interval of time series or time span of interviews.
c) Rating scale
Scale can be created for any number of aspects of development and child can be rated on a
series of scales representing a variety of aspects. Scales can be presented numerically or
graphically.
E.g. Teacher can circle the number that corresponds to the level of cognitive development of
the pupil/child in relation to class work from poor to standard and above standard, the teacher
marks [X] on the line to indicate where he would rate the pupil‘s social development aspect
from best to poor.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d) Checklist
It is a list of things and attributes that investigator need to consider in analyzing
developmental aspect/aspects e.g. in physical aspect of development the list may include: -
a) Height
b) Weight
c) Body proportion
d) Teething
And judge the extent of physical development from the above attributes.
CHAPTER 11
TEENAGE SEXUALITY, PRE & ADOLESCENCE STAGES
 Evaluate issues of teenage sexuality.
 Compare health and feeding habits of pre-adolescence and adolescence stages.
 Discuss the importance of guidance and counseling during pre-adolescence and
adolescence stage.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Adolescence
Adolescence (Latin adolescentia, from adolescere, to grow up) is the period of
psychological, social, and physical transition between childhood and adulthood (gender-
specific, manhood or womanhood). As a transitional stage of human development,
adolescence is the period in which a child matures into an adult. This transition involves
biological (i.e. pubertal), social, and psychological changes, though the biological ones are
the easiest to measure objectively.
2. Puberty
Puberty is the stage of the lifespan in which a child develops secondary sex characteristics
(for example deeper voice in boys, and development of breasts in girls) as his or her
hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an adult state. This is triggered by the pituitary
gland, which secretes a surge of hormones into the blood stream and begins the rapid
maturation of the gonads: the girl's ovaries and the boy's testicles.
3. Adolescent sexuality
Adolescent sexuality refers to sexual feelings, behavior and development in adolescents and
is a stage of human sexuality. Sexuality and sexual desire usually begins to appear along with
the onset of puberty. The expression of sexual desire among adolescents (or anyone, for that
matter), might be influenced by social engineering, social control, taboos, and other kinds of
social mores.
The risks of an adolescent sexual activity is sometimes associated with emotional distress,
sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) and pregnancy through failure or non-
use of birth control. In terms of sexual identity, sexual preferences among adolescents may
vary greatly across the spectrum from heterosexuality orientations to pan-sexuality and
sexual fetishism.
The age of consent to sexual activity varies widely between jurisdictions, ranging from 12 to
21 years, although 14 to 16 years is more usual.
4. Masturbation
Masturbation refers to sexual stimulation, especially of one's own genitals and often to the
point of orgasm, which is performed manually, by other types of bodily contact (except for
sexual intercourse), by use of objects or tools, or by some combination of these methods.
Masturbation is the most common form of autoeroticism, and the two words are often used as
synonyms, although masturbation with a partner (mutual masturbation) is also common.
Animal masturbation has been observed in many species, both in the wild and in captivity.
ADOLESCENT EATING HABITS
During adolescence there are many changes taking place as a child's body turns into that of an
adult and their nutritional needs increase. Throughout adolescence a teenager's iron needs
increase significantly. When girls begin to menstruate their dietary iron intake must increase
to compensate for the loss of iron in their menstrual blood. At this time boys also need more
iron because of their rapid growth and increase in blood volume. Around the age of 19, when
growth slows, a female's iron needs are almost double that of males.
Calcium is also important throughout the teenage years, necessary for building strong bones
and ensuring good health and well-being later on in life. It is essential that teenagers include
at least three serves of dairy food a day to maintain an adequate calcium intake.
Adolescence is a period when peer pressure can affect teenage eating behaviour and they may
start skipping meals or possibly under-eating or over-eating. Currently around 20 percent of
children and adolescents in Australia are obese and this is due mainly to a lack of physical
activity and high fat diets. Behaviours such as extreme dieting, binge eating and bringing up
food on purpose also affect more teenagers than adults and more girls than boys (nine girls to
every one boy).
Many adolescents see themselves as being too fat, while some, particularly males, see
themselves as too thin. About 34 percent of females and 13 percent of males report dieting to
lose weight. Anxiety, worry, loneliness and difficulty in managing family relationships are all
factors that can lead to a refusal to eat or to excessive eating. Stress and boredom often result
in the compulsive eating of certain foods, called "bingeing".
Maintaining good nutrition throughout a child's teenage years is fundamental for their health
and well-being. To maintain a healthy balance, teenagers should:
 Eat regular meals.
 Do some physical activity daily.
 Eat a wide variety of foods.
 Eat carbohydrates, such as pasta, rice and potatoes.
TEENAGE SEXUALITY
Learn how to talk to your teen about sex and teen sexuality. Information on teen sexuality
including teen pregnancy, menstruation, masturbation, sexually Transmitted Diseases
including AIDs and much more
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)
This is another BAD side that is seldom mentioned by parties that endorse premarital sex.
Even in the movies you hardly see it being presented to be true to the reality. I don't think
there are too many of us who can see a popular character from TV show and movies who
engaged in sex outside of marriage (even the promiscuous ones) ever contracted in STDs,
unless that character is the antagonist. But in reality, STDs are so prevalent especially among
the teenagers as the statistics show. Obviously the entertainment industry hardly presents this
side of reality because there is nothing romantic about it. Always remember that this could
happen to any of us when we decide to have sex outside of marriage, REGARDLESS how
well you think you know your partner. Furthermore, from previous study, many people lie to
their sexual partner when they are about to engage in sexual relationship.
Bear in mind that some of the STDs are still deadly while a few others can cause infertility
for the victims. And there's still no safest means to prevent the contraction other than
abstinence, so don't be fooled by the propaganda that you see out there that as long as you use
protection, everything will be fine and enjoyable. Also for girls, there is something that you
should know that female reproduction system is more vulnerable to contract STDs than
male's.
This section will contain some of the basic information about some of the most popular (not
all) Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Please note that this shouldn't be taken as a medical
advice of any kind for STDs if you have one. If you think you're infected with any of the
STDs, consult your doctor right away to be treated.
This is not supposed to be a medical representation of STDs, this is only written to show what
you could get by engaging in premarital sex, and this is real. It is here to show what you're
protected from when you choose abstinence and obey God's Word. Just think of biblical
moral boundaries as the lines that are painted on the street. As annoying as that lines are, they
are there for our own and other's safety and protection. In the same way, God's commands are
designed to protect us from heartbreak, disappointment, and lifetime regrets.
Just a point to ponder: "It is much more difficult to believe that someone truly loves you
when he or she passes you an STD, instead of virginity, as a wedding gift!" Another question
to ask: After knowing all the consequences, do you think it's really worth it to forego what
you have right now, just for an hour of pleasure? That is if you can even enjoy it!
VAGINAL INFECTIONS
Some vaginal infections are acquired sexually. The most common types are that can be
regarded as STDs are:
a) Trichomoniasis (also known as "trichomonas vaginitis" or "trich")
Trichomoniasis is caused by a microscopic, one-celled organism known as a trichomonad,
which can survive for several hours on articles such as damp towels and swimsuits.
Nevertheless, this infection almost always is acquired through sexual intercourse. The vaginal
discharge may be greenish or yellowish, either watery or frothy and usually with an
unpleasant odor. Vaginal soreness, persistent itching or burning are typical symptoms.
b) Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)
Several types of bacteria (including gardnerella) can cause this infection. Vaginitis usually is
transmitted sexually. The vaginal discharge, often heavy, is watery and has a strong "fishy"
odor. Sometimes, this infection is also accompanied by other types of infection that cause
vaginal itching and burning.
SYPHILIS
Syphilis is at a 40-year high, with about 150,000 new cases every year. Add to that about
3,500 cases of congenital syphilis in babies born to infected mothers. Each year brings a
dramatic increase in both types. Spread mainly by sexual contact, syphilis is one of the most
serious STDs, causing widespread tissue damage. After infection, an individual with
untreated syphilis becomes a carrier, able to infect sexual partners for up to four years.
Even when treated, syphilis can erupt many years later. After sexual contact with a diseased
person, a lesion appears, usually in the anal-genital area. This is a small, red, elevated sore
(chancre) that becomes moist and eroded. After four to ten weeks the sore will heal without
treatment.
Women may show no symptoms. However, diagnosis can be made by a physical examination
and blood test anytime following the first three weeks after contact. On the secondary stage,
things will become worse. The internal damage begins, and the diseased person is still
contagious. The person may develop non-itching eruptions or a rash, usually on the trunk of
the body, commonly within six weeks to three months.
When the latent period arrives, with no symptoms, the person is not contagious anymore.
However, the late stage of syphilis may show itself in any organ—the brain, the central
nervous system, the cardiovascular system, and on the skin. These late effects, which can be
disabling, crippling, and disfiguring, may not arrive for more than 30 years. A pregnant
woman can also pass the disease to her child. The child may show signs of congenital
syphilis later—up until puberty and even as late as age 30.
GONORRHEA
Over one million new cases of gonorrhea occur annually. Gonorrhea is a serious bacterial
infection that is spread only through sexual contact. The usual incubation period is two to
seven days, but symptoms may not appear for weeks, months, or years. Up to 80 percent of
infected women display no symptoms and unknowingly become carriers, capable of
transmitting gonorrhea to their sexual partners. It's less likely that infected men will be
symptom-free. A typical symptom in infected individuals of either sex is painful urination.
Males may notice a cloudy, pus-like discharge from the penis. Females with gonorrhea may
have a cloudy vaginal discharge, possible lower abdominal discomfort, or abnormal vaginal
bleeding. Gonorrhea can also infect the mouth or rectum as a result of oral or anal sexual
contact.
Gonorrhea may also cause impotence in men because it usually involves a man's entire
reproductive tract. In the female, gonorrhea may infect the uterus and surrounding abdominal
area, leading to pelvic inflammatory disease and/or peritonitis. Frequently the end result is
sterility. In both sexes, when gonorrhea goes undetected and untreated, it can spread
throughout the bloodstream, infecting the heart, the brain, the joints, bones, tendons, skin, and
other parts of the body. When an infected, untreated woman gives birth, her baby's eyes are
subject to infection with the gonorrhea bacteria. One reliable source estimates that in the U.S.
each year as many as 100,000 women are rendered sterile by gonorrhea and the pelvic
inflammatory disease that almost always follows.
PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE (PID)
A sexually active female teenager is much more susceptible to all STD germs, but
especially PID. An unchecked STD—usually chlamydia or gonorrhea—is the standard cause
of pelvic inflammatory disease. However, E. coli and other bacteria also can be at fault.
The type and severity of PID symptoms depend on the type and strength of the infecting
bacteria. General symptoms include moderate to severe pain in the lower abdomen; fever,
either high or continuing low-grade; nausea, which may include diarrhoea and vomiting;
painful intercourse; unusual vaginal discharge; spotting and/or pain between menstrual
periods; change in normal menstrual periods—irregular or unusually long periods, heavy
bleeding or discharge, or painful periods.
Irreparable damage has become PID's legacy, particularly with repeated episodes. Fallopian
tubes become scarred, and then completely blocked. Infertility, even permanent sterility,
frequently results. When pregnancy does occur, the chance of the fertilized ovum attaching
inside the tube is high (ectopic pregnancy). When this happens, death of the fetus is
inevitable, and risk to the mother's life is high.
GENITAL WARTS (VENEREAL WARTS; CONDYLOMA; HPV)
The extensive Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) family causes genital warts, as well as warts
on fingers and plantar warts on the soles of feet. An individual may be infected with HPV
viruses and be able to transmit genital warts sexually long before symptoms develop.
Venereal warts often are painless. Ranging from pinhead size to a quarter inch in diameter,
warts may be invisible to the naked eye. The growths can be raised and bumpy, or flat, or
shaped like a tiny cauliflower. Colour may vary from white to gray to pink to brown. In
females, warts may form on the cervix, in the vagina or rectum, on the vulva or anus, and
sometimes in the urethra. Lasting irritation of the female organs is a frequent after-effect of
HPV. Males most commonly develop warts on the penis, but also on the scrotum, the anal
area, and the urethra.
Venereal warts can be difficult to detect, even by physicians. About 70 percent of women
with external warts also have warts on the cervix or in the vagina. Pap tests often provide the
first clue. Internal lesions typically go unnoticed, but sometimes itch and bleed. To date,
certain types of treatments can eliminate the warts, but the virus remains in the body, and
warts often reappear. During an outbreak of condyloma (warts), caution should be exercised.
Scratching genital warts can spread them to other parts of the body. Sexual activity should be
avoided until warts are completely gone. A prospective mother who's at risk for genital warts
needs to be tested early in her pregnancy. Mothers with genital warts can deliver babies with
warts. In rare cases, venereal warts enlarge during pregnancy, actually blocking the birth
canal, making Caesarean delivery a must.
GENITAL HERPES
Genital herpes is a very contagious viral infection, occurring around the sex organs, spread
almost entirely by sexual contact. Most genital herpes infections are caused by herpes
simplex type 2 virus, which is related to herpes simplex type 1, the virus involved in chicken
pox, fever blisters, and cold sores. (There are other herpes viruses, as well, that cause other
conditions.) Estimates by various agencies range from five to 30 million individuals in the
U.S. who are infected with genital herpes, with at least 300,000 new cases each year.
(Physicians are not required to report the disease.) According to some studies, 30 to 40
percent of single, sexually active people (as of 1998) are infected.
Genital herpes usually begins within four to seven days after infection, but symptoms can
begin as long as a month later. A mild burning or tingling in the genitals and buttocks often
signals an outbreak. Fever, flu-like symptoms, and swollen lymph nodes in the groin may
follow. Within a week, fluid-filled blisters appear which then break and form raw, extremely
painful sores. For males these outbreaks usually are confined to the penis, scrotum, and
buttocks. In females, however, both external and internal sex organs are involved. About one-
third of herpes patients experience only mild symptoms such as itching, redness, and a few
insignificant bumps, or no symptoms at all.
But the majority of those infected face recurring outbreaks for life. Severity and frequency of
these flare-ups vary with the individual, but usually are less severe than the initial infection.
Herpes sufferers typically have from one to six outbreaks per year. Triggering factors are
individual, too—anything from a cold to menstruation to emotional stress to wearing clothes
that fit too tightly. New research indicates that about 70 percent of those with genital herpes
contracted the disease from a partner with no noticeable symptoms. In the absence of
symptoms, doctors have difficulty diagnosing genital herpes.
Herpes infection can be spread whenever any part of one's body (or one's partner's body)
touches active sores containing the virus. Mucous membranes (as in the mouth or genital
area) are especially vulnerable. When the skin is broken, as from cuts, eczema, and abrasions,
risk of infection increases dramatically. If there are sores in the mouth, using saliva as a
wetting agent for contact lenses can transfer the herpes virus to the eyes. Should the virus
invade the eye, it can cause lesions on the cornea that may result in partial or complete vision
impairment.
Note to Women
Herpes virus can cause miscarriage and stillbirth. Despite prompt identification and
treatment, those infants infected with herpes are at great risk of developing brain damage or
dying. Herpes infection is life-long and multiplies the woman's risk of developing cancer of
the cervix. Cervical cancer is curable, but early detection is essential.
AIDS (ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME)
AIDS was identified in the U.S. and in Europe in 1981. AIDS is caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Once the virus invades the body, it silently begins to ravage
the immune system. The HIV virus invades the bloodstream, attacking white blood cells, and
also cells of the bone marrow, spleen, liver, and lymph glands. These cells normally
manufacture antibodies against disease and cancer, so the HIV-infected person becomes
increasingly vulnerable.
During the incubation period (which can be more than 10 years), the infected person may be
unaware of infection and display no identifiable symptoms. Nevertheless, the individual is
capable of transmitting the virus all along. Testing only establishes that the infected person
has finally produced enough HIV antibodies to show up on the screening. From that point on
the individual is declared "HIV positive."
Compare the fact to confident statements frequently expressed in the media. Mutual HIV
testing is touted as the "guarantee" that two individuals can fearlessly engage in sexual
activity. Not so! Test results are valid only for the time the test was taken—not the next week
or the next month. For all these reasons, some health professionals consider AIDS a "ticking
time bomb." There simply is no way to estimate the number of infected persons, male or
female, straight or gay, married or single, young or old.
Although AIDS is contagious, it can't be spread in the same way as the common cold,
chicken pox, or measles. Rather, it's contagious in the same manner as are other sexually
transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea or syphilis. In fact, research suggests that other
sexually transmitted diseases and genital ulcers actually promote the transmission of AIDS.
It's thought that these conditions provide an entry route for the HIV or somehow alter the
immune system.
After infection with the AIDS virus, some people remain apparently well. Nevertheless, these
persons can transmit the virus to others through sexual relations; through sharing needles in
intravenous drug use; or when donating blood, organs, tissue, or sperm. AIDS is spread
through blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. Other possible (though far less likely) avenues
are the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth, which are permeable and thus allow
viruses to pass directly into the bloodstream.
The AIDS virus has also been identified in menstrual blood, tears, saliva, sperm, and faeces.
It's presently considered unlikely that the virus can be transmitted by any means other than
sexual contact or by blood exchange.
AIDS is spread by sexual contact: vaginal, oral, and anal sex. And sometime "French" kissing
or wet kissing may also spread AIDS virus. Since 1986, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention have recommended that couples not kiss deeply if one of them is infected
with the AIDS virus, mostly because of the possibility of mouth lesions or bleeding gums.
Pubic Lice ('Crabs')
 Very small (1/8th inch) gray to brown animals that live in the public hair and cause
itching.
 Easily treated with a medicine that is put directly on the pubic hair.

1. Define the term ‗Hormone‘. [2marks]
2. Define the term ‗Identity Crisis‘. [2marks]
3. Define the term ‗Late Childhood‘. [2marks]
4. List down five specific examples of child development. [5marks]
5. Discuss the following 3 stages of psychosocial development
a. Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood) [3marks]
b. Generativity versus Stagnation (middle adulthood) [3marks]
c. Ego integrity versus Despair (old age) [3marks]
6. Briefly describe how you would help children acquire developmental aspects in your
school. [5marks]
7. When teratogens are most serious in child growth and development and why?
[5marks]
8. Draw a well labeled diagram of a human brain. [10marks]
9. Suggest different ways in which, as a teacher, you would enhance or promote child play
in school or at home. [5marks]
10. Identify any five current TV programmes that are educative and useful to young
children. How is each program beneficial? [10marks]
11. Briefly discuss the effects of gender stereotyping in your own community. Give relevant
examples. [5marks]
12. List down any five children homes in Kenya. What roles do they play? [10marks]
13. Describe different ways in which you can tell that a child is not willing to go to school.
[5marks]
14. Describe various ways in which, as a teacher, you would promote acquisition of social
skills and competence in a child in the school set-up. [5marks]
15. How would you determine that the child is ready for pre-school? Prepare some
interview activities for a child who wants to join your pre-school. [10marks]
16. Discuss the importance of guidance and counselling of adolescents or teenagers.
[10marks]
6014 MODULE FOUR - UNIT 7

CHILD RIGHTS AND PROTECTION
All children regardless of their race, socio-economic status and religion have rights, which
must be safeguarded by those who care for them and especially their parents, other
caregivers, teachers and the government. It is only when children have their rights
safeguarded that they will realize their full potential in life.
The purpose of this UNIT is to help student teacher understand the child, child rights and
protection and the legal structures put in place for the protection of children. This knowledge
will assist the student teacher to safeguard the rights of the child in order to help the children
realize their maximum potential.
Learning Outcomes of this Unit
1. Define relevant terms and concepts used in relation to the rights of the child
2. Discuss the types of needs for children
3. Discuss the importance of using the rights approach in programming for children
4. Identify and explain the main categories of the rights of the child
5. Describe the responsibilities of the child towards the family and the community
6. Identify and explain the main instruments that provide for the rights of the child
7. Describe the principles governing the understanding of the rights of the child
8. Discuss how the rights of the child can be safeguarded at the family, community, ECD
centers and primary schools
9. Demonstrate the ability to safeguard the rights of the child in his/her interactions with
children.
Topic 1
Terms & Concepts used in Child Rights & Protection

Introduction
This topic aims at discussing some of the terms, both legal and general, used during this
course. The purpose to these definitions is to help you understand various concepts in child
rights and protection of children rights.
Learning Outcome
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Define relevant terms and concepts used in relation to the rights of the child.
Definition of terms and concepts
1. Needs: Needs are circumstances, in which something is lacking, or necessary, or which

require something to be done. They are basic necessities or requirements.
Types of needs include; Physical and Psychological
2. Rights: A right is an entitlement of every human being. Rights are legal authority or
claim to do something, usually provided by the laws.
3. Signature: A signature is a person‘s name written by himself or herself.

4. Ratification: To ratify is to make an agreement or a treaty, officially valid, usually by
signing it.
5. Accession: Reaching rank or position, things added, especially a new item, the action of
being added
6. Domestication: This is to become home to a person
7. Child Labour: The term ‗child labour‘ refers only to forms of employment or unpaid
work that violate the rights of children and should be prohibited. There are two main
types of child labour: under-age employment and hazardous employment.
8. Advocacy: This is giving of support, for example, in women or children‘s rights.
9. Child Abuse and neglect: Child abuse or maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical
and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, commercial
or other exploitation, resulting in actual potential harm to the child‘s health, survival,
development of dignity in the context of a relationship or responsibility, trust or power.
10. Home: This means a place where a child‘s parent, guardian, relative or foster parent
permanently resides.
11. Parent: Means the mother or father of the child and includes any person who is liable by
law to maintain a child or is entitled to his/her custody.
12. Nursery: Means any institution or place at which for the time being, five or more
children under the age of 7 years are received and cared for regularly.
13. Apparent Age: This is the estimated age of a person on the basis of appearance where
the actual age of a child is unknown.
14. Authorized Officer: This means an officer given responsibility in relation to a child e.g.
a police officer or an administration officer.
15. Relative: This means any person related to the child, whether of the full blood, half blood
or by affinity.
16. Child Abuse: Child Abuse means any physical, mental or sexual harm committed against
a child
17. A child of tender years: This is any child who is ten years of age or younger.
18. Children's Remand Home: This is an institution for rehabilitating children.
19. A Council: Means the National Council for Children‘s Service (NCCS)
20. Director: This means the Director of children's Services.
21. Disabled Child: This means a child having any form of mental or physical disability.
22. Early Marriage: This is any marriage before the age of eighteen years. It also refers to
the state of a child living with any person and being treated as a spouse.
23. Education: This means social and intellectual teaching.
24. Female circumcision: This is the cutting of any part of the female sexual organ.
25. Foster Parent: This is any person given the care of a child by a court of law.
26. A guardian: A guardian is a person appointed by one or both parents of a child or any
person with parental responsibility over the child to take care of the child when both or
one of the parents is dead.
27. A guardian ad litem: This is a special friend of a child who looks after the interests of
the child
28. An Order: This is a Command of a person or institution with authority.
29. A remand Home: This is a home for children who need protection and care.
30. A Charitable child's Institutions: There are institutions that manage programs for the
care, protection rehabilitation or control of children.
31. A children's Court: This is a special court dealing with only children's cases where
children
32. Parental Responsibility: This is the responsibility of a person to ensure that a child is
protected, cared for and develops.
Summary
The meanings of various terms and concepts that will be encountered in this course have been
discussed. Such terms include; child, right, needs, adoption, early marriage, guardian,
education, parent, relative, foster parent, female circumcision, child abuse, ratification,
accession, domestication, remand home, Children‘s court among others.
Activity 1
Define the following terms used in child rights. [10 Marks]

1. Refugee
2. Protection
3. Maintenance
4. Law
5. Government
6. Custody
7. Convention
8. Constitution
9. Child Trafficking
10. Abduction
Further reading
Chapter 586 Laws of Kenya, 2001
Child Protection: A Handbook for Parliamentarians. UNICEF, 2004 pp 8-9, 76-80
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), Article 22
Rights of The Child in Kenya: An alternative report to the UN Committee on the Rights of
the Child on the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Kenya,
44th session – Geneva, January 2007, pp 10, 14, 15
The African Charter, Article 23
The Kenyan Children Act, 2001, No. 8, Part VII – Custody and Maintenance
References
Child Protection: A Handbook for Parliamentarians. UNICEF, 2004 pp 140

The Kenya Children‘s Act, 2001, No. 8, Part I– Preliminaries, Sec 2 pp 500-504
Topic 2
Children‘s Needs
Introduction
When you understand the psychological needs of your children and are able to satisfy their
needs without hindrance you will promote a positive growth in your school children. The
physical needs of a child are an important part of his/her development and should be taken
seriously by parents, teachers and caregivers.
Learning Outcome

 Discuss the types of needs for children.
Types of Children’s Needs
1. Physical needs
At home or at the school, daycare, children have physical needs that must be met which
contribute to their total well being and comfort. Here are some ideas for providing for
physical needs:
a) One of the important physical needs of children is a suitable environment which provides
fresh air to breathe, clean water and a nutritious diet. The inhalation of fresh air is
essential for good health and normal development. Consequently lack of fresh air can
cause poor mental functioning in a child. It can result in the spread of airborne diseases
like whooping cough and measles. Homes and nurseries should be properly ventilated
in order to replace expired air with fresh air.
b) At home the children should NOT be exposed to paint fumes and dry cleaning
solvents, cigarette smoke, chemicals present in detergents, cosmetics, food etc.
Likewise, clean water and a nutritious balanced diet are also necessities for the normal
development of the child
c) Mealtimes in the nursery school and at home are very important aspect of caring for a
child. Mealtimes should be set and regular so as to set up good eating habits and food
given should be attractive and full of essential nutrients.
d) A suitable environment should also provide shelter and warmth for the child. Children
should NOT be exposed to unsuitable variations of temperature. The home and nursery
should be properly insulated from wild and harsh weather conditions by providing
heating and cooling facilities when the need arises.
e) Physical exercise is important. Children should engage in exercises to encourage
optimal development of their muscles, heart and lungs. Also exercises help good
posture and co-ordination, as well as promoting a feeling of well being. Simple motor
activities like hopping; jumping, skipping, and climbing should be encouraged
f) Good and healthy habits are an important responsibility of parents and caregivers.
Parents should make sure that their children are vaccinated at the right time. Likewise at
school a visit from the school‘s doctor should be encouraged to create awareness
g) Safety is important. At home and in school the need for safety should be taken
seriously. A fire extinguisher should be close by in case of fire accident.
2. Psychological needs
A healthy growth of a child needs to be satisfied with certain psychological needs. To
understand and promote the growth of your school children you need to understand their
psychological needs:
a) Attention: You need to pay attention to your children. As children they like to attract the
attention of their teachers and parents. When you ignore them they will behave negatively
to attract your attention. Always be attentive to your children.
b) Acceptance: A child is happy when he is accepted by his teachers/parents. He knows
how to behave in order to get the approval of his teachers/parents. Accept your school
children unconditionally.
c) Respect: A child needs to have self-respect and to be respected. When a child does not
respect himself and he is not being respected his self-esteem will be low and he feels
helpless and down. The worst thing that can happen to him is that he will not have the
confidence to live in life. Praise your children whenever they do something right to boost
their self-confidence.
d) Belonging: Every one hopes to be part of a group. It is the same with children. They want
to have a place in a group. If they are rejected or bypassed it will affect their healthy
development.
e) Love: The emotional support and the love of the teachers/parents stimulate the child‘s
mental and physical growth. Shower them with love and tender care.
f) Achievement: It is the motive of your children to learn something and to achieve success.
Provide positive reinforcement in their quest for knowledge.
g) Friendship: It is natural for your school children to make friends. Encourage your
children to socialize so that they learn to get along with others in a normal and healthy
situation.
Summary
Children needs include both physical and psychological wellbeing. It is the duty of the parent,
teacher, school and the community to ensure that these needs are met and safeguarded.
Activity 2
Briefly explain how the following children needs could be met: [10 marks]
1. Emotional needs
2. Cognitive needs
3. Social needs
4. Moral needs
5. Aesthetic needs
Further reading
Kabiru, M. and Njenga A. (2009) General Psychology and Personality Development, Focus
Publishers Ltd, Nairobi.
References
Cobb, N. J (2001). The Child: infants, children and adolescents. Mayfield Publishers, USA
Topic 3
Rights Based Approach in Programming for Children

Introduction
A rights-based approach to programming combines human rights, development and social
activism to promote justice equality and freedom. It holds duty bearers to account for their
obligations, empowers people to demand their rightful entitlements, promotes equity and
challenges discrimination.
Learning Outcome

 Discuss the importance of using rights based approach in programming for children.
Importance of Child Rights Programming
What is Child Rights Programming (CRP)?

Child Rights Programming (CRP) is a child-focused version of the rights-based approaches.
CRP applies rights-based approaches specifically to work to realise the rights of boys and
girls under the age of 18. The reason for having a specific approach like this is that children
- as well as being human beings - have their own special needs and vulnerabilities. In other
words, children are like adults in some respects but also different from them in other
ways. This is why there is a special international convention on the human rights of
children and why educational organisations working with girls and boys need a rights-based
approach that is adapted to the special situation of children. The key components of CRP all
draw upon the general principles of the UNCRC (United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child), as well as other fundamental human rights principles.
One useful way of thinking about CRP is to consider the definition of its three component
words:
• Child – every boy and girl under the age of eighteen years, a period of childhood
accorded special consideration in human rights terms, characterized as a period of evolving
capabilities and of vulnerabilities relative to those of adults.
• Rights – defined as international human rights applicable to children, set out primarily
in the UN CRC but also to be found in all other human rights conventions.
• Programming – management of a set of activities, including analysis, planning,
implementation and monitoring, towards a defined goal or objective, involving good
development practice.
The combination of these three definitions provides an overall working definition of CRP:
―Child rights programming means using the principles of child rights to plan, implement
and monitor programmes with the overall goal of improving the position of children so that
all boys and girls can fully enjoy their rights and can live in societies that acknowledge and
respect children‘s rights."
Child Rights Programming brings together a range of ideas, concepts and experiences related
to child rights, child development, emergency response and development work within one
unifying framework. It is primarily based on the principles and standards of children‘s human
rights but also draws heavily on good practice in many areas of work with children as well as
lessons learnt in relief and development.
Why adopt and use rights based approaches in child programming?

Educational organisations should adopt rights-based approaches to programming for two
main reasons. Firstly, they agree with the set of values and beliefs about human beings and
development expressed in human rights, i.e. they believe that it is a morally right approach.
Secondly, they believe that rights-based approaches bring a number of practical benefits
compared to other approaches to relief and development work. These benefits include:
1. International agreement and legitimacy: the goal and standards are universally agreed
and set out in an international legal framework which is shared by governments, donors
and civil society. This gives educational organisations legitimacy and authority.
2. A clear, shared long term goal (regarding the fulfillment of human rights): this goal
can be shared by everyone working in relief and development, along with the standards to
measure progress towards it.
3. Accountability: the responsibilities of governments, donors, the private sector,
communities and individuals are identified and various ways in which they can be held
accountable have already been developed and tested.
4. Empowerment: the active participation of disadvantaged and discriminated-against
groups is seen as essential to achieving social justice, non-discrimination and pro-poor
development.
5. Equity: there is a strong focus on justice, equality and freedom and a willingness to
tackle the power issues that lie at the root of poverty and exploitation. There is a
commitment to reach the most excluded.
6. Greater impact and effectiveness: because of its emphasis on accountability,
empowerment and activism the rights-based approach is seen as being more effective in
the fight against injustice, poverty and exploitation.
7. An integrated approach: rights-based approaches incorporate what is widely regarded as
―good development practice‖ into one overall holistic approach.
Summary
Child rights programming is using the principles of child rights to plan implement and
monitor programmes so as to improve the position of children such that boys and girls can
enjoy their rights and live in a society that acknowledge and respect their rights."
Activity 3
How is Child Rights Programming (CRP) applicable to institutions and agencies that deal
with children services and welfare? [5 Marks]
Further reading
Gerison Lansdown, Benchmarking Progress in Adopting and Implementing Child Rights
Programming, International Save the Children alliance, 2005
References
Child Rights Programming: How to Apply Right-based Approaches to programming, A

Handbook for International Save the Children Alliance Members (2nd Edition)
Topic 4
Categories of the rights of the child

Introduction
This topic will introduce you to the various categories of the rights of the child. It will give
you a general picture of the origin of the discussion of these rights and their significance.
Learning Outcome

 Identify and explain the main categories of the rights of the child.
United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
The origin of the categories of children rights is the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child (UNCRC). UNCRC is an international legal instrument that was established in
1989 with an aim of giving universal direction on matters that relate to the rights of children.
The following are the categories of children rights as provided by the UNCRC.
Children rights are categorized into:
 Survival rights
 Development rights
 Protection rights
 Participation rights
Survival
Every child has the rights to:
 Survival and development.
 An adequate standard of living.
 The highest attainable standard of health and effective health services.
 Special care, if he or she is disabled, that ensures dignity, promotes self-reliance and
facilitates active participation in the community.
 Social security and child care services and facilities.
Development
 Free primary education.
 Access to secondary education and vocational training.
 An education that develops his or her personality, talents, and mental and physical
abilities to their fullest.
 An education that prepares him or her for an active adult life in a free society.
 An education that fosters respect for his or her own family, cultural identity, and
language for his or her country; and for the natural environment.
 An education in the spirit of understanding peace, tolerance and equality.
 Leisure, play and the opportunity to participate in cultural and artistic activities.
 The opportunity to enjoy his or her culture, profess and practice his or her religion,
use his or her language.
Protection
Every child has the right to special protection:
 In emergency situations such as armed conflict, or when children are separated from
family or home.
 When he or she is in conflict with the law.
 In situations of exploitation such as child labour, drug abuse, sexual exploitation or
sexual abuse, sale, trafficking and abduction.
 From discrimination of any kind.
Participation
Children must be allowed as active participants in all matters affecting their lives and be free
to express their opinions. They have the right to have their views heard and taken seriously.
Every child has the right to
 Freedom of expression.
 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
 Freedom of association and peaceful assembly.
 Information from a diversity of sources.
Summary
The UNCRC provides both the conception and substantive framework and the context for
further development and refinement of the children‘s rights by the nations that have ratified
the convention. For example, Kenya borrowed heavily the concepts and provisions of the
UNCRC while enacting the Children‘s Act 2001.
Activity 4
1. Discuss the reasons why the Kenyan Government cannot entirely use the UNCRC
document while dealing with the rights of children in the country. [5 Marks]
2. Why is it necessary for a country like Kenya to borrow from the international legal
instruments such as the UNCRC while enacting her laws regarding the rights of children?
[5 Marks]
Further reading
"A-Z of Children's Rights", Children's Rights Information Network.
Hong Kong Committee for UNICEF Report
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Committee on the Rights of the Child;
fifty-first session, Geneva, 25 May – 12 June, 2009
References
"United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child", Canadian Children's Rights Council.
Retrieved 30/03/2008 from www.canadiancrc.com
"Convention on the Rights of the Child", (1989) United Nations. Retrieved 23/02/2008
from www.unicef.org/crc
Topic 5
Instruments Dealing with Children Rights

Introduction
There are a number of legal instruments providing the rights of the child. This topic will
introduce the student to different kinds of such instruments.
Learning Outcome
 Identify various instruments dealing with children rights
 Discuss the origin of the instruments.
 Discuss the need for these instruments.
 Describe the conditions of the instruments and their ratification procedures.
International, Regional and local instruments dealing with children rights
International legal instruments take the form of a treaty (also called agreement, convention,
or protocol) that binds the contracting states to the negotiated terms. When negotiations are
completed, the text of a treaty is established as authentic and definitive and is "signed" by the
representatives of states. A state can agree to be bound to a treaty in various ways. The most
common are ratification or accession. A new treaty is ratified by those states that have
negotiated the instrument. A state that has not participated in the negotiations may, at a later
stage, accede to the treaty. The treaty enters into force, or becomes valid, when a pre-
determined number of states have ratified or acceded to the treaty.
When a state ratifies or accedes to a treaty, that state may make reservations to one or more
articles of the treaty, unless reservations are prohibited by the treaty. Reservations may
normally be withdrawn at any time. In some countries, international treaties take precedence
over national law; in others a specific law may be required to give a ratified international
treaty the force of a national law. Practically all states that have ratified or acceded to an
international treaty must issue decrees, change existing laws, or introduce new legislation in
order for the treaty to be fully effective on the national territory.
The binding treaties can be used to force governments to respect the treaty provisions that are
relevant for the rights of children and youth. The non-binding instruments, such as
declarations and resolutions, can be used in relevant situations to embarrass governments by
negative public exposure; governments who care about their international image may
consequently adapt their policies.
The origin of the instruments
Children's rights originate from a wide-ranging set of international and regional instruments
spanning human rights, humanitarian and refugee law. Children benefit from the rights
contained in general treaties. In addition, a number of specialist instruments have been
created to accord extra protection to children given their particular vulnerabilities and the
importance to society as a whole in ensuring the healthy development and active participation
of its young members.
The over-arching framework for children's rights is the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of
the Child (CRC). This was the first treaty specifically concerned with the rights of children
and marked an important shift in thinking towards a "rights-based approach" which held
governments legally accountable for failing to meet the needs of children. The Convention
created a new vision of children as bearers of rights and responsibilities appropriate to their
age rather than viewing them as the property of their parents or the helpless recipients of
charity.
Children's rights cover four main aspects of a child's life: the right to survive; the right to
develop; the right to be protected from harm, and the right to participate.
The need for the Instruments
 In most societies, there are no legal or social structures specifically dedicated to

 The healthy development of children is uniquely crucial to the future of any society.
 Children are more vulnerable than adults to the conditions under which they live.
 Children are more affected more than any other age group by the actions and inaction of
governments.
 Children have no votes or political influence and little economic power. More often than
 Children are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
 In many societies, there is a mistaken view that children are their parents‘ property, adults
Ratification Procedures
The process of applying the international instruments at the national level goes through the
following stages:
Ratification
Ratification is a clear testimony of willingness by the State to be bound by international
standards in the protection and promotion of rights and freedoms. It also depicts the
agreement to create the necessary conditions under which such standards can be
implemented, for instance by overlooking repugnant cultural and social norms
Domestication of the International Conventions
This is the process of translating the international conventions into country legislations and
implementing programs that will lead to realizations of the aspiration of the conventions.
Once a country ratifies a convention, it is bound to respect and the process of domesticating it
ensures that the articulations of the convention are applicable to the country.
Summary
In order to prevent child abuse and neglect, the support of individuals and institutions is
paramount. There are various strategies for enhancing prevention of child abuse.
In order to prevent child abuse, the support of individuals and institutions is paramount. The
following are some of the suggested strategies for enhancing prevention of child abuse:
Some of the examples are:
Creating awareness on child rights, laws that affect them and other issues which affect
children;
 Creating an environment that encourages dialogue between children, parents, guardians,
caregivers, teachers and communities;
 Providing integrated family life education in schools;
 Providing affordable medical care and other social services to children;
 Formulating a national child protection policy;
 Enhancing monitoring of children‘s programmes and projects;
 Creating and strengthening child friendly laws, policies and systems;
 Enhancing the capacity of stakeholders including Child Protection Agents in child rights
and protection;
 Empowering and strengthening families socio-economically;
 Establishing and strengthening community based rehabilitation centers for children.
 Government to legislate laws that provide for deterrent punishment for child abusers;
 Encouraging children to report abuses and exploitations perpetrated against them;

 Encouraging members of the society to take increased responsibility in reporting child
abuse, exploitation and gender based violence incidences;
 Poverty eradication and creation of wealth;
 Improving governance and eliminating corruption.
Activity 5
Discuss the importance of the instruments on children rights. [5 Marks]
Further reading

African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect
(ANPPCAN)
References
African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect
(ANPPCAN)
"Convention on the Rights of the Child", (1989) United Nations. Retrieved 23/02/2008
from www.unicef.org/crc
Topic 6
International Instruments on Child Rights

Introduction
In this topic there will be discussion on the outcomes of the various international conventions
and the reasons for their meeting. The elements touching on the children, countries hosting
the meetings and countries in focus will be discussed. The following is the order of
instruments and their discussion:
a) Geneva declaration, 1924
b) Universal Declaration on Human Right, 1948
c) Rights on the Child Declaration, 1959
d) The political Covenant, 1966
e) The Social Covenant, 1966
f) The United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) - 1989
Learning Outcome

 Identify various international instruments dealing with children rights
1. Geneva Declaration, 1924
This international instrument set down the fundamental principles for the protection and
rights of children. It is non-binding and reflects all the norms and values which all nations
should aspire in relation to the rights of the child. It states that mankind owes to the child the
best it has to give.
These principles are that the child:
 Must be given the means needed for its normal development both materially and
spiritually.
 that is hungry should be fed: the child that is sick should be helped: the erring child
should be reclaimed and the orphaned or homeless child should be sheltered and assisted
 must be first to receive relief in times of distress
 must be put in a position to earn a livelihood and must be protected against every form of
exploitation
 must be brought up in the consciousness that its best qualities are to be used in the service
of fellow men
2. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
It was the first document drafted after the formation of the United Nations that recognized
human rights; for example the rights to work, leisure, adequate standard of living and to
education.
This declaration was intended to be a standard for countries rather than a binding instrument.
It adopted ten basic principles for protecting the welfare for children.
Among them was the entitlement to education and to special care and assistance. However, it
did not expressly address the issue of children‘s rights.
3. Rights on the Child Declaration, 1959
This declaration is the revised version of the 1924 Declaration. It included other principles as
follows:
 The child must be protected beyond and above all considerations of race, nationality
or creed;
 The child must be cared for with due respect for the family as an entity;
 The child that is physically or mentally challenged must be taken special care of and
the maladjusted child re-educated;
 The child must enjoy the full benefits provided by social welfare security.
This was the first major international instrument exclusively devoted to children‘s rights. It
introduced the principle of ―the best interests of the child‖ to guide all those who would be
involved in making decisions that would ultimately affect children. It laid the foundation for
the further development of a binding treaty on the rights of the child.
4. The Political Covenant, 1966
This covenant confers civil and political rights to all citizens, for example the right to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion and peaceful assembly. With reference to the
protection of the children, it recognizes that the death sentence shall not be imposed for
crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age and for pregnant women. Juvenile
offenders alike ought to be separated from adults in remand or prison.
The covenant recognizes a child‘s right to non-discrimination, registration immediately after
birth, a name and a nationality, and to protection by his or her family. These rights form the
basis of many constitutions all over the world.
5. The Social Covenant, 1966

The provisions of the covenants amount to binding international law. The ESC urges
governments to recognize that special measures should be taken on behalf of children to
protect them from economic and social exploitation. This may be done by ensuring that
employment in work harmful to their morals or health or dangerous to life or likely to hamper
their development is made punishable together with the employment of children below the
age limits set by law.
It also specifies that the rate of still births and infant mortality ought to be reduced so as to
ensure the healthy development of the child. It provides for the right to free primary
education.
6. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
Children are born with fundamental freedoms and inherent rights as those of all human
beings. First adopted in 1989, the UNCRC has established new ethical principles and
international norms of behaviour towards children. Although there have been other
international treaties and instruments concerned with children‘s rights, the UNCRC is unique
in that it is all encompassing.
1. It is comprehensive in that it ensures the children their civil, political, economic, social
and cultural rights.
2. It is universal, that is, it applies to all children in all situations in virtually the whole world
in all communities
3. It is unconditional in that it calls on all governments even those without resources to take
actions to protect children‘s rights.
4. It is holistic in asserting that all rights are essential. Indivisible, interdependent and equal.
Why the need for UNCRC
1. In most societies, there are no legal or social structures specifically dedicated to
2. The healthy development of children is uniquely crucial to the future of any society.
3. Children are more vulnerable than adults to the conditions under which they live.
4. Children are more affected more than any other age group by the actions and inaction of
governments.
5. Children have no votes or political influence and little economic power. More often than
6. Children are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
7. In many societies, there is a mistaken view that children are their parents‘ property, adults
Principle of the convention on the right of the child
The convention has four general principles. The first two apply to all people and the
convention reaffirms them for children. The last two are of a particular concern to children.
1. Children must not suffer discrimination irrespective of the child‘s or his parents, legal
guardian‘s race, colour, sex, language, religion or other opinion, national, ethnic or social
origin, property, disability, birth or any other status.
2. Children have a right to survival and development in all aspects of their lives, including
physical, emotional, psychological, cognitive, social and cultural.
3. The best interest of the child must be of primary consideration in all decisions and actions
that affect them as a group. This holds true whether decisions are made by governmental,
administrative or judicial authorities or by families themselves.
4. Children must be allowed as active participants in all decisions affecting them and be free
to express their opinions. They have the right to have their views heard and be taken
seriously.
Application and enforcement UNCRC
1. Ratification is a clear testimony of the willingness by the state to be bound by such
provisions.
2. It becomes a commitment to protect and promote the specific rights and freedoms of
children, administrative and judicial authorities and welfare organizations.
3. Cultural and social norms prejudicial to the rights of a child should be overlooked in
advocating for their rights.
Summary
The rights of a child proper were first reflected in the Declaration on the Rights of the child in
1959. This was the first international instrument that focused on children as direct possessors
of rights. It provided both the conception and substantive framework and the context for
further development and refinement of the children‘s rights. These rights were later
incorporated into the UN Convention on the rights of a child in 1989 and the African Charter
in 1990.
Activity 6
1. Discuss the progress the Kenyan Government has made in the implementation of Free
Primary Education (FPE). [5 Marks]
2. What are the challenges facing the Kenyan Government effort to implement Children
rights to basic education? [5 Marks]
Further reading
References
"United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child", Canadian Children's Rights Council.
Retrieved 30/03/2008 from www.canadiancrc.com
"Convention on the Rights of the Child", (1989) United Nations. Retrieved 23/02/2008 from
www.unicef.org/crc
Topic 7
The Salamanca Conference

Introduction
More than 300 participants representing 92 governments and 25 international organizations

met in Salamanca, Spain, from 7 to 10 June 1994 to further the objective of Education
for All by considering the fundamental policy shifts required to promote the approach of
inclusive education, namely enabling schools to serve all children, particularly those with
special educational needs.
Organized by the Government of Spain in co-operation with UNESCO, the Conference
brought together senior education officials, administrators, policy-makers and specialists,
as well as representatives of the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies, other
international governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations and donor
agencies. The Conference adopted the Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and
Practice in Special Needs Education and a Framework for Action.
This document is informed by the principle of inclusion, by recognition of the need to
work towards ― schools for all‖ - institutions which include everybody, celebrate
differences, support learning, and respond to individual needs. As such, they constitute an
important contribution to the agenda for achieving Education ,for All and for making
schools educationally more effective.
Special needs education - an issue of equal concern to countries of the North and of the
South - cannot advance in isolation. It has to form part of an overall educational strategy
and, indeed, of new social and economic policies. It calls for major reform of the ordinary
school.
Learning Outcomes
 Discuss the Education for All.
 Discuss the call to governments.
 Describe the concept of inclusive schooling.
 Explain equalization of opportunities.
The Salamanca Statement
Education for all

The Statement begins with a commitment to Education for All, recognizing the necessity and
urgency of providing education for all children, young people and adults 'within the regular
education system.' It says those children with special educational needs 'must have access to
regular schools' and adds:
Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating
discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and
achieving education for all; moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of
children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire
education system.
1. Call to governments
The World Conference went on to call upon all governments to:
a) Give the 'highest policy and budgetary priority' to improve education services so that all
children could be included, regardless of differences or difficulties.
b) 'Adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive education' and enroll all
children in ordinary schools unless there were compelling reasons for doing otherwise.
c) Develop demonstration projects and encourage exchanges with countries with inclusive
schools.
d) Ensure that organisations of disabled people, along with parents and community bodies,
are involved in planning decision-making.
e) Put greater effort into pre-school strategies as well as vocational aspects of inclusive
education.
f) Ensure that both initial and in-service teacher training address the provision of inclusive
education.
2. Inclusive schooling
The Statement also calls on the international community to endorse the approach of inclusive
schooling and to support the development of special needs education as an integral part of all
education programmes. In particular it calls on UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World
Bank for this endorsement.
It asks for the United Nations and its specialized agencies to 'strengthen their inputs for
technical co-operation' and improve their networking for more efficient support to integrated
special needs provision. Non-governmental organisations are asked to strengthen their
collaboration with official national bodies and become more involved in all aspects of
inclusive education.
As the UN agency for education, UNESCO is asked to:
a) Ensure that special needs education forms part of every discussion dealing with education
for all.
b) Enhance teacher education in this field by getting support from teacher unions and
associations.
c) Stimulate the academic community to do more research into inclusive education and
disseminate the findings and the reports.
d) Use its funds over the five-year period, 1996--2001, to create an expanded programme for
inclusive schools and community support projects, thus enabling the launch of pilot
projects.
3. Equalization of opportunity
The Framework for Action says 'inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity
and to the enjoyment and exercise of human rights.' In the field of education this is reflected
in bringing about a 'genuine equalization of opportunity.' Special needs education
incorporates proven methods of teaching from which all children can benefit; it assumes
human differences are normal and that learning must be adapted to the needs of the child,
rather than the child fitted to the process. The fundamental principle of the inclusive school, it
adds, is that all children should learn together, where possible, and that ordinary schools must
recognise and respond to the diverse needs of their students, while also having a continuum
of support and services to match these needs. Inclusive schools are the 'most effective' at
building solidarity between children with special needs and their peers. Countries with few or
no special schools should establish inclusive – not special – schools.
Summary
In June 1994 representatives of 92 governments and 25 international organisations formed the
World Conference on Special Needs Education, held in Salamanca, Spain. They agreed a
dynamic new Statement on the education of all disabled children, which called for inclusion
to be the norm. In addition, the Conference adopted a new Framework for Action, the
guiding principle of which is that ordinary schools should accommodate all children,
regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. All
educational policies, says the Framework, should stipulate that disabled children attend the
neighbourhood school 'that would be attended if the child did not have a disability.'
Activity 7
Using appropriate examples, discuss the term ―Children with Special Needs‖
[5 Marks]
Further reading
www.unesco.org/education
References
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, adopted
by the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality. Salamanca,
Spain, 7- 10 June 1994
Topic 8
The Dakar Conference

Introduction
The Dakar conference was held in April 2001 in Senegal as a World Education Forum to
achieve the Education For All (EFA) goals and targets for every citizen and society by
2015, particularly girls and children in difficult circumstances. All to be given access and
complete free compulsory primary education of good quality. Education is one of the
basic rights of every child; hence we‘ll look at how this conference covered the rights of
children and protection.
Learning Outcomes

 Define terms used in the Dakar Statement.
 Discuss the key recommendations of the Dakar Conference.
 Explain the case study of India.
The Dakar Statement
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Child : Any human being under the age of 18years
Child Abuse : Physical, sexual, Psychological and mental injury inflicted on a
child
Disabled Child : A child suffering from physical or mental handicap
which necessitate special care for the child
ILO : International Labour Laws
EFA : Education for ALL
NGOs : Non-governmental Organizations

HIV/AIDS : Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome
As earlier defined a child according to the constitution (Children‘s Act 2001) is any human
being under the age of 18 years. This definition also applies to the United Nations on
Children‘s rights.
Key Recommendations
The Dakar Conference has highlighted the plight of children and their rights. This includes
children affected or orphaned by HIV/AIDS hence posing a threat to EFA goals by 2015.
Most children who are affected and/or infected are mostly stigmatized by the society thus it
requires immediate attention to control and reduce its spread and create behaviour change to
bring more stability for children.
Basic needs like food, shelter, clothing and education should also be provided to all children
on equal basis. When nurtured and cared for, children become alert, healthy and able to learn.
Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care should be promoted to
enhance nationality and ethnicity.
Through a consultative group organized to strategize a session on early childhood, the Dakar
Conference highlighted that it should be compulsory but non-formal ECDE programmes and
parental education initiative is still a concern and are yet to be agreed upon. The
incorporation of sub-group of sexual exploitation in article 28 CRC states that children
should be protected from sexual exploitation and abusers. This include eliminating all and
worst forms of child labour through the implementation of ILO c182 and 183, as it stands in
the way of education of children in general. Those at most disadvantages are children with
special needs, ethnic minorities and isolated communities from the urban slums.
Case study of India, where exists a vicious cycle of poverty and child labour and illiteracy in
many adults who find themselves jobless as child labour is cheaper. This increases the
number of children who are un-educated, unskilled and fall prey of health hazards of loosing
vital organs in accidents and/or remain sick or handicap for the rest of their lives. This,
however, will change with time as the government of India has committed to provide free,
compulsory primary education up to the age of 14 years as enshrined in its constitution.
Activity 8
How does HIV/AIDS pose a threat to EFA goals? [5 Marks]
Further reading
www.kenyalaw.org
References
The Dakar Conference Report
Topic 9
The African Charter

Introduction
The African Charter takes the African approach to the children‘s rights. It takes cognizance
of the virtues of African cultural heritage and values of African civilization, which should
inspire and characterize the content of the rights of the African child. It is the most customary
and cultural sensitive international convention.
Learning Outcome
 Discuss the African Charter.
The African Charter
The idea to develop the African Charter on the rights of the child emanated from a conference
organized by the African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and
Neglect (ANPPCAN) and supported by UNICEF on children in situation of armed conflict in
Africa in 1987.
The African Charter was adopted in July 1990 at the 6th Ordinary Session of the Assembly of
Heads of State and Government of the OAU, now African Union (AU).
Kenya ratified the Charter in 2000.
The Charter was drafted for the following main objectives.
1. Pay attention to special issues prevailing in Africa;
Example; Apartheid, unequal treatment of female children and female genital mutilation, a
phenomenon which was a reality in Africa etc.
2. Complement the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child;
 The Charter categorically defined a child as any person under the age of 18 that was
not very clear in the CRC.
 The Charter also looked into special categories of children like the Children of
imprisoned mothers.
 The Charter also specifically defined and prescribed the aims of issues like education
further to providing for the right, an aspect that was missing in the CRC.
 The main objective for the Charter was to make the rights and welfare of the Child
envisaged in CRC relevant to the African child.
How the African Charter differs from the UNCRC
1. Address the unique position of and the peculiar problems faced by the African child
2. The African Charter Lays special emphasis on the family as a unit in need of protection
and support from the state.
3. The Charter Standardizes the age of the child to 18 years and also raises the age at which
children may be recruited into forces to take direct part in hostilities from 15 (UNCRC) to
18 year.
4. Identifies what education should seek to accomplish and introduces a provision urging
states to ensure that children who become pregnant before completing their education
shall be accorded an opportunity to continue with it on the basis of their individual ability.
5. Participation rights extended to parents, relatives, communities and NGO‘s.
6. Recognizes that most children on the continent work in the informal sector or as beggars.
7. Urges states to intensify efforts to protect children living under discriminatory practices
(racial, ethnic, religious) and to eliminate cultural practices that are not in the best
interests of the child.
8. Special provision for children of imprisoned mothers.
9. Introduces the notion that children have duties and obligations to their families,
communities and the State in addition to possessing rights as is discussed below.
10. Prohibits death sentence for crimes committed by children
Summary
At the time of drafting the African Charter, the United Nation Convention of the Rights of the
Child was also being drafted. Thus the main objective of the charter was to approach the
rights of children from the African perspective.
Activity 9
Analyse the contribution of the African Charter to the Kenyan Children‘s Act, 2001.
[10 Marks]
Further reading
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
References
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
Topic 10
Kenyan Instruments on Child Rights:

1. The Constitution
Introduction
The constitution of Kenya is the Supreme law of the land from which all other laws draw
their basis. It contains the Bill of Rights, which guarantees fundamental rights & freedom to
all subjects. However, the constitution does not expressly and adequately provide for non-
discrimination on the basis of age. All persons including children are equal before the law.
Referendum: The people of Kenya, in exercise of their sovereign right to replace the
Constitution, ratified the proposed New Constitution of Kenya through a referendum held on
the 4th August, 2010, in accordance with the provisions of section 47A of the Constitution of
Kenya and Part V of the Constitution of Kenya Review Act, 2008;
Promulgation of the new constitution: In exercise of the powers conferred on the president
by section 47A(6) of the Constitution of Kenya and section 43A of the Constitution of Kenya
Review Act, 2008, Mwai Kibaki, President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces
(now Defense Forces) of the Republic of Kenya, declared that the Constitution set out in the
Schedule shall be the new Constitution of Kenya with effect from the 27th August, 2010.
Learning Outcome

 Discuss the sovereignty of the people of Kenya & Supremacy of the Kenyan
constitution.
 Discuss the concept of devolution.
 Explain the National & Official languages of Kenya
 Identify National symbols and National days
 Discuss child rights as provided by the new Kenyan Constitution.
The Kenyan Constitution, 2010
SOVEREIGNTY OF THE PEOPLE AND SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION
1. All sovereign power belongs to the people of Kenya and is exercised only in accordance
with the Constitution.
2. The people exercise this sovereign power either directly or through their democratically
elected representatives.
3. Sovereign power under the Constitution is delegated to the following State organs, which
performs their functions in accordance with the Constitution;
a) Parliament and the Legislative Assemblies in the County Governments;
b) The National Executive and the Executive structures in the County Governments; and
c) The Judiciary and Independent Tribunals.
4. The sovereign power of the people is exercised at;
a) The national level; and
b) The county level.
5. The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State
organs at both levels of government.
6. No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorised under the
Constitution.
7. The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any
court or other State organ.
8. Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the
extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution
is invalid.
9. The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.
10. Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under the
Constitution.
11. Every person has an obligation to respect, uphold and defend the Constitution.
12. Any attempt to establish a government otherwise than in compliance with the
Constitution is unlawful.
DEVOLUTION AND ACCESS TO SERVICES
1. The territory of Kenya is divided into 47 Counties.
2. The governments at the National and County levels are distinct and inter-dependent and
should conduct their mutual relations on the basis of consultation and cooperation.
3. A national State organ should ensure reasonable access to its services in all parts of the
Republic, as it is appropriate having regard to the nature of the service.
NATIONAL, OFFICIAL AND OTHER LANGUAGES IN KENYA
1. The national language of the Republic is Kiswahili.
2. The official languages of the Republic are Kiswahili and English.
3. The State ––
a) Promotes and protects the diversity of language of the people of Kenya; and
b) Promotes the development and use of indigenous languages, Kenyan Sign language,
Braille and other communication formats and technologies accessible to persons with
disabilities.
NATIONAL SYMBOLS
1. The national symbols of the Republic are––
a) The national flag;
b) The national anthem;
c) The coat of arms; (shown below)
d) The public seal. (shown below)
NATIONAL DAYS IN KENYA

The national days are––
a) Madaraka Day, observed on 1st June;
b) Mashujaa Day, observed on 20th October; and
c) Jamhuri Day, observed on 12th December.
A national day is a public holiday.
Parliament may enact legislation prescribing other public holidays, and providing for
observance of public holidays.
CHILDREN
Every child has the right––
a) to a name and nationality from birth;
b) to free and compulsory basic education;
c) to basic nutrition, shelter and health care;
d) to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence,
inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour;
e) to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and
father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not;
f) not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held –
i) for the shortest appropriate period of time; and
ii) separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child‘s sex and age.
A child‘s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
Summary
The rights and freedom of an individual, both children and adults are contained in the
constitution. Even though citizen presumably including children are guaranteed the
enjoyment of all the rights and freedoms in the constitution, it is silent on the group rights of
the marginalized lot like children. The procedures prescribed in the constitution make it
difficult to obtain redress when the rights are infringed.
Activity 10
Why does the constitution mention very little about children and their rights?
[5 Marks]
Further reading
www.kenyalaw.org
References
National Council for Law Reporting at www.kenyalaw.org
The Constitution of Kenya, 2010
Topic 11
Kenyan Instruments on Child Rights:

2. The Children‘s Act, 2001
Introduction
The Kenya‘s Children‘s Act No 8 of 2001 was passed for several reasons:
1. Kenya is a signatory to the UNCRC that came into force in 1989. Kenya signed this
convention in 1990, which goes without, saying that the government agreed with the
contents of that convention. Therefore this Act Creates a Kenyan Law that provides
similar provisions as the UNCRC. ;
2. The Act constitutes into one law a number of laws that affect children. These laws are:
a) The children and Young Persons Act
b) The Guardianship of Infants Act
c) The Adoption Act
Learning Outcomes

 Discuss the principles of the rights of the child.
 Describe the safeguards of rights and the welfare of children.
 Explain the duties of a child to the family and the community.
 Discuss the duties of a parent to the child.
 Explain the rights of a parent to the child.
 Describe the administration of children‘s services.
 Discuss various children institutions.
The Children’s Act, 2001
Principles of the rights of the child

1. Best interest of the child
2. Interrelation of the rights
3. Rights apply to every child without discrimination on the basis of gender, race, age,
ability or religion.
4. Children at risk should have their needs met and be protected
5. Developmental rights depend on the appropriate stage
Safeguards for the Rights and Welfare of children
Every child has a right to:
1. Life: This includes the growth and development of the child and is the responsibility of
the Government and the family of the child
2. Education: This is the responsibility of the government and the family of the child.
3. Religious education.
4. Health.
5. Not be discriminate against on the basis of where the child comes from, sex, religion,
beliefs, customs, language, opinion, conscience, colour, birth, social, political, economic,
status, race, disability, tribe, residence.
6. Live with its parent unless there is a special reason for the child to be separated from its
parents.
7. Be protected from child labour and armed conflict.
8. Be protected from any use of drugs that are not allowed by the government
9. Be protected from sexual abuse like prostitution or exposure to obscene material.
10. Be protected from physical and psychological abuse.
11. Every female child shall be protected from early marriage, female circumcision and any
cultural practice that affects the child in any way.
12. Be protected from torture, inhuman treatment and unlawful arrest. If a child is arrested the
child must be kept apart from adults and the parents of the child notified.
13. A name and a nationality.
14. Every child who is disabled has the right to be treated with respect and to be given proper
medical care education and training free of charge when possible.
15. Leisure, play and recreation.
16. Every child has a right to privacy.
Duties of a child in the family and community the child lives in
A child is supposed to:
a) Behave in a manner that makes family and community live in unity and harmony.
b) Respect parents, other members of the family, community members and people older than
the child.
c) Serve the community by their talents and ability.
d) Preserve and strengthen positive cultural practices.
Duties of a parent to a child
These are aimed at ensuring that the child is protected, taken care of without hindrance. The
duties of a parent are:
a) Take care of their children and provide with:
i) Proper diet
ii) Shelter
iii) Clothing
iv) medical care
v) Education
vi) Guidance
b) Protect the child in any way
c) Make sure that the child is not left to suffer or be abused in any way.
The Rights of a Parent when dealing with their child
Parents have the right to:
 Give guidance in religious, moral and cultural values.
 Name their children.
 Appoint a guardian for their children
 Take care of the property of the child for the benefit of the child until the child becomes
an adult.
 Burry or cremate (burn) their children when their children die.
 Allow or refuse movement of their children from Kenya.
Parental Responsibility: Who has it?
The Act spells out clearly who has the responsibility of being a parent to a child. This would
be as follows:
a) Parental care and protection, includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to
provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not;
b) Where one parent dies the responsibility of taking care of the child is taken by the other
parent where both parents of a child die responsibility can be taken by a guardian chosen
by the parents and a court or any person appointed by the court or a relative of the child.
c) Parental responsibilities can be given to any person appointed by a court
Administration of children's Services
Children are vulnerable and therefore demand the creation of institutions to protect the rights
of children. Here we look at the responsibilities of these institutions and the officers who
serve there.
1. The National Council for Children's Service (NCCS)
Its functions include:
a) Supervise all child welfare activities
b) Advice the government on all issues affecting, children.
c) Make rules on planning, financing and coordination of all child welfare activities.
d) Determine priorities in socio-economic policies of the government
e) Plan, supervise and co-ordinate public education programmes on children

f) Facilitate donor funding of children‘s projects
g) Coordinate and control all funds the council receives for children‘s projects
h) Technical and other support to children welfare agencies
i) Prescribe training requirements and qualification of its officers
j) Ensure enhancement of the best interest of children
k) Ensure implementation of Kenya‘s international and national obligations relating to
children
l) Formulation of policies on family employment and social security
m) Provision of social services essential to the welfare of family and children
n) Approve or disapprove children welfare programs
o) Strategize creation of public awareness on children rights and welfare
p) Set criteria for establishment of children‘s institutions
q) Programme to alleviate plight of children with special needs
r) Establish panels that help appoint guardians ad litem by the court
s) Establish area Advisory Council specialized in children‘s rights and welfare
t) Create linkages and exchange programmes with local and international organizations
u) Create enabling environment for effective implementation of Children‘s Act
Membership of the NCCS
The council has 20 members as outlined
a) Chairman
Who is appointed by the Government.
b) Permanent Secretaries from the ministries
 Responsible for Children‘s matters
 Responsible for Education
 Responsible for Local Authorities
 Responsible for Health
 Responsible for Finance
 Responsible for Labour
c) The Attorney General
d) The Commissioner of Police
e) 6 representatives from NGOs
f) 3 representatives from religious organization
g) 2 representatives from the private sectors
h) Director of children's service.
The people (members) serve for 3 years. They can however be reinstated for another term of
3 years.
The Director of children's Services
1. Is appointed by the minister in charge of children's affairs.
2. He will among other things
a) Assist the National Council in promoting coordinating and supervising and facilities
that deal with children.
b) Supervise other officers carrying out any activity that affects children.
CHILDREN'S INSTITUTIONS
a) Rehabilitation Schools
It‘s responsibility of the government to establish these schools and care for children.
Moreover, the government will:
i) Ensure that all schools are in proper condition
ii) Ensure that management of these schools is in the interest of children.
iii) See to it that children of different ages, sexes shall be kept separately.
iv) Ensure that child offenders are kept separate as well.
v) Children in need of care and protection
b) Remand Homes
i) Is the responsibility of the minister in charge of children's affairs to set them up for
children.
ii) Provide a place for children who need protection and care to stay.
iii) Be supervised by the director. The director can apply to the children's court to have an
order sending a child to a remand home to be revoked.
iv) See to it that children of different ages, sexes shall be kept separately. Children can be
moved from one home to another for special reasons.
v) After a child has completed the period of stay, he or she shall be under supervision of
a person appointed by the director for at least 2 years or until the age of 21 whichever
one is shorter.
vi) If a child is of difficult character, their period of stay may be increased by 6 months
where such a child is younger than 16 years. If older than 16 years they may be sent to
a brutal institution. The child shall be given the necessary care and counseling. The
parents of such a child must be informed of any action taken that affects the child. If a
child gets sick, he may be taken to a health institution.
c) Charitable Children's Institutions:
Are children's institutions that manage programmes for care, protection, rehabilitation or
control of children. These are NOT rehabilitation schools, normal schools, brutal institution,
health institution, child day care center or nurseries.
The government must register them. Their welfare programmes must be approved by the
National Council for Children's Services. Progress of children in these institutions shall be
monitored. A charitable institution can apply for approved officers to carry out its functions.
The director has the mandate to authorize an inspector officer to inspect any institution. Any
person who refuses to allow an inspector in these institutions is liable for prosecution and
imprisonment for nine months, fined fifty thousand shillings or both.
The Minister in charge of children's affairs also has authority to appoint inspection
committees to inspect any child institution. The Director has power to remove any child from
any child institution. The Minister has power to make rules for the running of all child
institutions
d) Children's Courts
Are to hear and try all matters regarding children other than a charge of murder. They usually
sit in different rooms and times from other courts.
People allowed in these courts are:
1. Members and court officers
2. People involved in the case
3. Parents or guardian of the child in court
4. Representatives of newspapers or news agencies and
5. Any person allowed by the court.

In special cases, a courtroom can be cleared, leaving only the advocates and the persons
involved in the case. Details about any child involved in a case cannot be put in newspaper,
on television or radios. Photographs or drawings of the child cannot be made.
All children‘s court rulings, decisions and orders are based on:
1. The feelings and wishes of the child
2. The physical, emotional & educational needs of the child in need of special care.
3. The effects/consequences of the order or decision on the child
4. The child's age, sex or religious persuasion and cultural background
5. The Parental ability to provide for and take care of the child
6. The Customs and Practices of the child's community.
7. The child's exposure to drugs and other substances
The government provides legal assistance to any unrepresented child. The court can also
appoint a guardian for the child during the proceedings. All appeals can go to the High Court
and Court or Appeal from orders made by the children's Court.
Summary
Topics that are discussed in this topic on the Children‘s Act, 2001 include:
The principles of the rights of the child
The safeguards of rights and the welfare of children
The duties of a child to the family and the community
The duties and rights of a parent to the child
The administration of children‘s services
Various children institutions
Activity 11
Compare and contrast the African Charter and The Kenyan Children‘s Act, 2001.
[10 Marks]
Further reading
www.kenyalaw.org
References

Topic 12
The Kenyan Children‘s Act (Continued)

Introduction
The Children‘s Act came into force 1st March 2002 after receiving Presidential assent on 31st
Dec 2001. There is now a children's Court, which is a subordinate court to the High court of
Kenya with a Presiding magistrate. The chief justice gazetted 73 magistrates to handle
children's cases throughout the country.
Learning Outcomes
 Discuss the Custody of the child.
 Explain Maintenance of a child.
 Discuss Guardianship of a child.
 Discuss various Judicial Orders for child protection.
 Describe children in need of care and protection.
 Discuss the provisions of escapee children.
 Describe Foster Care Placement
 Discuss the Adoption of a child
 Explain Child Offenders
The Children’s Act, 2001
CUSTODY
Where a person has no parental responsibilities over a child but is in possession they're
supposed to take care of the child in all aspects. A court can give custody to a parent,
guardian or any other person it thinks fit. The court will decide on the basis of the child's:
 Best interest
 Wishes
 Religion
 Any other issue(s)
 Relatives and any other person with parental responsibilities wishes.
In the case of divorce the parent of the child found responsible for the divorce cannot be
granted custody unless given permission by the court. If a person takes away a child from a
person who has custody they commit an offence and can be imprisoned or fined or both. The
court can order a child to be taken back to the person with legal custody. It can also make
decisions about who can have custody and can also revoke an order for custody. Custody or a
child comes to an end when the child reaches 18 years of age unless the court orders an
extension.
MAINTENANCE
Following are the people charged with the responsibility of providing maintenance of a child:
1. The parents if the child was born when they were married
2. Joint guardians and custodians '
3. A person who lives with the child by a court order
4. If parents are not married but the father accepts the child to be, both parents have
maintenance responsibility.
A court can decide who should have the responsibility of maintenance.
A person who reaches 28 years old can apply to the court to have maintenance continue in the
case of needs like education, training or if the person is disabled or needs special care or
special medical care. Maintenance can be paid periodically or a lump sum can be paid. When
a court decides the amount to be paid as maintenance it will base its decision on the
following:
1. The income of the person with parental responsibility.
2. The needs of the child.
3. Whether or not the child has any property and income that can be used to meet their
needs,
4. Whether or not the child has any disability or needs any special care.
5. The customs and culture of the child.
6. Other responsibilities of the persons paying maintenance.
GUARDIANSHIP
A guardian is a person appointed by one or both parents of a child or any person with parental
responsibility over the child to take care of the child when both or one of the parents die.
A guardian can be a foreigner. Apart from taking care of the child, the guardian can be
appointed to take care of the property of a child without having possession of the child. If one
parent dies, the surviving parent becomes the automatic guardian.
A parent can appoint a guardian by a WILL where one parent is still alive and there's a
guardian appointed by the dead parent, the surviving parent can go to court to be declared the
sole guardian. A court can appoint a guardian for a child.
A person can refuse to be a guardian. A guardianship appointment can come to an end if a
parent, child or relative of the child applies to the court.
Guardianship can also extend beyond the eighteenth birthday with permission of the court.
The court can settle any dispute between two or more guardians. If a guardian misuses the
property of a child they can be ordered to pay it back by the court. A guardian who also does
not take care of the property of a child and is careless with it can be jailed for one year and
fined Kshs 50,000 or both.
JUDICIAL ORDERS FOR CHILD PROTECTION
The children's court can make some orders, which concern the bringing of children and their
welfare. A child, parent, guardian, relative, director and authorized officer can apply for an
order.
a) Access Order
Allows another person to visit the child or allows the child to visit that person
b) Residence Order
State where a child shall live and with whom
c) Exclusion order
Stops a person or people from staying with the child
d) Child assessment order
Allows the child to be evaluated again to see how the child is doing
e) Family assistance order
Allows a person to give guidance and advice to the child's family
f) Ward ship order
Puts the child under the protection of the court
g) Production Order
Makes a person keeping a child or hiding them to bring them to the court that makes the
order
A person who refuses to obey an order can be jailed or fined or both.
CHILDREN IN NEED OF CARE AND PROTECTION
There are children who need special protection according to this sub-section. These include:
1. A child who has been left by his/her parents.
2. A child who has no parents or whose parents have been jailed
3. A child of parents who are unable to bring up the child.

4. A child whose parents or guardians are unfit to take care of the child
5. A child who runs away from parents or guardians
6. A child who is prevented from getting education
7. A child who is in danger of female circumcision or has already undergone the rite.
8. A child kept in unhealthy surroundings
9. A child who is exposed to violence at home.
10. A child who is disabled and is being mistreated
11. A child who has been sexually abused or exposed to unfit sexual material.
12. A child labourer
13. A chi1d who has been displaced by war or conflict
14. A child who is using illegal drugs or other harmful substances
15. A child exposed to anything that affects their health, physical well-being and social
development.
An authorized officer
 Can investigate any situation that seems like a child is likely to be harmed or in need of
special care or attention.
 Can take away a child. However if he did not have a warrant, the parent can apply to the
court for a court order to have the child returned.
The Director of Children‘s Services
 Can investigate any situation where they feel a-child is in need of care and protection. A
charitable institution can receive a child in need of special care and protection but must
bring the child before a court in 3 months.
 Reports must be sent every month to the director. Any expenses by the charitable
institution can be recovered from the parents or guardian. I f a child needs medical
attention, they can be taken to a hospital and the parents or guardian of the child be
notified. Any expenses in the hospital shall be paid by the government.
 A parent has a right to be heard by the court if their child needs special care and
protection.
A court can make some order in the case of children who need care and protection. These are:
 Order that the child be returned to its parents or guardians

 Order that the parents or guardians execute a bond that they will take care of the child
 Order of the child be taken to a rehabilitation school,
 Order that the child be reunited with their family in the case of separation in conflict or
war.
 Order that children with special needs like disability have their needs met.
 Order in the case of child marriage that marriage be dissolved
 Order that a child involved in drug abuse be sent to a rehabilitation center.
A court can order a search warrant for children who are suspected to be in need of special
care and protection. Before any order is made by the court it shall investigate any claim and it
can make temporary orders as investigations are going on. The court can make a care order
which places the child in the care of a person who is not the parent or guardian. The needs of
the child shall he considered when the care order is made. These needs can be:
a) Disability
b) Any other special need

When a child is under care the parents, guardian's relatives and any other person allowed by
the court can meet with the child as the court orders.
Escapees
 A child who runs away from a children's institution or appointed authority can be
arrested and brought before a court.
 The court can:
1. Order that the child be returned to the institution
2. Place them elsewhere
3. Place them in a rehabilitation school
 If a child runs away from an institution, the managers must report before 2 days pass
or they can be jailed or fined or both.
 A person who helps a child to run away can be fined or jailed or both.
 If a person hides a child who has escaped and refuses to bring them to a court when
asked to do so can be jailed or fined or both.
 The court can also order that the parents or guardian of a child meets some of the
expenses during a child's rehabilitation.
 The minister in charge of children's affairs can with the permission of Parliament
allow a Child to be given to the care of a person or institution outside Kenya.
FOSTER CARE PLACEMENT
When a child is placed in a rehabilitation school or children‘s home, the man is to
periodically supervise and check the condition of the child and take all measures possible to
safeguard their welfare.
The provisions will cease to have effect in relation to a child when:
 The care order has been dismissed/discharged by a court.
 The expiration of the foster placement period is reached.
 The child attains the age of 18 years.
Who is qualified to be a foster parent?
 A married couple.
 A single woman not below 25 years
 A single man not below 25 years.
Who cannot be a foster parent?
 An unmarried female cannot foster a boy.
 An unmarried male cannot foster a girl.
Only a Kenyan resident (for at least 12 months) can be appointed foster parent. A foster
parent shall not go outside the country with the child without permission from the court.
Registration for foster care placement cannot be done without first notifying the director. An
agreement for maintenance of the foster child on request from the foster parent can be made
with the permission of the director.
ADOPTION
Hearings of the court on adoption will be done in private. The minister in charge of children
will establish an adoption committee to look at all adoption activities in Kenya.
What are the conditions for Adoption?
Before a child can be adopted, the following conditions must be met;

1. The child to be adopted must be at least 6 weeks old and declared free for adoption.
2. An adoption order in favor of the person adopting must be made by a court
Can Any Child be adopted?
A child who is resident within Kenya, whether a citizen, born or not born in Kenya can be
adopted
Who can adopt a child?
Married or unmarried persons can adopt. However they must meet the following conditions;
1. Be at least 25 years old
2. Be at least 21 years older than the child
3. Has not attained 65 years of age.
4. Is a relative of the child
5. Is the mother or father of the child.
Who cannot adopt a child?
1. An unmarried male Applicant cannot adopt a female child.
2. An unmarried female applicant cannot adopt a male child.
3. An applicant or applicants who has or both have attained 65 years.
4. A sole foreign female applicant
5. Not of sound mind.
6. Those charged and convicted by a court
7. Homosexuals
8. If joint applicants are not married to each other
9. A sole foreign male applicant
CHILD OFFENDERS
A children's court may try a child for any offence EXCEPT:
1. The offence of murder
2. An offence where a child is charged together with a person(s) of or above 18 years of
age.
Every child accused or law breaking shall:
1. Be informed immediately and directly of the charges against him.
2. If they are unable to obtain legal assistance, the government shall provide them with
assistance in the preparation of their defense.
3. Have the matter determined without delay
4. Not be compelled to give testimony or to confess guilt.
5. Have tree assistance of an interpreter if the child cannot understand or speak the
language used.
6. If found guilty, have decisions and any measures imposed in consequence thereof
reviewed by a higher court.
7. Have their privacy fully respected at all the proceeding
8. If they are disabled, be given special care and be treated with the same dignity as a
child with no disability.
The court should be friendly to the child. A child cannot be sentenced to death if the Child
younger than ten years, they cannot be sent to a rehabilitation school. A child who is older
than ten years can be sent to a rehabilitation school. A child older than 16 years can be sent to
a borstal institution.
The child can also be placed under care of a counselor or placed in probation hostel. A child
can be ordered to do community service.
A child cannot be subjected to caning. If the child needs mental treatment, the court can
order that they receive such care. A parent can also be ordered to pay fines.
Summary
Topics that are discussed in this section on the Children‘s Act, 2001 include:
The Custody and Maintenance of the child
Guardianship of a child
Judicial Orders for child protection.
Children in need of care and protection
Escapee children
Foster Care Placement
Adoption of a child and Child Offenders
Activity 12
Discuss why;
1. An unmarried male Applicant cannot adopt a female child. [5 Marks]
2. An unmarried female applicant cannot adopt a male child. [5 Marks]
Further reading
www.kenyalaw.org
References

Topic 13
Safeguarding Children‘s Rights

Introduction
All children regardless of their race, socio-economic status and religion have rights, which
must be safeguarded by those who care for them and especially their parents, other
caregivers, teachers and the government.
Learning Outcomes
 Discuss how the rights of the child can be safeguarded at the family, community, ECD
centers and primary schools
 Demonstrate the ability to safeguard the rights of the child in his/her interactions with
children.
Safeguarding Children’s Rights
The Role of Family, Community, ECD Centers and Primary Schools

1. They should promote cooperation rather than competition
2. Parents should not misuse their parental powers

3. There should be respect for the basic human rights of children
4. There should be no rigid, compulsive rules or gender roles
5. There should be sharing of house work or household chores
6. Teachers should ensure that children live in a conducive, safe and healthy environment
at school
7. Parents, teachers and the community should provide security to the children and protect
them from harm.
8. The community should provide physical facilities like classrooms, learning and
teaching materials
9. The community should give the child an opportunity to enjoy his or her culture, profess
or practice his or her religion and use his or her language
10. The child should have leisure play and opportunity to participate in cultural and artistic
activities both at home and school
11. Parents should avail education to the child by paying fees, providing uniform, books
12. The school should provide quality education to the child and help to develop child‘s
personality, talents, mental and physical abilities to their fullest
13. The government has also provided free primary education and has continually provided
teachers, but there should be improved provision of services, materials to all public
schools
14. Children should be protected from abuse and neglect from parents and caregivers
15. Parents and teachers should provide guidance and counseling to the child
16. The government should provide a safe adoption system
17. Children should live with their parents or maintain close contact
18. Both parents should equally share responsibility over their children
19. The government should provide special protection in emergency situation such as
armed conflict or when the child is separated from family or home, abuse such as child
labour, drug abuse, sexual exploitation and abuse, drug trafficking, abduction etc
20. Parents, teachers and the community should protect the child from discrimination of any
kind.
Teachers and caregivers should demonstrate intervention strategies as they interact with the
children in the following ways:
1. Ensure they respect and safeguard the rights of children in all interactions
2. Protect children from harm
3. Create awareness on rights of children to children, parents, caregivers and the
community
4. Provide activities ensuring safeguarding the rights and protection of children.
Summary
It is only when children have their rights safeguarded through various ways a discussed
above, that they will realize their full potential in life.
Activity 13
Discuss the challenges of ensuring that the rights of a child in Kenya are safeguarded.
[5 Marks]
Further reading
Ministry of Education: Task Force on the Re-alignment of the Education Sector to the
Constitution of Kenya 2010 towards a Globally Competitive Quality Education for
Sustainable Development, Report of the task force, February 2012
References
The Children‘s Act, 2001
Total marks for all the activities = 100

HEALTH, NUTRITION AND CARE
8.1.0 Introduction
This unit deals with basic introduction to issues pertaining to the child in terms of health,
nutrition, safety, diseases and accidents. Trainees will be made aware of the importance of
balanced diet to cater for the children and mothers with emphasis on the locally available
foods. Trainees will be equipped with knowledge, skills and attitudes to mobilize the
communities on starting feeding programs at ECDE centers.
In addition, the unit intends to equip the learners with necessary knowledge, skills and
attitudes to enable them cope with devastating effects of HIV, AIDS and Sexually
Transmitted Infections (STIs). The unit therefore, provides a necessary and useful practical
purpose in the training of early childhood instructors in a Kenyan context where the issues of
child health are critical.
8.2.0 Learning Outcomes
a) Define the terms related to Health, Nutrition and Care

b) Discuss the maternal, child health and family planning services in the community
c) Explain the principles of Primary Health Care in relation to promotion of community
health
d) Identify common childhood diseases and their preventive measures
e) Discuss the strategies of improving the nutritional status in early childhood
development
f) Describe basic elements of child safety and protection
g) Explain services offered by ministry of Health and other organizations concerned with
maternal and child health
h) Discuss HIV/AIDS and STIs
i) Evaluate social behavior that reduce the risks of HIV, AIDS and STIs infection.
j) Use Growth, Monitoring and promotion tools to assess children‘s Health and
Nutritional status in the community.
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Learning Outcome: Be able to explain the concepts of health, nutrition and care.
This chapter defines terms related to Health, Care and Nutrition which the learners will come
across as they study this module. These terms include Health, Nutrition, care and maternal
and child health.
Health
This is the condition of the body and the mind. The World Health Organization (WHO)
describes health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity. The absence of disease is important, but that alone is not
enough. A child maybe physically healthy with no apparent disease, but be withdrawn and
not join the activities in the child-care setting, may be due to loss of a loved family member.
Such a child cannot be said to be healthy.
Nutrition
Nutrition is the food we eat and how the body uses it. It may also be considered as the science
of food and it relation to health. In other words, nutrition may be defined as a process of
eating, digesting and assimilating food for body to function properly
Food is anything solid or liquid which when taken, will enable the body to perform one or all
the following functions
a) Production of heat and energy
b) Growth, repair and reproduction
c) Protection against diseases
d) Regulation of all these processes.
Nutrition on the other hand is the process through which the body makes use of the nutrients
in food.
There is a high relation between nutrition and the health of a child. Malnourished children
have little resistance to infections, therefore they fall sick often. Malnourished or sick
children are also weak, they lack energy therefore they are less active, less alert, they are
unable to concentrate and are less motivated to explore the environment around them.
Care
Care refers to actions or behaviours that promote child survival, growth and development.
Caring for children ensures that children‘s needs are satisfied. Some of the care practices
include:-
 Breastfeeding
 Showing affection and love to the child
 Providing security and protection
 Provision of safe environment for play exploration and discovery.
Maternal and child health
This refers to be social, emotional, physical and mental well-being of the mother before,
during and after pregnancy and also the welfare of the baby before and after birth.
As explained earlier, health does not only imply absence of disease or infirmity but also
involves emotional, social and mental well-being.
CHAPTER 2:
COMMON CHILDHOOD DISEASES
Learning Outcome: Be able to discuss common childhood diseases.
COMMON CHILHOOD DISEASES
This chapter examines various childhood diseases, their causes symptoms and preventive and
curative measures against these diseases which are common in children under six years of
age.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:
a) Identify common childhood diseases

b) State the cause of some common diseases in children.
c) Recognize the symptoms of some common childhood diseases
d) Describe preventive and curative measures of common childhood diseases.
The common diseases in childhood will be diseased in two main groups i.e.
(i) Immunizable diseases
(ii) Non-immunicable diseases.
(i) IMMUNIZABLE DISEASES
Immunizable diseases are those for which vaccine are given to help the body build protection
(immunity) against these diseases include:-
a) Tuberculosis
b) Whooping cough
c) Tetanus
d) Diphtheria
e) Poliomyelitis
f) Hepatitis B
g) Influenza
NB: New born babies have natural immunity to some diseases which is acquired from the
mother through breast milk. This immunity is however not long lasting hence the need for
immunization.
a) TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis is an airborne disease. It can also be spread through the air or through body
fluids like saliva & sputum the germ is preventable and curable. It is spread more easily in
dust, overcrowded places with no fresh air. It normally attacks the lungs although it may
attack other parts of the body e.g. the bones.
Signs and symptoms of Tuberculosis
 Persistent cough
 Fever
 Sweating at night
 Pain in the chest
 Blood stained spittle when one cough
 Loss of weight
Prevention of Tuberculosis
 Immunization. The B.C.G. vaccine against T.B. is given immediately after birth in the
hospital
 Avoid crowded places
 Live in well ventilated and lit homes
 Avoid spitting on the ground
 Eat balanced diet
Management of Tuberculosis
 Isolate the sick child
 Give the patient a diet rich in proteins and vitamins
 Give plenty of rest and sleep in a well-ventilated room.
b) WHOOPING COUGH (PERTUSIS)
Whooping cough is caused by a germ that spreads easily through the air. It is a serious
disease and causes a persistent cough that is difficult to get rid off. It is contagious thus
spreads easily among children through contact with the patient or through the throat or
through articles soiled with discharge.
Symptoms of whooping cough
 It starts with a cough, fever and a slight cold after a few days.
 A characteristic whoop is heard after 1-2weeks and this makes it difficult for the child
to breath.
 Fever is noticed
 The child vomits especially after coughing
 There‘s a watery discharge from the nose
 The child sneezes
Prevention of whooping cough
 The child should be immunized with DPT vaccine which is given in three doses. A
child is ready for this vaccine at six weeks. The rest of the vaccine are given at
intervals of 1 month. a booster vaccine against whooping cough may be given at
18months and 5 years.
 Isolate any patient suffering from whooping cough to prevent its spread.
 Avoid overcrowded places
Treatment of whooping cough
 There is often danger of pneumonia developing and therefore great care must be taken
to provide warmth.
 Take the child to the hospital
 Give the child plenty of fruits drinks and water
 Comfort the child after coughing and vomiting
 Give light foods especially soup and soft, well mashed foods.
 Prevent the child from coughing and vomiting
c) TETANUS
This is a deadly disease but is immunizable. Germs that cause tetanus are found in the soil
and in the stomachs of grass eating animals. These germs enter the body through cuts by dirty
knives, rusty nails and barbed wire. The germs multiply and produce poison which causes
stiffening of the muscle.
Symptoms of tetanus
 The injured part may swell
 The child‘s jaws become stiff and cannot move easily making it hard for him to feed
 Breathing becomes difficult
 Neck muscles become stiff followed by the rest of the body
 The child develops fever and is in a lot of pain
 The patient sweats and respiratory muscles become paralyzed and eventually he dies.
Prevention of Tetanus
 Immunize the child with DPT vaccine which is given at six weeks and 14weeks,
preventing tetanus, diphtheria and whooping cough.
 Tetanus toxoid can be given to children above 5 years
 Expectant mothers should be injected with tetanus toxoid to protect themselves and
their babies against tetanus.
 The new born baby‘s umbilical cord should be cut with sterilized razor/pair of
scissors.
 Avoid traditional dressing of the umbilical cord with cow dung or mud
 Deep cut and marks from dirty nails and other metal equipment should be treated
immediately and another anti-tetanus injection administered to the patient.
Treatment of the Tetanus
Tetanus is almost 100% fatal and is not an easy disease to treat.
d) DIPTHERIA
This is a highly contagious but immunizable disease. It can easily kill a child. It is caused by
a germ that is spread from one person to another through the air. The disease affects the
nerves and blood vessels.
Symptoms of Diptheria
 Severe sore and swollen throat
 Hoarse voice
 Fever
 Difficulty in breathing and swallowing
 Sometimes a grayish thin skin can be seen covering the back of the mouth
 The affected child becomes weak and sickly.
Prevention of diphtheria
 Diphtheria is prevented with the D.P.T. vaccine just like whooping cough and tetanus
 Avoid overcrowded places
 The home should be well ventilated and lit
NB: The child may develop slight fever after getting the DPT vaccine. This is an indicator
that the medicine is taking effect. The fever should go down but if it persists paracetamol can
be given to relief it. If fever continues however, the child should be taken for medical check
up.
Treatment of diphtheria
 Take the child to the hospital; for treatment
 Give a warm salt solution to the child to guggle to relieve the throat discomfort
 Let the affected child have plenty of rest.
(ii) NON –IMMUNIZABLE DISEASES
Apart from the immunizable diseases described above, children may also suffer from other
non-immunizable diseases including:-
e) Malaria
f) Eye infection
g) Diarrhoea
h) Respiratory tract infections
i) Worm infestation
j) Nutritional deficiency diseases e.g. kwashiorhor and marasmus
k) Skin disease
a) MALARIA
Malaria is very common in many parts of Africa. It is caused by a germ called plasmodium
which is spread by the female anopheles mosquito. The mosquitoes suck blood from an
infected person and as they bite another person, they pass the germs to him/her.
Malaria is common in warm areas with stagnant water. This is because mosquitoes breed in
stagnant water.
Symptoms of Malaria
One can easily identify a person suffering from malaria by observing the following
symptoms:-
a) Frequent headaches
b) Shivering
c) High fever and the patient looks sickly
d) Sweating
e) Chronic malaria enlarges the spleen
f) The child may become anemic
Prevention of malaria
a) Use a mosquito net when sleeping
b) Drain stagnant water near residential areas
c) Clear bushes around the compound
d) Put a little oil in mashes or bushes where mosquitoes breed
e) Bury broken bottles or tins that may collect water
Treatment of malaria
- Take the child to the hospital for a blood test and treatment
- Give some medicine to relieve the fever and pain
b) EYE INFECTION
Eyes are very delicate part of the body. They therefore need great care especially when
cleaning them.
This is why the baby should be cleaned with boiled cool water.
In some cases, a new born baby may develop red, swollen eyes that have pus. This may be an
infection from the mother during birth. The baby therefore should be taken to the hospital for
the treatment.
Other common eye infection among children include:- night blindness and trachoma.
i) Conjunctivitis
Conjunctive is an irritation of the conjunctivae, the membranes that cover the front of the
white part of the eye and line the eyelids. The irritation can be caused by an allergic reaction
or by an infection.
Symptoms of conjunctivitis
In allergic conjunctivitis, the conjunctivae may be itchy and red but without the sticky,
yellow or creamy-coloured pus or gritty sensation that is seen in infectious conjunctivitis.
Allergic conjunctivitis is frequently a symptom of hay fever and nay be associated with runny
or blocked nose.
Children with this allergy may also suffer from eczema or asthma. In infectious
conjunctivitis, the child may also have a cold or upper respiratory tract infection.
Treatment of conjunctivitis
Take the child to a doctor who will prescribe suitable antihistamine incase of allergic
conjunctivitis. If antihistamine alone is not enough, the doctor may also prescribe eye drops.
May children eventually grow out of the condition, infectious conjunctivitis should be treated
with antibiotic drops or ointment. The sick child also needs to be isolated as the disease is
highly infectious.
ii) Trachoma
trachoma is spread by houseflies or through contact. It is therefore common in places where
people live in unhygienic crowded areas.
Signs of trachoma
- Red watery eyes
- Mucus on the eyes
Observe personal and environmental hygiene
c) DIARRHOEA
Diarrhoea is a leading cause of child morbidity and mortality in many developing countries.
The children who survive develop under nutrition as a result of repeated incidental of
diarrhea.
Diarrhoea is a situation in which one passes watery stool for at least three times in 24hrs. This
should however not be confused with situations where babies fed on breast milk pass loose
stool. With diarrhoea, the watery stool normally contains undigested food.
Causes of Diarrhoea
- A dirty environment, leading to food contamination especially during weaning
- Use of dirty feeding bottles
- Worms
- Poor feeding habits which cause malnutrition
- Infections of malaria, pneumonia, throat and measles
Signs of diarrhoea
- Vomiting
- The child looks miserable and is easily annoyed
- The child passes watery stool with undigested food particles
- Dehydration
Types of diarrhoea
These include:-
(i) Acute
(ii) Dysentery
(iii) Persistent diarrhea
(iv) Gastroenteritis
(i) Acute diarrhoea
It begins acutely and lasts les than fourteen days. It involves frequent passage of loose watery
stool without visible blood. Vomiting may occur and fever may be present. This may be
caused by bacteria e.g. Ecoli and shigella
(ii) Dysentery
This is diarrhoea with visible blood in the feaces.
Clinical features of dysentery
- Loss of appetite
- Rapid weight loss

- Damage to the intestinal mucosa
The most common cause of dysentery is shigella salmonella.
(iii) Persistent diarrhoea
This begins acutely and lasts a long duration of at least fourteen days. It may begin as watery
stool or dysentery, marked by weight loss. This should not be confused with chronic
diarrhoea which is long lasting or recurrent due to non-infectious causes such as sensitivity to
certain foods e.g. gluten in wheat or inherited metabolic disorders.
All forms of diarrhoea drains children of fluid and nutrient, leaving them very weak and
therefore children should not be allowed to become dehydrated due to loss of fluid.
Dehydration kills babies and must be stopped at its earliest.
(iv) Gastroenteritis
It is an inflammation of the bowel causing diarrhea and or vomiting. Most gastroenteritis
infections are caused by viruses, particularly rotavirus. However, they are sometimes caused
by bacteria and other organism, as in the case of food poisoning. The only way to tell the
cause of infection is through laboratory examination.
Factors associated with increased incidence and duration of diarrhoea
- Lack of breastfeeding in age less then one year. Breast milk contains antibodies which an
unbreastfed baby is denied.
- Under-nutrition. The severing, duration and risk of death from diarrhoea are increased in
undernourished children.
- Measles – Diarrhoea and dysentery are frequent and sever in children with measles or
those who have had it in the past four weeks.
- Diarrhoea also increases when there is a viral infection.
Management of diarrhoea
- Give the child plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration
- If the child is under six months old, give oral dehydration solution
- Give plenty of food to prevent malnutrition and continue to breastfeed frequently.
- Take the child to hospital if it does not get better in three days or if it develops :-
a) Many of watery stools
b) Repeated vomiting
c) Marked thirst
d) Poor drinking/feeding
e) Fever
f) Blood in the stools
Prevention of diarrhoea
- Feed the child well
- Use clean water
- Practice good hygiene
d) RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS
Respiratory diseases affect the breathing system that is the nose, throat, lungs nad the tubes in
the lungs. These infections are acute because they start suddenly and usually last for a short
period.
The infections include:-

(i) Pneumonia
(ii) Tonsillitis
(iii) Common cold
(i) Pneumonia
Pneumonia is a serious acute disease which is caused by bacteria. It normally occurs after an
attack of other diseases such as measles, flu, whooping cough, asthma etc.
It is serious especially in children below three years of age.
Symptoms of pneumonia
- The child chills, then has high fever and shivers
- The child takes shallow breaths with little grants and nostrils wide open
- Pain on the chest
- Ribs are pulled in during breathing
- The child coughs and looks very ill
Management of pneumonia
- Take the child to hospital immediately
- Give plenty of fluids to the child
- Continue breastfeeding
(ii) Tonsillitis
This is caused by bacteria and affects the breathing system. It usually begins by a common
cold.
Signs of tonsillitis
- The child throat becomes read and sore making it hard to swallow anything.
- The tonsils swell, become read and painful and may drain pus. They may appear as lumps
- Fever develops with temperature rising to 40c
- Vomiting, coughing and abdominal pain may occur
Management of tonsillitis
- Let the child gargle a warm salt solution
- Give asprin or nay other pain killer
- Sponge the child‘s body a cloth wrung out of warm water to keep down the body
temperature
- Reduce the amount of clothing the child has
NB: It is important to take the child fro medical treatment.
(iii) Common colds
It is mainly caused by a virus that air borne. The germs passed into the air when one sneezes.
Signs of common cold
- A running nose
- Sore throat
- Headache and fever
- Coughing
- Pain in the joints
- Mild diarrhoea maybe present
Common colds usually disappear without treatment. However the discomforts that
accompany the cold may be eased by:-
- Allowing the child enough rest
- Giving the child a lot of fluids and fresh fruit juices
- Giving fever and pain relievers
- Feeding the child on a balanced diet
- Use a soft handkerchief to clear the stuffy nose
e) WORM INFESTATION
The most common worms in children are:-
(i) Hookworms
(ii) Roundworms
(iii) Tapeworms
(i) Hookworms
These are round grayish-white worms measuring about 2.5cm long. They attach themselves
to the lining of the intestine by means of hooks and suck blood from the host. Their eggs are
passed onto the soil through feaces. The eggs then hatch to become active larvae which
penetrate any part of human skin to get into the blood stream. Once in the bloodstream they
find their way into the lungs where they traveled up the windpipe and into the lungs where
they travel up the windpipe and into the throat where they are swallowed into the stomach
and the lifecycle repeats itself.
(ii) Roundworms
They are brownish in colour. They measure 20-25cm long and live in the intestines.
The female roundworm lays about 20,000 bags eggs daily, which are passed to the ground
through feaces. They then find their way on to vegetables through dust. They are later
swallowed as one eats dirty uncooked vegetables.
Signs of Roundworms
- The child may pass the worms through vomit or stool
- The child has mild abdominal pains, becomes weak and appears tired.
- In heavy infections the child becomes very ill and malnourished.
- Use latrines
- Wash vegetables and fruits before eating
- Wash hands after visiting the toilet and before taking meals
- Wash hands before preparing meals
- De-worm children with worms
(iii) Tapeworms
They are long segmented worms, The segments may at and be found in feaces.
Infestation occurs after eating undercooked meat, especially pork and beef. Their eggs also
come out in feaces and picked up if one does not wash hands after visiting the toilets.
Prevention of tapeworms
- Cook meat properly before eating
- Wash hands after visiting the toilets.
f) NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES.
These diseases are caused by malnutrition which means poor feeding.
It is important to feed children on a balanced diet for them to grow in a healthy way. A poorly
fed child looks weak and lacks immunity to disease,
This increases child morality rates,
Some of the common nutritional deficiency diseases in children include kwashiorkor,
Marasmus and night blindness.
1. KWASHIORKOR.
It is a nutritional deficiency disease caused by lack of enough proteins in the diet.
Symptoms of Kwashiokor
 The child develops a potbelly
 The child is unhappy and miserable
 Has thin, straight and weak hair which falls off easily.
 Has flaky, dry skin
 Develops sores on buttocks, legs, groin and mouth corners
 The child has poor digestion hence passes loose stool
 The child becomes anaemic
 He her little resistance to diseases
Prevention of Kwashiorkor
 Breastfeeding should be continued for as long as possible
 Feed the child on foods rich in proteins
 Feed the child frequently
2. MARASMUS
Marasmus is caused by back of enough food, and usually affects children under five year. In
case of severe family, older children can also be affected.
Signs of Marasmus
 The child does not grow well i.e. there is retarded growth
 The child‘s face appears like one of an elderly person
 Looks very weak
 The child is always alert
 He feels hungry all the times and is underweight
Prevention of Marasmus
 Feed the child on enough balance diet
 Feed the child on enough energy giving foods
NB: It is easily to tell an underfed child by measuring the upper arm circumference. This
circumference does not change much between one year and five years of age. A healthy child
should have an upper arm circumference of between 12.5cm to 13.5cm. below this , the child
is malnourished
Apart from these two nutritional deficiency diseases, there are others which include anaemia
and obesity.
3. NIGHT BLINDNESS
This disease is common among children of two to five years. It occurs as a result of vitamin
A deficiency in the baby.
If night blindness is not detected early enough and treated, it may cause blindness.
Symptoms of night blindness
 The child cannot see well at night
 The white part of the eye looks dry
 The eye ball looks dry and cracked as the disease progresses
Prevention of night blindness
 Breast feed the baby as long as possible
 The baby should be weaned on foods rich in vitamin A
 Give the baby plenty of dark green leafy vegetables
4. ANAEMIA
This is a disease caused by lack of enough iron in the body leading to a low count of red
blood cells.
Other caused of anaemia include:-
 Insufficient production of red blood cells
 Loss of blood due to excessive bleeding
 Attacks of malaria, dysentery and bilharzias diseases which destroy the red blood
cells
 A heavy infestation of hookworms that suck blood from their host.
Symptoms of anaemia
One can easily tell a child suffering from anaemia by observing the following signs
 Has pale lips, eyelids, fingernails, hands, tongue, and gums
 Complains of headaches
 General weakness and lack of energy and gets tied easily.
 The child is short of breath
Prevention of Anaemia
 Give the child foods rich in iron e.g. green leafy vegetables, fish, chicken, beans, peas
and lentils
 Give porridge made from millet or sorghum
 Give fruit rich in vitamin c e.g. passion fruit and oranges as vitamin c is important for
absorption of iron
 Diseases that cause anaemia should be treated as soon as they occur
5. OBESITY
Obesity means being overweight due to too much fat being deposited under the skin. Too
much fat can cause high blood pressure, and heart diseases.
Obesity is caused by:-
 Over eating junk food
 Inactivity or doing very little work and exercise
 Normal imbalance.
To prevent obesity, children should be fed on a balanced diet that should not contain too
much fat. They should also be encourage to engage in active leisure activities such as playing
football in order to burn up excess fat in the body,
g) SKIN DISEASES
Some of the skin diseases that affect young children include ringworms and scabies.
(i) Scabies
It is caused by a small insect called itchiness that bores and settles under the outer skin. After
its eggs hatch, they become larvae that attacks the parts of the body a round it.
Scabies is spread through contract with an infected person or by sharing bed dings, combs,
towels and clothes with an infected person.
The parts of the body commonly affected by scabies include wrists between fingers and on
the back of fingers rashes which are itchy and painful appear on this parts.
Signs of scabies
The fallowing signs are seen in a child who has scabies.
 Affected areas are covered with rashes
 Scratching produces sores with pus
 Fever may develop in the child
Prevention of scabies
 Observe personal hygiene
 Bathe children dairy with soap and warm water
 Change children‘s clothes daily
 Avoid sharing combs, towels and other personal items
 Clothes should be washed, ironed and kept in a clean place.
One should ensure that any sick member of the family is treated immediately to prevent
spreading the diseases.
ii) Ring worms
This is a fungal infection. it is not caused by worms as some people believed . it appears as a
white patch of dry itchy skin that spread outwards as a ring.
It is spread through contact with affected part and can affect any part of the body.
Signs of ringworms
 itchy round sport on the skin
 the infection forms rings
Prevention of ring worms
 Avoid sharing items such as combs and clothes
 Do not let affected children share debs with others
Management of ring worms
 Wash the affected areas with soap and water
 As much as possible, expose the affected areas to air and sunlight
 Let the affected child see a doctor for treatment
CHAPTER 3:
STRATEGIES OF IMPROVING CHILD AND FAMILY HEALTH & NUTRITION
Learning Outcome: Be able to design strategies for improving health and nutrition of the
child and the family.
STRATEGIES OF IMPROVING NUTRITIONAL STATUS

Good nutrition is very important to the health of the citizen are healthy and are productive
leading to national socio-economic development.
This topic discusses some strategies of improving the nutritional status of the society. Such
strategies include:
a) Improving the nutrition of the mother
b) Proper nutrition for children below eight years
c) Improving the nutritional status of other family members
d) Organization and management of school feeding programs
e) Eradication of negative cultural influences on the child‘s and mother‘s nutrition
Nutrition of the mother
It is important that the mother observes good nutrition before pregnancy, during pregnancy
and after delivery for her good health and for the good health of the baby.
Nutrition of the mother before pregnancy
Like any other member of the family she needs to eat balanced diet with increased amounts
of iron to replace blood lost during menstruation. She needs to eat food rich in all other
minerals, for them to be reserved in her body for use especially during pregnancy.
Diet of the pregnant mother
The expectant mothers‘ diet should contain:-
 Increased amount of calcium for bone formation
 Increased iron for blood formation
 Vitamin A for breast milk formation
 Plenty of protein for growth of the baby
 Vitamin C to facilitate absorption of iron
 Vitamin D for child bone formation
 Vitamin B group which is a co-enzyme promoting absorption of iron and metabolism
of carbohydrates
 Fresh fruits for roughage and vitamins
 Plenty of water to help flash the system and prevent constipation
The mother should not change her diet drastically although she needs to eat less starchy foods
as they tend to increase weight. She should also avoid high intake of stimulating drinks such
as coffee, strong tea and alcohol. She should not follow any food taboos.
Nutrition of the mother after delivery
The lactating mother should continue feeding well. They should take balanced meals with a
lot of calcium and vitamin A needed for milk production. She also needs toe at foods rich in
iron to replace the blood lost during delivery. She will also need to take a lot of fluids such as
milk, porridge and soup to promote the supply of breast milk.
Nutritional needs of children from birth to eight years
Proper nutrition is important in the reduction of child mortality rates.
Exclusive breastfeeding is for example recommended up to four to six months.
Various advantages are associated with breastfeeding including:-
 The mother‘s milk contains all the nutrients the baby needs in the first six months.
 Breast milk is free from germs

 Breast milk is always at the right temperature and is readily available
 Colostrums, which is the first creamish yellow milk contains antibodies that give the
baby immunity to diseases.
 Breast feeding helps in the bonding process. Bonding is a strong loving relationship
between the baby and the mother and it ensures time and space.
 Overfeeding and underfeeding are avoided
Breast feeding also has several advantages to the mother including:-
 It is not expensive
 It saves time as breast milk is always ready
 Breast feeding helps the mother to express her love to the baby
 Exclusive breast feeding helps to prevent pregnancy
The advantages of breast feeding can be contrasted to the disadvantages of bottle
feeding which include:-
 Bottle feeding is expensive as the formula milk or cow‘s milk has to be bought
 Preparation of the milk which is not always ready it time consuming
 Infection may occur as a result of using dirty feeding bottles
 If wrongly mixed, the formula or cow‘s milk may lead to malnutrition or indigestion.
Problem of lactating mothers
Some of the problems that lactating mother encounter include:-
(i) Engorged breasts
(ii) Breast infection
(iii) Sore nipples
(iv) Lack of milk
(i) Engorged breasts
This is caused by failure to empty the breast, which become full with milk. They then swell
and become hard and painful. To avoid this situation, the mother should:-
 Press out excess milk twice or thrice a day
 Feed the child on demand
(ii) Breast infection
If breasts are not emptied regularly, the milk duct gets blocked. This leads to swelling and
tenderness and infection of the breasts may occur. The milk in these breasts is still good and
can be fed to the child. The mother suffering from breast infection should:-
 Breast feed more frequently
 Squeeze at the milk to prevent further infection
 Seek medical attention
(iii) Sore nipples
This is caused by the baby sucking vigorously in the wrong position. Ideally, when
breastfeeding the baby‘s abdomen should be in contact with that of the mother and have the
dark area surrounding the nipple plus the nipple in the baby‘s mouth.
Sore nipples can be corrected by:-
 Feeding the baby in the correct position
 Feeding the baby on the healthy nipple first

 Ensuring that the baby‘s mouth is open when putting the nipple and the areola in the
baby‘s mouth.
(iv) Lack of milk
It is quite unlikely for a mother to have no milk for the baby, although some mothers believe
they do not have enough milk for their babies.
Milk production can be increased by:-
 Breastfeeding often
 Relaxing and being focused on breastfeeding. A tired and anxious mother will not
have enough milk for the baby.
 Breastfeeding in a calm and quiet environment.
 Faking regular meals and a lot of drinks as breast feeding takes up a lot of energy.
 Taking foods that are known to increase milk production.
NB: The mother should be relaxed when breastfeeding and hold the baby in the correct
position. This helps the baby to feel loved.
Weaning
Weaning refers to the gradual introduction of solid food to the breast feeding baby. Some of
the reasons why babies have to be weaned include:-
 To supplement nutrients. This is done in order to provide the baby with all the
nutrients it needs for healthy growth.
 As babies grow they require good nutrition to boost their immunity to diseases.
 When a baby is fully weaned, it is able to eat the normal family diet.
 Weaning can be started between four to six months.
Weaning foods
The following should be the qualities of weaning foods:-
 They should be rich in energy. One could include in the food; fats; oil or sugar to
provide additional energy.
 The food should be easy to digest
 It should be hygienically prepared.
 It should be easy to prepare and inexpensive. If possible it should be locally available.
 Should have variety of foods which may be in different colours and shapes but should
not be seasoned.
How to introduce other foods
Weaning should be done gradually. The following are guidelines on weaning:-
(i) Give one food at a time until the baby is used to that food
(ii) Start with a small amount of food
(iii) If the baby spits out the food, just keep trying
(iv) Do not force the baby to eat
(v) Use a cup and spoon for feeding as they are easy to clean
(vi) If the baby reacts to the food, discontinue and put him under observation.
(vii) Breastfeed the baby first, then give soft food.
During weaning breast milk continues to be the primary food for the baby. The frequency of
giving other foods will depend on the age of the baby. The number of feeds increases as the
baby breast feeds less and less.
Dangers associated with weaning
Some babies may not be ready for other foods a part from breast milk. This may frustrate the
caregiver leading to problems such as:-
a) Force feeding, where the caregiver hold the baby‘s nose to force him/her to open the
mouth during feeding. This is dangerous as it can lead to chocking.
b) Excessive pampering with an aim of making the baby feed.
Apart from these problems there are other problems arising as a result of the baby‘s liking for
other foods. These include:-
i. Overfeeding the baby
ii. Stopping breast feeding
Food and family
As stated earlier in this topic good nutrition is important for the health of citizens. This calls
for proper nutrition at the family level.
Main food groups eaten in families
The main food groups include:-
a) Body building foods or proteins
b) Energy giving foods which include carbohydrates and fats
c) Protective foods or vitamins
d) Minerals
e) Water and roughages
(i) BODY BUILDING FOODS OR PROTEIN
Our bodies need proteins for:-
a) Growth they constitute the chief solid matter of muscles and organs
b) Repairing worn out tissues e.g the healing of wounds
c) Strengthening of bonus and teeth. Every living cell contains proteins
d) They regulate body processes. Enzymes that are specific catalysts for metabolic
process are protein in nature.
Some of the foods that provide proteins include:-
 Beans
 Peas (cows peas, pigeon peas)
 Green grams
 Peanuts, groundnuts and cashew nuts
 Meat and milk
 Fish and eggs
 Insects such as termites and locusts
Lack of enough protein, especially in children leads to a nutritional deficiency disease i.e.
kwashiorkor, which is discussed under childhood diseases in this module.
(ii) ENERGY GIVING FOODS
The main energy giving food include carbohydrates and fats.
Energy giving food serves the following purpose in the body:-

(a) They supply heat and energy to the body
(b) Fats help to protect body organs such as the liver and heart
Some of the source of carbohydrates includes yams, cassava, irish potatoes, sweet potatoes,
wheat, maize etc.
Source of fats include:- cream, ghee, sunflower, corn, coconuts, groundnuts e.t.c.
Excess of energy giving foods in the body may lead to obesity which is a nutritional disorder.
Obesity is discussed in detail under childhood diseases in this module.
(iii) PROTECTIVE FOODS (VITAMINS)
Protective foods are important in the body as they serve the following purposes.
a) They help the body to fight against diseases
b) They are essential for optimum nutrition and health
c) They help to promote growth by regulating body processes
d) Adequate amounts of vitamins favour the utilization of all other nutrients
Some types if vitamins include:- vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E,
Vitamin F.
Each of these vitamins serves particular functions in the body.
Vitamin A It helps in proper growth and proper vision
It therefore protects the body from night blindness
It is also important for maintaining the skin supple
Sources of Vitamin A include: Yellow and green vegetables, fruits, liver, butter, fortified
margarine, egg yolk, milk, cheese, butter and fish liver oils.
Vitamin B complex I t protects the body against beriberi, which is a skin disease
Sources of Vitamin B include:- carrots, tomatoes, cowpeas, pumpkin leave, sukumawiki
(kale), liver, spinach and whole grain cereals.
Vitamin C
Some of its functions include: Holding body cells together thus strengthening the walls of
blood vessels, it promotes the healing of wounds and bones. It is also very important in
helping the body to resist infection.
Sources of vitamin C include: - Citrus fruits, tomatoes, strawberries, green leafy vegetables,
milk.
Vitamin c deficiency causes scurvy
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is essential for strong bone and teeth formation. It helps to prevent rickets.
Sources of vitamin D include:- Margarine, milk. Sunshine also helps the body to convert
pro-vitamin D (which is stored under the body) into vitamin D for absorption and use by the
body.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E is essential for normal reproduction. It is therefore known as the anti-sterility

vitamin. It also regulates metabolism cells and helps to prevent the destruction of other
nutrients in the body.
Some sources of vitamin E include:- vegetable oils, egg yolk and milk fats
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is important for blood clotting whenever one cuts himself. It also helps in quick
healing of wounds.
Sources of vitamin K include: - cabbage, green leafy vegetables, liver, soya beans and
cauliflower.
i) MINERALS
Minerals are small food substances that support the proper functioning of the body. They also
help to prevent certain diseases. Some of the important minerals in the body include iodine,
iron and calcium.
(a) Calcium
Calcium has the following functions in the body:-
 It is needed for formation of string bones and teeth
 It assists in the clotting of blood following injury
 It helps to maintain nervous and muscular functioning
 It is necessary in prevention of rickets
 It is essential in lactation (formation of breast milk)
Sources of calcium include:-
Milk and milk products, green leafy vegetable, oranges, grapes, egg yolk and dried beans.
(b) Iron
Iron is necessary in formation of haemoglobin and red blood cells. It is also necessary for the
normal complexion of the skin.
Sources of iron include:-liver, lean meat, shell fish, legumes, egg yolk, green leafy
vegetables and whole grain cereals.
(c) Iodine
Iodine is a component of thyroxine. Thyroxine is a hormone required for physical and mental
growth and development. Iodine is found in the thyroid gland and in the blood.
Iodine helps to prevent goiter
Sources of iodine include table salt, which is iodized, iodized mineral water and foods grown
in iodine rich soil.
ii) WATER AND ROUGHAGE
For proper digestion to take place, our bodies also need water and roughage. Roughage refers
to the fibre components of foods such as kale and fruits. These two help to prevent
constipation.
BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is food containing all the nutrients in the right proportions. It therefore
contains proteins, body building foods, vitamins, minerals, water and roughage.
Eating habits
Family members are advised to always eat regular balanced meals. Care should be taken to
provide meals meet the nutritional requirements of every member of the family. For example,
if there are young children in the family, there is need to provide a lot if proteins in the diet to
support their rapid growth.
People who do manual work in the family require a lot of energy giving foods. Locating
mothers need foods rich in calcium and vitamin A. Adolescent girls need foods rich in iron. If
there are sick people who are recovering from diseases, there is need to provide foods rich in
iron. If there are sick people who are recovering from diseases, there is need to provide foods
rich in vitamins.
Family members are advised to avoid unhealthy eating habits such as:-
 Eating junk food
 Going for packed foods, which are not fresh and may contain preservatives which are
harmful to the body.
Food production
It is necessary that members of the community produce enough food as very important to
their health. Some of the factors that affect food production in any one community include:-
(i) Political stability
(ii) Environmental factors
(iii) Availability of resources
(iv) Socio-economic factors
(i) Availability of resources
The main factors that affect food production is lands on which to grow crops or rear animals.
The soil needs to be suitable for the growth of food crops or for animal feed.
If a family has enough fertile land it can produce enough food for its members and vice versa,
finances to purchase seeds, fertilizers and other farm inputs also affects food production.
(ii) Environmental factors
The main environmental factors that affects food production is the availability of adequate
rainfall, which is affected by factors such as environmental pollution and the available forest
cover in an area.
(iii) Political stability
Political stability greatly affects peace in a country. Where there is peace, the community will
be able to settle down on farming activities to be able to settle down on farming activities to
produce enough food. Members of the community will also be able to engage in other
income generating activities in order to purchase food for their families. A country that is
politically stable is able to make and implement policies that support food production for
example cutting down on the cost of fertilizers and vice versa.
(iv) Socio-economic factors
One of the socio-economic factors that affect food production is rural-urban migration. This
leads to lower rural population, and in some cases the waste of fertile land which could be
used for food production. Rural-urban migration also leads to the upcoming of slums whose
most inhabitants earn low income that cannot afford them enough food.
Secondly farmers also lack capital to produce more food for the community.
Due to the importance of food in nay one nation, members of the community are encouraged
to adopt strategies of increasing food production e.g.
1. Growing drought resistant crops
2. Growing cash crops to get money to buy food
3. Planning their shambas well to have space for growing food crops.
4. Using fertilizers to boost crop yields.
FOOD PRESERVATION
In this section we shall examine food preservation methods and reasons for preserving food.
Food preservation means the proper treatment to prevent it from going bad and to be used in
the future. Some of the reasons why food is preserved include:-
 To avoid wastage
 To prevent it from going bad
 So as to have it when it is out of season.
 This especially with the case of fruits and vegetables.
 To be able to sell the surplus
 To cut down daily expenditure on food.
 To keep and sell when the prices are higher.
 To make it easy for transportation e.g. dry maize is lighter than green maize hence the
dry is easier to transport.
Methods of Food Preservation
Some of the common methods of food preservation include:-
 Drying
 Smoking
 Use of ashes
 Cold storage
 Salting
 Canning
 Adding chemicals
DRYING
This is removing moisture from foods by use of heat or sun. Some of the foods that can be
preserved by drying include, Cereals, legumes, nuts, vegetable, fish, meat and roots.
When drying foods one needs to observe hygiene in order to prevent food from getting
contaminated with germs. One therefore needs to:-
 Use clean drying equipment such as racks
 Avoid drying food directly on the ground.
 Keep away animals that may eat the food when it is drying on the rack.
SMOKING
Here, foods are placed on a rack over fire so that the smoke dries them. Some of the foods
dried by smoking include fish and meat.
USE OF ASHES
Ashes keep off weevils and other insects
When using ashes, one needs to:-
~ Sieve the ash to remove objects such as charcoal and unburned wood.
~ Dry the grains thoroughly before mixing with ashes

~ Store the grains in dry containers.
FOOD STORAGE
This refers to the keeping of food before preparation before service or after serving
A good food store should have the following characteristics
 It should be free from pests and rodents
 It should be spacious
 It should be free from moisture and leaking roof.
 It should be lockable
 It should be well ventilated.
Proper food storage is essential because deterioration and contamination of food can be
controlled, this leads to cost savings
Some of the common food storage facilities include granaries, silos and pots
The following are guidelines to be followed when storing food.
 There should be adequate space to ensure the storage space is neither too large not too
small. Large areas encourage overstocking and unproductive use of space.
 Convenient location. The store should be near the production and delivery area to ensure
that its easy to access and to avoid time wastage in transportation.
 Security. Ensure the store is lockable to keep away thieves.
 Regular cleaning: Should be done to avoid food poisoning and promote food hygiene
 Stock rotation: Develop a means to identify old stock from new to avoid food spoilage
and wastage
 Control of temperature and humidity: There is need for good ventilation.
 There should be routine ordering of food.
 Lighting: To ensure that the store is dark enough, paint any windows opaque as light
speeds up many deteriorative changes especially in fruits and vegetables.
 The store should be free from pest infestation. Pests contaminate food and lead to
wastage. Their excrement is a source of salmonella bacteria.
FOOD PREPARATION
There are no set guidelines for planning meals will ensure the enjoyment and acceptance of
meals by all persons. Some of the guidelines are based on knowledge of food, preferences
and flavor. Perception and others on the knowledge that man is not entirely rational and
logical about his food and meals.
Some of the guidelines include:
1. Appearance, texture and consistency, taste and aroma.
Planners of meals deliberately plan meals to have eye appeal, meals must look good to be
tasted and enjoyed. Meal preparation needs to be done carefully and wisely to ensure that
the needs of all family members are met. One should for example consider:-
 The type of work family member are involved in such as manual labour.
 The ages of family members e.g the babies, adolescents, the elderly.
 The health status of the family members e.g the sick (invalid) and the ones recovering
from diseases
 The likes and dislikes of family members, people like to eat the food they like and are
familiar with.
2. Utilise the food in this section. This is because they are fresh, readily available and
cheaper
3. Consider the number of people you are planning for. This is in order to avoid wastage;
left over food is also not as tasty as readily prepared food.
4. The meals should be varied as much as possible in both colour and texture. In texture
include foods with different textures so that the feel in the mouth changes when eating
e.g. smoothness, moistness, crispness and chewness.
5. Plan so that the mass, shapes and sizes of food items differ e.g. boiled potatoes, meat
balls, oranges which are all round can be varied with carrots, spinach, bananas etc. Vary
cooking methods to avoid repetition. Some of the cooking methods that can be varied
include steaming, boiling, frying, steweking, baking, roasting.
6. Consider the time available for meal preparation some foods take longer time to prepare
than others. One should also avoid cooking food for an unnecessarily long time.
However, cook food until it is tender.
7. All meals should be well balanced to keep the body healthy.
8. Consider the cost of the meal
9. Prepare meals that family members are familiar with. While preparing meals, adequate
attention needs to be taken to avoid food contamination.
The following guidelines should be followed:-
a) Ensure that the kitchen is clean.
b) Keep utencils clean
c) Wash food stuffs thoroughly before preparing.
d) All working surfaces in the kitchen should be clean.
MAIN MEALS
There are three main meals which include breakfast, lunch and supper.
a. BREAKFAST
It is the first meal of the day. Breakfast is a very important meal and studies have shown
that:-
 Efficiency in psychological performances decreases in the late morning hours when
breakfast is skipped.
 Attitude towards school and scholastic achievement is poor when breakfast is omitted.
 The content does not determine its efficiency so long as its nutritionally adequate.
 The omission of breakfast is of no value in weight loss as it instead results in greater
hunger and psychological inefficiency.
b. LUNCH OR MIDDAY MEAL
This is the second meal of the day and like any other meal, it should be balanced.
c. SUPPER/DINNER
This is the evening meal and which brings together most families members. It is therefore a
very important meal and like any other meal should be well prepared, attractive and balanced.
Dinner should also provide important nutrients that have not been included in breakfast or
lunch.
It is not always that family members gather for meals. Sometimes, some family members
especially school children carry with them packed meals. When preparing npacked meals, the
following need to be observed:-
 They should be well balanced
 They should be according to individual likes, age, state of health and nature of work done.
 They should be convenient to pack and carry.
They should be suitable to eat when cold.
Another element pf food preparation is serving. Meals should be served hot and when all
family members are seated. The dishes used for serving should also be clean. The dining area
should be cleaned as soon as meals are over.
Left over food should be stored well to avoid contamination and wastage. Left over food
should be cooled as fast as possible and kept in a cool place to prevent it from going bad. It
should also be kept in covered containers to keep off dust, dirt and pests.
CAUSES OF MALNUTRITION
These include:-
 Over dependence on agriculture for food production which is affected by climate factors
such as drought.
 Poor government policies that do not support food production e.g. lack if incentives for
farmers to enable them produce more food.
 Lack of knowledge about right nutrition for the family by members of the community.
 Political instability which destabilizes farmers making them to be unable to produce
enough food for the nation.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON CHILDS AND MOTHERS NUTRITION
TABOOS AND BELIEFS
Food taboos and beliefs that forbid the eating of a particular group of people. Some food
taboos in some communities include:-
 Expectant mothers should not eat eggs as the growing baby will become too big resulting
in complication during delivery.
 Young children should not eat eggs as they would not talk if they ate them.
Taboos are unhealthy as they make these groups of people to miss out on the important
nutrients provided by the forbidden foods. In some cases taboos can lead to malnutrition.
To solve this problem, alternative foods should be identified to provide the nutrients that
would be provided by the forbidden food.
SCHOOL BASED FEEDING PROGRAMS
KIE (2002) explains that many children are malnourished between the ages of one and two
years because it is the weaning period. This justifies the worth of a school feeding
programme as a means of improving the health of pre-school children. KIE (2002)
recommends that pre-schools provide mid-morning snacks for the half day programme and
mid-morning snacks and lunch .for the full day school programme.
Pre-school children require energy for play and working at school. They should also need
food to support their rapid growth. A school feeding programme should therefore supply the
nutrients needed for this functions.
Requirements of a school feeding program
A school feeding programme requires
 Food items
 Fuel for cooking, transporting and storing food items
 Labour. The food handlers should have medical certificates

 Utensils
 Water
 Cleaning equipment
SUSTAINABILITY OF A SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMME
To ensure sustainability of the feeding programme one needs to determine the capacity for
impact on children‘s nutrition and identify the factors that could limit that capacity.
Some of the factors that influence the sustainability of a feeding program include:-
 Availability of finances
 Availability of manpower
 Community support e.g. in providing some food, labour etc
 Support by the key people such as the school administration and parents.
The teacher therefore needs to have the skills of budgeting and community mobilization in
order to ensure sustainability of the feeding programme.
WAYS OF ENRICHING CHILDRENS DIET
Some of the ways of enriching children‘s diet include
 Making use of nutritious food which is in season.
 Growing some foods in the school garden
 Using locally available foods
These measures aim at lowering the cost of food, hence the feeding programme would not be
a burden to the parents.
IMPORTANCE OF A SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMME
The following factors justify the worth of a feeding programme
a) Food provided supplements the nutritional requirements of children. They therefore are
able to play, learn and grow healthy.
b) School feeding programmes help to increase enrollment in schools. This is because
parents know their children will be fed at school.
c) School retention rates have also increased with the introduction of school feeding
programs. This is because children no longer have to leave school to beg for food or
engage in child labour in order to buy food.
CHAPTER 4:
MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH CARE SERVICES
Learning Outcome: Be able to describe appropriate maternal and child health care services.
MATERNAL CHILD HEALTH AND FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES
This chapter discusses the healthcare services available for expectant mothers the newborn
baby and family planning services available in hospitals to help the mother in spacing births.
The expectant mother
In this section, we shall discuss the signs of pregnancy, the needs of expectant mothers and
the importance of ante-natal clinics.
Signs of pregnancy
With pregnancy various changes take place in the mothers‘ body. Such changes include:-
 Missed menstruation
 Breast become large and become tender
 The abdomen enlarges
 Like or dislikes of certain foods
 Morning sickness or headaches and nausea
 Frequent passing of urine
 The foetus in the womb can be felt moving after about four months.
Ante-natal clinics
When a mother realizes she is expectant, she should go to a health centre for check-up and
advice. The clinic which she attends is called an ante-natal clinic. Ante-natal means occurring
before birth.
The ante-natal clinics therefore provides medical care to expectant mothers. At the antenatal
clinic, the mother gets the following services:-
 She is given advice on diet, dressing and how to prepare for the coming baby.
 She is immunized against tetanus
 Her weight is taken
 Her blood pressure is taken
 The mid-wife feels the heartbeat of the foetus. This helps to find out whether the
foetus is growing well.
 She is given advice on the importance of hospital delivery
Hospital delivery is very important especially for first time mothers and for mothers
expecting twins. The pregnant mother should follow the doctors‘ schedule visits so that she
does not miss any visits to the clinic. Nutritional needs of expectant mothers. During
pregnancy, the mother is supporting another human being in her body. She should therefore
take in food containing enough nutrients for herself and for the growing foetus. The food
eaten should be well balanced to enable the mother to have a strong healthy baby. The diet
should contain energy giving foods, body building foods and protective foods.
 Energy giving foods include, ugali, rice, chapatti, cassava, yams, irish potatoes,
Sweet potatoes e.t.c.
 Body building foods include: beans, fish, milk, eggs, soya beans.
 Protective foods/vitamins include: Sukuma-wiki, spinach, tomatoes, pumpkins and
fruits.
These foods must not be bought as most of them can be grown in the kitchen garden where
the mother will get a large supply of fresh foods. It is advisable that a mother takes in more
minerals such as calcium and iron to help her overcome some of the problems which will be
discussed in the next sub-topic.
Complications during pregnancy
Some of the discomforts that an expectant mother may experience include:-
 Morning sickness
 Constipation
 Heartburn
 Overweight
 Backache
 Anaemia
 Muscle clumps
i) Morning Sickness
Morning sickness takes place mostly during the first three months of pregnancy. It is caused
by hormonal changes in the mother‘s body. During this time, the mother experiences nausea,
vomiting and headache. She also likes or dislikes certain foods.
The mother can however control it by:-
a) Avoiding fatty foods
b) Avoiding strong tea
c) Taking plenty of fluids before meals
d) Eating small amounts of foods at intervals
e) Taking dry foods e.g. biscuits, cassava
If morning sickness continues beyond three mothers of pregnancy, the mother should consult
a doctor.
ii) Constipation
Constipation is usually caused by slowness of the digestive system leading to one passing
very little and dry feaces.
To control constipation, the expectant mother should:
a) Take plenty of fluids
b) Take plenty of roughages e g vegetables, fruits and whole grain cereals.
c) Do exercises.
d) Eat less fatty foods
(iii) Heart burn
This is a burning sensation in lower chest and upper part of the stomach. it can be eased by
the expectant mother avoiding foods that cause it (depending on an individual )the mother
should also take some milk or warm water.
(iv) Overweight
Some people believe that the expectant mother should avoid certain foods as they cause the
baby to overgrow leading to problems if during delivery. This is not true. However if
expectant mother gains so much weight she may experience the following problems.
a) High blood pressure.
b) Swelling of her feat
c) Swelling of blood veins (varicose veins) especially at the back of her legs.
The weight gain is however important during pregnancy but should be gradual, during
pregnancy, the mother should gain between 7 and 12kgs. Again more than this may result in
problems depending on the height and weight of the mother.
(v) Anaemia
Anaemia is as a condition in which one has less iron in the blood. An anaemic mother may
feel tired and dizzy, has pale fingernails inner iris and gums. She also feels very weak.
Anaemia during pregnancy may results in the following complications:-
a) Difficulty in carrying the pregnancy through to delivery
b) Difficulty in delivery which they may result in the death of the baby and mother
c) The mother lacking enough iron for herself during breast-feeding period.
d) The baby may suffer from anaemia leading to death.

To avoid becoming anaemia the expectant mother should take in a lot of iron rich foods such
as; green leafy vegetables, liver, kidney, and legumes.
(vi) Backache
This is experienced in the later stages of pregnancy the expectant mother has increased
weight. Also the foetus has growth big putting a strain on her pelvic muscle.
(vii) Muscle cramps
This is due to a problem in the nervous system. To avoid these, the mother should take in
plenty of foods with calcium.
If she does not take enough calcium will be drawn from her body reserves resulting in muscle
cramps and even toothache.
Things to avoid during pregnancy
The mother should avoid harmful practices which would put her health and that of the
growing foetus in danger. Such practices include:- taking alcohol, smoking and taking drugs
without the doctor‘s prescription. Children born of mothers who practice these habits are
likely to be:-
 Underweight
 Mentally retarded
 Have fast heartbeat
NB: An expectant mother needs emotional support from other members of the family. She
should avoid unnecessary worries which can be dangerous to her health and that of the
growing baby.
DELIVERY
The normal pregnancy takes about nine months by which time the baby is ready to be born.
When the mother is in labour, she should consult her mid-wife or go to the nearby clinic.
Labour refers to the contraction of the uterus as it tries to expel the baby. Sometimes the fluid
that surrounds the baby comes out first before the onset of labour pains.
The labour is painful but one can bear it by staying calm, walking around and breathing
properly. Labour may continue between two to sixteen hours during which time the cervix
stretches and flattens to allow the head of the baby to go into the vagina. The mother pushes
hard and eventually the baby allows for easy delivery.
Most babies come with head first. However, in some situations other parts of the body come
first e.g. buttocks, hands etc. Here the baby is said to be said to be breech position. This
requires special attention and care to save the baby and the mother. It should not be seen as a
bad omen. This is why hospitals can be attended to by doctors who may sometimes prefer to
perform a surgery (caesarian section) to deliver the baby.
As soon as the baby is born it cries. This helps to clear the mucus out of nose and air passage
to allow for breathing. The umbilical cord is also tied and cut by the midwife. The midwife
then checks on the health of the baby and gives it to the mother to suckle. The first breast
milk is called colostrums and is creamish-yellow in colour. It is very nutritious as it contains
a lot of antibodies which provide the baby with immunity to diseases.
Breastfeeding is also important as it helps in bounding/attaching the baby and the mother,
shortly after delivery, the womb (uterus) continues to contract in order to expel the placenta
which is examined for any abnormalities before being disposed off. The mother will continue
bleeding a little several weeks.
Care of the umbilical cord
After 5-7days the tied part of the umbilical cord drops off. The remaining wound at the navel
must be kept clean and dry until it heals. Surgical spirit is good for cleaning and killing any
germs around it.
In some communities mothers apply ashes, mud or cow dung on the cord. Such practices
should be avoided as they can lead to tetanus infection.
MATERNAL AND CHILD WELFARE CLINICS
Post-Natal Care
This refers to the care given to the mother and her new born baby. Six weeks after delivery,
the expectant mother should go back to the post-natal clinic. Here, she will be checked to
make sure that:-
a) Her uterus has gone back to its normal size
b) Her blood pressure is normal
The mother will also be advised on immunization and family planning.
Post-natal clinic are available as:-
a) Units in district and private hospitals
b) In health centers
c) In private clinics and nursing homes
d) As mobile clinics in and semi-arid areas
e) In community centers
Post-natal services are just part of the services that maternal and child welfare clinics offer. In
maternal and child welfare one finds:-
a) Qualified community nurses and mid-wives to give ante-natal and post-natal care.
b) Nutritionist to advice on diet
c) Family planning personnel to advice on family planning matters
d) A doctor to solve serious problems
e) Cleaners to clean the place
f) Security guards to guard the place
IMMUNIZATION
Definition
Immunization is a process by which a person‘s body is stimulated to build protection against
specific diseases. Newborn babies have a natural immunity acquired from their mothers
through breast feeding & that got from mothers antibodies during pregnancy. This immunity
is not long lasting, hence the need for immunization against killer diseases such as:-
a) Tuberculosis
b) Polio
c) Whooping cough (pertursis)
d) Diphtheria
e) Tetanus
f) Hepatic B
g) Influenza
h) Measles
Immunizing a child is cheaper than treating the disease
Factors that affect the health of the mother and child
The following factors have an impact on the health of the mother and the child.
a) Heredity – Heredity refers to characteristics which are passed to us by our parents. In
some families, diseases such as haemophilia (excessive bleeding of cuts and sickle cell
anaemia are passed from the grandparents to proceeding generations.
b) Nutritional status of the mother before birth. Proper nutrition ensures that the mother is
healthy and strong before and after birth and that the new born baby is healthy.
c) Environmental conditions – Such environmental factors include the socio-economic
status of the family in which the mother and child live, availabilities of food housing,
housing and clothing available for both mother and child.
Needs of a baby
Some of the needs of a new born baby include proper nutrition and health.
Nutrition
In early infancy, breast milk is best for the baby. Exclusive breastfeeding should is
recommended for up to 4-6 months. Mother should be encouraged to continue breast feeding
their children for up to two years. To be able to continue breast feeding successfully, the
mother needs to continue taking a balanced diet, the amount of breast milk produced increase
as breast feeding continues.
The nursing mother should:
a) Breastfeed frequently
b) Eat a balanced diet
c) Ask for doctor‘s advice on family planning when she is breast feeding.
NB Breast milk contains all the nutrients a baby required is the first 4-6 months.
Others advantages of breastfeeding to the baby include:
a) Breast milk is free from germs
b) Breast milk is always at the right temperature
c) The first milk (colostrums) contains a lot of antibodies for the baby, giving him immunity
against diseases.
d) Breastfeeding helps to create a strong loving relationship between the baby and the
mother; know as bonding.
e) Overfeeding and underfeeding are avoided ,
Breastfeeding may not always be possible for example in situations where the mother dies. In
the traditional African society, such an orphaned baby could be breastfed by another mother.
This practiced has however died off, leading to people opting alternatives means of feeding
such babies. Cow‘s milk and formula milk are to commonly used as alternatives .When
giving this milk to the baby bottle feeding should be avoiding to its many dangers. A cup and
spoon should however be used.
Feeding the baby using cow‘s milk
The cow‘s milk has less sugar and more protein.
It therefore needs to be diluted with water and more sugar added to it.
How to prepare cow‘s milk for the baby
a) Fill ¾ of a grass with clean water and add cow‘s milk to fill the grass.
b) Add one table spoon of sugar.
c) Boil in a clean sufuria to kill germs
d) Cool to baby using a cup and spoon.
e) Feed the baby using a cup and spoon
As the baby grows older, put less water and when he is 9 months old, whole cow‘s milk may
be given.
Feeding the baby using formula milk (powdered)
Formula milk that comes in powdered form is available in many supermarkets. When using
this there is need to seek advice from a health worker who knows the best brand for the baby
at a particular age. This is because artificial nutrients are used to make this milk which may
have a negative effect on the baby‘s health.
Powdered milk has several disadvantages e.g.
a) It is expensive.
b) It requires clean water to dilute which may not always be available
c) It does not contain antibodies which provide immunity to the baby
d) Some people may not read the instruction on how to feed the baby using it
e) Some people may over-dilute it , leading to the baby becoming malnourished
NB When feeding the baby using cow‘s milk or powdered formula milk, the baby should be
held in a loving way and be given eye contact .This is because the orphaned baby just like
any other child needs love and bonding
After feeding the baby, the caregiver should hold the baby with the baby‘s abdomen next to
her shoulder and rub the baby‘s back gently. This helps to bring up mind i.e. to belch
removing the air swallowed during feeding .this air makes the baby uncomfortable. It is also
dangerous to let the baby sleep before he belches as he may belch while sleeping, bring up
some milk which may clock him to death.
Apart from proper feeding the baby has other physical needs including clothes, bathing items,
toilet articles, cot and bedding.
Clothing for the baby
While preparing for the baby‘s arrival, the expectant mother should buy or make clothes for
the baby to avoid last minute rushing.
While selecting the clothes for the baby, she should go for those made of material that
is:-
a) Suitable for the weather, either hot or cold weather.
b) Strong and easy to wash
c) Soft and smooth for the delicate skin
d) Absorbent to absorb sweat
e) Of fat colour and attractive
f) One that does not catch fire –easily.
Cotton, poplin, lawn and flannel are some of the suitable materials to use on baby‘s garment.
Some of the clothing that a baby requires include:-
 Napkins
 Gowns for day and night
 Bootees or socks
 Dresses/shirts
 Vests
 Baby shawl
 Water proof bibs and pants
Bathing items
These include:-
 A large plastic or rust-less basin
 A towel
 A Soap dish
 Cotton wool to clean the eyes and ears
 Disinfectant to add to water
 A bucket to soak in dirty clothes
Toilet articles
These include:-
 Baby soap
 Baby oil or cream
 Baby powder
 A soft comb/brush
Cot and Bedding
Baby cots may be home made or can be bought from a furniture shop. The beddings include:-
a) A firm mattress
b) Makintosh or plastic cloth
c) Two sheets made of cotton or poplin
d) Cot size blanket
e) A bedcover or shawl
f) A mosquito net
Care of the baby during bathing
Great care should be taken when bathing the baby to prevent accidents such as burning and
drowning. It is also important to take care of the baby while bathing him to prevent infections
such as colds.
Preparation before bathing the baby
a) Have a warm room with closed windows to keep off cold air
b) Have a stool to sit on
c) Collect clothes and other bathing items and toilet items
d) Prepare the cot for the baby to sleep after bathing
e) Prepare warm water for bathing the baby
Bathing the baby
a) Pour some cold water in a basin then add warm water till it is at the right temperature
for bathing the baby. Use your elbow to test the waters‘ temperature.
b) Have boiled cool water for the ears and eyes
c) Place the towel on your lap
d) Undress the baby leaving the vest and wrap him/her with the towel.
e) Using the boiled water and a piece of clean cotton cloth, clean the ears, eyes and wipe
the whole face.
f) Hold the baby on your lap and bend him backwards in order to clean the hair, then dry
it.
g) Support the baby‘s back with one hand behind the shoulders, dip him in water and
wash and rinse the rest of the body.
h) Remove the baby from the water and wrap him with the towel. Dry the whole body,
paying particular attention to the neck, between the legs and toes and underarms.
i) Oil the whole body
j) Dress the baby
k) Open the windows to let in fresh air
l) Feed the baby and put him to sleep
Play
For the baby to grow in a healthy way, he needs to play .play helps children to grow
physically, mentally, socially and emotionally. As babies play they exercise their body
muscles. They also learn new concepts and ideas through play. Through play, they interact
with the caregivers and express their feelings such as joy and anger.
It is for these reasons that caregivers need to promote baby‘s play by providing a variety of
safe, attractive play materials, a safe environment for play and create time to play with the
baby.
FAMILY PLANNING
In this sub-topic, we shall define the term family planning; discuss family planning methods
and factors that influence family planning. The role of culture in family planning will also be
discussed.
Definition
Family planning refers to the limiting of family size and child spacing in order to promote the
total welfare and health of the family.
Family planning therefore seeks to avoid pregnancy, until such a time when a couple is ready
for a new baby.
Importance of family planning
With the increasing cost of living, family planning is very important as it makes it easy to
share the family resources among the family members. Apart from this, family planning has
the following advantages:-
a) It allows the mother enough resting time between pregnancies to regain the energy and
blood lost before the next pregnancy.
b) It allows every baby to be breastfed long enough to promote growth and provide
immunity against diseases.
c) Each child gets enough attention, love, food and clothing as the competition for these
things is less.
d) There is less pressure on the parents due to their ability to distribute their resources
among a small number of children.
Family planning is not a new practice in our society. In the traditional African society, family
planning was by absence from sex. This was made possible by polygamy. It therefore
allowed one wife to recover from birth and breastfeed her baby up to the age about three
years.
During this time the man would continue to have sexual relations with his other wives. Due
to changing socio-economic factors in the society, polygamy is no longer a common practice.
This has therefore led to couples resorting to other methods of family planning which are
discussed below:-
Methods of family planning
Some of the commonly used methods of family planning include:-
a) The pill
b) The loop
c) Diaphragm
d) Condoms
e) Aerosol foam
f) Jellies and creams
g) Withdrawal method
h) Rhythm (the safe days method)
i) Exclusive breastfeeding
j) Vasectomy & tubal ligation
NB: When a couple is choosing any of these family planning methods, it should get advice
from a family planning clinic on the advantages and or disadvantages of any one method.
a) The Pill
Family planning pills are manufactured using chemical hormones, which prevent ovulation
pills are taken for twenty one days and then the woman breaks for seven days during which
she menstruates . when the cycles is complete during which beings taking pills again on day
of the next cycle .
If the woman forgets to take or more pills she should use an alternative method of family
planning.
a) The loop
The loop is no intra uterine device which is inserted into the uterus by a doctor or qualified
person. After the loop is inserted the woman may experience some abdominal pain, backache
and bleeding but the side effects will disappear with time.
The strings are left hanging outside the vagina and are used to pull out the loop when
removing it.
b) The diaphragm
The diaphragm is used as a barrier, preventing sperms from moving up the uterus, its
effectiveness is increased by using it together with spermicidal. It is made of rubber and is
stuck & onto the vaginal walls and is easily removed with a finger after which it should be
washed, dried and kept in a clean place.
c) The condom
The male condom is commonly used as a family planning method and to prevent STIs. the
condom should be used only once. If irritation occurs lubrication of the vagina can be helpful.
d) Aerosol foams
This is a chemical spermicidal which is injected into the vagina at least ½ an hour before
sexual intercourse.
Spermicidal act to kill the sperms preventing fertilization from taking place.
e) Jellies and creams

These are also chemical spermicidal which are injected into the vagina before intercourse.
Their effectiveness is enhanced when they are used together with other contraceptive
methods such as diaphragm.
f) Withdrawal method.
This is a natural contraceptive method where the man withdrawals the penis from the vagina
before ejaculation takes place for the method to be effective, there‘s need for co-operation
between the partners.
There are disadvantages that come with this methods including:
 There is anxiety, fearing that the man may not take on time.
 Ejaculation may withdraw may take place in stages; therefore the sperms are
eventually deposited in the vagina.
g) Rhythm (the safe period method )
In the menstrual cycle, there is a short period of time around ovulation, during which
conception can take place. This is referred to as the fertile period, the rest of the days are
considered ―safe‖ as conception cannot take place. Sexual intercourse is librated to the safe
days.
The fertile period is considered two days before and after ovulation. For a couple to use this
contraception method, the woman has to have a regular menstrual cycle, having kept its
record for at least one year. It means therefore that the method is not suitable for woman with
irregular cycles.
h) Lactation
Exclusive breast feeding is no effective contraception method.
It is also worth nothing that breast feeding helps to return that breast feeding helps the uterus
to returns to its normal size.
Factors hindering family planning
Factors hindering family planning as discussed earlier in this chapter family planning was
practiced in the African traditional society through abstinence as the man had several wives ,
polygamy has become outdated in many African communities hence the need to use modern
contraception methods several factors however hinder family planning e g :
a) The hope of getting that a couple must have a baby boy hope they of getting a baby boy
b) In some communities, children are named after family members, hence the couple insists
on naming many relatives, hence the family becomes large.
c) Some religious are opposed to the of artificial family planning methods.
d) Some parents fear loosing some children to death hence prefer to have many children.
The role of culture in health services.
Role of culture in health services
Definition
Culture is a way of life of a people characterized by element such as:-
 Values and beliefs
 Housing
 Ceremonies
 Religion
 Food eaten
 Language
These elements have an influence on health care services in one way or another e.g.; The
values and beliefs of a community about modern health services such as immunization and
family planning service determine the effectiveness of such programmers cultural ceremonies
such as initiation ceremonies also affect health service in that the availability of cheap
traditional circumcisions may hider the choice offered by healthy centre. This may lead to
the spread of HIV/AIDS leaving the health personnel with a heavy burden of caring for them
at the expense of other members of the community who may also be sick.
Religion just like beliefs and values may be opposed to certain health services. Such as
immunization and family planning services.
Eating habits of a community such as taboos have an influence health service. Medical
personnel may be educating members of the community on proper nutrition but due to the
food taboos in that community, the advice may be ignored.
Language, being the most unique element of culture, also influence health services. In
situation where there is a language barrier between medical personnel and members of the
community, the offering of health services will be affected negatively. Consider a situation
where a doctor and patient come from different cultures and the patient cannot express
himself through a national or official language. This may lead to the patient being treated for
the wrong disease in case there is no interpreter.
CHAPTER 5:
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE (PHC)
Learning Outcome: Be able to explain the primary health care concept in relation to
promotion of community health.
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE (PHC)
This chapter defines and explains the concepts and origin of primary health care. It also
explains the elements and principles of primary health care as strategies of promoting
community health.
Definition of primary health care
In define primary health care there is need for one to understand the meaning of the terms
used in the concepts i.e.
 Primary; implying something basic and very important or essential in life.
 Health implying complete physical, mental and social well-being of a person and not
mere absence of disease or infirmity.
 Care, which means all that, is necessary to promote survival, growth and development.
Primary health care is care that is based on practical, scientifically sound and socially
acceptable methods and technology made universally acceptable to individuals and
families in their community and the county can afford to maintain to every stage of their
development in the spirit of self-reliance and determination.
Origin of PHC
Primary health care started after a meeting of 150 countries in Alma Ata in 1978 to discuss
the impact of health care programmers.
In this meeting it was concluded that
 Health facilities were too few to satisfy the need of the community.
 Health care had been left to the health personnel only as other members of the community
were not involved.
 Health care facilities were not available in many neighbourhoods.
 Health care was expensive.
 There was over emphasis on curative measures rather than preventive had not been
empowered to in charge of their own health needs.
PHC thus emerged as a means of empowering the people to be in charge of health needs and
to address the issues discussed in the conference.
Principles of PHC
Primary health care aims at providing health care service which is;
a) Culturally acceptable to members of different communities.
b) Accessible this means that health acre centre will be situated near settlement areas for
easy access
c) Affordable to members of the community.
d) This initiative has greatly contributed to a decline immortality rate.
e) Technologically appropriate e.g. production of drugs using chemicals that are not harmful
to human health.
f) In line with the health needs of the people e.g. in a community where malaria is a
problem, PHC should aim at curding this disease but not any other e g typhoid which may
not be a problem to the community.
 Available to all people
 Accessible
 Acceptable
 Affordable
 Technologically appropriate
 In line with people needs i.e. relevant
Elements of PHC
The world health organization has identified eight elements of PHC which should be
encouraged in every community striving towards health for all. These are:-
a) Health education
b) Nutrition
c) Immunization
d) Maternal and child health and family planning
e) Water and sanitation
f) Control of endemic diseases
g) Treatment of common diseases
h) Provision of essential drugs
Strategies of promoting community health
Some of the ways and means used in implementing PHC and achieving the goal of health for
all include:-
 Inter-sectoral co-operation; PHC programs should be set in a context of integrated
development in terms of good housing, transport communication and education.
 The prevention of disease and the promotion of health
 Basic infrastructure. Some basic health facility should be established within the reach of
every family. This distance depends on terrain, roads and available transport but an
acceptable average walking distance is usually taken to be 5kilometres.
 Referral system. The health facilities available for the community need to be connected
through a referral mechanism to the hospital service.
 Auxiliary health workers need to be trained to work in the health community.
 Village health workers should be train ed to work in the community.
 Traditional medical systems .The training of traditional birth attendants is proving
successful co-operation birth with and training of other traditional medical workers
should also be encouraged,
 Health education is fundamental in promoting community health .Only through
understanding the basis of a health life can people make rational decisions concerning
their needs and life style.
 Community participation .Each community should be involved in the PHC serve through
the functioning of an active responsible health committee
 Provision of essential drugs for treating common conditions should be provided ,
 Provision of cost effective and self reliant health care .As a county and community
develops ,the provision of health care should reflect the total development and be within
the mean of the community
PHC also aims at empowering members of the community to be economically well off by
starting income generating activities HIV/AIDS control is also addressed PHC.
Registered of birth and death. Death and births are registered by the office of the president.
Importance of registration of births
Birth certification is important when
 Registering children in school.
 When one wants to go a foreign country
 Conducting census
 Planning to provide essentials facilities for the community where birth certificates are
used to establish, how large the targeted population is.
Importance of a death certificates
 Death certificate are important while heirs of a deceased person are making claims of his
/her property.
 Death certificates are important to the election bodies.
CHAPTER 6:
CHILD SAFETY AND PROTECTION
Learning Outcome: Be able to discuss the basic elements of child safety and protection.
This chapter aims at describing basic concepts in child safety and protection.
Some of the concepts tackled in this chapter include:-
a) The definition of first aid
b) Contents of a first aid kit
c) Qualities of a good first aider
d) Causes and prevention of common accidents at home and school
e) Road safety and
f) The role of caregivers in providing safety and care for children.
Definition of first aid

First aid refers to the first help taken to a sick or injured person before s/he is taken to the
health centre, clinic or hospital.
First aid is important because:-
a) It helps to save life. For example resuscitation helps to save the life of a patient who
cannot breathe.
b) It helps to prevent an injury or sickness from becoming worse for example a first
aider may tie a piece of cloth or belt above a snake bite to prevent the poison from
spreading to the rest of the patient‘s body through blood.
c) It helps in recovery for example when a first aider cleans a cut with disinfectant and
cover sit.
Contents of a first aid kit
A first aider must always be prepared to handle common accidents at home and school. One
way of being prepared is by keeping a first aid box or kit, which should contain:-
 Dressing which should be a clean cotton material to be used to clean or dress wounds.
 Sticking plasters or pieces of elastoplasts
 Triangular bandage. This can be made by cutting square cotton diagonally. It is useful
when applying splints, as a pressure bandage or as a slug.
 Soap, to be used to clean wounds.
 A bowl
 A pair of scissors
 Safety pins
 Splints to be used when a casualty has a fracture.
Accidents may occur when the first aid kit is not available, calling for improvisation for
example:-
 A handkerchief can be used for dressing
 A rope or banana fibre can serve as a sling
 Ties, scarves or turbans can serve as bandages
Qualities of a good first aider
A good first aider must be able to:-
a) Correctly assess what is wrong with a casualty
b) Remain calm and assess the situation without panicking.
c) Act quickly and methodically, giving priority to most urgent conditions.
d) Prevent further injury to the patient and also be bale to protect himself.
e) Must be empathetic
f) Communicate well with the patient and people who witness an accident in order to
know the right action to take.
Common accidents at home and school
This section discusses common accidents at home and school, their causes and the first aid
for these accidents.
These accidents include:-
a) Burns and scalds
b) Wounds
c) Nose bleeding
d) Poisoning
e) Shock
f) Foreign bodies in eyes, ears and nose
g) Bites and stings
h) Suffocation
a) BURNS AND SCALDS
Burns are caused by:-
 Dry heat such as fire or contact with hot solid objects
 Electrics current or lighting
 Chemical such as acid
Scalds on the other hand are caused by hot liquids and steam. When one gets burned the first
aider should pour cold water on the burnt part.
Oils and creams should not be applied on burns as they prevent heart from escaping,
worsening the burn. Incase the burn is bigger than one‘s palm, the casualty needs to be taken
to the hospital. Care also needs to be taken to prevent breaking the bum blisters as this creates
a wound which can get infected and promotes water loss from the body.
Treatment of severe burns
(i) When the skin is burned away, do not use cold water.
(ii) If the burn in larger than your palm, take the patient to the hospital or health centre.
(iii) Give the patient plenty of fluids such as tea and fruit juice to drink.
(iv) Apply cold water packs on the burn blisters.
Treatment of small burns
(i) The first aider needs to reassure the casualty
(ii) Dip the burnt part in cold water or run cold water over it for about 10 minutes. Cold
water helps to stop the burn from going deeper and reduces the pain
(iii) If the casualty‘s clothes are burning, put out the fire by smothering it with a heavy
blanket or cloth or by rolling him on the ground.
(iv) Remove any rings, watches, belts or shoes around the injured part before it begin
swelling.
(v) If the casualty is wearing clothes on which hot liquid has spilt, pour plenty of cold
water on the clothes.
(vi) Cover the burn with clean, dry cotton dressings daily.
(vii) Incase the burn gets infected, take the patient to the hospital.
Treatment for chemical burns
Wash the burns with plenty of water if it is external but if the patient has swallowed the
chemical, rush him to the hospital.
Electric burns
Before treating the electric burns, switch off the power because the current will also pass
through you.
Remove the casualty from the source of electric current using a bad conductor of electricity
e.g. wood. Check whether the casualty is conscious and breathing as electric current causes
shock.
Treatment of electric burns
Cover the burn with a clean cloth and take the casualty to the hospital.
Prevention of burns
Any injuries are expensive to treat. It is therefore advisable to prevent injuries such as burns
by:-
 Raising cooking areas off the ground to prevent young children from crawling into
fire.
 Tuck in your clothes tightly when cooking near open fire.
 Turn away the handles of saucepans when cooking to prevent children from reaching
them or even knocking over them.
 Pour food in hot oil gently to avoid splashing
 If cooking oil catches fire, put it out by covering the pot
 Keep flammable fuel such as kerosene and petrol away from fire
 Ensure cigarettes are completely put out before throwing them away
 Ensure that all electrical cords are insulted.
b) WOUNDS
A wound is an injury which causes damage to the skin. Some causes of wounds include:-
 Falls
 Acts and bruises
 Fractures
 Bites
 Boils
 Burns
Some wounds may cause excessive bleeding leading to the casualty becoming pale and
feeling dizzy, the skin becomes cold and starts sweating. Such major wounds may occur in
car accidents leading to shock, where the patient‘s mouth becomes dry and he feels thirsty
and the heart beats first and is weak.
Treatment of wounds
There are two types of wounds i.e. major and minor wounds which should be treated
differently.
Minor wounds should be treated as follows:-
 Wash your hands with soap and water
 Clean the wound using some warm boiled water or with mild salt solution or an
antiseptic, removing any dirt and gravel
 Dress the wound with a clean cloth
 Change the dressing as necessary and if it sticks on the wounds, soak it off in a salt
solution.
 Burn the used dressings.
Major wounds should be treated as follows:-
 If the injury object is still in the cut, leave it there and take the casualty to the hospital.
 Control bleeding by covering the injured part with a folded cloth and press the pad
firmly over the wound using a bandage.
 If there is a cut in the palm, let the casualty apply pressure by clutching a pad over the
wound.
 Elevate the cut and bandaged hand after injury using a sling to control bleeding.
 Take the casualty to the hospital
c) NOSE BLEEDING
Nose bleeding should be treated as follows:-
 Let the casualty bend forward
 Grasp the nose bridge firmly with the thumb and forefinger for about ten minutes
 Lower the temperature around the nose using a wet cloth
 The casualty should not blow the nose for some time after bleeding
 If bleeding does not stop after two attempts to control it, take the casualty to the
hospital.
d) POISONING
Poisoning can easily kill, poisons get into the body by:-
 Being swallowed e.g. children can swallow kerosene, medicine etc
 Being breathed in e.g. poisonous gases from insecticides
 Contact especially with pesticides that can easily get absorbed into the body through
the skin.
 Being pushed under the skin as in the case of snake bites and bee stings
Signs of poisoning
One can easily identify a poisoned person by observing the following
 Vomiting
 Headache
 Faintness
 Sleepiness
 Burning sensation in the stomach
 Unconsciousness
 Sometimes breathing stops
The symptoms of poisoning however vary depending on the poison involved.
If the poison taken is not acidic, make the casualty vomit by touching the back of his throat.
If the poison is however acidic, do not make the patient vomit as this may burn the food pipe
too. Rush the casualty to the hospital and carry with you the container of the poison.
e) SHOCK
Shock occurs when the brain does not receive enough supply of oxygen. This happens when
the circulation of blood slows down e.g. after someone receiving bad news.
Other causes of shock include
 Excessive bleeding
 Severe burns
 Fractures
 Electric current
A person in shock will show the following signs:-
 Pale skin
 Shallow breathing
 Dry mouth and thirst
 Dizziness and fainting
 Weak, fat heartbeats
 Sweating but very cool skin

Management of shock
Shock can be managed by:-
 Laying the casualty on the ground and applying pressure on any injuries to prevent
bleeding
 If the patient does not have injuries in the head, chest or abdomen, raise his legs to
enhance blood flow to the head.
 Loosen any tight clothing the casualty may be wearing
 Cover the patient with a light sheet or blanket
 Do not give nay drinks even though the patient complains of thirst
f) FOREIGN BODIES
Some of the foreign bodies that can get into eyes, ears and nose include stones, seeds,
splinters, insects etc. They cause a lot of discomfort and can cause infection if they are not
removed.
Foreign bodies in the eyes
Some of the foreign bodies that can get into the eyes include:- insects, sand and grit. When
there is a foreign body in the eye, one should:-
 Wash your hands with soap and clean water and dry them
 Make the casualty sit down
 Stand behind the casualty and pull the upper lid out and down ward to cover the lower lid,
then hold for a few seconds before releasing it.
 If this fails to remove the foreign body, pour some clean cold water in the eyes.
NB: The casualty should not rub the eye as this may break the foreign body into many
smaller particles which are hard to remove.
Foreign bodies in the nose
Some of the common bodies that children put in the nose include marbles, beans, maize and
beads.
When handling such a casualty, the first aider should.
 Instruct the casualty to breath through the mouth to prevent pushing the object further up.
 Take the casualty to the hospital caution. Do not try to remove the object or telling the
child to blow it out as when breathing in he may suck it further up.
Foreign bodies in the ear
Some objects such as beads and seeds are smooth and hard to grasp. If they are put into the
ear the casualty should be taken to the hospital.
Swallowed objects
Some objects may be swallowed but fail to go down completely e.g. fish bones. The casualty
should be made to eat some dry food e.g. bread, ugali or cassava which will force down the
object. The object is later passed out in feaces. However if pain or vomiting starts, the
casualty should be taken to the hospital.
g) BITES
Bites are usually from animals.
All animal bites should be treated as ordinary wounds except snake and dog bites.
Dog bites should be treated at the hospital in order for the patient to receive an anti-rabis
injection.
Snake bites should be treated as follows:-
 Tie a pie of cloth tightly above the snake bite to prevent the poison from spreading to
the rest of the body.
 Take the casualty to the hospital.
Some insects also bite such as leeches and ticks. These attach themselves on tbe skin and
suck blood. They should be removed by applying salt or alcohol on them to make them
withdraw from the skin. If there is any bleeding, apply pressure to stop bleeding then treat the
injury like an ordinary wound.
Insects such as wasps and scorpions sting. The stings should be treated as follows;-
 Remove the ting by squeezing the flesh gently on either side then pull out the sting
 If the sting cannot be pulled out, use a sterilized needle
 Use some sting ointment to ease the pain
 If the swelling is big or if there are many stings take the patient to the hospital.
h) SUFFOCATION
Suffocation is a condition of being unable to breathe which can easily lead to death. Some
common causes of suffocation include:-
 Chocking which occurs when the windpipe is blocked by food or nay other object
 Drowning
 Covering by a plastic bag
 Electric shock
 Inhaling poisonous fumes or smoke
 Physical damages of the air passage e.g. after an accident
If a casualty cannot breathe as a result of a blocked air passage, the first aider should try to
clear the air passage by:-
 Making the casualty lean forward with his head hanging down
 With the open hand, hit the casualty between the shoulder blades
 In the case of infants, hold them over your knee and firmly tap across the shoulders.
 If necessary give artificial respiration
Due to the great risk associated with suffocating it is necessary to prevent by all means.
Suffocation can be prevented by;
 Keeping plastic bags away from children.
 Do not use pillow for small babies as they could bury their head in soft pillows where
they will be unable to breathe.
 Do not leave children in or near water unattended in a car with windows closed and
the engine running.
ROAD SAFETY
The common road users include pedestrians, motorists and cyclists. Other road users include
animal and cart drivers.
Many road accidents occur if these people do not use the road properly as a result of lack of
maintenance of vehicles.
School children also get accidents due to lack of knowledge on how to the use the road
safety.
In this section, we discuss how pedestrians. Motorists, cyclists and cart drives should use the
road and the road signs they should observe when using the road.
Pedestrians
Pedestrians should always keep right when walking on the road.
 If there are pavements or footpaths provided beside the road, pedestrians should
always use them.
 While walking on the wad at right , pedestrians should wear bright clothing.
 Blind people should always carry a white stick while walking on the road .
Cyclists.
 They should always keep left when using the road
 Cyclists should obey all the signs
 Bicycles should have reflected at the back to enable other road users to see them
at night
 Cyclist should not overtake when there is an oncoming vehicle.
Motorists
 They should always keep left when using the road
 They should obey all road signs
 They should not overtake when there is an oncoming vehicle
Ox-carts and handcarts
 People pulling or guiding carts should always keep left
 Carts should have reflectors at the back to make them visible to other road users
especially at night.
 Animals should not be left to drive carts alone without guidance of people
 Cart drivers should obey all road signs when using the road
Crossing the road
Accidents often occur when pedestrians cross the road carelessly at the wrong point. Special
places are set for people to cross the road including zebra crossing and at traffic lights.
When crossing the road, pedestrian should look right, look left and look right again. If the
road is clear, they should cross the road fast but not run, but if there is an oncoming car they
should wait till the road is clear.
CHAPTER 7:
HIV AND AIDS: IMPACT AND INTERVENTION MEASURES
LEARNING OUTCOME: Evaluate HIV and AIDS impact and intervention measures.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTTED DISEASE, HIV AND AIDS
In this chapter, we shall discuss the meanings of STI s, HIV and AIDS and their history,
modes of transmission, signs and factors that promote their spread , some facts and
misconception about HIV/AIDS its clinical stages and management will also be discussed.
Lastly we shall examine the most vulnerable groups to HIV infection
Definitions
HIV-These initials stand for human immune deficiency virus which causes AIDS.
AIDS stands for - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome which is caused by HIV.
STIs are Sexually Transmitted Infections.
History of HIV and AIDS
The discovery of AIDS was based on the strong suspicion, as lots of unusual infections of
Kaposis sarcoma were recorded in a short course of time. In May 1981, pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia and other opportunistic infections, as well as Kaposi‘s sarcoma cases were
discovered by the centers of disease control, in the previously healthy young homosexual
men in New York and San-Francisco cities in the USA. Such infections could only be
anticipated in severely immuno-compromised hosts, and their occurrence in these healthy
men baffled the experts.
Simultaneously, unprecedented occurrence of Kaposis sarcoma was recorded in North
America, acting as an additional pointer towards strange immunodeficiency.
In the following months, it was noticed that several heterosexual haemophiliac patients also
developed similar disorders. It also came to light that no patient with such disorders was
found prior to 1978, thus making this syndrome a new entity.
Its occurrence in males with various sexual habits and or numerous partners suggested a
transmissible agent capable of mediating an immunosuppressive state, being perpetuated
from one person to another by body fluids.
In haemophiliacs, the transmission appeared to be mediated via infected blood products and
infected apparatus among drug abusers.
These evidences stressed fact that AIDS is caused by an infectious agent. Research continues
to identify the agent that caused the syndrome. It was until 1983 that the centre for disease
control (in the USA) identified the virus and hence forth named it the Human Immuno-
deficiency virus.
Stages of HIV infection
A person does not develop AIDS symptoms immediately. There are four stages from the time
of infection to the time full blown AIDS symptoms appear. These are:-
(i) The window period
(ii) Sero-conversion
(iii) Asymptomatic infection
(iv) Full blown AIDS
(i) The window period
This is the time it takes the immune system of the body to produce antibodies after the HIV
has entered the body. This period may last from three to six months. During this time an
AIDS virus medical test will show negative due to the absence of antibodies in the body, but
the person can infect others.
(i) Sero- conversion
This period could last from six months to ten years in adults. During this time, the person
infected with HIV will not show any symptoms. The AIDS virus test will however produce
positive HIV status.
(ii) Asymptomatic infection
At this stage the symptoms of AIDS begins to show. This shows that HIV has begun to break
down the body‘s immune system.
(iii) Full blown AIDS
AIDS is a stage reached when the body‘s immune system is so damaged by the HIV that the
body can no longer fight off any opportunistic diseases it would normally resist.
NB: A person with AIDS may look and feel healthy but his/her immune system is weak.
Signs and symptoms
The major signs of AIDS are:-
 Loss of more than 10% of body weight within one month
 Chronic diarrhoea lasting for more than one month
 Prolonged fever lasting for more than one month
 Opportunistic disease such as pneumonia and TB
Other signs and symptoms include:-
 Persistent cough
 Generalized itchy skin disease
 Recurrent herpes zoster
 Chronic generalized herpes simplex
 Thrust in the mouth and throat
 Swollen glands
 Loss of memory
 Loss of intellectual capacity
 Peripheral nerve damage
 Other persistent common infections such as skin diseases.
Facts about STIs, HIV and AIDS
STIs are passed from one person to another through sexual intercourse. There are over forty
types of STIs, the common ones being gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital warts, genital herpes and
the deadly HIV/AIDS.
The following are facts about STIs.
 STIs are transmitted through sexual intercourse and can also be transmitted by an
infected mother to a developing foetus during pregnancy or at birth.
 Somebody can have STIs and not know about it because they may not have any
physical sign.
 Early detention of STIs is important to prevent complications such as infertility.
 It is possible to contract STIs through intimate sexual contact that are not exclusively
intercourse like oral, genitals or anal contact.
Apart from these general facts about STIs there are certain facts which are unique to
HIV/AIDS. These include:-
 HIV causes AIDS; HIV is a very tiny virus which cannot be seen with naked eyes or
even with the help of a microscope.
 80% of HIV/AIDS transmission takes place through sexual intercourse.
 The presence of another STI increases the risk of contracting HIV.
 An infected person may live with HIV for many years without knowing.
 People living with HIV/AIDS can lead normal lives for many years and they need to
be treated with dignity, respect and compassion.
 One can contract HIV/AIDS even if they have sexual contact with infected person
only once.
 HIV/AIDS is a community problem as even the people who are not infected are
affected
 For a person to be infected with HIV/AIDS there has to be contact with body fluids.
The body fluids with the highest concentration of HIV virus include blood, seminal
and vaginal fluids.
 An infected person can pass the virus to the sex partner unknowingly.
Modes if transmission of HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS can be transmitted from one person to another through three main ways. These
include:-
a) Sexual intercourse
b) Mother to child transmission whereby an infected mother infects the baby during delivery
or after delivery through breastfeeding
c) Exposure to contaminated blood through blood transmission, shared needles, and tools
e.g. those used in circumcision, tattooing, injecting drugs
Factors promoting the spread of HIV/AIDS
i) Changing social values: This has seen many young people engaging in pre-marital sex,
thereby increasing the spread of HIV/AIDS.
ii) Reluctance to establish ones HIV/AIDS status: This has led to many people infecting
others with the virus unknowingly.
iii) Prevalence of sexual violence such as rape and sodomy
iv) Traditional practices such as wife inheritance: Incase the widow is HIV positive, there
will be a great risk of the new husband getting infected. The reverse of this is also
common whereby a widower marries a sister to his deceased wife in order for her to
take care of the children.
v) Use of un-sterilized circumcision knives or blades for more than one person.
vi) Belief by infected men that virgins can cleanse them of HIV/AIDS.
vii) Poor and inaccessible health services: Some communities cannot access
hospitals/clinics where they can be tested for HIV or be given counseling on how to live
if they are HIV negative or positive.
viii) Drug and substance abuse especially among the youth has also promoted the spread of
HIV/AIDS. This is common where youths engage in irresponsible alcohol taking which
leads to irresponsible sexual activities. Youths may also share drug injecting syringes
and needles thus spreading HIV through blood contact.
Effects of HIV and AIDS on Young Children and Child Rearing
- The effects of HIV/AIDS on the child‘s family are many and varied. Since individual
families are part of a larger community, the effects are translated from the family to the
community.
- Young children can be infected with HIV before, at or after birth. Like any other AIDS
patients, they suffer physically, psychologically and socially. It is likely that this children
will miss out on school for long periods when they are sick. Although the school
community may accept them, they therefore miss out on educational opportunities due to
their state of health. These children also suffer emotionally and socially in situations
where their state of health strains the families finances and when they cannot be accepted
in their peer groups.
- Child rearing is also greatly affected by HIV/AIDS. When parents die of AIDS, children
are left without a source of income. Their basic needs cannot be met and their families
become stigmatized and shunned by members of the community. Such parents are
therefore unable to take good care of their children, to stimulate their growth and
development.
- In a family where there is a person living with HIV/AIDS, the finances are strained by
medical expenses, leaving less resources to cater for the needs of the children
- HIV/AIDS also impacts child rearing negatively in situations where AIDS orphans lack
anyone to offer them socio-emotional support.
Myths and misconceptions about HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a deadly disease that elicits fear among members of the community. This leads
to people coming up with myths about it. A myth is an untrue/twisted story about something.
A misconception on the other hand is a piece of information which may contain just a little
truth to support it.
Some of the myths associated with HIV transmission state that HIV can be transmitted
through:-
 Shaking of hands
 Being bitten by mosquitoes
 Sleeping next to a HIV infected person
 Coming into contact with sweat from an infected person
 Bewitching
 Visiting a HIV infected person
People also hold misconception about HIV/AIDS including that:-
 Only promiscuous can get HIV/AIDS
 All HIV infected people look thin
 One cannot get AIDS if she is a virgin
 It is okay to have sexual intercourse with a girl below 15years because she is free
from HIV
 AIDS is a curse or punishment from God as a result of having broken a taboo
 AIDS is caused by witchcraft
Management of HIV and AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a terminal diseased. It is for this reason that doctors advice that one suffering
from it be given home-based care:-
Home-based care
This is the care given to a person suffering from HIV/AIDS at home.
Home based care helps the patient to feel accepted and loved by members of the family. This
care also helps the members of the family. This care also helps the members of the family to
accept the health status of the family to accept the health status of the patient and to come to
terms with the fact that he is terminally ill. The members of the family can also help the
patient to live a happy productive life.
This is unlike in the hospital where the unfamiliar people and environment may make the
patient feel rejected.
Nutritional care
For the patient to be strong, medical personnel advise the family on proper nutrition. Most of
the time the time the family is advised to fed the person living with HIV/AIDS on fresh foods
especially the locally available foods. They are also advised on the importance of regular
balanced diet for the patient who is in most cases on anti-retroviral therapy (ART).
ARV Therapy
Anti-retroviral therapy refers to medical given to persons suffering from HIV/AIDS in order
to boost their immunity. This medicine should be taken according to the doctor‘s
prescription. It is also wrong for one patient to use the drugs of another patient. This is
because the HIV virus in one person may be different from that in another patient, hence the
need for different anti-retroviral drugs to target the different virus. There is therefore need for
every HIV infected person to visit a doctor who will prescribe the correct ARVs for him/her.
Groups vulnerable to HIV infection
Anybody can get infected with the deadly HIV virus. However some groups of people in the
society tend to be more vulnerable. These groups include:-
(i) Women and children
(ii) Marginalized groups
(i) Women and children
Women and children are more susceptible to HIV infection first and foremost due to
increased cases of sexual violence such as rape and sodomy targeting this group.
Lack of economic empowerment sometimes leads to this group resorting to commercial sex
and drug abuse, practices that promote HIV spread. Women are also subjected to practice
such as wife inheritance and forced marriage to polygamous men, practices that are
associated with increased spread of HIV.
(ii) Marginalized group
Marginalized people are those who are considered less important or less powerful in the
society. They are therefore given less attention by the rest of the society and sometimes even
by the government. In our Kenyan situation some of the marginalized groups include: -
people living in arid and semiarid areas, the physically challenged, people living in the slums
and the poor.
In arid and semiarid areas there are few schools and medical centers to offer HIV/AIDS
education. Roads leading to these facilities are also poor making them inaccessible to
members of the community. The community therefore remains ignorant with regard to
HIV/AIDS education, leading them to continue with practices promoting HIV spread.
The physically challenged such as the deaf are also vulnerable to HIV infection. This is
because HIV/AIDS education may not always reach them due to communication barrier with
lack of interpretation of audio HIV/AIDS education into sign language for the deaf to
understand.
HIV and AIDS Reduction
HIV/AIDS have claimed the lives of many productive members of the community and even
children. This has led to the Kenyan government and many other African counties such as
Uganda and South Africa terming it as national disaster.
The Kenyan government, through the ministry of Health and other stakeholders devised
measurers of reducing the rate of HIV infection. Such measures include:-
a) Voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) and
b) Leisure activities and HIV/AIDS education
a) Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT)
VCT can be better understood by explaining what each of the initials stand for:-
V means its Voluntary, is done freely with the consent of the individual without any
coercion.
C stands for counseling done to an individual to help him decide whether or not he will be
tested and how to cope with results of the test which may describe him as HIV positive or
negative.
T stands for testing whereby a blood sample is taken from the patient for HIV testing.
Importance of VCT
VCT is important because:-
 It helps uninfected persons to avoid practices that promote HIV infection
 It prevents infected persons from spreading the virus unknowingly.
 It helps an individual be able to plan the future, whether he is positive or negative.
 VCT helps to know who HIV positive is hence make early referral and early medical
intervention.
Process of VCT
The use of the term ―process‖ implies that VCT is done in identifiable sequential stages. The
first stage involves a decision by a person to have a test done to determine his HIV status.
The second stage involves counseling. This is done in VCT centers where a counselor or
doctor explains to the ―volunteer‖ about the testing including emotional, social and medical
consequences of negative or positive status.
The advantages and disadvantages of testing should also be discussed at this stage and the
decision to have one tested be made after careful consideration.
Who should go to VCT and where?
Everybody should go for VCT to HIV status. However KIE (2003) states the following
groups of people as those who should go for VCT:-
a) Persons who have has sex with someone of unknown HIV status.
b) Persons who have shared syringes or needle to inject drugs
c) Persons who have had other sexually transmitted diseases
d) Persons who have had sex with more than one partner
e) Persons who have had sex with someone with more than one sexual partner
f) Persons who have had sex
b) Leisure activities and HIV/AIDS education
Leisure activities are aimed at preoccupying members of the community during their free
time. Free time or leisure time may be used irresponsibly e.g. by one engaging in careless
drinking and irresponsible sexual behaviour. Leisure activities such as football, swimming
etc, are therefore used to pre-occupy the public during leisure time. The government
contributes to these by e.g. setting aside finances and land to be used to develop recreational
facilities.
HIV/AIDS education is also affected to the public by the government. Such include ways of
preventing HIV/AIDS infection. This education is offered through the mass media and even
in youth clubs and sport groups.
1. Discuss child growth, monitoring and promotion. (5marks)
2. As a teacher, how would you conduct parental and community capacity building and
mobilization on health and nutrition? (5marks)
3. Discuss the nutritional needs of a child at various stages shown below.
a) Birth to 6 months (3marks)
b) 7 to 12 months (3marks)
c) 1 to 2 years (3marks)
d) 2 to 4 years (3marks)
e) 4 t 6 years (3marks)
f) 6 to 8 years (3marks)
4. Write an essay discussing the following topics:
a. Traditional child care practices (3marks)
b. Modern child care practices (3marks)
c. Factors contributing to changes in child rearing practices. (4marks)
d. Home-based child care practices. (3marks)
e. Day care centers. (3marks)
f. Preschool child care practices (3marks)
g. Lower primary child care practices. (3marks)

CHILDREN IN NEED OF SPECIAL
PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Research indicates that in a given population of any country all over the world there exist
people with various disabilities. It is therefore crucial that each country should attempt to
design suitable interventional programs for persons with special needs in order to enhance the
achievement of their potentials.
This module covers categories of children with special needs, causes, assessment procedures,
intervention strategies of children with special needs and those living under especially
difficult circumstances. The module also covers the current trends and emerging issues of
education of children with special needs.
a) Define terms related to special needs
b) Identify categories of children with special needs
c) Explain causes of disability
d) Discuss the characteristics of children with special needs
e) Identify children living under difficult circumstances
f) State the prevalence patterns of children with special needs
g) Describe assessment tools for children with special needs
h) Identify intervention strategies for children with special needs
i) Describe specialized instruction, learning resources for learners with special needs
j) Discuss the effects of disability in a family
k) Discuss current trends and issues in education for children with special needs
l) State institutions that offer services to children with special needs.
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Define terminologies related to children with special needs.
1. Impairment/handicap/disability
Disability is lack of ability relative to a person or group standard. Disability may involve
physical, sensory, cognitive or intellectual impairment, mental disorder. This is also known as
psychiatric disability or various types of chronic diseases. A disability may occur during a
person‘s lifetime or may be present at birth. Disability may be seen as resulting directly from
individuals in which case the focus is on aspects of those individuals and how they could
function better.
In December 13, 2006, The United Nations formally agreed on the convention on the rights
of persons with disabilities to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of the world
estimated 650 million disabled people. Countries that signed up to the convention will be
required to adopt a national laws and remove the old ones so that persons with disabilities
would for example have equal rights to education, employment and cultural life, the rights to
own and inherit property, not to be discriminated against, not to be unwilling subjects in
medical experiments.
The International Classifications of Functioning Disability and Health (ICF) produced by the
World Health Organization (WHO), distinguishes between body functions (physiological or
psychological features) and body structures (anatomical parts). Impairment in bodily
structure or function is identifies as involving and anomaly, defect, loss or other significant
deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over
time. Activity is defined as execution of a task or action. The ICF lists nine broad domains of
functioning which can be affected by a disability;
a. Learning and applying knowledge
b. General tasks and demands
c. Communication
d. Mobility
e. Self-care
f. Domestic life
g. Interpersonal interactions and relationships
h. Major life areas
i. Community, social and civic life.
2. Assessment
This is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills,
attitudes and beliefs. Assessment can be classified in many different ways. The most
important distinctions are;
a) Formative Assessment
This is generally carried out throughout a course or project. It is also referred to as
Educative Assessment. In an education setting formative assessment might be a teacher
or the learner providing feedback on a student‘s work and would not necessarily be used
for grading purposes.
b) Summative Assessment
This is generally carried out at the end of a course or a project. In an education setting,
summative assessments are typically used to assess student‘s course grade.
Formative and summative assessments are referred to in a learning context as
―Assessment of Learning‖ and ―Assessment for Learning‖ respectively. A common form
of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment, which measures a student‘s current
knowledge and skills for the purposes of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self
assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing
themselves.
c) Objective and Subjective Assessment
Assessment whether summative or formative can be subjective or objective.
Objective Assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct
answer or more than one way of expressing the correct answer. Subjective assessments
include; extended response questions and essays
d) Informal and Formal Assessments
A Formal assessment implicates a written document such as a test quiz or paper. A formal
assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance.
Informal assessment does not contribute to a student‘s final grade. It usually occur in a
more casual manner and may include; observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales,
rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-evaluation
and discussion.
3. Integration
This is a process of combining or assimilating. It may specifically refer to the bringing
together of two or more things e.g. subjects, cultures, religions, economies etc.
4. Screening
In medicine, screening is a strategy used in a population to detect a disease in individuals
without signs or symptoms of the disease. Unlike most medicine, tests are performed on
those without any clinical indications of disease. The intention of screening is to identify
disease in a person or community thus enabling earlier intervention and management in
hope to reduce mortality and suffering from as disease. Although screening may lead to
an earlier diagnosis, not all screening test have been shown to benefit the person being
screened. Several types of screening exist;
a) Universal screening – This involves screening all individuals in a certain category for
example, all children of a certain age.
b) Case finding – This involves screening a smaller group of people based on the presence
of risk factors. For example, because a family member has been diagnosed with a heredity
disease.
c) Identification – A study of special education programs revealed how early the children
problems were identified and how the medical system was involved in the diagnosis.
Problems include speech impairment, learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, mental
retardation, sensory disorders and physical and health disabilities. Variations in age at
identification depend on the condition. Example, one year for Down‘s syndrome and
Cerebral Palsy and six year range for mental retardation. The type, severity and
complexity of the condition are significant predictors of physician‘s identifications.
5. Special Needs
This is a term used in clinical diagnostic and functional development to describe individuals
who require assistance for disabilities such as medical, mental and psychological. For
example, the International Classification of Disease (ICD) gives guidelines for clinical
diagnosis. Autism, Down‘s syndrome, developmental delays, blindness and examples of
specials needs. More narrowing, Special Needs is a legal term applying in foster care. It is a
diagnosis used to classify children as needing more services than those children without
special needs who are in the foster care system. It is a diagnosis based on behavior, childhood
and family and it is usually made by a health care professional.
CHAPTER 2:
CATEGORIES, CAUSES & CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
 Identify categories of children with special needs.
 Explain causes of the different special needs (disabilities).
 Discuss the characteristics of children with special needs.
1. GIFTED AND TALENTED
Gifted and Talented describes children and young people with an ability to develop to a level
significantly ahead of their year group or with the potential to develop those abilities.
Gifted Learners are those who have abilities in one or more academic subjects such as
Mathematics or English.
Talented Learners are those who have practical skills in areas such as sport, music, design
or creative and performing arts.
Skills such as leadership, decision making and organization are also taken into account when
identifying and providing for gifted and talented children.
Identifying gifted and talented children
If you think the child is gifted or talented, you should first discuss their abilities and needs
with the child‘s teacher or head teacher. All schools should register their identification of
their gifted and talented pupils. Schools will identify children based on evidence including
test results, quality of work and views of the teachers and parents.
Support for gifted and talented children
Schools have a responsibility to meet the educational needs of all the pupils. For gifted and
talented, this includes providing greater challenges in lessons and opportunities for pupils to
develop potential gifts and talents. Schools and local authorities may also provide additional
activities beyond the every day time-table.
Every school should have a trained leading teacher for gifted and talented education. Leading
teacher in primary schools may work across a smaller cluster of schools and work with head
teacher and senior managers to include provision across the schools. They should also work
closely with other teachers to ensure that teaching and learning approaches ensure work base
sufficiently challenging to meet the needs of all gifted and talented pupils on a day-to-day
basis.
2. VISUALLY IMPAIRED (BLINDNESS)
In most cases, only students who are legally blind are reported, ignoring those who have
difficulties in seeing. In other instances, children who are visually impaired and have other
disabilities such as mental retardation are not counted as visually impaired because they are
ported in other defined categories such as multiple disabilities or mental retardation.
There are children with visual and multiple impairment whose vision loss remain
undiagnosed throughout their school experience because of lack of professionals with
specialized skills to diagnose vision loss.
Our nation lacks critical information about the needs for specialized services for these
children and cannot correctly allocate the specialized resources and the personnel required.
Many children do not receive appropriate specialized educational services they need.
Skills that visually impaired children need to learn.
Visual impairment change the way children obtain information about the world in which they
grow and function and limit opportunities to learn through observation of visual elements in
the school curriculum and the people around them. This means that in addition to their
regular schooling, they need to learn specialized skills from teachers and others who are
trained to teach these skills.
The specialized skills blind children should learn include:
a) Technology and computer proficiency i.e. using computer and telecommunication
equipment and software adapted for blind or visually impaired people.
b) Literacy – This is reading and writing with Braille, large print, optical devices or training
in effective use of available vision.
c) Safe and independent mobility – Using specific orientation and mobility techniques, long
canes and other mobility tools.
d) Social interactions skills – Understanding body language and other visual concepts.
e) Personal management and independent living skills – Learning specialized techniques for
personal grooming food preparation, money management and other tasks.
Education for visually impaired children
Children with visual impairment receive educational services from various options that
includes residential and special schools specifically designed for the blind and multiple
disabled children and input from their parents and educators, specialized schools or classes
are appropriate for educational options for certain students. Special needs schools should
provide support in technical assistance to the public schools.
Challenges faced by visually impaired children
 Even with specialized instruction many visually impaired students leave school without
having mastered the skills or knowledge for further education, gainful employment and
independent leaving at home and in their communities.
 There is severe shortage of orientation and mobility specialists and qualified teachers of
visually impaired students which restricts access to specialized skills needed. This
problem is even more alarming in rural communities where shortage of qualified
personnel is acute.
 Many residential and special schools for the blind and visually impaired children are too
costly.
Helping visually impaired children reach their full potential
 Appropriate placement for all students
 Provide sufficient funding to prepare enough teachers in all educational settings who are
qualified to provide a specialized communication literacy, academic, mobility, daily
living, social and career education skills that visually impaired children‘s need.
 Provide access to the latest technology so that every blind or visually impaired child
benefits from computer based educational programmes.
 Ensure that parents and families of children who are blind or visually impaired are
provided with information they need to determine the best educational option for their
child.
3. HEARING IMPAIRMENT (DEAFNESS)
Going to concerts, party or other loud events may lead to ringing or buzzing sound in your
ears a condition called tinnitus which usually lasts until the ears gradually re-adjust to normal
sound levels.
Too much exposure to loud noise can lead to a condition known as Noise Induced Hearing
Loss (NIHL)
Personal music players, video games, TV sets, movie theatre, traffic and some machines and
appliances can make the environment too noisy and are to blame for NIHL.
Some people are born with hearing impairment and children and teenagers can lose their
hearing for many reasons.
How the ear hears
Sound is made up of invisible waves of energy that causes vibrations. Hearing begins when
sound waves that travel through the air reach the outer ear or pinna, which is the part of the
ear that you can see.
The sound waves travel through the ear canal to middle ear which includes the eardrum and
three tiny bones called ossicles. When the eardrums vibrate the ossicles amplify the
vibrations and carry them to the inner ear.
The inner ear is made up of a snail shaped chamber called the cochlea, which is filled with
fluid and lined with thousands of tiny hair cells, which translates vibrations into electrical
nerve impulses and send them to the auditory nerve which connects the inner ear with the
brain where impulses are interpreted as sound. This process happens almost instantly.
Hearing impairment
This occurs when there‘s a problem with or damage to one or more part of the ear.
a) Conductive hearing loss – results from a problem with the outer or middles ear including
the ear canal, eardrum or ossicles. A blockage interferes with how sound gets conducted
through the ear making sound levels lower. This loss can be corrected with medications
or survey.
b) Sensory neural hearing loss – results from damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or the
auditory nerve. The most common type is caused by outer hair cells not functioning
correctly. This type of hearing loss is permanent. It may be treated with hearing aids or
cochlea implant.
c) Mixed hearing loss – Results when someone has conductive and sensory neural hearing
loss.
The degree of hearing impairment can vary widely from person to person. Some have partial
hearing loss meaning they can pick some sounds. Others cannot hear at all and are considered
deaf.
The timing of hearing loss can vary as well.
a) Congenital hearing loss is present at birth.
b) Acquired hearing loss occurs later in life. This kind of loss can be sudden or progressive.
Causes of hearing impairment
The most common cause of conductive hearing loss in children and teenagers is Otitis
media, which is a medical term for an ear infection that affects the middle ear. This causes a
buildup of fluid or pus behind the eardrum, which block sound transmission.
Blockages in the ear by foreign objects, impacted ear wax or dirt or fluid due to colds and
allergies can also cause conductive hearing loss.
A tear or hole in the eardrum can interfere with hearing and may be caused by inserting an
object too far into the ear, sudden explosions and loud noise, sudden change in the air
pressure, head injury or repeated ear infection.
Sensory neural hearing impairment is caused when:
a) There is genetic disorders
b) There are injuries to the ear or head

c) There are complications during pregnancy or birth
d) There is an infection or illness
e) There is use of certain medications and loud noise.
Treatment of hearing problems
This depends with the cause of hearing impairment. Treatment may involve;
a) Removing wax or dirt from the ear.
b) Surgery
c) Use of hearing aid or cochlea implant.
Prevention of hearing impairment
Many causes are not preventable but those caused by loud noise can be prevented. The
intensity of sound is measured in units or decibels and any sound over 80 decibels are
considered hazardous. This includes things like loud music, sirens and engines. To reduce the
risk of permanent hearing and damager;
a) Turn down the volume of TV, radio, video player.
b) Wear ear plugs if you are going to loud noisy areas.
c) See a doctor immediately you suspect any problem with your hearing and get your
hearing tested on a regular basis.
4. MENTAL DISORDER
Mental disorders or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an
individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal
development. Categories of diagnosis may include:
a) Dissociative disorders
b) Mood disorders
c) Anxiety disorders
d) Psychotic disorders
e) Eating disorders
f) Developmental disorders
g) Personality disorders
In many cases there‘s no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders. Mental
disorders have been found to be common with over a third (1/3) of the people in most
countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life.
Mental health services may be based on hospitals and mental health professionals diagnose
individual using different methodologies often relying on history and interview.
Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options as well as
supportive interventions.
Causes of mental disorders
Numerous factors may be linked to the development of mental disorders but there is no single
accepted or consistent cause. The common view is that mental disorders result from genetic
vulnerabilities combined with environmental factors. Genetic studies have indicated that
genes often play an important role in the development of mental disorders through
developmental pathways interacting with environmental factors. Environmental events
surrounding pregnancy and birth have also been implicated. Traumatic brain injury may
increase the risk of developing certain mental disorders. Other causes may be viral infections,
substance misuse and general physical health. Psychological issues such as cognitive and
emotional processes, personality temperament and coping style have also been implicated.
Social influences including abuse, bullying and other negative or stressful life experiences
have also been found to be important. Aspects of the wider community have also been
implicated including employment problems, social economic inequality, lack of social
cohesion, problems linked to migration and features of particular societies and cultures.
Diagnosis
Many Mental health professionals, particularly psychiatrics, seek to diagnose individuals by
ascertaining their particular mental disorder. Some professionals, for example clinical
psychologists may avoid diagnosis in favour of other assessment methods such as
formulation of a client‘s difficulties and circumstances.
Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview which
may be referred to as a Mental Status Examination where judgements are made of the
interviewee‘s appearance and behaviour, self-reported symptoms, mental health history and
current life circumstances.
Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper and pen or computerized questionnaires,
which may include algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in
relatively rare specialist cases, neural-imaging tests may be requested, but these methods are
more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.
Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrics from conducting more
thorough diagnostic evaluations. Comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis where
by one person is given a diagnosis in more than one category of disorder.
Services and Treatments
Treatment and support may be provided in psychiatric hospitals, clinics or any of a diverse
range of community mental health services. Often an individual may engage in different
treatment modalities. Individual s may be treated against their will in some cases. Services in
some countries are increasingly based on a Recovery Model that supports and individual‘s
personal journey to regain a meaningful life.
Psychotherapy
A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. There are several main types of
therapy. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the
patterns of thought and behaviour associated with a particular disorder.
Psychoanalysis addresses the underlying psychic conflicts and defenses that have been a
dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use.
Systemic Therapy or Family Therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant
others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapists are based on a humanistic approach.
There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be
offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic
or integrative approach. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship and there may be
problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement.
Medication
 Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for
anxiety and other disorders. There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the
tricyclics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain
chemistry dealing with intercellular communication.
 Beta blockers, developed as a heart medication is also used as an antidepressant.
 Axiolytics are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia.
 Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder.
 Lithium A (a metal) is notable for treating both mania and depression. The others mainly
targeting mania rather than depression are a wide variety of epilepsy medication and
antipsychotics.
 Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in
schizophrenia.
 Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional
names of the drugs groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kids of disorders for
which they are actually indicated. They are actually indicated. They may also be off-label
use. There can be problems with adverse effects and adherence.
5. CEREBRAL PALSY
This is a term used to describe a group of chronic conditions affecting body movement and
muscle co-ordination. This is caused by damage to one or more specific areas of the brain
usually occurring foetal development or during infancy.
It can also occur before, during or shortly following birth. Cerebral refers to the brain and
palsy to a disorder of movement posture.
Children with cerebral palsy may not be able to walk, talk, eat or play in the same ways as
most other children. Cerebral palsy is neither progressive nor communicable. It is not
‗curable‘ in the accepted sense; although education, therapy and applied technology can help
persons with cerebral palsy lead productive lives.
Cerebral Palsy is characterized by an inability to fully control motor function, particularly
muscle control and coordination. Depending on which areas of the brain have been damaged,
one or more of the following may occur:
a) Muscle tightening or spasm
b) Involuntary movement
c) Disturbance in walk and movement
d) Impairment of sight, hearing or speech
e) Seizures.
6. AUTISM
It is a brain development disorder that is characterized by impaired social interaction and
communication and also restricted and repetitive behaviour all starting before the child is 3
years old.
Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is
unclear whether Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is explained more by multiple gene
interactions or by rare mutations. In rare cases autism is strongly associated with agents that
cause birth defects. Other proposed causes such as childhood vaccines are controversial.
Autism affects many parts of the brain and how this occurs is not clearly understood. Parents
usually notice signs in the 1st and 2nd years of their child‘s life.
Early behavioural or community intervention can help children gain self-care, social and
communication skills. There is no known cure. Few children with autism live independently
after reaching adulthood but some become successful.
Autism appears during infancy or childhood and generally follows a stead cause without
remission. Impairments results from maturation related changes in various systems of the
brain.
Autism is one of the five Pervasive Development Disorders (PDD) which are characterized
by wide spread abnormalities of social interactions and communication and severely
restricted interests and highly repetitive behaviour.
The manifestation of autism cover a wide spectrum ranging from individuals with severe
impairments who may be silent, mentally disabled and locked into hand flapping or rocking
to less impaired individuals who may have active but distinctively odd social approaches,
narrowly focused interests and verbose.
Sometimes the same syndrome is divided into low, medium and high functioning autism
(LFA, MFA, HFA respectively). This is based on the IQ (Intelligence Quotient) or on how
much support and the individual enquires in daily life.
Repetitive Behaviour: Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restrictive
behaviour, which the Repetitive Behaviour Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows:
 Stereotypy is apparently purposeless movement such as hand flapping, head rolling or
body rocking.
 Compulsive behaviour is intended and appears to follow rules, such as arranging objects
in a certain way.
 Sameness is resistance to change e.g. insisting that the furniture not to be moved or
refusing to be interrupted.
 Ritualistic behaviour involves the performance of daily activities the same way each time,
such as an unvarying menu or dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness
and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.
 Restricted behaviour is limited in focus, interest or activity, such as pre-occupation with a
single television program.
 Self-injury includes movement that injures or can injure the person, such as biting
oneself.
7. PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
Physical impairment refers to a broad range of disabilities which include orthopedic,
neuromuscular, cardiovascular and pulmonary disorders.
People with disabilities often rely upon a certain device such as a wheelchair, clutches, cane
and artificial limbs to obtain mobility. Physical disability may either be congenital (resulting
from birth) or as a result of injury, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, amputation, heart
disease, pulmonary disease or more.
Some people may have hidden or non-visible disabilities which include pulmonary disease,
respiratory disorder, epilepsy and other limiting conditions.
Although the cause of the disability may vary, persons with physical disability may face the
following difficulties:
 Inability to gain access to building or room.
 Decrease eye-hand coordination.

 Impaired verbal communication
 Decreased physical stamina and endurance.
Things to consider when dealing with physically challenged persons:
a) If a person uses a wheelchair, conversations at different eye levels are difficult. If the
conversation continues for more than 3 minutes, sit down, kneel or squat to share eye
level.
b) A wheelchair is part of the person‘s body space. Do not automatically hang or lean on the
chair. It is similar to hanging or leaning on the person.
c) Using words like walking or running is appropriate. Sensitivity to these words is not
necessary. People who use wheelchairs use the same words.
d) When it appears that the person needs assistance, ask if you can help. Most persons will
ask for assistance if they need it. You should accept a ―NO THANK YOU‖ gracefully.
e) Accept the fact that disability exists in order to acknowledge the person. People with
physical disabilities are not permanently confined to wheelchairs. They often transfer
furniture and some can move with the help of canes, braces, crutches or walkers.
f) Using the wheelchair some of the time does not mean that an individual is ―faking‖ a
disability. It may be a means to conserve energy or move about more people.
g) If a person speech is difficult to understand do not hesitate to ask him/her to repeat.
Provide assistance if you are asked. Never come up behind a person who uses a wheelchair
and push them. Always ask first while facing the person.
Never take a door out of a person‘s hand to assist them in opening it as they may be using it
for balance. Always ask if you can help first.
8. COMMUNICATION DISORDERS IN CHILDREN
The term communication disorder encompasses a wide variety of problems in language
speech and hearing.
Speech and language impairments include:
a) Articulation problems
b) Voice disorders
c) Fluency problems (Stammering/stuttering)
d) Delay in speech/language which may be due to many factors including environmental
factors or hearing loss.
Hearing impairment may include partial hearing and deafness. Many communication
disorders result from other conditions such as learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, mental
retardation, cleft lip or cleft palate.
Characteristics of children with communication disorders
 Inability to follow directions.
 Slow and incomprehensible speech and pronounced difficulties in syntax and articulation.
Syntax refers to the order of words in a sentence. Articulation refers to a manner in which
sounds are formed. Articulation disorders are characterized by a substitution of one sound
to another or the omission or distortion of certain sound.
 Stuttering/stammering or non-fluency, which is a disorder of speech flow that appears

between the ages of three and four years. It may spontaneously disappear by early
adolescence, but speech and language therapy should be considered.
 Typical voice disorders which include hoarseness, breathiness and sudden break in
loudness or pitch.
 A child with possible hearing problem may appear to strain to hear, ask to have questions
repeated before giving the right answer, demonstrate speech inaccuracies especially
dropping the beginning and endings of words) or exhibit confusion during discussions.
Students who speak dialect different from their mother tongue may have communication
problems that represent either language difference or more severe instances language
disorders.
9. EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS/DISORDERS
Many speech problems are developmental rather than physiological and therefore they
respond to remedial instruction. Language experiences are central to a young child‘s
development. Children with communication disorder were routinely removed from regular
class for individual speech and language therapy.
The current trend is towards keeping the child in the mainstream as much as possible. In
order to accomplish this goal, teamwork among teachers, speech and language therapist,
audiologist and parents is essential.
Speech improvement and correction are blended into the regular classroom curriculum and
the child‘s natural environment.
For deaf children early consistent and conscious use of visual communication modes such as
sign language, finger spelling, cued speech or amnification and oral training can help reduce
this language delay.
Many children with hearing impairment can be served in the regular classrooms with support
services. Students whose physical problem is so severe that they interfere with or completely
inhibit communication can frequently take advantage of technological advances that allow
the individual to make his or her need in words known.
Emotional and behavioural problems/disorders
Seriously emotionally disturbed is defined as follows:
a) The term means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a
long period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects educational
performance.
i) An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory and health
factors.
ii) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers.
iii) Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances.
iv) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, or
v) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or such
problems.
b) The term includes children who are schizophrenic or autistic.
Classification of emotional disorders

a) The DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). It is an elaborate
and vast classification system consisting of 230 separate diagnostic categories or labels to
identify the various types of disordered behaviour noted in clinical practice.
b) Quay‘s statistical classification. Quay analyzed children under this condition and found
out that they tend to appear in groups or clusters. He called the four clusters conduct
disorder, anxiety, withdrawal, immaturity & socialized aggression.
c) Children described as having a conduct disorder are likely to be disobedient, disruptive,
get into fights, bossy and have temper tantrums.
d) Anxiety-withdrawal (personality disorder) social withdrawal, anxiety, depression,
feelings of inferiority, guilt, shyness and unhappiness.
e) Immaturity – short attention span, extreme passivity, day dreaming, preference for
younger playmates and clumsiness.
f) Socialized aggression – truancy, gang membership, theft, a feeling of pride belonging to a
delinquent sub-culture.
CHAPTER 3:
CATEGORIES OF CHILDREN LIVING UNDER ESPECIALLY DIFFICULT
CIRCUMSTANCES
Identify children living under especially difficult circumstances.
1. TRAUMATIZED CHILDREN:
Events such as the Nairobi City bombing, election violence and even natural disasters such as
tornadoes, floods, tsunami, el-nino place everyone at risk for some degree of trauma reaction.
It is normal and expected that most children will experience some symptoms of acute
distress, that is, shock, crying, anger, confusion, fear, sadness, grief and pessimism.
Depending on the circumstances particularly the additional trauma of loss of family
members, most children will experience a gradual decrease of these symptoms over the days
and weeks following the event and will be able to resume normal routines and activities with
little change in performance.
However, a large scale crisis even places a significant number of children at risk of severe
distress reactions.
It is important to recognize that severe psychological distress is not simply a consequence of
experiencing a threatening or frightening event but also a consequence of how children
experience the event together with their own unique vulnerabilities.
If a child you are teaching or caring for has experiences and risk factors described below,
they need to consider a referral to a mental health professional such as a school psychologist
or a private practitioner.
a) Family factors
Children who are not living with nuclear family members have been exposed to family
violence. Those from a family with history of mental illness or have caregivers who are
severely distressed by a disaster are more likely themselves to be severely distressed.
b) Social factors
Children, who face a disaster without supportive or nurturing friends or relatives, suffer more
than those who have at least one source of such support.
c) Mental health
The children who had mental health problems such as depression or anxiety disorders before
experiencing a disaster will be more likely to be severely distressed by a traumatic event.
d) Developmental level
Although young children may be protected from emotional impact of traumatic events
because they do not recognize the threat, once they perceive a situation as threatening,
younger children are more likely to experience severe stress than older ones.
e) Previous disaster experience
Children who have experienced previous threatening or frightening events are more likely to
experience severe reactions to subsequent disaster event and severe psychological distress.
2. SEVERELY DISTRESSED CHILDREN
The most severely distressed children are at risk of developing conditions known as Acute
Stress Disorder (ASD) or Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Only a trained mental
health professional can diagnose ASD and/or PTSD, but there are symptoms that parents,
teachers and caregivers can look out for in high-risk children. Symptoms for ASD and PTSD
are similar and include:
a) Re-experiencing of the trauma during play or dreams. For example children may
repeatedly act out what happened when playing with toys, have many distressing dreams
about the trauma, be distressed when exposed to events that resemble the trauma event or
at the anniversary of the event, act or feel as if the event is happening again.
b) Avoidance of the remainders of the trauma and general numbness to all emotional topics:
For example, children may avoid all activities that remind them of the trauma, withdrawal
from other people, have difficulty feeling positive emotions.
c) Increased ‗arousal‘ symptoms: For example, children may have difficulty falling or
staying asleep, may be irritable or quick to anger, have difficulty concentrating, startle
more easily.
ASD is distinguished from PTSD primarily in terms of duration. Symptoms of ASD occur
within 4 weeks of the traumatic event, but then go away. If a youngster is diagnosed with
ASD and the symptoms continue beyond a month, a child mental health professional may
consider changing the diagnosis to PTSD.
Know the signs and get help if necessary.
Parents, teachers and other significant adults can help reduce potentially severe psychological
effects of a traumatic event by being observant of children who might be at a greater risk of
getting them help immediately.
Knowledge of the factors that can contribute to severe psychological distress e.g. closeness to
the disaster site, familiarity with disaster victims, initial reactions, threat perceptions and
person vulnerabilities, can help adults distinguish those children who are likely to manage
their distress more or less independently from those who are likely to have difficulties that
may require mental health assistance.
The mental health service providers who are part of the school system, school psychologists,
social workers and counselors can help teachers, administrators and parents identify children
in need of extra help and can also help identify appropriate referral resources in the
community. Distinguishing ―normal from extreme reaction to trauma‖ requires training and
any concern about a child should be referred to a mental health professional.
3. ORPHANED CHILDREN
An orphan is a child whose natural parents are absent or dead and/or are not there to bring
him or her up. A legal definition used is ―someone bereaved through death or disappearance
of, or abandonment or desertion by, or separation or loss from both parents‖.
The common usage limits the term to children or young animals that have both parents. On
this basis half-orphans are those with one surviving parent.
4. CHILDREN LABORERS
Child labour is employment of children as regular and sustained labour. This practice is
considered exploitative by many countries and international organizations.
Child labour is very common and can include factory work, mining, prostitution, quarrying,
agriculture, helping in the parents business for example selling food or doing odd jobs. Some
children work as tour guides, sometimes combined with bringing in customers for shops and
restaurants or work as waiters.
Other children are forced to do tedious and repetitive jobs such as assembling boxes,
polishing shoes, stocking store products or cleaning. Most children labour occurs in the
informal sector like selling many things from the street, work in agriculture sector or hidden
away in houses far from the reach of official labour inspector and away from media scrutiny.
All the work they do is done in all types of weather and also done for minimum pay.
According to UNICEF, there are an estimated 250 million children aged 2-17 in child labour
worldwide, excluding child domestic labour. The most widely rejected form of child labour
include the military use of children and child prostitution.
Less controversial and often legal with some restrictions are work such as child actors, child
singers, agricultural work outside the school year and owning a business while operating it
out of school hours.
Children‘s Rights: The United Nations and International Labour Organization consider child
labour exploitative. The UN stipulates in Article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child that ―…state parties recognize the rights of the child to be protected from economic
exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with
child‘s education, or to be harmful to the child‘s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or
spiritual development.‖
In many developing countries, it is considered inappropriate or exploitative if a child below a
certain age works, excluding household chores or school work.
An employer is often not allowed to hire a child below certain age. The minimum age
depends on the country‘s Child Labour laws.
5. CHILDREN IN REFUGEE CAMPS
These children are among the most vulnerable in the world. They continue to suffer human
rights abuses in the countries of asylum. The human rights abuses that drive children into
flight are only the first chapter of hardship for many refugee children. Even after travelling
across international borders to seek refuge, they remain vulnerable to hazardous labour
exploitation, physical abuse, denial of education, sexual violence and exploitation, cross-
border attacks, militarization of refugee camps and recruitment as child soldiers.
Article 22 of the Convention on the Rights of Children grants special protection to refugee
children. Refugee children fleeing war are also entitled to special protection under Article 38
of the Convention, as children affected by armed conflict.
Like all children, they are also entitled to all other rights granted under the convention
including the rights granted under the convention including the right to life, physical
integrity, adequate food and medical care, education, and to be free from discrimination,
exploitation and abuse.
Refugee children who live in dangerously located camps, frequently short distances from the
border of their home countries with civil war just on the other side, are also vulnerable to
cross-border armed raids, which can result in murder, mutilation and abduction.
Many of these protection concerns, particularly various forms of hazardous labour,
exploitation such as child prostitution and child soldering are directly linked to lack of good
security.
Despite the obvious safety risks involved, families sometimes send children back into the
land they fled to forage for food. Special care and monitoring of separated refugee children is
also needed, as they are particularly vulnerable to abuse. Separated refugee children are
sometimes taken in by families along the way, while fleeing, or in the refugee camps.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which is the primary actor
responsible for the assistance and protection of refugee children has used the Convention on
the Rights of the Child as the basis for extensive policies and guidelines to protect refugee
children. UNHCR also faces substantial political, financial and logistical challenges in
protecting the human rights of refugee children.
6. CHILDREN WITH MOTHERS IN PRISON
Incarcerated mothers:
The female prison population has exploded in the past 2 decades, mainly due to mandatory
sentencing laws for various offenses. Many women in prison claim that separation from their
children is the most difficult part of their punishment.
A good percentage of women are pregnant when they enter prison, yet most states make no
special arrangements for the care of the newborns. Pregnant inmates are often required to be
shackled while giving birth and after delivery. Mothers and babies are often separated within
hours. The infant is then sent to live with a family member or is placed in the foster care
system.
What about the children? Approximately 10% of children with mothers in prison are sent to
foster homes, while the majority of the children live with the grandparents.
The Children‘s Act of 2001 will doubtless send even more children into foster care in the
future. Three characteristics that distinguish children of incarcerated parents from their peers
are:
a) Inadequate quality of care, mainly due to poverty.
b) Lack of family support
c) Enduring childhood trauma.
Studies show that kids with incarcerated mothers are more likely to wet their beds, do poor in
school and refuse to eat. Children with mothers in prison often experience financial hardship,
shame and social stigma that prison carries, loss of emotional support and fear of their
mothers‘ safety.
The effect of society is equally chilling. Child with imprisoned parents are at increased risk
for poor academic treatment, truancy, dropping out of school, gang involvement, early
pregnancy, drug abuse and delinquency. There is a gap in policy and in routine
communication between the public agencies established to protect all innocent children.
CHAPTER 4:
PATTERNS OF SPECIAL NEEDS CHILDREN IN KENYA
State the prevalence patterns of children with special needs in Kenya.
1. Extent of access to Early Childhood Education Development by Children with
Disabilities
Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE) is critical in preparing children to
enter and succeed in their academic pursuit as well as in enhancing their physical, emotional
and social development. Findings from six counties showed they do not maintain data on the
number of children with disabilities in the ECDE centers. According to the chiefs, majority of
children with disabilities were not in school. County development officers had no records of
children with disabilities.
Head teachers reported they were aware of other children with disabilities in their catchment
areas who had not been enrolled in school. Parents also acknowledged the presence of
children who stayed at home especially those with severe disability.
2. Community support for education of children with disabilities
Assessment has found that most communities gave little or no support to children with
disabilities to receive an education. This was due to a number of factors including socio-
cultural factors, poverty, lack of awareness, stigmatization and negative attitudes. These
children face discrimination from both their families and their community.
In Isiolo for example, a child born with disabilities is kept away from the family house and is
tethered in the goats‘ pen since such a child is an abomination. In Kisii, it is taboo for a
woman to give birth to a child with disability and if it happens, the woman is chased away
from her matrimonial home.
Negative attitudes on disability were cited as another reason for children with disabilities not
attending schools. Some parents hide their children due to fear and shame while others do not
feel the need to invest in their education since they perceive them as persons who can never
excel in education or life. Poverty recurred as another factor that causes families to keep
children with disabilities away from schools.
Some children with disability require assistive devices, specialized transport to school, extra
expenses to attend special schools and consistent medical attention. There was general lack of
knowledge about disability leading to negligence of children by parents and communities. It
was only in Isiolo County that there was a community special school (Almasi special school)
to accommodate children with disabilities that are rejected by their families.
Several other stakeholders quoted lack of appropriate infrastructure in both regular and
special schools; low transition rates and lack of suitable institutions to join after completion
of a level; schools charging high levies and inadequate trained teachers in special needs
education.
3. Preparedness of schools to handle children with disabilities
Sampled schools within the selected counties have children with disabilities. The schools are
either special schools or regular schools with integrated units or in inclusive settings in
regular schools.
4. Staffing and Curriculum in Schools
Head teachers reported they did not have enough trained teachers while others had teachers
trained in areas of disability not required in their school. For example, Isiolo School for the
deaf had teachers trained in physical impairments, mental disabilities, visual impairments and
autism.
In regard to suitability of curriculum for children with disabilities, the schools reported that
efforts have been made to adapt the regular curriculum. Nevertheless, there were challenges
in regard to availability of teaching-learning resources. Teachers opined that the curriculum
used in special schools is too theoretical and there is need to make it more practical. The
curriculum was also described as rigid and that not all subjects had been adapted to suit the
needs of children with disabilities.
The respondents noted that only English and Science had been adapted for teaching children
with hearing impairment. Also, the curriculum does not stipulate what is to be done and
when. It was also reported that children with disability were subjected to the same
examination as regular children. Even the extra time allowed during examinations was not
adequate to compensate for the slower pace of learning for children with disabilities.
5. School Infrastructure
According to head teachers interviewed, most schools are not equipped to handle children
with disabilities. The government has not provided enough textbooks and learning aids. The
grants given to special schools is also not sufficient to cater for children‘s food, infrastructure
and support workers. Assistive devices are very costly and not adequately availed for all
children with disabilities. The respondents reported that the inspection of facilities,
infrastructure and equipment by the MOE to ascertain their appropriateness for use by
children with disabilities was not done on regular basis.
6. Educational Assessment and Resource centres
Educational Assessment and Resource centres (EARCs) are the focal point of early
identification of disabilities and provision of appropriate referrals. The findings indicate that
not all schools in the selected counties were close to an EARC even though they used their
services for assessment and placement. The EARC‘s lack funding from the government,
equipment/ facilities and staffing. They are not able to create awareness on the importance of
education for children with disabilities to parents and the community.
7. Stakeholders‘ views on what needs to be done for children with disabilities to access
education
The assessment sought the opinion of different stakeholders on how to improve access to
education for children with disabilities. The stakeholders involved were chiefs, head teachers,
county development officers, MOE officers and county executives in charge of education.
According to chiefs there is need for public sensitization of parents to break cultural taboos
and help people understand better the needs of children with disabilities. They proposed that
each location should have a school with a special unit for children with disabilities. Penalties
for parents who do not take children to school should be introduced.
The government should train more teachers for children with disabilities. They asked to be
involved and to be supported to ensure all children are presented and admitted to school.The
Head teachers called for improvement of facilities in special schools; addressing of teacher
shortages and provision of funds for assistive devises. They proposed an increase in numbers
of EARCs. They called for regular refresher courses for all teachers on how to handle
children with disabilities.
They thought that having more vocational centres and use of affirmative action would
increase transition from primary school to secondary schools, or to training in entrepreneurial
skills to earn a living.The County Development Officers proposed that a survey could be
conducted to establish the prevalence and status of children with disabilities in every county
and to maintain a database on all children with disabilities. Such data would be used in
annual planning and programming of activities in education.
The MOE Officers proposed stronger linkages between various stakeholders dealing with
issues of children with disabilities. They also proposed that civil society institutions should be
more proactive on issues relating to the rights of children with disabili-ties and enhancing
community awareness on their needs.
County Executives in charge of Education called for provision of adequate resources in
special schools as well as ensuring that schools are disability friendly. They called for
formulation of inclusive education policy guidelines in each county and enforcement of
relevant policies.
8. Parents‘ views on the education of children with disabilities
Parents agreed that many children with disabilities in their communities did not attend school.
They attributed this to taboos regarding children with disabilities whereby such children were
perceived as resulting from curses or were consequence of mistakes by their parents. Some
families hid them due to shame. Other challenges highlighted by parents included: lack of
disability friendly learning environment, lack of assistive devices for children with severe
disabilities, inadequate financial support to parents of children with disabilities, inadequate
EARCs and lack of adequate trained SNE teachers. Parents proposed a variety of strategies
that would enhance access to education including; setting up free medical camps in
communities for physiotherapy, establishing affordable boarding schools, sensitizing
communities on the rights and educational needs of children with disabilities; ensuring all
children with disabilities are registered with the National Council for Persons with
Disabilities (NCPWD) in order to access relevant support. Parents recommended that civil
societies and advocates of PWDs be more pro-active in fighting for the rights of children with
disabilities.
9. What County Governments have done to ensure children with disabilities access
early childhood education?
County Governments are in charge of ECDE, and are therefore expected to promote access to
early childhood education for children with disabilities. However the assessment found that
many counties did not keep records of children with disabilities attending ECD centres.
Kisii County had the highest population of children in ECD centers and this translates to a
class size of approximately 114 children. Isiolo had the smallest population of children with a
class size of approximately 42 children.
On ECDE policy, most counties reported that they had drafts. On funding of ECDE only
Isiolo County had a budgetary allocation of six million for children with disabilities.
Infrastructure in ECDE schools visited during the assessments in the counties was found not
to be disability friendly. However, classes under construction in all counties had factored
needs of children with disabilities in constructing toilets, doors and by providing ramps for
access. The absence of disability friendly infrastructure in the ECDE centers was highlighted
as one of the key challenges affecting access to education for children with disabilities.
Other challenges mentioned included inadequate teachers whereby a single teacher would
attend to children of different types of disability. Also lack of land for building ECDE
centers, poor funding, inadequate supervision especially of many unregistered private centers
and general lack of understanding of the value of ECDE.
10. How TSC addresses needs of Teachers for Children with Disabilities
The TSC is responsible for employment and management of teachers in the public education
system. The TSC manages all aspects of teacher deployment, payments and complaints
handling. However a visit to TSC did not yield data on the number of teachers for children
with disabilities deployed in public primary schools country wide. Respondents cited several
challenges affecting TSC in management of teachers for children with disabilities including
shortage of teachers trained in specific areas of disabilities, absence of a comprehensive
policy on training and deployment of special needs teachers and Lack of controls on
movement of the teachers trained in special needs education. Many teachers in primary
schools had gone to KISE for a diploma course on special education. However, many had
gone back to their schools after training regardless of whether the schools could use their
skills. The assessment found this anomaly in many schools visited in all counties.
11. Challenges facing the Ministry of Education in implementing policies and laws on
education of children with disabilities
The Ministry of Education (MOE) has several guidelines on the provision of special needs.
The most recent ones being the FPE policy (2003), the SNE policy (2009) and the Sessional
Paper No. 14 of 2012. The key provisions in these policies relate to relevance and quality of
education. They also have provisions for disability friendly infrastructure, establishment of
EARCs and provision of equipment and materials. Many respondents who were mainly
ministry officials cited several challenges affecting the MOE‘s imple-mentation of policies
on education of children with disabilities including; lack of adequate funds because of limited
budgetary allocations and subsequent inability to provide facilities. They cited delays in
release of allocated funds; lack of comprehensive data on children with disabilities which
impede proper planning for provision of services and facilities; inability to do frequent
monitoring of implementation of policies; insufficient numbers of SNE trained teachers and
poor parental involvement in the education of children with disabilities. Low transition rates
impacted negatively on completion and performance.
12. Challenges in training teachers of children with disabilities
The Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) is a semi-autonomous government agency
under the Ministry of Education Science and Technology. Its core mandate is to train teachers
on special needs education.
The assessment found that in 2014, KISE had 235 students sponsored by the MOE for
Special Needs Education (SNE) and 400 self-sponsored students The administrators of KISE
highlighted a number of challenges they experienced in the training of SNE teachers
including inadequate funding for research and monitoring; lack of trainers in some
specialized areas such as speech therapy; a high turnover of experienced tutors; negative
attitude towards special needs education. They also claimed that the curriculum they used
was theoretical with little practical work required by trainees to acquire the necessary
expertise during pre-service training. They noted that the institute depended on the
curriculum developed at Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development and this hindered
progress in the face of emergent forms of disabilities.
CHAPTER 5:
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Describe assessment tools of children with special needs.
To determine if a child is eligible for classification under one of these areas, exceptionality
and evaluation or assessment of the child must be conducted. Every year, millions of children
aged 3 years and above are assessed for the presence of a disability and are found eligible for
special education and related services because they are in need of support in order to achieve
success in school.
The assessment process are the ways the primary skill areas in which school system collect
information in order to determine if the child is eligible for special education and related
services and to make informed decisions about the child educational placement and
instruction. This process must involve much more than giving the student a standardized test
in the area of his or her suspected disability.
Valuable information about the student‘s skills and needs can come from many sources
including parents, teachers and specialist and by using a variety of assessment approaches
such as observations, interviews, testing, dynamic assessment or psychological assessment.
In this way, a comprehensive picture of the student can be obtained and used to guide
eligibility and educational programming. The various skill areas in which children are often
assessed include intelligence, language, perception, achievement, behavioural, emotional and
social development. This helps gain an understanding of how a child abilities and disabilities
in each skill area contribute to his or her learning and educational course.
Before decisions can be made about what these special education services would be, each
child will require and evaluation conducted by especially trained educational personnel,
which may include:
a) School psychologist
b) A speech or language therapist
c) Special education and regular education teacher
d) Social worker
e) Medical personnel
This is true for any child suspected of having a disability.
Assessment in educational setting serves the following purposes:
a) Screening and Identification
This is done to identify those children who may be experiencing delays or learning
problems.
b) Eligibility and Diagnosis
This is done to determine whether a child has a disability and is eligible for special
education services and to diagnose the specific nature of the student problems or
disabilities.
c) Individualized educational program development and placement.
This provides detailed information so that and IEP may be developed and appropriate
decisions made about the child‘s educational placement.
d) Instructional planning
This is to develop and plan instruction that is appropriate to the child‘s special needs.
e) Evaluation.
This is done to evaluate the children‘s progress.
Some of the methods used to gather information about a child with suspected disability
include:
 Reviewing school records.
 Observations
 Interviews
 Standardized tests
 Curriculum based assessment.
Defining Assessment
Sometimes there is confusion regarding the terms ―Assessment‖ and ―Testing‖. While the
two terms are related, they are not synonymous. Testing is the administration of specifically
designed and often standardized educational and psychological measures of behaviour and is
part of the assessment process. Assessment also known as evaluation can be seen as a
problem solving process that involves many ways of collecting information about the child.
Roth Smith (1991) suggests that this information gathering process involves:
 Observing the child‘s interaction with parents, teachers and peers
 Interviewing the child and the significant other in his/her life.
 Examining school records and past evaluation results.
 Evaluating developmental and medical histories.
 Using information from checklists filled or completed by parents, teachers and the child.
 Evaluating curriculum requirements and options.
 Evaluating the students types and rate of learning, during trial teaching periods.
 Using task analysis to identify which task components have been mastered and the un-
mastered skills that need to be taught.
 Collecting ratings on teacher attitude towards children with disabilities, peer acceptance
and classroom climate.
Gathering information about the children using a variety of techniques and information
sources can shed light upon the children strengths and needs and the nature of his/her
disability and how it affects educational performance and what instructional goals and
objectives should be established for the student/child.
How children are identified for Assessment
There are at least two ways in which a child may be identified for assessment.
a) When the school suspects the presence of a learning or behaviour problem and asks the
parents for permission to evaluate the child individually. Schools routinely give tests to
all students in a particular grade/class/standard or level. When a student scores too far
below his/her peers, this alerts the school to a potential problem. Alternatively, the
student classroom teacher may identify that a problem exists. Perhaps the students work is
below expectations for his/her level or age, or the student behaviour is disrupting
learning. Therefore the teacher can refer the student for assessment.
b) The child‘s parents may also call or write to the school or to the director of special
education and request their child to be evaluated. They may feel that the child is not
progressing as he/she should be or notice particular problems in how the child learns. If
school personnel do not feel that the child has a disability, they may refuse to assess the
child but must inform the parents in writing their reasons for refusing.
CHAPTER 6:
INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Identify intervention strategies for children with special needs.
Students with special needs require unique intervention strategies as they enter infant care
and preschool environments. The techniques and materials discussed in this chapter are
designed especially for the child‘s unique abilities and disabilities.
This chapter will also focus on the skills needed for infants who have been identified as
requiring intervention strategies as they transition into pre-school and kindergarten programs.
Strategies will be provided for parents who reinforce the skills and behaviors at home.
Introduction
Infant and preschool programs provide a unique experience for children as they begin the
developmental journey to acquire the skills and subsets they need to succeed in preschool to
class 8/12th grade. In infancy the environment plays an important part of the learning scope
and sequence providing both the stimulation and reinforcement needed to begin to gather
information and knowledge. This chapter will provide an introduction to the developmental
stages from infancy through age four. For educators, the domains of knowledge will be
introduced and defined. For parents, who reinforce these domains of knowledge in their
homes, the specific skills and techniques that are necessary will be discussed.
Domains of Early Childhood Learning
There are four domains of early childhood learning that are considered privileged. This
chapter will discuss all four in detail with recommended instructional strategies for each
domain. Wright and Nueman (2009) in their article published by the Albert Shanker Institute
state that the early childhood years are when very young children seek to build a base of
understanding content and develop the skills in communication and language to share what
they learn. They eagerly question the way things work ―And when provided with supportive
and stimulating environments they eagerly engage in language learning, literacy practices,
math play, and science exploration.‖
1. Oral Language
Kindergarteners are able to understand and repeat and average of 4000 words. They will also
have the language skills to speak coherently three to five word sentences. In the pre-school
years children concentrate on both receptive and expressive language. Some children acquire
language rapidly and others struggle to process, store, retrieve, and then store the words
again. The richer the environment is in vocabulary, the faster and more sophisticated the child
becomes in this skill. ―The key areas of oral language that should be addressed in pre-school
are vocabulary and phonological awareness. Both relate to children‘s literacy development.
Phonological awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate sounds in language. This
understanding that the stream of oral language can be broken into smaller units of sound-
words, syllables, individual sounds
(Phonemes) - enables children to map sounds onto letters when they begin formal instruction
in reading.‖
As far as vocabulary, children with expanded word knowledge tend to relate to and
understand more clearly and sophisticated, the books that are read to them and by them.
These vocabulary skills serve children well throughout elementary and middle school as they
are exposed to more complicated concepts, relations, actions, and emotions.
Children with limited oral language tend to have more academic issues and delays than
students with highly developed oral language skills.
Strategies for Oral Language Instruction
Adults and siblings should regularly engage the young child in talking about anything and
everything. Conversation should be varied and constant with new and interesting topics
brought up daily. It is critical for parents to talk with their children about household topics to
highly academic topics constantly. Young children are virtual parrots and tend to repeat adult
conversations and intonations until they begin to process the information and take ownership
of the ideas and vocabulary.
Both parents and teachers should encourage language–rich classrooms as shared by Wright &
Nueman. They should:
 Engage children in extended conversations
 Encourage children to tell and retell stories and describe events.
 Discuss a wide range of topics.
 Model use of new and unusual words.
 Discuss word meanings
 Ask open-ended questions
 Give explicit guidance on vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation.
 Challenge children to justify their thinking.
 Focus on the expression of ideas.
2. Literacy
Developing literacy skills begins from birth. Much of the disparity in literacy in young
children today can be traced to the lack of experiences with text especially in low socio-
economic environments. ―One estimate suggests that children from typical middle-class
families experience 1,000 hours of book reading before entering first grade, while children
from low-income families may only experience 25 hours.‖
Encouraging preschoolers to sing songs and play games, especially those involving letters
and sounds, can increase their exposure to phonetic concepts. Parent and teachers who sound
out words and reinforce the child‘s sounding out letters and words are preparing the child for
the phonetic analysis of words. There are many multi-sensory ways to encourage students to
practice letters and sounds. Finger-painting, magnetic letters, play dough, sand, plastic
letters, macaroni, and pipe-cleaners can all be used to encourage children to interact with
letters, sounds, and words.
3. Mathematics
Very young children can begin their mathematical journey through the introduction of
concepts involving numbers and operations, geometry, algebra, measurements, data analysis
and collection. It is critical that children develop early on the ability to understand
mathematical concepts not just memorize the process and answers. Young children enjoy
math activities that are hands-on and interactive. They can relate to the various concepts
when they manipulate objects and engage in challenging activities. Math games that are
technologically driven appear to engage young children in learning necessary logical
concepts.
Preschool teachers should introduce the following concepts:
 Names of two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes – e.g. circle, pyramid, cube,

hexagon.
 Language to describe shapes – e.g. slides, lines, angles, round.
 Terms to compare quantity – e.g. more than, less than, equal
 Terms to compare length and weight – e.g. longer, longest, heavier, heaviest.
 Language related to time – e.g. earlier, later, morning, night, today, tomorrow.
 Words that identify where things are in space – e.g. near, far.
 Positional words to describe the location of objects – e.g. inside, underneath, next to.
These mathematical concepts can easily be incorporated into any pre-school curriculum and
fit easily into a science or social studies unit. Most children can apply these concepts easily
and accurately if they are introduced to the practical applications at an early age.
4. Science
Young children have a natural curiosity about scientific information. They come to pre-
school already aware of many investigative and problem solving content. Young children that
actively participate in scientific inquiry develop skills that are essential for future learning in
both reading and science. Our youngest children today are involved with technology that will
be essential to their future academic and social success. It is not uncommon to see a
preschooler playing interactive games on an IPhone or Leapster. The newness of technology
is integral to their world; they know no other world than that of cell phones, computers,
DVDs, game boys, and IPods.
It is critical to begin introducing young children to the vocabulary of science and scientific
inquiry early. They should be exposed to the equipment through which they can discover a
whole new world with some very interesting interactions. Activities in science need to be
hands-on and exciting to continue to engage children. They need to feel a part of the activity
rather than a spectator. Since science appeals to the natural curiosity of young children they
will be eager to engage and participate in the experiments and opportunities that the
curriculum provides.
5. Social Competence
It is critical to a young child‘s development that they formulate a sense of social competence.
According to Han and Kemple (2006) ―Social competence includes understanding others'
needs and feelings, articulating one's own ideas and needs, solving problems, cooperating and
negotiating, expressing emotion, reading social situations accurately, adjusting behavior to
meet the demands of different social situations, and initiating and maintaining friendships.‖
It is hard for young children to learn social skills. Once they have learned these skills,
knowing when and where to apply these skills can become difficult and confusing choices for
children to make.
Teachers and parents can help children process the time and place social skills are appropriate
and culturally acceptable. Introducing the concept of self-regulations can be invaluable to
the child in future social interactions. Patience and planning are important to the child as they
learn to self mediate and self regulate. Interaction within the environmental context should
be encouraged with simulations and modeling an integral part of a consistent social skills
curriculum plan.
Having discussed the domains of early childhood learning and the social competencies in
some detail, it is important to focus on the strategies needed to remediate and include
developmentally delayed children in this educational process.
Strategies for Remediation and Inclusion
Downs, Downs, Johansen, & Fossum discuss the Division of Early Childhood‘s (DEC)
research which focused on the recommended teaching strategies for students with
developmental disabilities. They concluded that a variety of child-focused strategies that have
shown prior evidence of success provide a solid basis for student achievement. Among those
strategies are interacting with peers, prompts and prompt fading, modeling techniques and
intermittent reinforcement. These strategies should be implemented with uniformity,
conformity and regularity. This is not an easy job for either educators or parents. Parents and
educators need to be properly trained to implement these teaching strategies. It is important to
remember that all children are unique and require techniques and strategies individualized to
their needs. Parents and educators need to keep this in mind when using any of the
intervention strategies. According to Downs, et al. ―Methods that are cost-effective, simple,
practical, flexible, and that generalize across a variety of settings and children will likely be
most useful as educators work to improve the long-term developmental and educational
outcomes of children with disabilities.‖
In education today literacy programs initiated for very young children and preschool
youngsters are beginning to be addressed. One of the programs researched and documented
as successful for young children with special learning needs is the Early Childhood Emergent
Literacy Technology Curriculum (ELiTeC) model developed by Hutinger in 1998.
Strickland & Riley-Ayers, describe the program as being ―designed to pair appropriate
technology applications and emergent literacy experiences for preschool children at risk and
those who demonstrate mild to moderate disabilities. The materials and procedures developed
in ELiTeC show promise in paving the way to acquisition of literacy concepts so important
for young children. Technology tools can be incorporated into the emergent literacy
approach…..‖
Providing the use of adaptive technologies such as computers, switches, audio
communicators, etc. can often level the playing for those children with delayed development
and/or diagnosed disabilities.
Early Intervention Strategies
It is important to provide parents and professionals with the crucial experiences need in the
pre-school years. Ramey and Ramey (2004) have provided seven types of essential
experiences necessary to ensure normal brain and behavioral development and school
readiness:
 Encourage exploration.
 Mentor in basic skills.
 Celebrate developmental advances.
 Rehearse and extend new skills.
 Protect from inappropriate disapproval, teasing, and punishment.
 Communicate richly and responsively.
 Guide and limit behavior.
Parents and teachers are usually the first interventionists for developmentally delayed infants
and young children. The first strategy is to locate regional, state, or community resources that
provide services such as physical and speech therapy, infant stimulation, and possibly provide
support groups for the parents and children. Sometimes hospitals have intervention programs
with specialists and children‘s groups that families can join in order to provide additional
stimulation and organized activities for the children. National advocacy groups can often
suggest current literature regarding intervention strategies for the specific disability or at least
a place to locate free and low cost support. Continual online searching will definitely lead to
the most current and informative material and can provide parents with options which are
available through online memberships.
One of the best ways to intervene with young children is through games that they can play
individually or within the family. Enrolling young children in activities such as Gymboree,
Mommy and Me, or Kindergym, and any additional parks department options, can provide
interaction with a mainstream environment and possibly the opportunity for the child and the
parent to make new friends.
The parent‘s role in early intervention is indicative of several factors. According to Wright,
―Children enrolled in the primary grades experience about 1000 hours of classroom
instruction each school year. This represents about 11% of a child‘s life. The other 89% of
the time children are in the custody and care of their parents.‖
Parents need to encourage children to engage in learning activities. When a child has a
disability, there are several transition periods that are crucial to the child‘s development. The
very first transition is into a formal learning environment with a speech and language
therapist or a physical or occupational therapist which begins the diagnosis and remediation
of the disability. The implementation of the first program can and usually does last until the
formal transition into a pre-school environment at age three. In these programs the child is the
focus and the family plays a secondary role. As the child progresses through the system, the
educational transitions can be stressful for both the child and the family. Often there is
extended family that has become a natural part of the child‘s life. The more a parent is
engaged in the activities of the school, the better the child performs. ―Parents can be engaged
with the school in a joint effort to improve the educational motivation and academic interests
of their children. This goal can be achieved in part by parents who provide an academically
conducive home environment where parents monitor how the child‘s time is spent‖.
It has been proven through several research studies that the educational level of parents is a
solid indicator of reading achievement in first grade. Parental educational level also is
directly related to the amount of reading that takes place at home and the educational
aspirations for children. Children with diagnosed disabilities need the academic support of
their families where reading at all levels is encouraged and a special time and place for
reading is a natural yet structured occurrence.
Strategies for Instruction
Providing developmentally stimulating interaction between family and child, primarily
through the auditory modality, will enhance their verbal language skills and cognition.
Parental conversation with children is considered optimal for developing language processing
skills. Craig-Unkefer & Kaiser (2002) in their study, suggest that it is important for
preschoolers to develop skills that will encourage peer approval and positive relationships.
Appropriate social interaction is tied to interaction and play skills and needs to be introduced
early in the life of a child.
One of the most important tasks that educators or parents should accomplish is identifying the
areas of instructional need and establishing clear, concrete guidelines for the behaviors in this
area. When attempting to modify a child‘s behavior, setting expectations that are attainable
and reasonable is critical. Any behavior or characteristic that needs to be taught or changed
needs to be described in several ways and demonstrated in several settings.
Additional areas of instructional need are rhyming, alliteration, oral reading of books and
magazines, sight word identification, and picture naming. Often the comprehension of these
early literacy skills can be predictive of reading achievement in the primary grades. Teaching
children to make choices develops critical thinking skills and contributes to feelings of
situational control for preschoolers. The preschool skill sets used when making choices are
communication skills, motor skills, social skills, and cognitive skills. Presenting young
children with many opportunities to make choices clearly sets the tone of independence,
interaction, and socialization. Children with delayed development have more difficulty
making choices and understanding the implications of their choices. Giving children time to
decide or giving them further explanation of the choice and the consequences of their choices
will begin to impact their decision making skills. When parents or guardians make most of
the choices for children, it slows their critical thinking skill development and contributes to
their frustration in an educational environment. Sometimes it is beneficial to allow children to
make poor choices, experience the consequences, and process the problem solving
procedures to correct their mistakes or minimally informed decisions. Clark and McDonnell
(2008) in their study of decision making in children with visual disabilities and multiple
disabilities concluded that, ―intervention…was successful in increasing the accuracy of the
…choices …and (providing) systematic instruction (in making choices) increased the
accuracy of choices made.‖
Conclusion
Children with special needs on all levels need to be provided diagnosis and remediation early
in their educational lives. The parents are the primary interventionists with the school
personnel providing additional support and directions for the remedial activities. Intervention
needs to be implemented early and consistently to assure the best opportunity for success in
academics as well as social interactions. Professionals in the field of disabilities should team
up with parents to provide a solid foundation for infants and preschool children so that as
they enter a public or private educational system they experience individualized positive
reinforcement and feedback on their academic objectives. A coordinated effort of
intervention will provide the highest rate of inclusion into the mainstream and academic
achievement.
CHAPTER 7:
SPECIALIZED INSTRUCTIONAL/LEARNING RESOURCES FOR LEARNERS
WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Describe specialized instructional/learning resources for learners with special needs.
They include:
Braille  Speech training units
Diagrams and maps in tactile  Speech training kit
forms  Shakers, warbles
 Communication board  Audiometers
 Sign language book  Head pointers
 Hearing aids
1. BRAILLE
The Braille system is a method that is widely used by blind people to read and write. Braille
was devised in 1821 by Louis Braille a French man.
Each Braille character is made up of 6 dot positions arranged in a rectangle containing two
columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions for 64
permutations, including the arrangement in which no dots are raised.
A particular permutation may be described by naming the positions where dots are raised, the
position being universally numbered 1-3 from top to bottom on the left and 4-6 on the right.
For example, dots 1, 3, 4 would describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top of the right
column i.e. the letter M.
The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so
that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the Braille text above and below.
Punctuation is represented by its own unique set of characters.
2. AUDIOMETER
This is a machine used for evaluating hearing loss. The invention of this machine is credited
to Doctor Harvey Fletcher.
Audiometers are standard equipment at ENT and in audiology centers. They usually consist
of an embedded hardware unit connected to a pair of headphones and a feedback button
sometimes controlled by a standard Personal Computer (PC)
An alternative to hardware audiometers are software audiometers which are available in
different configurations.
a) Screening PC based audiometers
These use a standard computer and can be run by anybody in their home to test their
hearing although their accuracy is not as high due to lack of a standard calibration.
Some of these audiometers are even available on a hand-held windows driven device.
b) Clinical PC based audiometers
This is generally more expensive but much more accurate and efficient. They are most
commonly used in hospitals audiology centers and in research. Some audiometers
even provide a software developers kit that provide researchers with the ability to
create their own diagnostic tests.
3. HEAD POINTERS
These head-worn pointers represent significant design advancement in providing efficient
pointing from a psychological and cosmetically sound perspective which is the chin. Unlike
forehead protrusion pointers, using an ―out from the chin‖ device more realistically raises the
pointer in proximity to the items being accessed.
It also eliminates barriers imposed by forehead pointers because it does not interrupt the
wearer‘s field of vision or the full view of the wearers face.
This unit is fully adjustable and capable of being individually fitted to head sizes of different
circumferences.
4. HEARING DEVICES
Hearing ability is very important for understanding speech and for a wide variety of other
functions such as detective warning alarms and listening to music. When the abnormal or the
damaged auditory system is not directly repairable through surgical or medical means, a wide
variety of advanced technology is used to enhance these functions.
With proper selected, fitted and adjusted hearing device, patient with any degree of hearing
loss from very mild to total deafness can achieve hearing functions that were not attainable
previously. Because these devices generally do not restore the underlying abnormal auditory
structures the sense of hearing is not restored to its natural normal state. However, these
devices can optimize or even replace the remaining hearing function and improve hearing
ability such that the significant lifestyle changes often occur.
Patients who were deaf can now detect sounds and understand speech once again. Virtually
everyone with a permanent hearing deficit will benefit from the use of an advanced hearing
device. If it has been determined that you are not able to hear sounds within the normal range
needed to fully hear and understand speech in normal conversation situations, you should
consider being evaluated for the benefits of the new, high technology advanced hearing
devices.
5. DIFFERENT KINDS OF HEARING AIDS
Hearing aids comes in different several styles most of which are either completely visible or
barely visible. These styles vary from devices that are Completely-in-the-canal (CIC) and
therefore completely invisible to those who are not positioned at the entrance of the ear canal.
Current devices that are located Behind The Ear (BTE), which used to be quite visible are
now much harder to detect because of their small size and the fact that the components
themselves are not very visible. Each style has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Hearing aids also have several different types of circuitry or electronics that process the
sound for the ear. These are conventional circuits and digital devices that offer many features
for hearing loss. These different styles should be discussed in order to benefit individual with
hearing loss and to suit their life style. This is why it is important to be seen by experienced
and fully trained audiologist in a clinic that has a full and comprehensive line of devices
available.
Other resources include:
 Diagrams and maps in tactile forms
 Communication boards
 Sign language book
 Speech training therapy
 Shakers and warbles.
CHAPTER 8:
EFFECTS OF OCCURRENCE OF A CHILD WITH SPECIAL NEED IN A FAMILY
Discuss the effects of occurrence of a disability in a family.
Children with special needs are those who have or are at risk of chronic physical,
developmental, behavioural or emotional conditions and will also require health and other
related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally.
This definition is grown and inclusive incorporating children and youth with a wide range of
conditions and risk factors identifies children based on the consequences they experience due
to an on-going health condition.
Parents of children with special needs require additional planning as these kids suffer from
the following:
 Autism  Down‘s syndrome
 Blind/vision impairment  Epilepsy
 Attention deficit/hyperactivity  Feeding issues
disorder  Sensory integration disorder
 Cerebral palsy  Speech disorders
 Deaf/hearing impairment  Spina bifida
 Developmental disabilities/mental  Financial problem
retardation
Having children with special health care needs can affect a family finances, employment
status and mental health. The demands on families may require that parents cut down their
work hours or give up a job.
At the same time that they face burdensome out of pocket health care costs, most families
need to plan for the normal lifestyle expenses while at the same time helping them to save for
their children‘s education and their own retirement.
CHAPTER 9:
CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN WITH
SPECIAL NEEDS
Discuss the current trends and issues in education for children with special needs.
Placement
The debate about where a student with disabilities is best served is one of the most volatile
issues in special education. The controversy is whether full inclusion or a continuum of
alternative placements is better.
Full inclusion: In full inclusion, all students–regardless of disability, health needs, academic
ability, service needs, and, often, preference of parent or student–are educated full-time in a
regular education class in their neighborhood school (the school they would attend had they
no disability). In this model, the child receives special education support services in the
regular education classroom. Full inclusion requires either a team-teaching approach or
consultation of the regular classroom teacher with a special educator. In team teaching, a
classroom will have both a regular education teacher and a special education teacher equally
sharing the responsibility to teach the whole class. In consultation, a special education teacher
works with many regular education teachers, meeting with them and answering questions as
needed or on a regular schedule.
Proponents of full inclusion believe that pulling a child out of the classroom to provide
special education services or placing the child in a self-contained classroom or special school
is inherently unequal and inferior and, therefore, immoral. They also argue that both the
student with disabilities and his or her peers benefit from full inclusion, an argument that
often places greater emphasis on social interaction than academic achievement.
Full continuum of placements: the normal practice has allowed a continuum of placements
including placement:
1) Full-time in a regular education classroom;
2) Part-time in a special education resource room;
3) Fulltime in a special education self-contained classroom;
4) In a separate special education school;
5) At a residential facility; and
6) Homebound or in a hospital.
Supporters of this practice agree that full-time placement in regular education is appropriate
for some students, but not for every student with disabilities. Proponents argue that each
student should be assessed and placed individually. Many students with disabilities
commonly need a more structured and clearly defined environment, either academically or
behaviorally, than a regular education classroom can provide. Also, students with severe
emotional or behavioral disabilities can infringe on other students' education in a regular
education classroom by either monopolizing a teacher's attention or by placing peers and
teachers in physical danger. While believing that students should be educated in the least
restrictive environment with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate,
proponents of the continuum also believe that it is immoral and illegal to place every student
in the exact same placement regardless of individual needs.
Trends in the Classroom
Three trends in special education have especially significant influence on the classroom
environment:
1) Early intervention and prevention,
2) Technology, and
3) Transition plans.
1. Early intervention and prevention: Early intervention and prevention of disabilities are
not new ideas, but they have experienced increasing emphasis. Schools are realizing that
early intervention and prevention not only benefit children in the long run but save money
as well by reducing the later need for costly services. Two significant issues are the
appropriate role for the family of the child and whether the intervention should be child-
centered or teacher-directed. In addition, obstacles to early intervention and prevention
are still being addressed.
2. Technology: Technology permeates our society with increasing intensity and reaches into
classrooms. It helps students overcome limitations previously placed on them by a
disability. Computer programs allow keyboarding and navigation of the Internet by eye
movements. Cochlear implants allow deaf students to hear, and new prosthetics (artificial
body parts) provide greater mobility and participation in education and society.
3. Transition: There are several proposals related to transition from one school setting to
another or from school to work. One such proposal requires transition-planning
conferences for children exiting early intervention programs; another proposal is a
statement of needed services for the transition from high school to higher education or
work in the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for students age fourteen or older. Other
forms of transition planning, such as from middle school to high school or from a self-
contained or restrictive environment to a less restrictive environment, are also becoming
common.
Special Education Teachers
There is a critical teacher shortage in special education in all areas of training. Reasons
include a shortage of people going through teacher training programs in special education and
entering the field, and alarmingly high exit rates for special education teachers. Because of
this gross need, alternative training programs have evolved: other professional personnel are
being trained for a second career in teaching and drastically intensified and accelerated
school-based programs are replacing four-year training programs. While these programs can
help place more teachers in the classroom, some professionals question the quality of both the
teacher education programs and the newly trained teachers. Also, some schools fill special
education positions with teachers having either no prior education experience or with only
general education experience and provide provisional or conditional approval to these newly
hired teachers. Due to these difficulties, teacher retention has also become a critical issue.
Funding Issues
Funding issues and controversies beset all areas of education, including special education.
Because special education requires services above those specified in the regular education
curriculum, additional funding is critical. Unfortunately, the Kenyan government has never
come close to fulfilling this promise. Over the years, however, there has been a greater effort
to provide these funds to the state.
Other issues persist at the local level. One common controversy stems from a belief that
because the law requires special education services, these programs are funded first, utilizing
the money that would otherwise be spent on regular education. Another disputed issue is
program consolidation–the blending of categorical programs such as special education,
English as a second language, or other separately funded programs. Proponents believe that
by pooling resources, all children can benefit and can be educated more effectively.
Opponents of program consolidation believe it will diminish both the rights of children in
these programs as well as the quality of special services provided.
Conclusion
These controversies and issues, although the most widespread and disputed issues facing
special education, represent only a small fraction of the numerous issues permeating special
education today. School reform, labeling and classification, inclusion, teacher shortage, and
special education funding can often be seen in the headlines of newspapers. Even though
every story has two sides, more work is needed to ensure that every student's story will have
a happy ending.
CHAPTER 10:
INSTITUTIONS OFFERING SERVICES FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
IN KENYA
State institutions that offer services for children with special needs
The following are some of the schools dealing with special needs in Kenya:
1. Acorn Special Tutorials 24. Lily of the Valley School
2. Aquinoe Learning Centre 25. Links School and Tutorials
3. Augustana Academy 26. Lisa/Hola School for the Deaf
4. Bright Hill Special School and Assessment 27. Maseno School for the Deaf
Centre 28. Mathare Special Training Centre
5. Chekombore Special School for the Deaf 29. Model Center for Deaf Education and
6. Dagoretti Special School Training
7. Ebeneza Mercy Mission Children‘s Home 30. Mombasa Secondary School for the
8. Embu Special School for Mentally Physically Handicapped
Handicapped 31. Mumias Primary School for the Deaf
9. Homa Bay Children‘s Home Academy 32. Ngala School for the Deaf
10. Iten School for the Deaf 33. Oshwal Jain Primary School
11. Kaaga School for the Deaf 34. Race Course Deaf Unit
12. Kambui School for the Deaf 35. Rev. Muhoro Secondary School
13. Kapsabet School for the Deaf 36. S.A Joytown Secondary School
14. Karatina Special School for Mentally 37. Sight Savers International
Handicapped 38. Siuna Community Childrens Home
15. Karen Technical Training Institute 39. St. Angelas Mumias Secondary and
16. Kenya Community Centre for Learning – Vocational School for the Deaf Girls
KCCL 40. St. Francis School for the Blind
17. Kenya Institute for the Blind 41. St. Lucy School for the Blind
18. Kenya Society for Deaf Children 42. St. Oda School for the Blind
19. Kerugoya School for the Deaf 43. The Grangeville School
20. Kibarani School for the Deaf 44. The Salvation Army Thika Primary
21. Kibos School for the Blind 45. Tumu Tumu School for the Deaf
22. Kitui School for the Deaf 46. Ziwani School for the Deaf
23. Kuja Special Secondary School for the Deaf
1. List down and briefly discuss any five institutes that deal with children with special needs
in Kenya other than the ones given in chapter 10.
(5marks)
2. Discuss the challenges faced by the following categories of children living in difficult
circumstances in Kenya.
a. Street children (5marks)
b. Children infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. (5marks)
c. Children living in abject poverty. (5marks)
3. Discuss how the following institutions are involved in offering services for children with
special needs.
c) Ministry of Education (5marks)
d) Ministry of Health (5marks)
e) Ministry of Gender, Sports and Social Services (5marks)
4. Discuss the following issues and how they affect the education of children with special
needs:
a. Lack of modern equipment & instructional resources (5marks)
b. Poverty. (5marks)
c. Attitudes towards disability. (5marks)
6015 MODULE FIVE – UNIT 10

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
In Kenya, most of the ECDE programmes are owned and managed by the community. The
purpose of this unit is to equip the learner with knowledge, skills and attitudes for effective
community sensitization, mobilization and capacity building to enhance community
involvement and participationin ECDE programmes.
Learning Outcomes
a) Define the terms related to community development
b) Discuss the principals of community capacity building
c) Outline the structure of community organization
d) Categorize community leadership patterns
e) Discuss strategies of community capacity building, mobilization and empowerment
f) Discuss the components of group dynamics in community development
g) Compare socio-economic changes in community and their effects on child rearing
practices
h) Describe various modes of managing of community based ECDE programmes
i) Discuss the role of parentsand community in ECDE programmes
j) Analyse qualities of a good community mobilizer
k) Discuss networking, coalition and collaboration in ECDE programmes
l) Describe effective communication in community capacity building and mobilization
m) Analyse emerging issues in community development
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Define terms related to community development.
a) Community
The word community is defined differently in different fields of thinking. From a sociological
point of view a community may also be described as any consciously organized group of
people residing in a specific area or locality, sharing common facilities, resources, services,
interests, aspirations, bond of solidarity and a vision of a preferred common future.
Linderman defines community as a process of social interaction which gives rise to more
intensive and extensive attitudes, practices of interdependence, co-operation, collaboration
and unification.
b) Community development
This is a process involving community participation in critically identifying and analysing
people's needs and problems, prioritizing them, setting goals and making decisions on
sustainable use of available resources to improve quality of their lives. It is aimed at
empowering communities, strengthening their capacities and motivating them to attain
positive change of attitudes, self-reliance for self-sustaining development.
c) Community mobilization
This is a process of creating awareness and motivating a group of people to solicit their
voluntary support and involvement for maximum returns towards a programme. It is fully
realised by involving the community members in the identification, prioritisation of their
problems, resources mobilization, implementation, administration and monitoring and
evaluation of the project or programme.
d) Capacity building
It is a process of empowering people to decide and take active responsibility over their lives
through training to acquire knowledge, skills and attitude which will enable them to mobilize
and utilize available resources effectively.
Capacity building can also be enhanced by providing external support such as funds, service
delivery and technical advice.
e) Community Participation
This means taking part in an activity, programme or project in different capacities which may
not be necessarily in a direct approach. Specialists have categorized community participation
into seven different types;
 Passive
 Information-giving
 Consultation
 Material incentives
 Functional
 Interactive
 Self-mobilization
f) Community involvement
This is referred to as active or direct participation in any activity, programme or project. It
thus implies physical participation in the initiation, implementation or evaluation stages.
g) Sustainability
Sustainability may be taken to mean that a project/programme will continue in a community
even long after support from outside agencies has been withdrawn. It ensures that either the
ideas introduced by the outside agency will have won the hearts of community members by
making them work hard to maintain it or that the project generates enough income to sustain
itself.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community development aims to promote human development by empowering and
strengthening community capacities for sustainable development. From time immemorial,
community members have always been working together in one way or the other to promote
their welfare. In essence, community development has evolved from hunting and gathering to
modern agricultural and industrially based development.
Community development approach became popular in developing countries in the 1950's.
This was influenced by both internal and external factors including: -
 Community improvement and social welfare programmes in the USA and Britain in
1930's focusing on the improvement of the welfare of rural communities.
 Social welfare programmes geared towards poverty relief in urban areas in USA and
Britain.
Indian rural development experience from the 1920's and 1930's. The launching of
community development programme in India in 1947 also stimulated community
development efforts in Asian countries.
In Africa, after the Second World War (1939-1945), the British colonial officers used
community development principles to prepare the African communities for socio-economic
development. However, due to over reliance on foreign aid, these community initiatives,
started collapsing after withdrawal of aid in 1960's. After 1960's, attention shifted from
community development to the green revolution movement as a strategy to overcome the
problem of rural poverty. The green revolution strategy focused on enhancing agricultural
production by providing improved seeds, fertilizers, machines and technological innovations
to farmers. However, poor farmers could not afford, the inputs and hence didn't benefit from
the green revolution. Thus the green revolution overlooked the participation of the poor
people. The failure of the green revolution led to the re-emergence of other strategies similar
to community development in the 1970's.
These included:
a) Basic Needs Approach (BNA) that emphasized the need to ensure the basic needs of the
majority poor were satisfied.
b) Integrated Rural Development (IRD) that focused on addressing the problem of rural
poverty on holistic manner.
It is therefore significant to note that community development, both the BNA and IRD
emphasized on people's participation in development. In the 1980's, development researchers
recognized the need to involve the realities of the local people in community development.
According to Chambers, (1997), outsiders do not transfer technology; they share methods,
which local people can use for their own appraisal, analysis, planning, action, monitoring and
evaluation. The new thinking led to the emergence of a new strategy emphasizing community
participation in their own development. This is the participatory Learning Approach (PLA)
strategy, which is presently being practiced.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA
Historical background of community development in Kenya
Community development is not something new in Kenya. There existed traditional groups
which paved the way to self-help groups such as bush clearing, house construction and
harvesting among others. However, the government assumed a new role at a time when the
colonial administration decided to organize community work. By 1950 community
development in Kenya meant intensification of normal administration by using new methods
and media to launch betterment schemes and to convince Africa communities on the value of
these schemes. One of such schemes was the Jeans School at Kabete where ex-service men
from World War II were looked at as civilized men, were trained in rural extension, soil
conservation and used to teach the local folk on how to dig trenches, terraces and
afforestation.
In the same school the wives of the ex-service men were trained on domestic work. Schemes
like afforestation however failed because of poor planning and resistance from the local
people.
By 1951 women clubs were organized under Maendeleo ya wanawake where leadership
depended very much on the settlers and their wives. They taught similar programmes as in
the Jeans school such as handcraft and cookery and there was little training on leadership thus
it was not very effective.
In 1952 the state of emergency was declared and this became the central focus of community
development particularly in central province. There was a lot of forced labour as people were
forced to build concentration camps. The women who belonged to Maendeleo ya wanawake
group were exempted from forced labour.
This made people start looking at the group as a counterpart of the Mau Mau and this resulted
in little interest and commitment. Digging pit latrines, wells and development of livestock
were also forms of forced labour especially in Nyanza province. The term community
development became so much hated because of forced labour that people became biased
against it. In reality community development during colonial era was a technique of indirect
rule geared towards controlling local communities and developing "mental dependence"
because leadership was white. The educational programmes conducted also perpetuated
mental dependency. After independence community development officers became direct
interventionists (change agents).
They did this through the following ways;
 Directly intervening in a situation through generating local group activities and creating
awareness.
 By identifying possible projects in a community and assisting in planning and initiating
projects.
 By assisting in providing amenities which improved the quality of life.
 By enhancing self-help activities by providing government resources and helping to set
up dispensaries and income generating projects.
 Organizing social integration projects such as adult classes, debates, football clubs among
others.
 Interacting with groups to identify felt needs, (people's aspirations, ideologies)
 Enhancing local social capacity such as providing skills to bring up leadership and enable
social action.
 Motivating people to a degree that they came to change their attitude. This was used to
enable change agent to resolve conflict.
 Administering projects, implementing and evaluating them.
Community development though seen as a rural development strategy, its principles are also
applicable in urban areas. Community development principles follow an integrated approach
to addressing problem of poverty and development.
CHAPTER 2:
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY CAPACITY BUILDING
Discuss the principles of community capacity building.
PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES IN CAPACITY BUILDING
Capacity building should be "Recipient Driven"
This implies that the initiative must come from the people/community concerned. All
stakeholders have some capacity on which capacity building initiatives must be based. They
also have unique environments within which those initiatives have to function in order to
succeed. In addition every community has a set of values and regulations which must guide
any attempt of capacity building. Once sensitized, the community, itself determines the
capacity it needs to carry out a convention, the deficiency to remedy them and the specific
actions to be taken and their sequence.
There is need for choice among competing priorities.
A careful selection process is needed to set priorities and determine in terms of their urgency
and availability of resources. The community concerned has the knowledge and compliance
to carry out this task.
Detailed and coherent plans of action need to be prepared. The result of the recipient driven
nature of the capacity building process is that a detailed and coherent plan should have timing
sequences of those actions should be provided. It is vital that training needs assessment be
carried out and training materials developed accordingly. External assistance needs to be
'unbundled'
We must not rely so much on external assistance. There should be more sympathetic
consideration of the local consultant and expert, instead of expatriate consultants. For
example, most projects funded by external donors are accompanied by international resident
expatriate advisers who in most cases are not necessary. This cost of adviser have to be paid
for in order to secure the other resources involved. This view of the relation is not conducive
to effective capacity building at all.
Capacity building efforts must be sustainable.
 Any capacity that exists or is created must be sustained; it must in some sense be
permanent. There are certain clear requirements for sustainability
 Recipient commitment to the capacity building effort; the only way to ensure such
commitment is to make the process of identification, design and implementation fully
recipient - driven.
 The measures taken must be fully integrated into the administrable, institutional and
social structure of the community. Specially designed project and implementation units
outside administrative structures have proved unsustainable and sometimes destructive.
 The capacity must be within the human and financial capacities of the recipient. Capacity
that is technically sophisticated and requires advanced technical capacities and cargo
financial resources to operate and maintain will not be sustainable without external
assistance.
 A positive environment within which the built capacities will function must be created.
For example, there is need to keep motivating the people by giving them refresher
courses.
 A positive environment within which the capacity will function must be created for
example the decline in morale building among civil servants due to low salaries and
incomes has made almost any capacity building effort unsustainable, until this issue is
confronted openly and honestly, creating sustainable capacity in the public sector is very
difficult.
 Establishment of income generating activities (IGAs) should be encouraged for
sustainability of community based initiatives.
Definition of Terms
Community organization - Community organization is the assignment and coordination of
tasks to be performed by community members to achieve goals, objectives and distribution of
resources.
Community structure - It is a framework of an organisation and the pattern of management
which enables the purpose and work of an organisation to be achieved, for example family,
community based organizations among others.
Principles Relating to Community Organisation
Most of the community organisation theories agree on the following as the main principles:
a) Start from the community felt needs.
The process of community organisation should start from the felt needs of the community.
The community recognises areas of discontent with the existing situation thus expressing the
need for change.
b) Discontent needs to be focused
The discontent among the community alone will not lead to the organisation of the
community. This discontent needs to be focused on something specific to be channeled into
organisation, planning and action in respect to the specific problems. This means that
discontent should be channeled into a structure through which something may be done about
the problem.
c) Discontent must be understood by the community.
The discontent should not be limited to a smaller group in the community; this is because
community organization is not a minority movement and cannot be initiated solely by reason
of those needs or discontents which appeal to only a small group in the community. The
feeling of discontent must therefore be recognized and understood by the major parts of the
community. If the discontent is limited to a very small group then it will be a minority
movement in which the whole community will not be interested.
d) Community leaders should be involved
It is considered necessary to involve the people of the community in the process of
community organisation. This is possible when the leaders of the community are identified,
accepted and involved in the organisations. Such leaders include; ... teachers, politicians,
religious leaders, provincial administration and other opinion leaders must be included in a
community organisation. The leaders have influence; therefore without their support
community projects will face difficulties.
e) Clarify organizational goals and working procedure
The organisation should set goals and methods of procedure which are acceptable to a
majority of the community. The community groups have diversified interests, attitudes and
behaviour patterns. These groups will work together if they find some common goals and
methods to achieve them in the organisation. The purposes and procedures should be known
and accepted as representing "the common life" and the frame of reference for the
association. It is therefore, imperative to evolve certain common purposes for the existence of
the group.
f) Develop sense of belonging among members
The members of the organisation should have a sense of belonging. Therefore, the
organisation should include some activities to promote togetherness. The organisation often
develops strength and cohesion in ways similar to the family. Friendship, mutual support,
difficult tasks, good times, hardship and conflict. These are significant for they build
sentiment essential for community integration. The activities may also provide rich emotional
experiences which contribute to the binding of the common sentiments in the community.
The community organisation should encourage and sponsor community celebrations
consistent with the culture of its community.
g) Use latent goodwill of members of the community
These are unutilized potentials within the community that needs to be tapped. In every
community, there are people who are interested in working for the welfare of the community.
They are willing to identify with, contribute to and participate in any constructive community
effort. The organisation should therefore become aware of this latent goodwill and should
utilize it for community development.
h) Develop proper communication channels
The strength of any community is the ability to communicate within its established patterns.
Communication facilitates interaction by which common meaning, common life, and
common values are established. This implies that communication involves developing areas
of common understanding and shared values among the members of the community.
Breakdown of communication leads to misunderstanding.
Effective communication within a group, or between groups, depends on the quality of
relationships among the people involved. Where hostility, fear, aggression, distrust and
disrespect pre-dominate in these relationships, communication will be far less effective than
where there are friendliness, mutual respect, and trust. This suggests the importance of the
creation of a conducive climate which permits and facilitates communication.
i) Be flexible in its organisational procedures without disrupting its regular
decision-making routines.
Depending on the nature of the problem at hand certain changes may be made for the smooth
and quick working of the organisation. For example, within the established procedures there
is opportunity for use of a variety of methods. Sometimes a few people or the entire
community may be involved. A great variety of patterns for acquiring data and consensus
may be used without taking responsibility away from the group charged with decision
making.
j) Adjust pace of work with community
The capacities of the communities differ in terms of their adjustment with the changing
environment. It is necessary to reconcile the pace of the community programme within, the
span of the community project.
k) Seek to develop effective leadership
It is important to have leaders who can facilitate the community organization process, who
will help the central association to be productive, and who will contribute to development of
morale both in the organisation and in the community.
Leadership is a complex role with a multiplicity of functions, and with many changing and
interacting forces determining what is appropriate behaviour in this role. It seems clear that
however much the leadership functions are distributed in the group, the central figure or
formal leader will facilitate group productivity when he/she is accepted and supported by
members of the group.
l) Develop collaborative and co-operative attitudes
The process of community organisation is expected to develop a collaborative and co-
operative attitude. The organisation can become a symbol of loyalty and community co-
operation. This will develop strength, stability and prestige in the community. The way the
organisation functions, can represent the realisation of the idea for many people in the
community. The organisation must have strength both in terms of its involvement of accepted
group leaders ability to work through difficult situations. Such an organisation wins and
sustains the participation and support of its people.
CHAPTER 3:
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Outline the structure of community organization.
INTRODUCTION
Community organization - Community organization is the assignment and coordination of
tasks to be performed by community members to achieve goals, objectives and distribution of
resources.
Community structure - It is a framework of an organisation and the pattern of management
which enables the purpose arid work of an organisation to be achieved, for example family,
community based organizations among others.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
Most of the community organisation theories agree on the following as the main principles:
1. Start from the community felt needs.
The process of community organisation should start from the felt needs of the community.
The community recognises areas of discontent with the existing situation thus expressing the
need for change.
2. Discontent needs to be focused
The discontent among the community alone will not lead to the organisation of the
community. This discontent needs to be focused on something specific to be channelled into
organisation, planning and action in respect to the specific problems. This means that
discontent should be channelled into a structure through which something may be done about
the problem.
3. Discontent must be understood by the community.
The discontent should not be limited to a smaller group in the community; this is because
community organization is not a minority movement and cannot be initiated solely by reason
of those needs or discontents which appeal to only a small group in the community. The
feeling of discontent must therefore be recognized and understood by the major parts of the
community. If the discontent is limited to a very small group then it will be a minority
movement in which the whole community will not be interested.
4. Community leaders should be involved
It is considered necessary to involve the people of the community in the process of
community organisation. This is possible when the leaders of the community are identified,
accepted and involved in the organisations. Such leaders include; ... teachers, politicians,
religious leaders, provincial administration and other opinion leaders must be included in a
community organisation. The leaders have influence; therefore without their support
community projects will face difficulties.
5. Clarify organizational goals and working procedure
The organisation should set goals and methods of procedure which are acceptable to a
majority of the community. The community groups have diversified interests, attitudes and
behaviour patterns. These groups will work together if they find some common goals and
methods to achieve them in the organisation. The purposes and procedures should be known
and accepted as representing "the common life" and the frame of reference for the
association. It is therefore, imperative to evolve certain common purposes for the existence of
the group.
6. Develop sense of belonging among members
The members of the organisation should have a sense of belonging. Therefore, the
organisation should include some activities to promote togetherness. The organisation often
develops strength and cohesion in ways similar to the family. Friendship, mutual support,
difficult tasks, good times, hardship and conflict. These are significant for they build
sentiment essential for community integration. The activities may also provide rich emotional
experiences which contribute to the binding of the common sentiments in the community.
The community organisation should encourage and sponsor community celebrations
consistent with the culture of its community.
7. Use latent goodwill of members of the community
These are unutilized potentials within the community that needs to be tapped. In every
community, there are people who are interested in working for the welfare of the community.
They are willing to identify with, contribute to and participate in any constructive community
effort. The organisation should therefore become aware of this latent goodwill and should
utilize it for community development.
8. Develop proper communication channels
The strength of any community is the ability to communicate within its established patterns.
Communication facilitates interaction by which common meaning, common life, and
common values are established. This implies that communication involves developing areas
of common understanding and shared values among the members of the community.
Breakdown of communication leads to misunderstanding.
Effective communication within a group, or between groups, depends on the quality of
relationships among the people involved. Where hostility, fear, aggression, distrust and
disrespect pre-dominate in these relationships, communication will be far less effective than
where there are friendliness, mutual respect, and trust. This suggests the importance of the
creation of a conducive climate which permits and facilitates communication.
9. Be flexible in its organisational procedures without disrupting its regular
decision-making routines.
Depending on the nature of the problem at hand certain changes may be made for the smooth
and quick working of the organisation. For example, within the established procedures there
is opportunity for use of a variety of methods. Sometimes a few people or the entire
community may be involved. A great variety of patterns for acquiring data and consensus
may be used without taking responsibility away from the group charged with decision
making.
10. Adjust pace of work with community
The capacities of the communities differ in terms of their adjustment with the changing
environment. It is necessary to reconcile the pace of the community programme within, the
span of the community project.
11. Seek to develop effective leadership
It is important to have leaders who can facilitate the community organization process, who
will help the central association to be productive, and who will contribute to development of
morale both in the organisation and in the community.
Leadership is a complex role with a multiplicity of functions, and with many changing and
interacting forces determining what is appropriate behaviour in this role. It seems clear that
however much the leadership functions are distributed in the group, the central figure or
formal leader will facilitate group productivity when he/she is accepted and supported by
members of the group.
12. Develop collaborative and co-operative attitudes
The process of community organisation is expected to develop a collaborative and co-
operative attitude. The organisation can become a symbol of loyalty and community co-
operation. This will develop strength, stability and prestige in the community.
The way the organisation functions, can represent the realisation of the idea for many people
in the community. The organisation must have strength both in terms of its involvement of
accepted group leaders ability to work through difficult situations. Such an organisation wins
and sustains the participation and support of its people.
MODES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
Community organisations are established to meet community specific needs or objectives.
There are three main modes of community organisation;
1. Specific content mode
Any agency or individual recognises the community needs and launches a programme to
meet these needs in terms of reforms. The mode focuses on achieving a specific objective, it
involves authorities, selected groups or individuals. The success of the mode depends on the
degree of achievement of the objective. It must have a specific time frame and be completed
in the shortest time possible.
2. General content mode
In this method, the effort is made to co-ordinate the existing services to extend present
services, and to initiate new services to meet welfare needs of the community. The objective
is not a single reform but a more general objective of effective planning and operation of a
special group of services in the community.
This mode requires involvement of a considerable group of interested people in planning
ways and means of co-ordinating and expanding services in a particular area.
3. Process mode
This mode emphasizes on a process in which all the people of a community are involved,
through their representatives, in identifying and taking action in respect to their own
problems. The emphasis is on co-operative and collaborative work among the various groups
in the community. This method is slow but its effects are long-lasting as the community
learns to solve its problems by utilizing its own resources.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
It provides satisfaction of members' social needs, and a sense of personal identity and
belonging.
 It enhances effective communication within the community.
 It promotes team work.
 It provides a feeling of stability, security and through informal norms of behaviour,
exercises a form of control over members.
 It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or weakness in the formal
organisation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING COMMUNITY ORGANISATION
The management structure and functions of any community organisation is influenced by a
range of internal and external factors;
1. Internal factors
 Misunderstanding among members
 Lack of clear goals and objectives.
 Communication barriers among the members.
 Poor pattern of work including the nature and variety of steered activities and the
extent of autonomy and freedom of action
 Lack of social interaction within the organisational structure for example the size and
the nature of work groups within the organisation
 Individual differences, such as socio-economic status.
 Cultural diversity.
2. External factors
• Advances in information technologies
• Changing roles of society
• Government policy
• Parents association
• Changing population trends
• Poor political goodwill
• Conflicting interests from other stakeholders.
CHAPTER 4:
LEADERSHIP PATTERNS
Categorize community leadership patterns.
INTRODUCTION
Effective leadership is crucial for the success of community based programmes, Leadership is
important at all levels within the community. It helps to develop, Leadership learn, work
and integrate individuals and group goals. This unit focuses on , theories of leadership,
roles of a leader and leadership styles.
LEADER
A leader is a person who has the ability to influence the behaviour of others towards a certain
goal.
Leadership is a process by which one person influences others to do something. It may also
be described as a process by which people are directed, guided and influenced in achieving
and attaining goals and objectives.
Leadership styles: These are the patterns of behaviour which a leader adopts in influencing
the behaviour of his followers.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
This manual mainly focuses on two theories;
1. The early genetic theory:-
This view holds that certain people were born to be leaders, having inherited a set of unique
traits, characteristics or attributes that could not be acquired in any another way. It is also
referred to as "a great man's" theory of leadership which concluded that leadership qualities
were inherited simply because the leadership phenomenon emerged frequently within the
same predominant families. In reality however strong class barriers made it impossible for
anyone outside these families to acquire the skills and knowledge required to become a leader
2. Traits' attribute theory:-
As social and economic class barriers were broken down and leaders began to emerge from
the so-called lower classes, the early genetic theory was modified. Efforts were made to
identify traits of great leaders through the ages common. The traits frequently include
physical, nervous energy, above- average height and a sense of purpose. In addition,
direction, willingness to accept the consequences, enthusiasm, friendliness, technical mastery,
assertiveness, intelligence and persistence well also considered as traits for leadership.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
The following leadership styles have been discussed below, authoritarian, democratic, free
reign and situational.
1. Authoritarian style
This style is known by various names; directive and monothetic.
Authoritarian - The group concentrates its decisions making at the senior management level
or the consolidation of power is in a few hands. This type of leadership is more efficient in
stable environment. The autocratic leader is a person who uses psychological techniques to
make his followers obey him. She/he instills fear in the mind of the people by uses insecurity
in a way that his absence leaves a vacuum. She/he can frustrate others, and exploits the
primitive understanding of people and remains the focus of a group. She/he will always talk
of obedience and submission now and then. The leader does not allow participation of others.
He/she uses the technique of divide and rule therefore, rendering himself the key to the group
and eventually becomes indispensable.
Advantages of authoritarian leadership
 The members of group prefer to work under centralized authority because they get
satisfaction from it.
 It provides strong motivation, rewards to the leader and permits quick decision making.
 Less competent subordinates will prefer the task of decision making in the able hands of
the more competent colleagues who are superior.
Disadvantages
 If the leader is withdrawn from the group, this may cause group dissolution, disunity and
problems, since he is indispensable and people have not learned to be responsible.
 It reduces opportunity for interpersonal communication within the group because of no
freedom of speech, association and movement.
 It reduces the morale of the people.
 There is delay in arriving at decisions and decisions are taken without any knowledge of
the situation factors.
 People's participation in decision making is absent.
2. Democratic style
This style is also referred to as ideographic consultative because it is represented by a leader
whose primary role is assisting a group to reach its goals. There is the spread of
responsibilities and decision making power. The subordinates are left to discuss a large
number of matters by themselves without reference to the superior. Decision making power is
spread to departments; it helps the group to achieve its objectives by giving information. It
implies that the sub offices have adequate power of decision making. A democratic leader
seeks to promote or evoke a maximum involvement and participation of each member in the
group activities and in the determination of objectives. He/she seeks to encourage and
reinforce
Interpersonal contacts and relations throughout the group structure so as to strengthen it.
He/she seeks to reduce inter group tension and conflicts. He/she promotes more supportive
personal relations and tries to influence the group but does not attempt to dominate its
behaviour and thinking. In his/her relationships with the subordinates, a democratic leader
offers both praise and critics. The group that functions under democratic leadership decides
its own objectives and policies on the basis of group discussions and decisions.
Advantages of democratic leadership
 It leads to efficiency.
 It builds the capacity and morale of other members.
 It develops self-respect among the workers.
 It encourages participation.
 It makes people create and bring in new ideas.
 Decisions are flexible and easily implemented.
 The cohesiveness of a group is generally high.
 Decisions are quickly implemented.
Disadvantages
 It is time consuming in terms of decision making.
 Power equalization is not practical; members of the bottom may not be able to handle
some issues of the group.
3. Free-reign (laissez faire)
In this type of leadership the leader's role is very limited, giving complete freedom to
subordinates or followers. The leader does not participate in group activities and he does not
offer to assist the group in any way to achieve its goals, unless requested. He/she makes no
attempt to evaluate or regulate the members of a group or their progress towards achieving
their objectives.
Under free reign leadership, the group members are given freedom to decide on what they are
going to do and how they are going to do it. The leaders behaviour is premised on a belief
that the members of the group have the ability to solve their problems and determine their
own goals, attempts therefore their thinking will only restrict their effectiveness. Sometimes
managers once determine the policy programmes, limitations for action and the entire
progress is left to the subordinates.
Group members plan everything and the managers usually maintain contacts with the outside
persons, to bring information and materials which the group needs. This style is suitable to
certain situation where the manager can leave a choice to his group. This helps the
subordinates to develop independence personality. However, the contribution of the leader is
minimal.
It tends to permit different units of an organization to proceed at cross purposes and can
degenerate into a dissolution. Hence this style is used very rarely in business organizations.
4. Situational leadership
This style of leadership states that most important variable which should determine the
leaders behaviour is the nature of situation in which she/he finds herself/himself. The
situational style of leadership maintains that no particular style or personal qualities of a
leader is appropriate for every situation. The style places a high premium on the
administrator's adaptability and flexibility. However, the leader's basic personality may not
make it possible for her/him to adapt to a new situation. One way of removing this situation is
for the organization and group to select administrators who can become flexible and
adaptable in their leadership response to changing leadership demands.
ROLES OF A LEADER
 To defend the group's mission and goal.
 To define the institutions/groups integrity and value systems.
 A centre of group's control and direction.
 An initiator of the group's ideas, or activities/programmes.
 A symbol of peace resolving the internal groups conflicts and bringing order and
 Understanding to the group.

 A source of motivation to the group.
 A source of innovations.
 A source of clear communication.
 A source of training for development.
 An expert
 An external group representative
 A controller of internal relations
 A controller of rewards and punishments
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
• Someone who has the initiative to start things and keep them alive.
• A person who welcomes new suggestions.
• One who is not afraid to become involved, listens with an open mind and is
 Considerate to feelings of others.
• One who brings out the best in people.
• An easy person to work with, accurate, thorough, reliable and approachable.
• A person who looks at a situation, takes hold of it and searches for a solution.
• Someone who admits when he/she is wrong and takes steps to correct mistakes.
• One who is tactful, yet forceful, firm and never quits or complains.
• One who emphasizes that each person has a contribution to make to the common effort.
• A person who can reconcile clashing viewpoints.
• Someone who inspires
• One who is honest, creative and have ability to perform.
CHAPTER 5:
COMPONENTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Discuss the components of group dynamics in community development.
INTRODUCTION
Group dynamics are forces that influence the working of a community and organisation. It is
important to understand these forces for the smooth running of an organisation.
It is important to focus on the study of group dynamics in sustainable community
development as this determines the success of any community based programme. This unit
focuses on the meaning, nature, types and formation of groups. The factors affecting group
cohesiveness, impact of technology on group behaviour, role of conflicts in group and
characteristics of an effective functional group has also been addressed.
Meaning of Group
A group may be defined as a number of people who interact with one another, are
psychologically aware of one another and perceive themselves as one. They are bound
together by a distinctive set of shared social relationship, membership and, have an ability to
act in a unitary manner.
GROUP DYNAMICS
According to Kurt Lewin group dynamics relates to the questions as the type of group
changes, conditions under which they change and in which direction they change. The
changes in groups occur because of certain internal and external forces. Group dynamics
comprise of changes taking place within groups. It relates to interaction, cohesiveness and
disruptive or driving and restraining forces observed in groups.
TYPES OF GROUPS
There are two types of groups
1. Formal groups
Formal groups are based on specific defined tasks to be undertaken. They are created by
organisations to help achieve organisations objectives. These groups have laid down rules
and regulations for their administration and management.
2. Informal groups
Informal groups are based on personal agreement of the members. They serve to satisfy
psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the task to be undertaken. They are
formed by members themselves rather than organisations.
GROUP FORMATION
Reasons for group formation, groups are formed in order to:-
 Perform certain tasks which require combined efforts of a number of individuals
working together.
 Provide individuals with opportunities for initiative, creativity and encourage co-
operation between members.
 Provide companionship and a source of mutual understanding and support from
colleagues.
 Offer individuals with a sense of belonging.
 Provide guidelines on generally acceptable behaviour
 Offer protection for its members.
 achieve common objectives and goals
 Group Development and Maturity
 Forming - The initial formation of a group brings together a number of individuals
who identify with a purpose and it's composition
 Storming - As members of the group get to know each other better they put forward
their views more openly and forcefully.
 Norming - Members of the group establish guidelines, standards and develop their
own norms.
 Performing - When the group concentrates on the achievements of its purpose and
performance of common tasks, it is likely to be at its most effective level.
Factors Affecting Group Cohesiveness
Factors affecting group cohesiveness can be discussed in four board areas namely; size,
environment, organization and technology.
 Size of the group - as a group increases problems arise with communication and co-
ordination. Large groups are more difficulty to handle and require high level
supervision.
 Compatibility - It is easier to promote group cohesiveness in a homogeneous group
with common background, interest, attitude and values.
 Permanence of group members - Cohesiveness is more likely when members of a
group are together for a reasonable length of time
Work environment.
 Nature of the task; where workers are involved in similar duties, share a common
task or face the same problems, it is easier to enhance cohesiveness.
 Physical setting - Where members of a group work in the same location or close
physical proximity to each other, cohesiveness is easily achieved.
 Communications - The more easily members can communicate freely with each other
the more likelihood of group cohesiveness.
 Chronology - The nature of technology and the manner in which work is carried out
has an important effect on cohesiveness.
Organization
 Management and leadership; the form of management and style of leadership
adopted will influence the relationship between the group and the organisation. This
is a major determinant of group cohesiveness.
 Personnel policies and procedures - Harmony and cohesiveness within the group are
more likely to be achieved if personnel policies and procedures are well developed
and perceived to be equitable with fair treatment to all members.
 Success - Success is usually a strong motivational influence on the level of work
performance and cohesiveness in a group.
 External threat - Cohesiveness may be enhanced by members co-operating with one
another when faced with a common external threat.
Technology
 Message is transmitted faster and more effectively hence easy ' communication among
group members
 Improves individual/group performance and productivity.
 Easy replication of development programmes
 Easy access to information
 Simplifies presentation of facts through audio and other visual materials
 Minimal social interaction due to utilization of a variety of technology
CONFLICTS IN GROUPS/ORGANIZATION
Conflict implies to a state of being in disagreement, opposition, using different approaches or
violent clashes.
Causes of conflict in groups
 Personal interests as individuals want to over benefit from the organization‘s or common
resources
 Personality differences, as some individuals are more prone to disagree with others
 Using different approaches in handling common tasks
 Over lapping roles or job description in the group
 Administrative decisions which may not be acceptable or popular with all the members
 Lack of transparency and accountability among group members.
Advantages of conflicts
Conflicts are not entirely bad, if well managed, as they provide the organization with a
chance of improvement.
For example;
 Conflicts help to define and understand issues better
 Conflicts helps an organization to identify and understand, other possible approaches to
an issue especially if different approaches is the cause of conflicts
 Conflicts provide the organization‘s members with a chance to understand each other as
working patterns hence cohesion
 Conflicts improve decision making skills in the organization as individuals attempt to
solve the issues
 Conflicts help to identify underlying problems of group which is not identified and solved
in time could, incapacitate the group.
Characteristic of a Functional Group
 Shared goals and objectives
 A sense of commitment to the group
 Acceptance of group values and norms
 Mutual trust and dependency among members and leaders
 Full participation by all members and decision making by consensus
 Free flow of information and communication.
 Open expressions of feelings, disagreement and the resolution of conflict by members
themselves.
IMPORTANCE OF GROUPS DYNAMICS
Advantages
 More ideas are suggested when several people are making decisions.
 Enhance wider view of perspective on issues.
 Provides opportunities for intellectual stimulation.
 People are more likely to understand why and how decisions are made.
 Leads to higher level of commitment to the decisions made.
 Individual interests are easily realized
 Allows for maximum utilization of resources.
Disadvantages
• Some members may dominate discussion and deny other members opportunity to contribute.
• Some people sabotage group activities.
• Pressure to avoid disagreement can lead to group dissolution, when people choose not to
disagree or raise objections.
• Goal displacement often occur when goals emerge to replace original ones based on
opinions of one or two group members leading to disagreement among group members.
CHAPTER 6:
SOCIO- ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON CHILD REARING
PRACTICES
Compare the socio-economic changes in community and their effect on child rearing
practices.
The Family
A family is a group of people who are related by blood or law and may include mother, father
and siblings as well as other relatives (Uncles, aunts; grandparents). The various categories
of families include:
a) Nuclear family: This is composed of mother, father and children. Single parent families
also fall under this category. A man and woman who are married without children are
also a family.
b) The extended family: This consists of other people related to the nuclear family such as
grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins and nephews. The extended family is important in
providing emotional and socio-economic support to the child. This is necessary for the
child's holistic development. The family is the first socialization agent.
The Role of Parents
Parents are responsible for the provision of basic needs of the child which include; shelter,
balanced nutrition, clothing, healthcare, security, safety and protection, early stimulation,
socialization, opportunity to sleep and play, love, affection and attention in order to build
child's, self-awareness and confidence.
Parents can achieve the above by:
 Bonding and attachment during the early years
 preparing the child for school
 Training in good behaviour through discipline, guidance and counselling
 providing of play materials, space and time to interact
 Cuddling, tickling, hugging, telling stories and singing for them
 Providing support to early childhood development services.
The Role of Community
The community plays an important role by:-
 Giving support services to the family
 Offering socialization opportunities to the family
 Providing amenities like health facilities, transport structures, schools, ECD centres
among others
 Providing basis for societal norms and values
 Providing^ security and safety
 Participating collectively in developing personality of the children
 Providing of alternative and complementary child care services such as home and
Manyatta based centres where mothers take turns or employ a caregiver
 Hiring of ECD centre personnel
 Paying of ECD teachers‘ salaries
 Establishing and substantiating ECD centre feeding programmes
 Maintaining ECD centre facilities
 Initiating and sustaining income generating activities for the ECD centers
 Creating awareness on pertinent ECD issues
 Mobilizing local resources for sustaining ECD activities
 Providing sanitation services.
Child Rearing Practices
Different communities have different childrearing practices which impact on child growth
and development. These encompass:
 Feeding habits
 Health habits
 Taboos and beliefs
 Care for expectant mothers
 Breastfeeding
 Childcare set-ups (custodial care)
Impact of Socio-Economic Changes on Child Rearing Practices
Rapid socio-economic changes that have taken place in the last few decades have impacted
heavily on child rearing. Several factors have contributed to changes in family structures and
hence childrearing practices. These factors include:
 Disintegration of the extended family system
 Rural-urban migration
 Change in settlement patterns
 More mothers being engaged in economic activities leaving children without adequate
care
 increased enrolment of older siblings in schools
 failing values on marriage
 increased number of teenage mothers who are unable to provide adequate care for their
children
 increased numbers of teenage parents
 prevalence of HIV and AIDS
 increased informal urban settlements exposing children to substandard living conditions
 Socio-political and family conflicts leading to displacement, insecurity, trauma,
malnourishment and death of children.
Alternative and Complementary Approaches in ECD
The current formal early childhood development centers have managed an enrolment of about
40% of children aged 3-6years. The rest of the children in the age group and children under 2
years have no established care system and are mainly at home.
Apart from pre-schools, communities need to establish alternative care systems as well as
strengthen the existing ones. Such alternative approaches include:
 Manyatta based care
 Home based care
 Day care centers
 Market-based,
 Mobile ECD centers.
Complimentary approaches include:-
 Feeding programmes for ECD children
 Economic empowerment of poor families
 Training of mother and caregivers
 Immunization
 Provision of free education and use of third media channel
 Growth monitoring and promotion
 Early stimulation and preparation for school.
CHAPTER 7:
NETWORKING, COALITION AND COLLABORATION IN ECD PROGRAMMES
Discuss networking, coalition and collaboration in ECDE programmes.
INTRODUCTION
Community development efforts are enhanced if different partners involved work together to
achieve common objectives and avoid duplication of efforts. There are various forms of
partnership; these include networking, collaboration and coalition. Proper co-ordination is an
important aspect in networking and collaboration.
Networking
Networking can be defined as a process where individuals or organizations that have similar
development goals form links to share information useful for their success or achievement. It
also refers to formation of links among partners with common interest.
Collaboration
Collaboration is the process of organizations and individuals agreeing to working together to
achieve some common objectives. It can further be enhanced by coalition building.
Partnership
Partnership is the involvement of different stakeholders in supporting a certain programme
and working towards achieving a similar goal. Partnership involves recognition of equality
among stakeholders and the working relationship is through complimentary knowledge, skills
and interests. They all benefit from working together as mutual learning takes place.
Coalition
A coalition is a group of organizations working together voluntarily in a coordinated fashion
towards a common goal. It is more permanent in nature and structure; it works formally with
a permanent secretariat probably alongside elected leaders. It is guided by clearly defined
policies. Examples include; The National AIDS Consortium, Child Rights and Protection
Coalition.
Importance of Networking and Collaboration

 It enables sharing of information and ideas hence enriching the partners strategies and
programme implementation.
 It enables partners to avoid duplication in delivery of services to vulnerable groups thus
allowing effective utilization of financial, human and other resources for various
interventions.
 It enhances feelings of ownership among different stakeholders involved in
implementation of programmes as they all take part.
 The programme is more successful as different partners have different or specific
complimentary skills and expertise which can be harnessed or pooled together in the
target programme thus reducing costs in terms of human and other resources.
 Carrying out joint ventures which could be overwhelming if left to one individual
organization.
 Helps to create cross-borders awareness of common problems
 Provide members with support and encouragement instead of working in isolation.
 Provide the much needed masses or groups of people to influence policies locally,
nationally and internationally.
Process of Building Partnership
The process of networking and collaboration will involve identification of possible partners,
establishment of links, discussion of modalities of networking and collaboration. In addition
it would also involve assignment of roles and responsibilities to different partners, creating
networking/collaboration coordination structures, establishing working modalities and
mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation.
It is important to establish forums for discussion and consultation where implications for
individuals or groups work for others can be explored. There is also need for establishing
agreements on areas for joint decision making.
Networking implies continued communication among partners by sharing new experiences
and trends through bulletins, newsletters and other media of communication.
Process of Coalition Building
The process of coalition building should be clearly formalized so as to avoid the pitfalls of
loose partnerships. It could include the following steps:
 Identify partners with similar development interests and objectives.
 Formally invite the identified partners for an open consultative meeting
 Set or agree on common objective Design working structures for the coalition for
example appointing a secretariat with a working knowledge on the set objective. This
involves constituting a working office of experts.
 Formulate guiding policies for the coalition.
Partners and Possible Areas of Collaboration
It is important that communities identify possible partners within their locality. These
partners will vary from one community to the other. Some of the suggested possible partners
for networking, collaboration and coalition in ECD programmes are shown on the table
below.
Table showing Partners and possible areas of collaboration
Partner Possible areas of collaboration
1. Ministry of Health • Growth monitoring and promotion
• Immunization
 Deworming
• Registration of births
• Promotive, preventive and curative services
2. Ministry of Education Maternal
• Policy child health services
guidelines
Science and Technology • Training
• Assessment
• Registration of ECD centers
• Maintenance of standards
3. Local Authorities •• Sourcing
Sponsorshipof funds
for training
• Employment of ECD teachers
• Provision of physical facilities
• Provision of health services
• Registration of ECD centres
• Supervisory and assessment services
• Maintance of standards
4. Ministry of Home Affairs • Provision
Rehabilitation
of andprogrammes
for establishment of ECD
• Enforcement of children rights
5. Provincial • Facilitating awareness, creation and undertaking community
Administration mobilization
• Recruiting children to ECD centres
• Custodian of ECD facilities
6. Community Based • Provision of funds
Organisation (CBOs) • Technical support
7. Faith based organisations • Provision of funds
(FBOs) • Technical support
• Support for training programmes
• Spiritual nourishment
It is considered important that the partners involved in networking, collaboration and
coalition should share information on:
 Expertise
 intended goals
 Results being obtained
 Problems being experienced
 New and possible ideas, intervention
 Planning the way forward together.
Strategies of Enhancing Partnership
Trusting relations should be enhanced from the beginning among the partners working
together. This helps to avoid suspicion, mistrust and can be achieved through the following:-
 Promoting openness from the very beginning for example identification of partners.
 Mutually agreeing on common projects without allowing domination of specific interest.
 Promoting sharing and visiting one another's projects and activities.
 Promoting democracy in the leadership, conducting meetings, and decision making.
 Constituting special task forces to deal with contentious and challenging issues.
 Decentralizing administration to encourage equitable power and resource sharing.
Common Challenges Facing Partnerships
 Inadequate trust
 Insufficient information sharing
 Domination
 Competition and internal rivalry
 Leadership conflicts
 Inadequate resources
 Conflict of expectations
 Weakens individual initiative
 Weakness of working structures and co-ordination
 Poor structure for evaluation and performance assessment
 External interference.
CHAPTER 8:
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN COMMUNITY CAPACITY BUILDING AND
MOBILIZATION
Describe effective communication in community capacity building and mobilization.
INTRODUCTION
Communication helps to define a community by establishing the process, modes and
acceptable structures within which the community members relate and interact. This chapter
looks into the meaning, process, method and roll communication, communication barriers
and tips on public speaking.
Communication
Communication is the process of conveying and passing information from one source to
another through a media in order to establish a common understanding.
Communication Process
Communication process involves several steps that would link the sender of information and
the receiver. It is made up of the following elements:-
 Sender or Source: This is the initiator of the communication process who intends to share
ideas, opinions and experiences for example a community mobilizer.
 Encoding or packaging: It involves arranging, choosing the language, symbols, signs and
the media through which the information will be transmitted.
 Message/information: It should have been decided before hand by establishing the facts
or the validity of the message.
 Media/channel: This is the means or tool through which the information or message is
delivered or sent for example through open forum, newsletters, TV. and radios.
 Decoding: This involves unpacking, interpreting, reading the initially coded or packed
information or message by the receiver or recipient of the message. Here the audience has
a role to listen, understand and digest.
 Receiver: This is a target or the recipient of the intended message who decodes or
unpacks the message or information; this could be one person or a group of audience.
 Feedback: This is the response elicited by the message. It helps to evaluate how the
communication process is done. It may include the questions asked, inquiries and various
community activities.
Modes of Communication
These are the ways of delivering information or messages, two types, direct or interpersonal
and indirect or play.
There are broadly Direct or interpersonal is where one directly interacts with the audience or
receivers of information without using any agent or intermediary.
This mode is summarized by an illustration below.
Source Receiver (s)
A B
Fig Showing Direct or Interpersonal mode of communication (face to face)
Indirect or relay method: Here an agent or intermediary like community opinion leaders are
used to reach members of the community. Though it may distort or dilute the message or
content, it is suitable when dealing with hostile communities and overcoming language
cultural barriers.
This is a model where there is an intermediate agent or agents
Sender Agent Receiver

Fig Showing Indirect or relay mode of communication
Communication within the community could be through different modes which are suitable
and acceptable among them.
 Verbal communication: This involves talking with the community members directly or
indirectly through an agent. It is useful when there is limited time.
 Non verbal communication: This involves dramatizing, demonstrating, using sign
languages to communicate with community members
 Written communication: This involves presenting messages in printed formats using

leaflets, brochures, posters, charts, bill boards, newspaper, books, circulars and letters.
This modes has a permanent effect, and allow future references.
 Electronic communication: This involves using radios, TV., telephones, internet and fax
to transmit messages to community members. It is faster, more effective and allows
speedy feedback.
Communication Barriers
Barriers emanating from the facilitator
• Mode of dress or presentation
• Age - some communities only listen and take serious the message from elders hence
 Younger people may not be listened to.
• Gender - some communities prejudiced against women.
• A wide education/cultural gap - where the facilitator uses images unfamiliar to the audience.
• Social - economic differences; in some cases people only listen to the well off individuals.
• Credibility - the audience does not consider the facilitators credible.
Barriers associated with the message
 Ambiguous and unclear message
 Disturbance in the channel
 Withholding of information by the channels which may not want message passed to the audience
 A poorly presented message
 A message that is irrelevant
 Using a language which the audience do not understand
 Lack of presentation confidence and self-esteem.
Barriers from the audience
 Too diverse/too high expectation
 Low level of awareness (ignorance)
 Bad past experience which influence their interpretations
 Cultural differences
 The audience may be prejudiced against the facilitator.
Ways of overcoming communication barriers
 Tell it right
 Tell enough with humility
 Tell all concerned
 Tell it soon enough
 Tell it in the right tone and clear language
 Tell it in writing but send information verbally as well.
 Encourage the speaker to go on
 Be precise, confident
Plan for effective communication
 Plan and choose the right media
 Keep the number of objectives/issues to minimum
 Plan the message to flow systematically starting from key issues.
 Develop the skills of questioning and responding.
 Set up the atmosphere for effective communication feedback.
Communication using good human relations
 Let each person know his/her responsibilities

 Give credit where it is due explicitly such as appreciating contributions
 Inform people of changes in advance
 Let others participate in planning
 Criticize constructively and politely
 Be consistence in your actions.
Factors to bear in mind during communication with community members:
 Know the community well and respect their beliefs, attitudes and values
 Use the language which is easily understood and accepted by the community.
 Talk and share ideas with them, participate in their social activities like women groups
and be identified with them.
 Use cheap and commonly available means/channels of communication
 Communicate in advance and try to avoid short notices
 Consider everyone as important and consult them where necessary.
 Involve acceptable and influential personalities when support is not forthcoming from the
community.
Technique on Public Speaking
Public speaking involves addressing, presenting and convincing an audience or community
members towards a given course. It should be treated as a communication process while
considering the following factors.
 Choice of Subject or issues; Subject should be critical to the community and the speaker
must be knowledgeable, or carry out wide research and gather necessary facts.
 Preparation; This involves deciding on the objectives, focus or depth of the speech
including the initial logistical' arrangements such as podiums, microphones and
room/halls.
 Audience research and diagnosis; This involves finding out the beliefs, values, attitudes
and stereotypes of the audience to avoid being offensive. Find out their composition in
terms of sex, ages, educational level and knowledge of the subject or issue.
 Preparing/outlining the speech; This involves writing or sketching the speech. Starting
with the important issues or arresting their attention by posing a question, quotation and
stating the central critical problem. Be as systematic as possible, conclude by making a
challenge or appeal using a quotation and your personal intention or commitment.
How to Add Value to Your Speech
 Repeat important facts
 Use brief statistics
 Be confident in your presentation
 Be presentable in your dressing, language and facial expression
 Avoid over reading or rehearse your notes before presentation
 Body movement should include gestures changing position from time to time
 Minimize the distance with the audience
 Maintain polite eye contact
 Voice should be moderate in volume, tone and pitch
 Posing occasionally and pronouncing words/sentences well.
 Provoke/allow audience participation through brief questioning allowing them to clap and laugh.
 Allow them to ask questions.

1. Discuss the following strategies for community capacity building, mobilization and
empowerment. [8marks]
a. Advocacy
b. Sensitization
c. Participatory Learning Approaches
d. Mobilization
e. Skill development
f. Attitude change
g. Microfinance
h. Civic education
2. Using an appropriate diagram, show the structure of community organization.
[8marks]
3. Discuss various modes of managing community based ECDE programmes.
[10 marks]
4. Outline the qualities of a good community mobilize.
[10 marks]
5. Discuss the following emerging issues in community development: (i) HIV and AIDS (ii)
Genger (iii) Environment (iv) Integrity (v) Globalization (vi) Political instability (vii)
Insecurity. [14 marks]
6015 MODULE FIVE - UNIT 11:

TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT OF
ECDE PROGRAMMES
Introduction to the unit
The study of administration and management of ECDE programmes is aimed at providing
knowledge, skills and attitudes that facilitate effective sourcing and utilization of resources.
Managers of any given programme should be conversant with administration and
management procedures so as to be able to provide appropriate guidance to teachers, parents
and he community. Skills in programme monitoring and evaluation are necessary in
enhancing efficient programme implementation.
Learning Outcomes of this unit
a) Define terms related to management
b) Analyse relevant centre of management books and records
c) Discuss management functions
d) Discuss administrative functions in an ECDE centre
e) Analyse the role of manager in an ECDE centre
f) Identify qualities of a good administrator
g) Discuss the challenges in the administration of and ECDE centre
h) Discuss the ways of managing the challenges
i) Identify and discuss emerging trends and issues in the administration of ECDE centers‘
j) Evaluate the management of an ECDE centre
k) Describe the structure and the functions of the ministry of education
l) Explain the role of KIE, NACECE and DICECE in ECDE
m) Describe the procedure of establishing and ECDE centre
n) Discuss the role of stakeholders in the management of ECDE centre
o) Discuss the level of training and aspects covered in ECDE
p) identify steps in planning and organization of a training programme
q) Analyse training methods and techniques
r) Demonstrate training methods and techniques
s) Analyse techniques of assessing training session
t) Discuss the key aspects of supervision in ECDE programme
CHAPTER 1:
MEANING OF TERMS RELATED TO TRAINING & MANAGEMENT OF ECDE
 Define terms related to management.
The terms below will be encountered in this study and therefore it is important to define them
at this point. They include;
a) Management
b) Administration
c) Planning
d) Organization
e) Staffing
f) Directing
g) Controlling
h) Training
i) Supervision
Management in all ECDE centers and human organization activity is simply the act of
getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises
planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group
of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
In ECDE, administration consists of the performance or management of school or
institutional operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.
Administration can he defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources
efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.
Planning in schools, organization and public policy is both the organizational process of
creating and maintaining a plan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities
required to create a desired goal. The term is also used to describe the formal procedures used
in such an endeavor, such as the creation of documents diagrams, or meetings to discuss the
important issues to be addressed, the objectives to be met, and the strategy to be followed.
An organization (or organisation) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals.
Which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its
environment.
Staffing may refer to filling and keeping filled with qualified people all positions in the
business. Recruiting. hiring, training, evaluating and compensating are the specific activities
included in the function. In the family business, staffing includes all paid and unpaid
positions held by family members including the owner/operators.
Directing or Leading has been described as the ―process of social influence in which one
person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task‖. A
definition more inclusive of followers comes from Alan Keith who said ―Leadership is
ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary
happen.
Control is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It
is an important function because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action
so that deviation from standards are minimized and stated goals of the organization are
achieved in the desired manner.
According to modern concepts, control is a foreseeing action whereas earlier concept of
control was used only when errors were detected. Control in management means setting
standards, measuring actual performance and taking corrective action. Thus, control
comprises these three main activities.
The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result
of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful
competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at
institutes of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics). In addition to the
basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession, observers of the labour-market
recognize today the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain,
upgrade and update skills throughout working life. People within many professions and
occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development.
Supervision means the act of watching over the work or tasks of another who may lack full
knowledge of the concept at hand. Supervision does not mean control of another but guidance
in a work, professional or personal context. In childcare and general use, the verb ‗to
supervise‖ means to watch over, and is often used in the context of an adult watching
children to ensure they are attended, acceptably behaved, and safe.
CHAPTER 2:
MAINTAINING OF ECDE CENTRE RECORDS
Analyse relevant management books and records of an ECDE centre.
1. FINANCIAL RECORDS
It is a requirement by law that you, as a manager of a school or ECDE centre, must keep
financial records which are reliable and provide an accurate view of your operations. Even
businesses are required to keep records appropriate to their trade or business. Common sense
demands financial records as well. Without financial records you are probably going to lose
financial direction and have much less control over how much money you make/get (or lose).
For those with no accounting experience or training, record keeping may seem like a
overwhelming and heavy task, but it does not have to be. In this section we will discuss ways
to make it simpler and, hopefully, less expensive.
Do it yourself or Hire Someone Else? Many center owners hire someone to ―keep the
books‖ rather than do this work themselves. Bookkeepers can be a certified CPA, a secretary
or even someone who works part-time keeping track of financial records. The price for such
part-time services should be per hour depending on the level of qualifications and experience.
(Clearly, the CPA is going to be the highest priced bookkeeper.)
Always, check into the background of your bookkeeper. You need to do this for two reasons.
First, you need to make sure that they know exactly what they are doing. Your bookkeeper
must know about payroll deduction, income taxes, state and local taxes, filing deadlines etc.
Second you must determine that your bookkeeper is so honest that you can actually trust that
person to watch YOUR money. Giving someone control over your money is a very, very
serious matter, as you well know. It is made more serious by the fact that if your bookkeeper
does not pay taxes either on time or at all, your school (if private) or business and YOU
PERSONALLY will be held liable by the tax authorities. There would, of course be fines and
penalties as well as the underlying tax bill.
While we understand that you probably have no desire to engage in routine record keeping
and tax work, you might want to consider developing your own record keeping system.
Consult a tax
Professional who can help you develop your record keeping system, preferably a CPA who
specializes in helping small businesses or organizations in your industry. Once you have the
system in place and know how it works, then hire someone to look after it for you and teach
them to use your system for your books. Then you are not dependent on your bookkeeper. If
he leaves, you can do your own books until you hire a replacement. Or if he/she seems
untrustworthy or incompetent after you hire them, you can perform your own checks of your
records to make sure everything is okay.
Doing it Yourself First of all, buy Quick Books or any appropriate accounting system. (You
are using a computer to look at this so we assume you have a computer already.) Using
computer programs to keep track of school financial affairs is probably the best record
keeping advance since the development of the double-entry accounting system; there is no
point in not taking advantage of this. You will no longer have to worry about sloppy
handwriting, computational errors, and data reorganization. You can use Quick Books for a
school/business.
Quick Books accounts can be set up in about an hour. You may want to spend an afternoon
reading through the manuals and information they send along with the program--it is very
helpful. We really cannot emphasize enough how much a computer system will help the
beginner school business person organize and maintain their business records, so even if you
do not like Quick Books, try another program.
For those who insist on keeping your records on paper, the method of organizing your records
of expenses and income is fairly simple. You record all money paid to you, paid out to
another owed to you, or owed to another in your business‘s ‗ledger‖. Any office supply Store
will carry a selection of lined paper set out in ledger format. Use this ledger to set up a list of
your business expenses as they are incurred (money paid out), another list of money which is
paid to the school (fees).
Good record keeping is essential for any school or business. From the beginning, there are
three types of records your business should absolutely maintain: a record of expenses, a
record of income, and a record of assets. We briefly discuss each of these below.
1. Receipts and Record of Expenses Like any business, you will incur expenses. Most
of these expenses are deductible when tax time comes (for private ECDE centers not public).
All receipts, invoices, canceled cheques, contracts requiring payments by you (e.g., leases)
involving a pay out of money from your school should be stored in a folder. (Preferably a
folder which contains evidence of similar expenses-- it is best if you order them by type
rather than by date.)
You should jot down a quick note on all canceled cheques and copies of receipts reminding
you of what the expense involved. For instance, if you take a client out to dinner; write the
client‘s name on the receipt, why you -were having lunch (i.e., what business matter you
discussed), the amount of the bill, and the restaurant. Or if you buy office supplies and the
receipt does not list the items purchased and their respective cost, write them down yourself
In addition to such records, you should keep a journal or ―record of expenses‘ recording, at
the least, the following information:
i) How the expense was paid (credit card. cash, cheque number)
ii) Date of the transaction
iii) The party (person) to whom the money was paid.
iv) The particular type of expense involved (e.g., office supplies. equipment. utilities. rent,
etc.)
2. Income/Revenue Records Hopefully, like many enterprises, your school or business will
make money as well as spend it. Just like expenses, you need to record all income (fees or
revenue) of your school/business. Your business‘s income, or ‗‗gross receipts‘, needs to be
carefully tracked because not all money your business receives will be taxable income.
Money you receive from clients in return for your business‘s goods or services is taxable
income. Money you receive from the bank as a loan is NOT. At the end of the year when you
are figuring out your tax bill, it is important for you to be able to separate the two and pay tax
only on the former.
Different schools/businesses use different methods of recording their income. Your local
grocery store probably uses electronic cash registers which feed their totals into a central
system. You, being the business-savvy entrepreneur of the computer age, will keep track of
your income on your accounting program. (Or you could use a manual system)
It is absolutely vital that your records of income received (or other moneys received, such as
loans) give you at least some indication of precisely where the money came from and why
you received it.
3. Asset Records All equipment (e.g., computers, fax machine, copiers, furniture etc.) and
other assets which have a life span of more than a year must be recorded and the cost
deducted over the life span of the asset. Thus, you need to keep records concerning your
businesses asset. You must keep asset records providing the following information:
i) Description of the asset.
ii) Date of acquisition.
iii) What month you started using the asset (usually the same as purchase).
iv) Total amount paid for the item, including taxes, delivery charges and fees.
v) Sales price of any asset sold.
vi) Date of sale of any asset.
vii) Cost of selling the asset (advertisement, broker‘s fees, etc.)
viii) Whether you use the assets for personal use and, if so how much time the asset is
employed for such uses.
ix) Again, there are excellent computer programs which will help you maintain these
records!
CHAPTER 3:
MANAGEMENT & ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
Discuss management functions.
MANAGEMENT
A definition:
Management is creative problem solving. This creative problem solving is accomplished
through four functions of management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The
intended result is the use of an organization‘s resources in a way that accomplishes its
mission and objectives.
Planning is the ongoing process of developing the business‘ mission and objectives and
determining how they will be accomplished. Planning includes both the broadest view of the
organization, e.g. its mission, and the narrowest, e.g., a tactic for accomplishing a specific
goal.
Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the organization. The focus
is on division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the
organization. It is in this function that managers distribute authority to job holders.
Staffing is filling and keeping filled with qualified people all positions in the business.
Recruiting, hiring, training, evaluating and compensating are the specific activities included
in the function. In the family business, staffing includes all paid and unpaid positions held by
family members including the owner/operators.
Directing is influencing people‘s behavior through motivation, communication, group
dynamics, leadership and discipline. The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all
personnel to accomplish the organization‘s mission and objectives while simultaneously
helping them accomplish their own career objectives.
Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on the firm‘s
objectives, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two, and taking
corrective or preventive action as necessary.
An Important Qualification to Success of ECDE centre
Management success is gained through accomplishment of mission and objectives. ECDE
managers fail when they do not accomplish mission and objectives. Success and failure are
tied directly to the reasons for being in business operation i.e. mission and objectives.
However accomplishing mission and objectives is not sufficient. Success requires both
effectiveness and efficiency. Managers who accomplish their mission and objectives are said
to be effective. Efficiency describes the relationship between the amount of resources used
(input) and the extent to which objectives were accomplished (output). If the cost of
accomplishing an objective is prohibitive, then the objective is not realistic in the context of
the schools‘ resources. Additional planning is necessary.
1. PLANNING
Planning is concerned with the future impact of today‘s decisions. It is the fundamental
function of management from which the other four come from. The need for planning is often
apparent after the fact.
The organizing, staffing, leading and controlling functions stem from the planning function.
The manager is ready to organize and staff only after goals and plans to reach the goals is in
place. Likewise, the leading function, influencing the behavior of people in the organization,
depends on the goals to be achieved. Finally, in the controlling function, the determination of
whether or not goals are being accomplished and standards met is based on the planning
function. The planning function provides the goals and standards that drive the controlling
function.
Manning is important at all levels of management. However, its characteristics vary by level
of management.
Planning Terminology
The key terms are defined as follows:
Vision Nonspecific, directional and motivational guidance for the entire organization. Top
managers normally provide a vision for the business. It is the most emotional of the four
levels in the hierarchy of purposes.
Mission An organizations reason for being. It is concerned with scope of the business and
what distinguishes this business from similar businesses. Mission reflects the culture and
values of top management.
Objectives refine the mission and address key issues within the organization such as market
standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources, profitability‘
management and worker performance and efficiency. They are expected to be general,
observable, challenging, and untimed.
Goals are specific statements of anticipated results that further define the organizations
objectives.
They are expected to be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Rewarding, and Timed.
Development of tactics is a fifth level of planning. Tactics, the most specific and narrow
plans, describe who, what, when, where and how activities will take place to accomplish a
goal.
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is one specific type of planning. Strategies are the outcome of strategic
planning. An organization‘s strategies define the business the firm is in, the criteria for
entering the business, and the basic actions the organization will follow in conducting its
business. Strategies are major plans that commit large amounts of the organization‘s
resources to proposed actions, designed to achieve its major objectives and goals. Strategic
planning is the process by which the organization‘s strategies are determined. In the process,
three basic questions are answered:
1. Where are we now?
2. Where do we want to be?
3. How do we get there?
The ―where are we now?‖ question is answered through the first three steps of the strategic
formulation process: (1) perform internal and external environmental analyses. (2) Review
vision, mission and objectives, and (3) determine SWOT: Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats. SWOT analysis requires managers to be honest, self-disciplined
and thorough. Going on to strategy choices without a comprehensive SWOT analysis is risky.
Strengths and weaknesses come from the internal environment of the firm. Strengths can be
exploited, built upon and made key to accomplishment of mission and objectives. Strengths
– reflect past accomplishments in production, financial, marketing and human resource
management. Weaknesses are internal characteristics that have the potential to limit
accomplishment of mission and objectives. Weaknesses may be so important that they need
to be addressed before any further strategic planning steps are taken.
Opportunities and threats are uncontrollable by management because they are external to the
firm. Opportunities provide the firm the possibility of a major improvement. Threats may
stand in the way of a firm reaching its mission and objectives.
1. ORGANIZING
Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the business. The focus is
on division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the
organization. Managers distribute responsibility and authority to job holders in this function
of management.
Organizational Structure
Each organization has an organizational structure. By action and/or inaction, managers
structure businesses. Ideally, in developing an organizational structure and distributing
authority. Managers‘ decisions reflect the mission, objectives, goals and tactics that grew out
of the planning function. Specifically, they decide:
1. Division of labour
2. Delegation of authority
3. Departmentation
4. Span of control
5. Coordination
Management must make these decisions in any organization that has more than two people.
Small may not be simple.
Organizational structure is particularly important in family businesses where each family
member has three hats (multiple roles): family, business and personal. Confusion among
these hats complicates organizational structure decisions.
Division of Labour
Division of labour is captured in an organization chart, a pictorial representation of an
organization‘s formal structure. An organization chart is concerned with relationships among
tasks and the authority to do the tasks. Eight kinds of relationships can be captured in an
organization chart:
1. The division/specialization of labour
2. Relative authority
3. Departmentation
4. Span of control
5. The levels of management
6. Coordination centers
7. Formal communication channels
8. Decision responsibility
Organization charts have important weaknesses that should be of concern to managers
developing and using them:
1. They may imply a formality that doesn‘t exist.
2. They may be inconsistent with reality.
3. Their usual top-down perspective often minimizes the role of children/pupils/students,
front- line ECDE managers and employees without management responsibilities.
4. They fail to capture the informal structure and informal communication.
5. They often imply that a pyramidal structure is the best or only way to organize.
6. They fail to address the potential power and authority of staff positions compared with
line positions.
Delegation of Authority
Authority is legitimized power. Power is the ability to influence others. Delegation is
distribution of authority. Delegation frees the manager from the domination of urgency.
Delegation frees the manager to use his or her time on high priority activities. Note that
delegation of authority does not free the manager from accountability for the actions and
decisions of subordinates.
Departmentation
Departmentation is the grouping of jobs under the authority of a single manager according to
some rational basis, for the purposes of planning, coordination and control. The number of
departments in an organization depends on the number of different jobs i.e. the size and
complexity of the business.
Farm businesses are most likely to have departments reflecting commodities and services.
For example, a large dairy farm might be organized into dairy, crop, equipment and office
departments. The dairy department might be further divided into milking, mature animal and
young stock departments.
2. STAFFING
Management teams on successful pre-schools excel at many human resource management
skills. Staffing (including recruiting, selecting, hiring and training of employees) is among
the skills that become more important as the complexity and overall level of performance of a
school business increases. With increasing size and improving performance comes people
complexity: more things accomplished through employees, more delegation to key
employees and more reliance on employees to maintain a routine that assures superiority.
Any cynical attitudes managers have about employees need to be replaced with positive
attitudes.
The organizing function of management defines each position or category of positions un the
school. Staffing follows with the filling and keeping filled all positions on the school.
Recruiting a pool of applicants for a position, selecting new employees from among the pool
of applicants. training new employees and retraining experienced employees are the key
elements of the staffing function. Managing resignations and discharges is also part of
staffing. Staffing may be mistakenly limited to regular employees. Instead, staffing includes
all personnel categories: managers, working managers and labourers; family and non-family;
paid and unpaid: and fulltime and part-time.
In the short -run, positions must be kept filled with qualified people who can get the work
done. Staffing success depends heavily on the planning and organizing functions of
management. In planning both the schools goals and employees goals are considered. A
school functions best when school and employee goals are compatible. Job analysis leads to
job specifications and job descriptions. In developing job specifications, the necessary
knowledge, skills and abilities for each position are determined. Job descriptions identify
specific tasks for each position. Full success in staffing rarely comes without analyzing the
jobs on the farm determining what is needed for success in each job and writing a description
of the job.
Regardless of size, each school has an organizational structure. The structure may be the
result of careful planning. It may be highly formal with an organization chart well known and
understood.
3. DIRECTING
Directing is influencing people‘s behavior through motivation, communication, group
dynamics, leadership and discipline. The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all
personnel to accomplish the organization‘s mission and objectives while simultaneously
helping them accomplish their own career objectives.
Managers give this function a variety of names. Other labels are: influencing, leading,
coaching motivating, interpersonal relations, and human relations. The directing function
gives the manager an active rather than a passive role in employee performance, conduct and
accomplishments. Managers accomplish their objectives through people.
The directing function gives managers a second responsibility: helping people in the
organization accomplish their individual career goals. Organizations do not succeed while
their people are failing. Helping people in the organization with career planning and
professional development is an integral part of the directing function.
4. CONTROLLING
Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on the school‘s
objectives, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two, and taking
corrective or preventive action as necessary.
Performance standards come from the planning function. No matter how difficult, standards
should he established for every important task. Although the temptation may be great,
lowering standards to what has been attained is not a solution to performance problems. On
the other hand, a manager does need to lower standards when they are found to be
unattainable due to resource limitations and factors external to the business.
Characteristics of the Control Process
The control process is cyclical which means it is never finished. Controlling leads to
identification of new problems that in turn need to be addressed through establishment of
performance standards, measuring performance etc.
Employees often view controlling negatively. By its very nature, controlling often leads to
management expecting employee behavior to change. No matter how positive the changes
may be for the organization, employees may still view them negatively. Control is both
anticipatory and retrospective. The process anticipates problems and takes preventive action.
With corrective action, the process also follows up on problems.
Ideally, each person in the business views control as his or her responsibility. The
organizational culture should prevent a person walking away from a small, easily solvable
problem because ―that isn‘t my responsibility.‘ In customer driven businesses, each employee
cares about each customer. In quality driven dairy farms, for example, each employee cares
about the welfare of each animal and the wear and tear on each piece of equipment.
Controlling is related to each of the other functions of management. Controlling builds on
planning organizing and leading.
ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS (discuss each function in details)
They include;
a) Discipline
b) Supervision
c) Networking
d) Financial management
e) Stores management
f) Supplies
g) Procurement
CHAPTER 4:
ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN AN ECDE CENTRE
Analyse the role of a manager in an ECDE centre.
Managers - Roles and Responsibilities
What makes good managers? Let‘s take a look first at the definition.
A person, who manages, conducts, trains, manipulates, directs, deals, supervises, organizes
and controls resources, expenditures, an organization, an institution, a team, a household etc.
What are your roles and responsibilities as a manager?
These are some examples of your job description if you are taking over a managerial position.
1) Supervise and manage the overall performance of staff in his department.
2) Analyzing, reporting, giving recommendations and developing strategies on how to
improve quality and quantity.
3) Achieve business and organization goals, visions and objectives.
4) Involved in employee selection, career development, succession planning and periodic
training.
5) Working out compensations and rewards.
6) Responsible for the growth and increase in the organizations finances and earnings.
7) Identifying problems, creating choices and providing alternatives courses of actions.
8) What are the skills needed to become a good administrator?
9) Interpersonal relationship skill.
If you want cooperation from your team or employees, pay attention, practice empathy and
respect the personal values, opinions and ideas with the people you interact with. Listen and
respond and offer praises and encouragements when they make progress. By doing that you
will enhance their self esteem build trust.
As the boss, your ability to develop trust and confidence, resolve problems and issues will
result in a productive, goal oriented work group. You should encourage your team to ask for
help, get involved and participate.
1) Communication skill.
A manager is the middle person in between the top management level and the team that
reports to him. He has to ensure that communication is smooth and conveyed clearly to avoid
misinterpretations and dissatisfaction. It‘s useful to develop your negotiation arid customer
service skills, especially if you deal with clients.
2) A good planner.
In order for you to achieve long term goals and commit to strategies for substantial earnings,
you have to communicate the vision of the company to your subordinates. You break down
and clarify the goals that each team or individual have to perform and assign work schedules
and strategies.
It also involves thinking and planning out strategies on how to improve quality and also being
Cost conscious and effective. Having goals and planning out the directions allow for effective
time management and saves cost and resources.
3) Decision Maker.
The daily routine of making decisions include determining how to approach an employee
who is not performing or lacking progress and how to bring about change to the organization
and its team. It is essential that your day to day decision is based on what‘s important, what‘s
right and not who‘s right.
4) Leadership skill.
Your position entails you to guide and give direction so that the team can perform effectively.
You offer on the job coaching, training and support. In order for individuals to meet the needs
and objectives, they may need extra input, information or skills.
The performance of your team depends on your abilities to empower them. How well a
person performs depends on his motivation. Your task as the boss is to encourage and coach
others to improve themselves and the quality of their work. You need to instill in them the
desire to excel and accept responsibility and self management.
5) Appraiser.
You need to have the capacity to evaluate and examine a process or procedure and decide on
the best choice to produce an outcome. You look at the importance, quality and values and
then taking the best approach.
You are also expected to track the progress of each individual‘s activities and effectiveness.
review them and offer feedback and counseling.
More Tips for Managers
a) Provide satisfaction
Your subordinates are happy when they are provided with the necessary tools and resource.
They feel secure if the management puts priority on health, safety and cleanliness issues. And
you satisfy customers by giving good quality of service or product and take care of their
needs.
b) Keep updated on new and different methods and technologies.
Become the agent of positive change to your team and an expertise in your line of work.
Keep yourself updated on methods and technologies that can help make you and your team
more efficient.
c) Become an exemplary role model
Managers who set high standards or goals and achieve them are great leaders by examples.
The ability to tolerate stress and remain poise under job pressures and still maintain a high
activity and energy level are contagious. Set the example by being accountable for your own
activities and performance. Work harder on your personal growth and you will become a
respected and efficient leader.
CHAPTER 5:
CHALLENGES IN ADMINISTRATION OF AN ECDE CENTRE
 Discuss the challenges in the administration of an ECDE centre.
 Discuss ways of managing these challenges.
CHALLENGES IN ADMINISTRATION OF AN ECDE CENTERS
Young children are the voiceless victims of the twin scourges of poverty and HIV/AIDS in
Kenya. Unable to voice their rights and needs, they are often overlooked by parents,
communities and the government. Major challenges facing the ECD field are:
1. Kenya‘s young children live in dire poverty, with poor health care. poor nutrition and
little access to early education.
2. Many of them do not have access to any form of ECD provision.
3. There is a serious lack of provision of state resources and funding to ECD, particularly for
the 0 — 5 year cohort.
4. Most communities have no suitable infrastructure in which to run ECD programmes for
their children. Buildings are in a poor state of repair, sometimes dangerously so.
5. Most ECD sites have no access to clean water and proper sanitation facilities. Risk of
disease is very high.
6. With increasing demands from the formal education sector, there has also been a swing
away from private sector funding of ECD, to funding more easily measurable projects in
formal education. This impacts on the quality and sustainability of ECD programmes in
ECD sites.
7. Additional problems include widespread breakdowns of family structures, high rates of
illegitimacy and under age mothers, an unbelievable increase in child abuse. child rape
and neglect.
8. The above factors are compounded by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Young children are
bearing the brunt of the crises, with their families being decimated, their relationships
being destroyed and their young lives turned upside down.
9. Staff skills need to be updated and enhanced constantly, as our working environment
continuously changes and becomes more demanding.
Activity
Suggest ways of managing the above challenges and/or those that face ECD in your country
and community
CHAPTER 6:
PROCEDURE FOR ESTABLISHING AN ECDE CENTRE
 Describe the procedure for establishing an ECDE centre.
1) The policy framework has explicitly defined the role of parents‘ communities, various
government ministries and departments and development partners in provision of ECD
services.
2) It also sets the required standards on establishment, registration, management and
supervision. According to the policy document, ECD covers the period from conception
to eight years.
3) The document states that children between three and five years will be admitted to ECD
Centers. Those aged six; seven and eight years will be enrolled in Standard one, two
and three. They will form the lower primary section.
4) All ECD centers, day-care centers, children‘s home and private ECD colleges must he
registered.
5) THERE WILL BE NO REGISTRATION of boarding ECD centers for children for
children eight years and below, except children‘s homes and special needs schools.
6) Existing primary schools wishing to incorporate ECD education in their institutions will
be re-registered.
7) The document states that minimum acreage for ECD centers shall be 0.125 of an acre
and 0.25-acre for urban areas and rural areas with high density, respectively. For rural
areas with low density the recommended minimum acreage shall be 0.5 acre.
8) In urban slums, the acreage could be less than 0.125 provided basic conditions of
sanitation and health are met. All ECD centers shall be required to provide standard
sizes classrooms measuring 8 x 6 metres and accommodating a maximum of 25
children. Toilets shall be at a ratio of 1:25. All ECD centers shall be required to provide
safe drinking water as well as play and learning equipment.
9) ECD centers are required to provide children with a snack during break time and a
balanced diet lunch. All cooks and food handlers must have valid medical certificates
and shall be required to cover their hair and put on uniforms.
10) All the centers are required to keep a list of emergency contacts of parents, fire service
department, clinic, hospital and police station. In addition, every ECD centre should
have appropriate fire-fighting equipment.
11) ―Every ECD centre shall have a First -Aid kit with safe drugs. Only teachers trained on
First Aid shall administer drugs,‖ says the document launched at Kenya Institute of
Education in Nairobi.
12) Parents are required to provide photographs, names and identification documents of
persons authorised to collect children. Children shall he escorted to and from ECD
centers by an adult or older sibling aged 12 years and above.
13) Where vehicle transport is provided, the driver and his assistant must have a certificate
of good conduct. The assistant must sit with the children to man the door, escort and
ensure children cross the road safely.
14) All ECD teachers who must be above 18 years and possessing at a least a certificate in
ECD should be REGISTERED by the Teachers Service Commission.
15) The teachers are required to be persons of sound mind and must have valid medical
records renewable annually. They are also required to possess certificate of good
conduct and should not have criminal record.
16) Untrained ECD teachers, who should have undergone five - weeks ECD short – course
and should only act as teacher assistants. The Government shall undertake to
remunerate two teachers in every public ECD centre.
17) ECD MANAGERS ARE REQUIRED TO have a minimum academic qualification of
ECDE Certificate or equivalent.
18) Learning in ECD centers should be activity based and should be through play. No
subjects should be taught. The language of the catchment area (vernacular) shall he
used in all centers for communication and instruction. Children will gradually be
introduced to English and Kiswahili..
19) A National Council for Children‘s Service will be put in place. It will appoint a
National Committee to co-ordinate all ECD activities
Checklist for Registration of ECD Centre / Institution
1. A copy of the Registration of the institution‘s Business Name under the Business names
Act or A certified copy of the registration of the organization as a Society or Limited
Company and a copy of the Memorandum of Association.
2. Duly completed and signed application forms for the institution
3. Duly Completed and signed application forms for the Manager of the institution.
4. A recent full institution inspection report from the DEO‘s/MEO‘S/PDE‘s Office/AAC/
CDA (stamped & signed)
5. A detailed recent Public health/Sanitary Inspection Report (stamped and signed)
6. Title Deed/Allotment letter or a valid Lease Agreement covering a period of not less than
5 years.
7. Certified copies of professional and academic certificates of all teachers/Manager
8. Certified copies of registration certificates of the teachers with T.S.C.
9. Supporting DEB/AAC/CDA minutes or Extract from the DEB/AAC/CDA or any other
authorised body‘s minutes signed by the Secretary and Chairman
10. Site/Plan/Sketches of the institution approved by relevant authorities showing the existing
facilities and future development or extension plans, where applicable.
11. Registration fees (where applicable) as set by relevant ministries payable to the respective
Permanent Secretaries Money/Postal orders NOT ACCEPTABLE
CHAPTER 7:
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION IN KENYA
Describe the structure and the functions of the Ministry of Education.
Introduction
The Ministry of Education derives its mandate from the Constitution of Kenya, Chapter Four
Articles 43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, and 59 have provisions on children‘s right to free and
compulsory basic education, including quality services, and to access education institutions
and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society, to the extent
compatible with the interests of the person. This includes the use of Sign language, Braille or
other appropriate means of communication, and access to materials and devices to overcome
constraints arising from the person‘s disability. There are also provisions on access for youth
to relevant education and training; access to employment; participation and representation of
minorities and marginalized groups in governance and other spheres of life, special
opportunities in educational and economic fields, and special opportunities for access to
employment. The rights of minorities and marginalized groups to reasonable access to water,
health services and infrastructure are also enshrined, as it is incumbent upon government to
develop a culture of human rights, promote gender equality and equity and facilitate gender
mainstreaming in national development.
The functions of Educational and training are shared between the national and county
governments as contained in Schedule 4 of the Constitution. The functions of the National
Government are: education policy, standards, curriculum, examinations, granting of
university charters, universities, tertiary educational institutions, institutions of research,
higher learning, primary schools, special education, secondary schools, special education
institutions and promotion of sports and sports education. The functions of the County
Government in relation to education are: pre-primary education, village polytechnics, home-
craft centres, farmers training centres and childcare facilities.
In addition, Parliament, over the years has enacted a series of Acts on various dimensions of
education whose objects and goals the Ministry is expected to implement to give effect to the
Constitutional provisions pertaining to education and training of Kenyans.
Under the Executive Order No. 2/2013 on the Organisation of the Government of the
Republic of Kenya, the Ministry is responsible for Education Policy Management;
Management of Continuing Education; Administration of Early Childhood Education,
education; Standards and Norms; Management of Education Standards; Management of
National Examinations and Certification; Curriculum Development; Quality Assurance in
Education; Primary and Secondary Education Institutions Management; Teacher Education
and Management; School Administration and Programmes; Registration of Basic Education
and Training Institutions; Special Needs Education Management; Representation of Kenya in
UNESCO; Adult Education Management; University Education Policy Management;
University education; Public Universities and Tertiary Institutions; Science technology
innovation policy; Management of Technical Training Institutes including Youth
Polytechnics; Management of Institutes of Science and Technology; Management of National
Polytechnics; National Council for Sciences and Technology.
The Ministry has established an elaborate network through its established departments, and
sector institutions, to effectively deliver on its mandate. The specific mandate of the Ministry
includes the following:
 Education Policy Management

 Management of Continuing Education
 Administration of Early Childhood Education, Standards and Norms
 Management of Education Standards
 Management of National Examinations and Certification
 Curriculum Development
 Quality Assurance in Education
 Primary and Secondary EducationInstitutions Management
 Teacher Education and Management
 School Administration and Programmes
 Registration of Basic Education and Training Institutions
 Special Needs Education management
 Representation of Kenya in UNESCO
 Adult Education Management
 University Education Policy Management
 University Education
 Public Universities and Tertiary Institutions
 Science Technical and Innovation Policy
 Management of Technical Training Institutes including Youth Polytechnics
 Management of Institutes of Science and Technology
 Management of National Polytechnics
 National Council for Science and Technology
Vision Statement:
A globally competitive education, training, research and innovation system for sustainable
development
Mission Statement:
To provide, promote and coordinate quality education, training and research; and enhance
integration of Science, Technology and Innovation into national production systems for
sustainable development.
Ministry of Education as at 2019
Address: Jogoo House 'B', Harambee Avenue, P.O Box 30040 Nairobi, Kenya.
Cabinet Secretary — Prof. George Albert Omore Magoha, CBS, Cabinet Secretary
Chief Administrative Secretary and Principal Secretary State Department for University
Education and Research, Ministry of Education - Prof. Collette A. Suda, PhD, FKNAS, CBS
Principal Secretary - State Department of Education - Dr. Richard Belio Kipsang
Principal Secretary-Vocational & Technical Training - Dr. Kevit Desai
Director General - Mr Elyas Abdi Jillaow, Director General
STATE DEPARTMENTS INCLUDE:
1. Vocational And Technical Education
a. Technical Education
b. TVET Authority
c. Curriculum Development Assessment and Certificate Council (CDACC)
d. Youth Training
e. TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training)
The specific functions of the TVET are:
 Promotion of standards for technical education
 Practical/industrial attachment and internship
 Facilitation of curriculum development
 Assurance of quality of curriculum implementation
 Registration of TIVET institutions
 Coordination of technical and business examinations
 Assessments of Institutional facilities and capacity for TVET.
2. Early Learning and Basic Education
a. Basic Education
Directorate of Basic Education is responsible for coordination and management of
programmes and activities in the Early Childhood Development, Primary
Education and Teachers Training Colleges for P1. The specific functions of the
Directorate is to;
 Formulate and Implement Policies
 Strategies and Programmes for Primary Education and Teacher Training
 Supervise the Management of Basic Education Service Provision
Institutions
 Establish and Maintain an Information Management (database) System for
Primary Education
 Facilitate the Development of Basic Education and Teacher Training
Including Pre-primary
 Early Childhood Development Education
 Day Care Centres
 Initiate and Implement Strategic International
 National and Institutional Collaborations and Partnerships for
Interventions in Basic Education
 Ensure Implementation of Nomadic Education and Alternative Provision
to Basic Education Policies
 Ensure Prudent Management of Finances and other Resources in Basic
Education Institution
 Ensure Registration of all Schools and Colleges and Processing of DEBs
 Teacher and Student Management
 Coordinate and Supervise Policies/Strategies on Free Primary Education
 Primary Teacher Education
 Primary School Infrastructure
 Water and Sanitation and ESP Programmes
 Implement SNE Policy
 Emergency Infrastructure in Basic Education.
b. Secondary and Tertiary Education
Directorate of Secondary Education is responsible for coordination and
management of programmes and activities in Secondary Schools and Diploma
Colleges. Its`Specific functions are;
 Registration of Schools and Diploma teachers Colleges
 Policy formulation and implementation
 Admission and transfer of students in Secondary Schools
 Discipline of students, BOM, Parents Association and school Projects
 Management of school grants
c. Adult and Continuing Education
The Directorate is responsible for coordination and management of programmes
and activities in the adult education. Specifically, the Directorate functions are to;
 Formulate and implement ACE Policies
 Promote multiple literacy through alternative provision of basic adult
education programmes
 Provide Education through alternative education approaches
 Promote general Adult Education programmes
 Provision of Basic literacy to out of school children
 Coordination of the implementation of Nomadic Education and Alternative
Basic Education and Training in Kenya
 Provision of Alternative Education to Marginalized, hard-to-reach and
vulnerable groups
 Development of guidelines on competencies in Alternative Basic
Education programmes
 Manage ACE Assessment and Examinations
 Governance and Management of Alternative Basic Education Centres
 Development of ACE programmes
 Enhance community empowerment programmes through partnerships and
collaboration with all stakeholders
 Development of ACE Instructional Materials
 ACE Teacher Management
 Management of strategic partnerships and linkages
 Enhance Governance and Management of MDTIs
 Advice the Minister on matters relating to teachers for Alternative Basic
Adult & Continuing Education.
d. Quality Assurance and Standards
It is responsible for; Establishing, maintaining and improving standards in all
basic and training institutions; Quality Assurance and Standards assessment of
basic educational and training institutions; Co-ordination, organization and
implementation of co-curriculum activities at national and international levels;
Vetting of expatriate teachers and institutions offering international curriculum;
Liaison with KNEC on assessment of pre-service primary, ECDE and diploma
teacher education examination teaching practice; policy formulation and
implementation on matters related to Quality Assurance; Developing of
assessment standards; Liaison with KNEC in moderation, awards and National
Assessment and Learning Achievement (NASMLA) and examinations; liaison
with Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) on curriculum, design,
development and evaluation of the national curriculum; Talent identification and
development in schools and colleges; Advising the Minister and Permanent
Secretary on all matters of Quality Assurance and Standards in the country.
e. Special Education
f. Policy Partnership and East Africa Communuty Affairs
g. Field and other services
3. University Education and Research
4. Post Training and Skills Development
CHAPTER 8:
TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Analyse training methods and techniques.
TRAINING METHODS
1. DISCUSSION METHOD
Discussion is a powerful group conversation through which a teacher may achieve a wide
range of objectives. This method involves groups ranging from several learners in small
groups situation.
A meaningful discussion can be conducted with a large group, but not as effective with a
small group of about five.
Because a classroom discussion involves interaction about subject matter between a teacher
and students, it is like conducted as a businesslike conversation. However, it is a flexible
method and is readily adapted to a variety of classroom situation.
One problem is that teachers and students are assumed to know the full range of discussion
skills necessary for effective application of the method.
Four types of discussion are regular used by teachers. Recitation, Guided discussion,
Reflective discussion and Small group and students to interact verbally in order for learning
occur. Each differs in terms of purposes a sequence of phases can be generalized, they are;
 Entry
 Clarification
 Investigation and
 Closure
This provides a better understanding of the application of discussion in a classroom under
different circumstances and presents a step by step approach to implementation.
The discussion strategy is probably the most flexible of all strategies, therefore the teacher
should feel free to modify the sequence of phases but maintain the integrity of the method to
suit their own classroom situations, learners subject matter and the objectives of the course.
2. LECTURE METHOD
The lecture method is essentially a teacher centred, one way presentation of information and
ideas. This method, like the discussion method, consist of a generalized sequence of phases
easily adaptable to several varieties of lecturer that are commonly used by teachers in
secondary schools & colleges.
The lecture method is generally reserved for more formal presentations of subject matter and
demonstrations lasting for as long as a full class period. It is appropriate for more extensive
and complex one way communication.
Research has indicated that the lecture method is an effective as other methods in achieving
the intended goals. Compared to other methods, lecturing is particularly effective when the
purpose is presenting information that is not readily available elsewhere. It is also effective
when information presentation needs to be tailored to a particular group and there is an
intended follow up using other methods. It is useful when long term retention of the
information presented is not a major consideration.
A lecture has its strengths and limitations that are consistent with the objectives for which it
is intended. Not all teachers can lecture effectively, nor should they be expected to. Critical to
the success of lecture method is presenting skills. Another factor is the presenter‘s
personality.
An ideal lecturer is dynamic and presents materials in well organized and convincing manner.
In order to be effective teachers need to make a thoughtful selection of those skills which
help hold students‘ interests and attention and stimulate their mental involvement.
The most important quality of a good lecturer is the ability to present material in a organized
manner so that it is well understood by the listeners, therefore the need to be well prepared
with the topic. A well planned lecture will incorporate visual aids to assist in presentation of
contents. Three of the most common forms of lecture methods are: formal lecture, interactive
lecture and demonstration. They have in common the primary emphasis of one way
communications.
3. DEMONSTRATION
Demos typically used by teachers at the school levels, are basically, formal or interactive
lectures depending on the extent that student involvement is encouraged although many
demos are complex and attempt to provide students with more information.
Demonstration provide teachers with an opportunity to show the students procedure, process
or illustration from this case is not for the students to learn the technique but appreciate and
understand more about what is learnt.
Teachers more commonly use demonstration to model particular skills that students are
expected to learn. Very often specific levels of performance are demonstrated. Examples
include basketball play up shot in physical education class, compilation of compound interest
within a mathematics unit. If students are expected to practice and perform the skills the
teacher has demonstrated, the teacher is training students using the demonstration as a model.
4. CASE STUDY METHOD
In this method, other‘s experiences are provided to the group in the form of a case study.
These experiences are reflected upon and analyzed by the learners to then extract or arrive at
new principles. The learners own experiences, values and feelings form the basis for
analyzing others‘ experiences. Case studies (and stories) may be presented in written or
verbal forms or even through the medium of film or song, depending on cultural
appropriateness.
Steps
 Present the case study
 Divide the group into smaller groups and give them the task (question)
 Allow individuals to reflect
 Let them discuss
 Debrief and consolidate
Advantages
 Simple
 Can he used with illiterates and relatively unsophisticated people
 Can be used for cognitive learning too Low cost, culturally appropriate.
 Develops analytic and problem solving skills
 allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues
 allows student to apply new knowledge and skills
Disadvantages
 May he difficult to find an appropriate case study
 The case study may be too general to focus on a specific issue
 Case studies written by someone else contains within it the writer‘s
 Perceptions, feelings and ideologies which may lead to distortion of ‗ the objective
reality
 Hypothetical or prepared items may be too idealistic.
 people may not see relevance to own situation
 Insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results
Preparation:
• case must he clearly defined in some cases
• case study must be prepared
5. QUESTION AND ANSWER METHODS
Teaching skills are important for teachers at all levels. One of the key teaching methods that
is of great importance is using questioning as a learning tool.
Questioning students not only allows the teacher to evaluate the level of understanding but
also provides for feedback, fine tuning the levels of teaching, dealing with misconceptions
early, as well as improving the educational material presented. Perhaps one of‘ the most key
thoughts beyond all the information above is very simple. Teaching is learning. To teach is to
learn. Good teachers learn and adapt to their students, and expand or refine their teaching
material as they learn about themselves as well.
Many children will not ask what a specific vocabulary word means and will just assume the
meaning or remain silent, which can lead to miscommunication or problems later with basic
concepts. The same is true for math concepts and much more. Failure to provide an adequate
number of questions using open ended questions fails to challenge the student and incorrectly
assesses their ability. Now- here is another thought. Most students want to be challenged. It
gives them a sense of positive reward or feedback to answer questions correctly and can also
be a motivational tool.
Questions allow the instructor to continually adapt the material and level of the lesson to
better meet the student‘s needs. Some students do better with practical examples while others
do better with definitions. By questioning students and seeing where their strengths and
weaknesses are one can provide better educational material. In addition some concepts or
examples are not effective. Some questions are too difficult, too confusing, too ambiguous,
and if put on a test, do not measure the students true knowledge but only reflect that the
question may be confusing. Fine tuning questions can he very important.
Finally, to teach is to learn. This is very important and is the reason why so many teach. In
many cases students shed new light on a subject with their questions, asking something from
a different angle then was ever expected. This results in new answers or creative thought and
expands everyone‘s knowledge of the subject. As the teacher and the student interact and
teach and learn with a back and forth rhythm, more is discovered about the whole process,
and the student is drawn out into an interactive form of learning that is more healthy and
exciting than any boring, dry, dull lecture can be. They are a part of what they are learning
and in their own way they are teaching. To teach is to learn. That is the lesson, part of the
continual irony that we find particularly with the Socratic Method. To find the answers we
must ask questions, and those very questions are perhaps one of the most important tools of
teaching.
6. PROJECT AS A METHOD OF TEACHING
Characteristics
To be a project the learning activity must be;
• Problematic in nature
• Aimed at a definite attainable goal
• Purposeful, natural and lifelike in its procedure to attain the goal
• Directed and planned by the students
• Practical in nature, emphasis on a single concrete achievement
• It should be evaluated objectively
Types of projects
Classification of projects according to the purpose and objectives
• Project for production of some physical materials (model preparation)
• Project for the learning where the main aim is acquisition of some ability (making a
fracture bed, car)
• The project for intellectual development- emphasis is on student‘s creative thinking
(Solving some pertinent problems)
Importance
• Provides creative & constructive thinking
• Helps to know the individual differences
• Helps to think logically and scientifically before starting the project
• Development of doing ability
• Growth of individual through activity
• Teaches the student to evaluate the completed work
• Allows students to compete with their own previous performance Gives whole hearted
purposeful activity
• Develops team spirit & cooperation
• Helps them to be patient.
Criteria for selecting project
• Topic should have some educational value
• Should not take overtime
• Should be challenging in nature
• Consider the cost and availability of materials Whole course should not be planned using
this method
• Project should be selected according to the student‘s interest
Advantages of project method
• Arouse and maintains interest of the student
• Keep the students on freedom of thoughts and action while doing the work
• Provides the interest and ability of the students
CHAPTER 9:
SUPERVISION OF ECDE PROGRAMMES
Discuss key aspects of supervision in ECDE programmes.
As a teacher, you have a legal liability to ensure the safety of the children in your care and as
a conscientious person you will supervise them as carefully as if they were your own.
Effective supervision requires a genuine interest in and concern for the children; it anticipates
potential causes of trouble and danger and takes appropriate measures to stop trouble before it
grows unmanageable. Children do not feel as if they are constantly under observations, but it
is sufficient evident to give them the reassurance that no harm can come to them.
Supervision concerns not only the learners‘ safety but their learning as well. You should
therefore be on the alert for children who are under achieving. The teacher should study the
checklist for assessing learner‘s adjustment to school to help recognize those who have not
adjusted properly and are in need of help. In small schools, counseling can be adequately
provided by class teachers but in large school it is often necessary to arrange a system. One
method is house system, in which a housemaster / mistress is put in charge of a group of
pupils covering the full age range of the school. Another is year system. Here year head is put
in charge of all children in the same year.
TYPES OF SUPERVISION
1) Educational supervision
Educational supervision involves assessment of skills, evaluation of needs, provision of
learning experience, upgrading of knowledge and skills. The supervisor ensures that workers
know what constitutes proper learning approaches.
2) Administrative supervision
This involves monitoring work and workload, ensuring work completion, quality and
quantity control appropriate implementation of school policies and procedures. The
supervisor ensures that the purpose, vision and policies of the school in terms of learning
activities are met.
3) Supportive Supervision
This involves providing support, understanding and assistance, understanding emotional
needs. The supervisor provides learners and employees with supportive environment where
they assist learners involved in the learning activities.
Educational supervision are responsible for overseeing training to ensure that trainees are
making the necessary educational progress.
The role of an educational supervisor in training is to ensure that trainees get the best out of
their training programme, realize educational opportunities and appropriately tailoring their
programme of their learning and developmental needs.
Educational supervisors reviews and encourages critical reflection, constructive criticism and
also gives opportunities for feedback and guidance in developing trainee‘s professional
development.
Qualities and attributes of an educational supervisor
 Should be knowledgeable and understand the educational programme, assessment and
development issues.
 Should be a good listener with counseling skills analytical and critical thinking.
 Should understand feedback principles and be able to discriminate, give constructive
feedback, supportive challenges, allowing formative development.
 Should be non judgmental. The relations rely on mutual trust and provide non judgmental
reflection of observed behaviours and can be able to set the necessary boundaries when
assessment of performance practice id required.
 Self awareness and insight into own weakness and potential pitfalls. The supervisor
should be able to recognize the problems created by transference and dependence. The
supervisor /trainee relations can create and have strategies for preventing stress and
burnouts.
 The supervisor must treat this relation with professionalism, respecting confidentiality,
making the processes transparent.
 The supervisor should motivate the relationship between the leaner and educational
organization should value its importance and appropriately rewarded
SUPERVISION OF ECDE PROGRAMMES IN KENYA
The Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards ensures the establishment and
maintenance of educational standards in the ECD institutions and in its service providers.
To do this, the Department of Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards: -
a) Assesses all ECDE Centers attached or detached to the primary school on regular basis.
b) Assesses new ECDE Centers and training institutions for the purpose of registration.
c) Administers ECD Examinations which are not examined by the Kenya National
Examinations Council.
d) Coordinates and develops a programme to assess ECD teachers undergoing the two-year
in-service course.
e) In-services lower primary teachers, ECD teachers, quality assurance officers and
DICECE trainers on smooth transition from ECD to lower primary.
f) Ensures implementation of ECD curricula for children and ECDE personnel through
regular visits to the institutions.
g) Documents quality assurance reports and disseminates the same to the stakeholders after
carrying out quality assessment.
h) Develops, reviews and administers assessment tools for teachers undergoing ECDE
training.
i) Assesses all ECDE training institutions to ensure quality training at least once in every
two years.
j) Ensures school health is maintained by establishing tobacco and drug free environment in
the ECDE Centres.
k) Liaises and networks with other service providers departments dealing with ECD children
to ensure delivery of quality services.
l) Organizes follow up action on the quality assessment reports.
m) Analyses pre-school teachers examination results to ensure quality teacher training.
n) Ensures equipment for children with special needs, e.g., guide rails, ramps and wide toilet
doors are available in the ECDE institutions.
o) Coordinates ECDE panels at the Kenya Institute of Education which are convened to
write curriculum materials.
p) Ensures certification of ECDE teachers undergoing the two-year in-service training on
completion of their course.
q) Vets ECDE curricula and materials being used in the ECD Centres.
r) Liaises with KICD and ECD Section (Basic) in identifying areas that require research in
Early Childhood Development.
s) Participates in the development of national examinations offered by the Kenya National
Examinations Council to ensure quality.
t) Recommends for closure any ECDE institution which will be found to be a health hazard
to the children.
u) Assesses play equipment to ensure safety of the ECDE children.
v) Establishes and enforces standards of school readiness programme.

1. Using the references for further reading given below (next page), discuss:
a. The role of any FIVE stakeholders in management of ECDE centers. [5 Marks]
b. The FIVE Levels of ECDE Training i.e. child, teacher, trainer, supervisors, field
officers. [5 Marks]
2. How you would organize an ECDE center workshop in your community. [5 Marks]
3. Discuss how you manage any FIVE ECDE administration challenges. [5 Marks]
4. Discuss any FIVE emerging trends and issues in the administration of an ECDE centre.
[5 Marks]
5. List down the roles of the following institutions
a. Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) [5 Marks]
b. NACECE and DICECE [5 Marks]
6. What are the qualities of a good administrator? [5 Marks]
7. Using an appropriate diagram describe the structure of ECDE in Kenya. [5 Marks]
8. Discuss the admission and enrollment of children in the ECDE centers as provided by the
Early Childhood Development Services Standard Guidelines for Kenya (2006)
[5 Marks]
6015 MODULE FIVE - UNIT 12:

RESEARCH, MONITORING AND
EVALUATION
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH SKILLS
The unit is intended to introduce the learner to basic knowledge and skills in research,
monitoring and evaluation. Research is important. It helps us to understand the process of
early childhood development and education, its problems and challenges with a view of
making improvements. Monitoring and evaluation is an important aspect in the design and
effective implementations of ECDE programmes.
The content focuses on the nature of research, research process, proposal and report writing,
monitoring and evaluation. The learners are expected to design and undertake research on a
selected topic and present a research report.
a) Explain the meaning of research, monitoring and evaluation.
b) Discuss the importance of research.
c) Analyse the main categories of research.
d) Describe general research methods in psychology and human learning.
e) Describe the type, method, tools and data collection procedure of qualitative and
quantitative research.
f) Discuss participatory learning and action (PLA), appreciative inquiry research and
development approaches.
g) Design a research study.
h) Describe a sample and sampling method.
i) Explain data analysis and presentation procedures.
j) Discuss the format and importance of research proposal.
k) Design and undertake a research project and write the report.
l) Discuss the ethical approaches and principles governing research.
m) Discuss the importance of monitoring and evaluation.
CHAPTER 1:
MEANING OF TERMS & IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
 Explain the meaning of research, monitoring and evaluation.
 Discuss the importance of research.
CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Research can be defined as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems
through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
Research is a most important tool for advancing knowledge and for promoting progress.
According to Kerlinger (1973), research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.
Orodho (2003), defined research as the process for arriving at dependable solution to
problems, through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data
for the purpose of advancing knowledge, promoting progress and enabling human beings to
solve their conflicts properly.
Properties of Scientific Research Methods in acquiring knowledge
It is necessary that we know the attributes of scientific research methods. These properties
include the following:
1. The research is empirical since the aim is to know the reality. Each step is based on
observation, be it when collecting the basic facts or when testing explanation, assessing
the value of the result of an interview
2. The research is systematic and logical. Not only must the observation be done
systematically but also a certain logical order must be followed all along. Logical
prediction cannot be made before a description has been given and an explanation of the
observed phenomena been found.
3. The research is replicable and transmittable. Since the observation is objective and the
explanation logical, anyone placed exactly in the same circumstance can observe the
event and reach the same explanation and prediction. More over because subjectivity is
assumed to be absent, it is possible to communicate each step of the research to anyone
and transmit the acquired knowledge.
4. The research is reductive. To grasp the main relationship events or laws, the complexity
of reality is reduced. All details, which are not essential, which have little influence on the
process of investigation, are omitted.
The Process of Educational and Social Science Research
The process of the research normally follows the following stages, namely:
Stage 1 is problem identification.
Stage 2 is formulation of hypothesis
Stage 3 is formulation of research purpose and objectives
Stage 4 is review of literature
Stage 5 is data collection
Stage 6 is data analysis
Stage 7 is conclusion and recommendation
Characteristics of Educational and Social Science Research
1. Research attempt to solve an educational or social problem e.g. child care problems.
2. Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
3. Research is based on observable experiences or empirical evidence.
4. Research demand accurate observations and descriptions.
5. Research generally employs careful designed procedure and vigorous analysis.
6. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will
help in undertaking predictions and control.
7. Research require experience i.e. familiarity with the field, competence in methodology,
terminal skills in collecting and analyzing data.
8. Research attempts to find objectives, unbiased solutions to the problem and takes a great
pain to validate the procedure employed.
9. Research is a deliberate and unmarred activity which is directional but often defines the
problem or questions as the research progresses.
10. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problems.
It is important to conclude by noting that the development of a scientific research method has
provided humanity with new, powerful tool for acquiring knowledge and for understanding
and acting on natural and social reality
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH TO ECDE PROGRAMMES
1. Understanding children and predicting their behaviour. Here, all stake-holders in the
programme get actual picture of a child, predict his/her behaviour, potentials and, many
social factors that give them direction in the development of ECDE programme.
2. Improving parenting and care of children. This is possible because research generates
advices and develops knowledge that promotes parenting and care.
3. Improving teaching and learning process in the ECDE program because the knowledge
gained through research improve educational practices, processes and other educational
activities.
4. Policy development in ECDE program. Knowledge gained through research help in
formulating policy in ECDE through logical consensus that is based on facts.
CHAPTER 2:
CATEGORIES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH
 Analyse the main categories of research.
 Describe general research methods in psychology and human learning.
CATEGORIES/DESIGNS OF RESEARCH
Research design is a scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answer to research
problems.
There are varieties of research problems and the choice of research design is made for variety
of reasons, some of which are functional and realistic. Most of us would be delighted to be
able to always design research where threats to internal and external validity are eliminated,
unfortunately, this is not always possible. Available resources, the nature of research
questions and other variables can limit our choices about design.
As long as we are aware of the problems, with various designs we can gamble with our
conclusion about our findings accordingly. A poor design does not necessarily mean poor
research. Accurate and fair interpretation of the result is the critical feature of good research.
However, good design and accurate interpretation are complimentary.
The following are categories of research;
1) Survey research
2) Experimental research
3) Cross-sectional research
4) Correlation research
5) Longitude research
6) Naturalistic research
7) Case study
8) Historical research
9) Basic research
10) Action research
11) Applied research
1. Survey Research
A survey research is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a
questionnaire to a sample of individuals. The survey is the most frequently used method of
collecting information about people‘s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of
educational or social issues. In conducting such surveys, the researcher must construct
questions that will solicit the desired information. The investigator must identify individual to
be surveyed and identify the means by which the survey will be conducted. The data must be
summarized in a way that provided descriptive information.
2. Experimental Research/Design
In an experiment, the investigator manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures
some aspect of behaviours in the dependent variable (DV) to see if the (IV) influenced
behaviours. Typically subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group, which
receive the treatment (IV) or to control which does not receive (IV). Assuming the 2 groups
were initially equivalent, the experiment can compare their performance. If differences occur,
it can be concluded that they were caused by IV manipulation. This type of research design is
the cornerstone of psychological research and is the only design where cause and effect can
unequivocally be determined. If variable, other than the one chosen for study, often called
extraneous variables influences performance, then his or her interpretation of the effect of
the IV is made more difficult. Example, if researcher wants to know the effect of holiday
tuition on pupils‘ performance. He will use one group of those who don‘t attend tuition
(independent variable) and those who attend (Dependent variable). He should be careful and
guard extraneous variable such as differences in motivation, attention and ability when they
design their experiment. Educational research, in particular has been pointed out, often is
limited by ethical issues that make true experiment impossible.
3. The Case Study Research
A case study is a way of organizing data (educational data) and looking at an
object/individual/institution to be studied as a whole. All aspects are considered, which
means that the development over time of the event or educational issue constitute an
important dimension. A case study seek to describe a unit in detail, in context and
holistically. For example a case study can be of INCCODE academy. The case of INCCODE
academy can allow for an in depth investigation of the problem at hand, such as absence or
presence of good reading habits among KG 3/STD 3 pupils. In this case, a case study of the
institution will bring about deeper insights and better understanding of the factors that
influences the promotion of reading habit among pre primary pupils at any institution.
4. Correlation Research
This design enables us to assess the relationship that exists between 2 or more variables. In
other words, similarly stated, correlation designs attempt to measure the relationship between
2 or more variables. Subjects are not randomly assigned to experimental or control groups
rather they already have either exposed or not been exposed to the independent variable. For
example a researcher might be interested in finding out the correlation between pupils
mathematics score in preprimary school, lower primary school score and KCPE mathematics
grades. If a positive correlation is established, one could suggest that pre primary school
mathematics score and lower primary mathematics score are better indicators of student‘s
future performance in KCPE mathematics.
5. Longitudinal Research
In a longitudinal design, a group of subjects is studied repeatedly at different ages and
changes are noted as they mature. The time span may be relatively short — a few months to
several years or it may be very long — a decade or even a lifetime.
The advantages of this research design include:
a) A researcher can identify common patterns as well as individual differences in the path
children follow to maturity.
b) Researcher can compare different aspects of development to see whether the timing of
change in one resemble the timing of change in another.
c) Permits researchers to examine relations between early and later events and behaviours.
6. Cross-Sectional Research
In cross-sectional research design, groups of subjects differing in age are studied at the same
point in time. The length of time it takes for much behaviour to change even in limited
longitudinal studies has led researchers to turn toward a more convenient strategy in studying
development which is cross-sectional design.
7. The Cross-Cultural Research Design (Ethnographic Research design)
It is used for research comparing the behaviour patterns of different cultures. For example, a
typical cross cultural design will attempt to compare the performance of rural and urban
coastal primary pupil in Kiswahili competency or proficiency. Using cross cultural design,
you can study how various cultures perceive certain educational or social outcomes.
8. Naturalistic Research Design
It involves careful observation and recording of behaviour of subjects in their natural
environment. Researchers have no better way to see how children really behave than to
observe them in their natural setting i.e. in their homes, schools, play grounds and other
places that are part of their everyday lives. Naturalistic observation can be important not only
in early stages of study but later on as corrections to incomplete theories. Naturalistic studies
do not explain behaviours but present them in a revealing description. Naturalistic
observation is a rich source of testing hypothesis (testable hypothesis).
9. Clinical Research Design
Clinical research stresses the importance of understanding the individual subject e.g. a child.
Clinical methods combine a wide range of information on one subject, including interviews,
test scores and observation. The aim is to obtain as complete a picture as possible of that
subject‘s (child‘s) psychological functioning and the experience that led up to it. The clinical
method like all others has draw backs. Information is always collected unsystematically and
subjectively, permitting too much lee-ways for researcher‘s theoretical preferences to base
their observation and interpretations. In addition, investigators cannot assume that the
findings of clinical research apply to anyone other than the single subject (child) studied.
10. Basic Research Design
This type of research design seeks to answer fundamental questions about the nature of a
phenomenon for the purpose of gaining knowledge for sake of understanding it better or
determine how it works. For example, study of short and long term memory retrieval; ―A
comparison of effects of information overload and retrieveness‖. Basic research is the
foundation upon which others can develop applications and solutions. So while basic research
may not appear to be helpful in the real world, it can direct us toward practical applications.
11. Applied Research
Applied research is concerned with finding solutions to practical problems and putting these
solutions to work in order to help others. It is used to reveal possible limitation or extension
of the principles generated by basic research. For example, publication title: ―Effects of role-
play on performance in comprehension‖. Today many people are engaged in applied
research.
12. Evaluation Research
It is very specific in its purpose. It looks at the existing programs such as education,
government, criminal justice etc and determines the effectiveness of these programs. The
main question this type of research seeks to answer is ―does the program work?‖ For
example, it can be used to check effectiveness of the Free Primary Education (FPE) in Kenya.
13. Action Research
Action research is an inquiry or research in context that focuses its effort to improve the
quality of an organization and its performance. It is typically designed and conducted by
practitioners who analyses the data to improve their practices/performance. Action research
can be done by individual or teams of colleagues. This team approach is called collaborative
inquiry. Action research has the potential to generate genuine and sustained improvement in
a school. It gives educators an opportunity to reflect on and assess their teaching; to explore
and test new ideas, methods and materials; to assess how effective the new approaches work;
to share feedback with fellow team members and to make decisions about which new
approaches to include in the curriculum, instruction and assessment plans.
14. Historical Research
The historical approach involves the study of phenomena so as to understand and explain the
phenomenon in the light of the past time. This approach is carried out with the intention of
knowing about the past trends, effects or causes related to past events. Through the historical
approach, one can learn for example the past development, changes, problems and many
other concerns that may have an impact on event. For example, we can study questions like
the development or growth of ECDE program in the world from say 1900 to 2000; the growth
of private school since 1960; influence of the British system of education on Kenya‘s system
of education before and after independence. From here, is when we can answer questions
such as ―how was and why was a situation like and how it influences present events?‖
GENERAL RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND HUMAN LEARNING
It includes the following that have been discussed in the above topic:
1. Case study
2. Clinical method
3. Survey method
4. Experimental method
5. Correlation method
6. Ethnographic method
Others not yet discussed include:
7. Observation: This is where a researcher gets information in his study through direct
observation of behaviour then analyses it to come up with a research report.
8. Rating Scale: Here a researcher creates a scale for number of attributes or concepts and
items can be rated on a simple conceptual scale each may be related on a series of scale
representing a variety of concepts or attributes.
9. Self description: Whereby research may use informant self report rather than observation
to get information in the study about informant attitude, beliefs, personality, feeling etc.
10. Achievement tests/standardized tests: There are many psychologists, educationist and
sociologist test that have been standardized on a large population and can be used to
assess an individual compared to those standards or norms. This method of measurement
is typical in educational setting where test performance is used to predict future
performance after some sort of educational experience or training.
11. Psychological test/psychometric test: An approach by researcher especially in
psychology using cognitive development approach that focuses on the construction of test
to assess mental abilities e.g.
 In verbal analogies, they can use a question such as; a rock is hard, a pillow is?
 In number series, they can use a question such as; which number comes next in the
series? 4, 8, 6, 12, 10, ____
CHAPTER 3:
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Describe the type, method, tools and data collection procedure of qualitative and
quantitative research.
1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a method of carrying out inquiry that emphasizes processes and
meanings in a socially constructed reality. Qualitative Research asks broad questions and
collects word data from participants. The researcher looks for themes and patterns exclusive
to that set of participants.
This method is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, economics, sociology and
political science. This method produce information only on the particular cases studied, and
any more general conclusions are only hypothesis. This method can be used to verify which
of those hypotheses are true.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1. First, qualitative research is characterized by an approach, which seeks to describe and
analyses the culture and behaviour of human and their group from the point of view of
those being studied i.e. view events, actions, norms, values etc from the perspective of the
people being studied.
2. Second, qualitative research incorporates a holistic approach and takes place in a natural
setting. This means the scenario is not artificial. In this setting, qualitative research gives
a detailed description of social settings they investigate.
3. Third, qualitative research relies on research strategy, which is flexible and interactive.
This approach allows the discovery of unexpectedly important topics, which may not
have been visible, had the research been limited to a pre-defined set of question or data
collection method.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
a) It is appropriate when the subject is being used to address sensitive issues/matters that are
unfamiliar.
b) You can get information of selected issues, cases or events in-depth and in details.
c) It is flexible in approach, which is necessary in discovery of unexpected and in-depth
investigation of particular topics.
d) It is also appropriate for explanatory depth, when you want to relate particular aspect to
behaviour.
Limitations
a) Sometimes it can be very expensive especially when interviewing many people.
b) Some people can give you wrong information especially when the topic is sensitive i.e.
subjective.
Examples of Qualitative Research method
These methods of getting information include:
1. Interviews
Interviewing is the most widely used method in qualitative research. The researcher has some
ideas in mind of the topics to be covered and might use some sort of list reminder in using it
to ask questions.
2. Observations
Direct observation of behaviour is useful because some behaviours involve habitual routine
which people are hardly aware of in interviews, so direct observation is necessary.
3. Group discussion
Group discussion allows a researcher to make inferences about group. There may be peers
among pupils or teachers group or parent group discussing important issues about their life
and experiences. In real study a researcher may use group interview techniques to involve
group in brain storming about issues and record what is important in the research topic.
4. Case study
The purpose of case studies is to collect comprehensive, systematic and in depth information
about a particular case of interest. A case can be a person, an event, an illness, an episode, a
programme e.g. ECDE center, an organization, time period, or a community. The case study
attempt to describe the unit in depth and in details, in context and holistically.
5. Ranking
Ranking requires informants to rank items i.e. (from most to least) in terms of a specific
characteristic, for example dropout rate by class and gender in terms of severity. Below are
the two most common methods that will be discussed later (i) complete rank (ii) partial rank.
6. Mapping
Mapping is the process of connecting one thing to another thing as a way of understanding its
meaning or structure. For example, how do babies map experiences and their memories
through Piaget theory?
7. Historical profile
These are just public historical image of a person or organization in medium such as radio,
TV, video programmes that can give more information on the research study.
8. Drama
Through dramatized play/theatre, a researcher may get few information concerning peoples
culture, attitudes, general belief in his study. This is because most people practice drama
based on norms of people known attitude and belief.
9. Personal description
To measure certain personal attributes e.g. belief, personality, feeling and attitude, researcher
in qualitative research, normally use self report of participants that can give detailed
information about their status in this attributes.
10. Study of secondary information
Researcher especially in qualitative research normally uses other sources of information from
newspaper, book, journals pamphlets and posters. They can also use a second party who is
conversant with direct information they are up to.
11. Psychosocial and achievement test.
Here the researcher may use an approach to cognitive development that focuses on the
construction of tests to assess mental abilities.
NOTE: That much of this will be discussed in detail in the later sections.
2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is a method of carrying out an inquiry that emphasizes the measurement and analysis of
relations between variables rather than the process of relationships. Quantitative research
refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena through statistical,
mathematical or computational techniques.
The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and/or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to
quantitative research because it provides basic connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expressions of quantitative relations. Quantitative data is any data that is in
numerical form such as statistics, percentages etc. In simple terms this means that the
quantitative researcher asks specific, narrow question and collects numerical data from
participants to answer the question. The researcher analyzes the data with the help of
statistics with the hope that numbers will yield an unbiased result that can be generalized to
some larger population.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Quantitative educational research is influenced strongly by the philosophy of positivism,
logical positivism in particular positivism which depends much on the principle of
verifiability i.e. knowledge of the world is only meaningful through direct observation using
human senses.
Knowledge emerges from what can be verified by direct observation of the world. Positivism
therefore places a premium on observation of the world out there. The researcher‘s value,
interpretation and feeling, have no place in the positivists view of scientific inquiry. The
researcher strives for objectivity.
Advantages of Quantitative Research
1) It is objective i.e. being based only on facts and not influenced by personal feelings or
belief.
2) It is relatively cheaper in the process of study.
Examples of Quantitative Research Methods
The method used in quantitative research includes the following:
 Interviews
 Questionnaires
 Rating scale
 Observation
 Study of secondary information
Much of these have been discussed in the previous sections that need only to be reviewed in a
discussion.
CHAPTER 4:
PARTICIPATORY LEARNING & ACTION (PLA), APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY
APPROACH
 Discuss participatory learning and action (PLA), appreciative inquiry research and
development approaches.
BACKGROUND
Participation Learning and Action (PLA) is a particular form of qualitative research used to
gain an in depth understanding of a community or a situation. PLA is a form of assessment
based on the participation of a range of different people including persons from the
community affected by a project (Educational project).
The emphasis is participation and the aim is for people to analyse their own situations, rather
than to have it analyzed by outsider or investigator. This makes it a particularly useful
instrument/tool for any kind of community development and especially at this point in ECDE
when teachers and community members are involved.
What Is PLA?
PLA is both a philosophy (that outsider e.g. investigator need to learn about a situation from
insider e.g. teacher, parents etc, and that insider can analyze their own problems) and a series
of methods for carrying out participatory and appreciative inquiry.
The PLA are approaches which can be used by outsiders (investigator) who needs to find out
in depth information about education program. The outsiders (investigator) extract
information and takes it away and use it as a basis for their decision. The aim of PLA on the
other hand, is to ensure that the information, is analyzed and conclusions are owned by the
teachers, parents and community members concerned.
PLA in ECDE is a process in which communities, parents and teachers analyze their own
situation and make decisions themselves about how best to tackle their problems. This is an
important distinction, because the term PLA is often used wrongly for studies which use PLA
methods but in which parents, teachers and community members have no influence on how
the information is used.
The overall aim of the PLA process is to give more power to the teachers, parents,
community members and where necessary to the learners, and to reverse power relations and
hierarchies between the insiders and those perceived as being development experts and
planners outside. This is known as ‗handing over the stick‘. In other words, developmental
programmes especially in ECDE should be designed and controlled by the insiders affected
by the program, rather than by outside agencies.
Importance of PLA and Appreciative Inquiry Approach
1. Ownership of the program: People‘s interest in and commitment to the program will be
proportional to their sense of ownership (the extent to which they can influence decisions
and feelings that their need is being addressed). People are more willing to change the
way the program works or behave if they are involved in designing these changes if they
understand them and support them.
2. Relevance of the program: By drawing on the experience and views of different people,
the true nature of problem and the validity of the alternative solution become clearer. It is
vital to understand local attitudes (towards health for example), which can affect the
relevance of a program or activity.
3. Access to the program: Participation means talking to different groups and considering
systematically their different points of view. It helps to ensure that different groups are
aware of the work, that activities are not biased according to gender, disability, caste or
age and that all groups in the target population have access to the program and its outputs.
4. Sustainability of the program: Participation is essential if a program is to become less
dependent on outside agencies for funding and direction. Any mechanism or self
financing or cost recovery will depend on proper participation by those concerned. If the
work is to be carried on by local agencies or government, it can only be sustained if they
have been closely involved from the beginning.
5. Mixing techniques: Using different techniques give greater depth to the information
collected. For example, direct observation may pick different information from that
gathered in interview. The process of drawing maps may highlight points which were
missed in observation.
6. Because the method used seems to be more informal, the information can be gathered
from illiterate and semi-illiterate groups. These groups are vital in providing
information that otherwise could not be gathered when using formal methods such as
questionnaires.
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED FOR GATHERING INFORMATION
1. Direct Observation
Direct observation means observing objects, events, processes, relationships or peoples
(inclusive of children‘s) behaviours systematic and recording these observations. In PLA,
we‘ll concentrate, for example, on how children behave in play ground and classroom and
observation of learning activities in the school. In ECDE situation, if observation of the same
thing/activity is to be carried out by different teachers or pupils, it is important to standardize
technique, since different people perceive things and act activities differently. This can be
done by carrying out a simple exercise where several persons (teachers or pupils) observe the
same event together and record what they see. They can compare their notes/ideas afterwards
to see what difference there are. People supervising or coordinating the data collection can
also monitor differences.
2. Semi-structured Interview
This is also very relevant in PLA. Interviewers do not use a formal questionnaire; instead
they use a checklist of questions related to each topic of interest. For example, parents and
teachers can come up with this topic. How does canning as a punishment facilitate learning?
Key issues and questions:
 Is canning necessary in school situation?
 What are advantages and disadvantages of canning as a punishment in learning activities
of children?
 What other method of punishments will facilitate learning apart from canning.
This is a flexible tool which must be used systematically in order to produce valid results.
3. Oral History
People in a community can be asked to talk about the history of the program (ECDE ) or a
particular learning situation, or of their experience with the program (ECDE) and the results
used to build up a picture of what has happened over time,
4. Listening Survey
A survey can be carried out by listening to what people (pupils or teachers) say in different
situation (in the staff room, on the bus, in a trip, during break time etc) and the answer
recorded by theme, topic or group. This is mainly used to assess persons‘ attitude about the
program especially ECDE.
5. Group Discussion
This technique allows an investigator to make inferences about a group. The investigator
poses a question to be discussed and sets aside to listen, and record the information from the
group. For example: In Chief‘s baraza, community can be grouped into several groups and
each group asked to discuss ways of improving ECDE program. The investigator will listen
to their discussion and record the information from their discussion.
6. Brain storming
This is applicable mostly in classroom situation for collecting information concerning
cognitive, social, moral aspect of pupil. A question is given to them, in that they look for
answers through contribution by each member of a group. Questions can range from those
which test cognitive, moral, social and spiritual aspects of their life.
CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN
Design a research study.
HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH STUDY
In the process of designing a research study, one has to go through the following steps:
1. Identify a research problem/topic
2. Formation of hypothesis
3. Formation of research objectives
4. Literature review
5. Deciding on the population, sample and sampling method.
6. Selecting appropriate research method(s)/designs
7. Selecting and developing appropriate research tool
8. Deciding on data collection procedures and organization
9. Deciding on data analysis procedures and presentation
IDENTIFYING AND STATING THE PROBLEM
It is usually advisable to develop a research study in an area that is directly related to your
professional goals. In that particular area, there are so many factors and aspects that can
frustrate ones identification of research problem.
Sources of Research Problems
1. Teaching experience, knowledge
2. Personal interest and expertise.
3. Reading/studying written and published dissertation or literature
4. Verifying or negating previous research
5. Current problems and issues e.g. in E.C.D.E
6. Studying theories as generalized explanations for phenomena.
7. Having a physical encounter with other objects/issues.
As you read all these areas, you can identify an issue that has to be reduced to a research
problem. This reduction should be systematic through deductive reasoning, that is, it should
be feasible (not too wide) and researchable (one whose data is obtainable)
Procedure for Identifying the Problem
1. Sensing: Getting to identify the knowledge, literature or parts of idea you want to focus.
This is the literature within which you want to locate your research problem e.g.
performance vs. child behaviour.
2. Selecting — to zero down to the real aspect(s) one would like to investigate e.g. student
behaviour and academic performance.
3. Sifting — here a researcher looks at selected issues keenly. At the point, one has to filter
to come out with the very problem he/she will study. These could be truancy incidence
and performance in national exams.
4. Stating the problem — at the point one is ready to state the problem. The task at this
study is to examine the kind of relationship between truancy and performance in the 2011
KCPE examination in Kajiado County.
Qualities of a Good problem Statement
Characteristics of a good problem statement include:
1. Ability to communicate to a sophisticated audience who do not necessarily have the
technical knowledge of the researcher.
2. A clear fit within the border context of current theory and relevant research. Does the
problem meet a recognized need in society or makes useful contributions to knowledge?
3. Research ability, that is, is it feasible to collect the necessary data,
4. Clarity and a limited scope, so that the problem is manageable with the resources and
time available to the researcher.
5. A logical and clear relationship to the hypothesis, the research questions or specific
objectives that follow that problem statement.
Conditions for a Good Research Statement
1. Feasibility — the problem can be investigated without an unreasonable amount of time,
energy or money.
2. The statement of the research problem is clear — what the key words in the problem
means and operational definition should be clear and seen to be clear.
3. The statement of the research problem is significant i.e. worth investigating because it
will contribute important knowledge about human behaviour and conditions.
4. The question is ethical — it will not involve physical or psychological harm or damage to
human being or to the natural or social environment of which they are part.
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Research hypothesis is a statement in research describing an unknown but tentatively
reasonable outcome for the existing phenomena. It is a hunch, a guess, or tentative answer
regarding what the researcher consider as ought to be the possible outcome of an existing
problem or phenomena. As such, hypothesis is a likely answer or solution to a problem being
studied, which is advanced before the actual research is undertaken.
Example of hypothesis:
1. There is significant difference in cognitive development between healthy and mal-
nutritional children.
2. Prevalence in truancy in the pre-primary pupil is related to poor level of motivation by
teachers.
In these examples of hypothesis, it is now up to the researcher to collect the relevant data and
test the hypothesis.
Types of Hypothesis
Three types of hypothesis can be identified or distinguished in terms of the degree of
qualification involved.
1. Conceptual Hypothesis
A conceptual hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between theoretical concepts.
Hypothesis like ―punishment facilitates learning‖ or ―type of institute where pre-primary
pupils are admitted is related to student level of achievement‖ are examples of conceptual
hypothesis. Punishment, learning, achievement, type of institute are theoretical concepts.
They cannot be directly tested because they cannot be measured. Conceptual hypothesis must
be operationalized or made measurable before we can test them.
2. Research hypothesis
Research hypothesis is a statement about the expected relationship between observable or
measurable events. Example of this hypothesis is; ―the higher the score of a research
methodology course, the more the likelihood that the teacher is from the institute of open
learning compared to the one from the institute of continuing education‖; is an example of a
correlation research hypothesis in observation or measurable terms.
3. Statistical Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis states an expected relationship between numbers representing
statistical Properties of data e.g. means, variance, correlations. The type of hypothesis is
always a guess about the value of a population parameter or about the relationship between
values of two or more parameters hypothesis testing. Example include; ―The mean difference
scores by pre-school pupils in private school and those in public school is zero‖.
NOTE: Research usually begins with a conceptual and hypothesis derived from some
theories or assumptions based on previous or possible occurrence. They then determine the
best way to collect observable or measurable data appropriate to their conceptual hypothesis.
THE NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
1. The Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the one you test and hope to prove wrong, report of nullify. The aim of
hypothesis testing is to show that the null is false and thereby accept the alternative
hypothesis. Example is:
(Ho) There is no significant difference between pre-primary pupils in private school and
those from public school in their performance.
2. The Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states a value or relationship different from the null. The
alternative hypothesis asserts that the value or relationship specified in the null is not true.
Specified in the null as not true. You test the null hypothesis and if it is rejected, you accept
an alternative hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing and Interval Estimation
In hypothesis testing, we have a prior hypothesis about the value of some parameter or the
relationship between the parameter. Sample data are used to determine whether or not this
hypothesis is reasonable. The sample data used to test what is referred to as prior study. With
interval estimation, we don‘t have any a prior hypothesis about the value of the parameter(s).
We will use simple data to refer what the value of the parameter might be interval estimation
then in a post hoc technique.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
They include the following:
1. The hypothesis should state the relationship between two or more variables.
2. The hypothesis should be reasonable and consistent with existing body of knowledge.
3. A hypothesis should be testable and verifiable,
4. A hypothesis should be as clear and brief as possible.
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
It involves stating the purpose and objective of the study. The researcher should first state the
purpose of the study.
Purpose of the Study
When formulating the purpose of the research, it should be related to the research topic and
involves all there is about the research study.
The purpose of the research study should be positive in that it should achieve solution to
problem being studied. Remember research study is to improve knowledge about something
or solve problem at hand.
Objectives of the Study
The objective of the study is just a breakdown of purpose into several units that identity the
problem and solution to the problem.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review basically involves identification, location, reading and evaluation of many
relevant documents as possible, related to the problem under investigation. A point worthy of
noting here is that a review is not just a record or list of work that a researcher has read as
commonly done by the beginning researcher. However, this is a critical and organized
reading that is analytical in presentation. The analysis should be centered on issues such as
whether the hypothesis was logically formulated as related to the existing knowledge,
methodological issues and quality of the interpretations of the findings.
A review of related literature is a serious exercise/process of examining document e.g. books,
magazine, journals, dissertations, newspapers, encyclopedias etc that are published or
unpublished that could have a bearing on the study being conducted.
Purpose of the Literature Review
Literature review should be carried out before a researcher embarks on the final planning of
the research project because:
 Literature review sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research. In
other words, it allows the potential research to study the different theory related to the
identified topic.
 A careful research review gives the researcher insight into what already has been done in
the field. The information gained will guide the researcher in formulation of a theory that
may indicate missing gap in knowledge and the kind of additional data that would be
viable and that would not duplicate other researchers.
 An understanding of previous work helps the researcher to develop a significant problem,
which will provide further knowledge in the field of study. Thus the researcher has better
chances of obtaining important and significant finding.
 A good review also helps in delimiting the research problem, especially with the
knowledge of what is already available and what will be useful to focus on.
 In addition to delimiting the research problem, the review helps to formulate and justify
the hypothesis, questions or objectives. It is through the review that variables are
generated and critically examined.
 To study the research methods utilized by other scholar and identifying their strong and
weak aspects in order to adopt and improve them in one‘s own research.
CHAPTER 6:
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS
Describe a sample and sampling method.
DECIDING ON THE POPULATION SAMPLE AND ON SAMPLING METHOD
When conducting a research, one must often use a sample of population as opposed to using
the entire population. A population can be defined as any set or persons/subjects having
common observable characteristics. It is the total number of subject/persons with similar
characteristics under the study (research). Sample is a subset or small group of
subjects/persons representing the whole population in the research study. The characteristics
of a population are called a parameter.
Sampling is a process of selecting a number of individuals or subjects from a population such
that the selected group contains elements representative of the characteristics found in the
entire population.
Reasons for Sampling
Why do we sample instead of using the entire population as the focus of study. There are at
least four major reasons to sample:
 First, it is usually too costly to do research with an entire population. Most researchers do
not have the amount of money required to study an entire population.
 The 2nd reason to sample is that it may be impossible to research on the entire
population. For example, let us say that we wanted to test the mental performance of
babies at birth. There are far too many mothers who do not make it to clinics and
hospitals to give birth let alone testing them.
 The third reason to sample is that researches on the entire population often produce
errors. Thus, sampling may be more accurate.
 The other reason to sample is that it may be the only practical way of collecting data
particularly when the population is infinite or extremely large.
Sampling Methods
Ideally, in sampling we would like to obtain a sample that will be representative of the target
population. To be representative means to provide a close approximation of certain
characteristics of a target group.
The quality of a sample must be judged in terms of the procedure that produces it, that is, in
terms of its sampling methods/design.
Sampling methods/designs are classified into 2 broad classes:
i) Probability sampling
ii) Non-probability sampling
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
a) Simple Random Sampling
b) Interval or Systematic Sampling
c) Stratified Sampling
d) Cluster or multi-stage Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
The usual definition of simple random sample is that it is a procedure in which all the
individuals in the defined population have an equal and independent chance of being
selected as a member of sample. By independent it means that the selection of one individual
does not affect any way the selection of any other individual. A more precise definition of
simple random sample is that it is a process of selection from a population that provides every
sample of a given size an equal probability of being selected.
The main purpose of using random sampling technique is that random sample yield research
data that can he generalized to a larger population within margins of error that can be
determined statistically. Random sampling is also preferable because it permits the researcher
to make certain references about population value e.g. Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation
Coefficient on the basis of obtained sample value. Random sampling therefore simply means
accidental. Accordingly, simple random is a sampling procedure which provides equal
opportunity of selection for each element of the population.
There are several techniques of selecting by simple random selection namely; tossing a coin
or dice, lottery technique, using random number table: Tossing a coin or dice depends on the
selection of variables i.e. tail or head for the coin.
Battery technique — This is where a symbol for each unit of the population is written on
small pieces of equal sizes of same colour papers placed in a container, mixed well, and the
lucky number (s) drawn (money or box style). The symbol for each unit of the population can
be names of participants or symbol yes/no written on identical pieces of papers. One needs to
establish the sample size (if only one is needed out of it we allocate one YES and 3 NOs).
Random number table: This is more sophisticated method, particularly useful for large
population. Generally, the table consists of a long series of five digit numbers generated
randomly by computers. To use the random number table, we randomly select a row or
column as a starting point, and then select all the numbers that follow in that row or column,
depending on the size of the population. Each member of the population is assigned numbers,
then a; many numbers as possible comprise the sample size is selected from the table.
Generally, this table consists of big series of five digit numbers generated randomly by
computer. To use the random table, one wilt need to know the size of the population and
sample size and assign a number to each case or population. To start in the table, one needs to
randomly select a row or column as a starting point, then select all the numbers in that row or
column. If more numbers are needed, proceed to the next row or column until enough
numbers have been selected to make up the desired sample size. In effect, you may start at
any random point in the table and select n timbers from column, row or diagonally if you
wish.
Example
If there is a population to members and 70 are to be selected at random, each of the 70
members is assigned number 1 to 70. The first ten members that appear, whenever one begins
random, number table, determine the 10 sample member. Since there is only 70 members in
the population, two digits random are used. In summary, simple random sampling is a
powerful technique for selecting a sample that is representative of a larger population.
Nevertheless, it is rarely possible to study a simple random sample that is perfect. Even if a
simple random sample is initially selected, some subject will probably refuse to co-operate
and other lost through alteration hence leaving a sample that is not truly random.
2. Systematic or Interval Sampling
The technique is based on the selection of element at equal interval, starting with a randomly
selected element on the population list. The use of systematic sampling is quite common in
educational research where large populations are studied and alphabetical or possibly other
list of the population member is available.
Systematic sampling is a procedure by which the selection of the 1st sample member
determines the entire sample. The population members that is, their names or type of
identification are in some type of order for example the names of pupils in a class may be
placed in alphabetical order on the register. The sample size is chosen and the sampling
constant ‗K‘ is determined, if one wanted to select 10 pupils from a list of 50 pupils, the
sampling constant K would be sampling constant, K = 50/10= 5. Hence, every K or the 5th
student is selected. K would have a range of (1- ) pupil on the last; one would need to
randomly select whether to start with the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th or 5th pupils. If you randomly select
the 2nd pupil, then selection would include (2nd, 7th 12th, 22nd 27th 32nd 37th 42nd and 47th
pupils). If the starting pupil was number 5, then the selection order would be 5, 10, 15, 20,
25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50.
The systematic sampling consists of selection of every K. The sampling interval is merely the
ratio of the number of cases in the pop in the desired sample size. Random start refers to the
process of using a table of random numbers or some other devise to select at random the
initial case between 1 and K.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
In many educational studies, the sample should be selected in such a way that you are assured
that certain sub-groups in a pop will be represented in the sample in proportion to their
numbers in the pop itself. Such sub samples are usually referred to as stratified sample.
In stratified random sampling, the population is first sub-divided into two or more mutually
exclusive segments called strata, based on categories of one or combination or relevant
variables. Simple random samples are then drawn from each stratum and then these sub
samples are joined to form the complete stratified sample.
Example
Assume that a researcher wanted a sample of 100 pupils from pupil‘s sample of 1000 of the
Kashule academy. It is expected that the student sample will vary by gender and according to
class (year of study).
Allocation of sample size among strata. The decision must be made as to the number that is
allocation) that will be selected from each stratum for the sample. There are 3 methods of
allocated:
i) Equal allocation
ii) Proportional allocation
iii) Optimum allocation
 The equal allocations are used when all the strata contribute equal number of members for
the study.
 A more commonly used method is proportional allocation, whereby each stratum
contributes to the sample a number that is proportional to its size in the population. The
sampling fraction f = sample/population which is f =n/N
 The third method of allocation is optimum allocation. In optimum allocation, the strata
contributions to the sample are proportional to the product of the strata, population sizes
and variability of the independent variables within the strata. Larger strata and strata with
larger variability will have the larger allocation to the sample. This is rarely used.
Summary of the three types of allocation in stratified random sampling.
TYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Equal Allocation All the strata contribute the same number to the sample. If there are
16 strata, each contribute n/k member to the sampling fraction
varies among strata.
Proportion Allocation Sample allocation is proportional to the strata population size. The
sampling fraction is constant for all strata and equation/N. The
larger the stratum, the more member it contributes to the sample.
Optimum Allocation Sample allocation is proportional to the product of the strata
population size and variability. The larger and more variables the
stratum, the greater will be the contribution to the sample. The
sampling fraction varies among stratums.
In the following example, we shall use the proportional allocation of sample. The Kashule
pupil‘s distribution by gender and class in the pre-school
CLASS FEMALE MALE
KG 1 2000 1500
KG 2 2500 2000
TOTAL 4500 3500
A random sample of 500 pupils using proportional allocation is drawn from 8000 pupils
taking into account the difference in the class and gender, since the different strata within the
population, the size calculated is proportional to the total population. The sampling structure
is the ratio of sample size to population size.
Sampling fraction f=n/N n= size of sample
N= size of population
F=n/N
F=500/8000 =1/16
For a single random sample, the sampling fraction equals the probability of any member of
the Population being selected for the sample. Therefore, each category of the population has
to be multiplied by this fraction to obtain the corresponding category of the sample. The
result is as follows:
CLASS FEMALE SAMPLE MALE SAMPLE
KG 1 2000X1/16 = 125 1500X1/16 = 94

KG 2 2500X1/16 = 156+ 2000X1/16 =125+
TOTAL 281 219
The total size of the sample becomes 281 + 219= 500

The next step is to use sample random or systematic sample method to draw the difference
from the nominal roll i.e. a sample of 125 female from KG I and 156 female from KG 2 and
94 males from KG 1 and 125 from KG 2 making a total of 500.
NOTE: Stratified sampling guard against wild samples and ensure that no sub population on
will be omitted from the sample. It also avoids overloading in certain sub populations. Simple
random samples have a tendency to distribute themselves according to the population
proportion and stratified random sampling with proportion allocation will build this
proportionality into sample.
Therefore, proportion allocation in stratified random sampling distributes the sample in such
a way that the sampling fraction is the same for all strata.
4. Multi — Stage Cluster Sampling
In cluster sampling, the unit of sampling is not individual but rather natural occurring group
of individual. Cluster sampling is used when it is more feasible or convenient to select group
of individuals from a defined population.
This situation occurs when it is either impartial or impossible to obtain a list of members of
the accessible population.
Multi-stage cluster sampling is a variant of cluster sampling. The principle underlying multi-
stage sampling is to start by sampling population which is much more general than the final
one. The common multi-stage cluster sampling is done when an entire population is being
studied involves area sampling as the first step.
Area sampling rests on the simple (if not always correct) assumption that people live
somewhere. If areas are sampled, then anyone has an opportunity to fall into the sample.
The researcher 1st draws a sample of designated areas, perhaps city blocks or rural location.
Each household in the sampled area is listed and from that list is drawn a final sample.
NON - PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling refers to the process of case selection other than random. Without
random selection, non-probability samples have 2 weaknesses.
1. They do not control investigators‘ biasness in the selection of units.
2. Their pattern of variability cannot be predicted from probability sampling theory. This
makes it impossible to calculate sampling error or to estimate sample precision. However,
while one should be ever mindful of these weaknesses, it would be a mistake to rule out
non probability sampling. In many instances, this form of sampling is both more
appropriate and practical than probability sampling or the only mean of case selection.
When is Non Probability Sampling Most Appropriate?
 In Situations where very few cases can be included in the sample, e.g. an investigator
doing an intensive study in which the unit of analysis is a city, or a particular school, the
expense of studying more than one or a few cases, generalizing from sample to
population essentially becomes a matter of judgment.
 When studying past events, the archeologist or historian or educationist often finds only a
fraction of relevant materials available or accessible. Similarly in contemporary societies,
certain individuals or institutions may refuse to co-operate in an inquiry. Under these
circumstances, the researcher may either accept a non probability method of case
selection.
 In explanatory or the early stages of investigating a problem, when the objective is to
become more informed about the problem itself, probability sampling simply may be
unnecessary. It will suffice to select a range of cases non-randomly without consensus for
precise statistical generalizations.
 If the population itself contains few cases (pregnancy and dropout) or if an adequate
sampling formula cannot be obtained or constructed, then there is no point in considering
probability sampling. With small population (say less than 20 as in the female primary
school teachers in the entire Garissa District). Each case should be studied in its own right
in comparison with all others. If the population is unknown or readily un identifiable, as
in educational studies of truancy, then sampling generally will co mist of studying any
and all identifiable and co-operative units.
Types of Non — Probability Sampling
It includes:
i) Convenient sampling
ii) Purposive sampling
iii) Quota sampling
iv) Dimensional sampling
v) Snow ball sampling
(i) Convenient Sampling
This type of sampling (also called haphazard fortuitous and accidental sampling); the
researcher simply selects a required number from cases that are conveniently available. In the
case of coast star parents attitude towards cost sharing arrangements toward tuition holiday,
the researcher might decide to:
a) Ask teacher for permission to administer a questionnaire to all parent in his school.
b) Interview however comes in the office or to take his/her child when the teacher
(researcher) happens to be there.
c) Find a convenient spot in the school office or compound from which to administer the
questionnaire or interview the parents concerned. TV station and news paper wanting to
tap public opinion in specific issues may interview conveniently available commuters,
shoppers, store clerk and others. Such of a case selection are easy, and inexpensive. If the
research is at an early stage and generalization is not an issue, then they may be perfectly
appropriate. However, convenience sampling is a matter of catch-as-catch can. There is
no way of determining to whom, other than the sample itself; the results apply.
(ii) Purposive Sampling
In this form of sampling, the investigator relies on his or her expertise or expert judgment to
select units that are representative or typical of the population. The general strategy is to
identify important sources of variations or criteria in the population and then to s elect a.
sample that reflects this variation (type of school, boarding status and sex). One might select
a single unit or sub-population that is thought to be typical of the population in important
respects or select a few units that correspond to key population differences. In other words,
purposive sampling is hand picking the cases to be included in the sample in basis of one
judgment of their typicality. The subjects are chosen according to a certain specific criteria
e.g. Boys and girls school, Rural s Urban residence etc.
(iii) Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a form of purposive sampling that bears a superficial resembling to
proportionate stratified sampling, Like the latter, quota sampling begin by dividing the
population into relevant strata such as age, geographical region or years. The total sample is
allocated among the strata in direct proportion to their estimated or actual size and the
population. Finally, to obtain the correct proportions in the sample, interviewers are asked to
speak to a fixed quota of respondents in each stratum. So many men and so many women,
those of a given age or income and so on are selected. To fill the quota, interviewers are free
to choose anyone who meets the quota requirements.
The difference between quota and stratified sampling lies precisely in how cases are selected
once quota has been set. In stratified quota sampling, the requisite number of cases within
each stratum must be drawn by simple random sampling. But in quota sampling, the quota of
cases within the stratum may be filed in whatever way the investigator chooses.
The potential biases in such procedure are obvious: friends are likely to resemble closely the
interviewer themselves; people who visit particular center may differ sharply from those who
do not; and preference for a nicer neighborhood and homes will almost certainly create a
strong some economic bias. Thus, representative quota in some characteristics does not
ensure representative in others.
(iv) Dimensional Sampling
A further refinement of quota sampling where you identify various factors of interest in a
population and obtaining at least one respondent for every combination of these factors
(v) Snowball Sampling
After identifying a small number of individuals who have the required characteristics, you
use them as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion. The study on drop out or
causes of adolescent pregnancies would use this method more successfully.
CHAPTER 7:
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS/TOOLS
Explain various research instruments and their selection.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE RESEARCH METHOD
Here it is a matter of deciding which research design/designs are appropriated to the study in
relation to topic, objectives and data collection method. There are no strict rules for making
decisions about what research approach and methods to use. For each study, data collection
options and strategies will depend on what kind of information is for and how the informal
ion is to be used. Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research are complimentary, and
where appropriate should be combined in such a way as to maximize the strength and
minimize the limitations.
SELECTING & DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE RESEARCH TOOL/INSTRUMENT
In education, as in other behavioural sciences, researchers rely mostly on reactive research
method as opposed to unobstractive methods. In other words, in many educational researches,
the researched person (respondent) is aware of being studied and reacts to stimuli, or the
instrument of studying them in the form of the questions presented by the researcher. The
most frequently used tool of gathering information is by directly asking respondents to
express their views is or opinion.
Data Collection Tools/Instruments
They include:
a) Questionnaires
b) Interviews
c) Observational guidelines
d) Rating scales
e) Ranking order
Critical Considerations when constructing Research Instruments/Tools
The critical consideration while constructing research instruments are:
i) Objective of the study:
A researcher must have a clear understanding of what they hope to obtain from the result of
the study. This means that the researcher must be able to anticipate and spell- out the type of
information needed. First, the researcher must have a clear vision of the time frame for the
research specification whether or not to focus current educational practices or trend over time
(longitudinal studies)
ii) Type of population/sample:
The researcher should be aware that some type of instrument are unsuitable to some groups
of people/respondents depending on their literacy level, and type of work or professional
culture and level of socialization. For illiterate population questionnaire will be unsuitable,
hence of interview or observation method will be necessary.
iii) Geographical Distribution of subjects:
A researcher needs to be conversant with the geographical location and spread of the sources
of information before making decision on the type of instrument to be constructed and
administered. One needs to decide whether the study will survey the whole country (census),
selected provinces, district, division or location. The span of the study will dictate the Type of
instrument to be used.
iv) Nature of Research Item:
In the special cases each item must be developed to measure a specific aspect of the stated
objectives. The item (whether in multiple or open ended formal) should reflect why the
question is being asked and how the item will be analyzed. The type of item should be able to
be understood and interpreted by the respondents. It is usually desirable for the reseat her to
develop during table to assist easier analysis later.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaire is an instrument used to gather data, which allows a measurement for or
against particular view point. A questionnaire has the ability to collect a large amount of
information in a reasonably quick space of time.
This is a big advantage but do not let this deceive you into thinking that questionnaire design
is a straight forward operation. Asking the correct questions about a particular topic, need
careful planning.
Planning checklist
In planning a questionnaire needs careful consideration. The checklist below should be
constructed before moving on actual design. You should be able to answer all these questions
in a positive way that should be able to state the specific goals of your study.
 When you look at the goals of the study do they convey a picture of something that is
worth doing?
 Be sure in your mind that the worth is not of trivial nature.
 Do you know enough of subject area to create a questionnaire that has inclusive
items?
 How much do you know about the characteristics of your target population?
 What is the approximate cost of your study and how long will it take to complete?
 What sort of sample are you going to use?
NOTE: A common problem with many questionnaires is the number of irrelevant items or
questions that are included:
Take a look into a few questionnaires. What are the most common items you see at the
beginning of these questionnaires? Age gender, marital status, religion, occupation are
familiar items contained in the questionnaire. Justification for inclusion is all important and
the contents must reflect the aim and objective of your study. If marital status is included in
the study of pre-primary education performance, why should you include it? Or if there is no
sex difference in performance of certain cognitive aspect in pre primary pupils, it is not
necessary to include it in the questionnaire.
Question Types
Questions can come in a variety of ways but in general there are four main types:
a. Background questions
b. Close-ended questions
c. Partially closed-end questions
d. Open-ended questions
a. Background Questions
This type of question is used to gather demographic details from the group being studied. It is
quite common to find background question quite early in a questionnaire because usually
they are fairly easy to answer but really it is better to keep demographic questions at the end.
For example:
Please provide the following details;

Age : ____________________
Nationality : ____________________
Occupation : ____________________
Note: only seek background information that is relevant to your study and its objectives.
b. Closed-ended Questions
These types of questions are used to collect information of determine opinion on issues by
giving the respondent a set of choice or response options.
Example 1:
What is your age? (Tick appropriate box)
Under 25
26-30
31-35
36-40
Above 50
Example 2:
Why did you decide to be a teacher(put appropriate YES or NO in box)

 My family have strong link with teachers
 Wanted to inspire children to love education
 My friends were entering the profession.
 For financial reason
 It is a profession that allows mobility.
 The teacher I knew spoke highly of the profession
First choice
Second choice
The teaching example has unordered responses. Choices are described but there is no single
dimension related to the options. Each of the 6 categories has to be viewed as independent of
the others.
c. Partially closed
End questions with this type of questions the respondent also has option but is not forced to
select of them. There is provision for other reasons to be listed, once which we include in the
fixed choices.
For example
As an ECD teacher, which one of the following areas would you specialized training in (Tick one
box only)
i) ECDE School administration and management degree
ii) ECD food and nutrition degree
iii) Degree in curriculum design in ECD
Another area, please describe-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. Open-ended Question
These are sometime called free response types because they allow the respondents to answer
in their own words. Open questions are often used to explore issues.
Question Construction
Constructing good questions may take some time and what first may look as ideal item can
alter a pilot test, be shown to be unreliable or ineffective. Below are some useful hints on
questionnaire construction.
1. Specific questions will produce specific answers: Try to avoid vague sounding questions.
They are usually difficult to answer. For example: Have you read the book recent1y?
Different people will interpret recently in various ways. Substitute recently with, within
the last 7 days or a month.
2. Over precise questions can cause problems: If you make the question too difficult to
answer. Example: How many of your classmates did you talk to yesterday?
3. Keep the language simple: Look at who will be answering your questions and write t
their level. Avoid jargon or technical terms.
4. Avoid the use of double negative: Two negative in a question can be confusing and he
purpose is to facilitate a clear response. Example: Lack of midterm exams is not
something to worry about.
5. Limit each question to a single idea. Example: Are you favoring of reducing the number
of teaching hours and increasing pupil intake on the KG level. What will be the answer to
the above question tell you? (Yes or no).
6. Avoid emotionally charged words: Such words can created bias and introduce highly
personal tone which many respondents may feel uneasy with.
7. Avoid leading question. There are questions which by their wording suggest the answer.
Example, do you think we should increase pre-primary academic staff pay since they
work such long hours and provide available services?
8. Be careful of personalization: Personalization can cause problems if you are seeking
opinion of a general nature. Example: what do you think of Day Care Services to 2 1/2
year old children? The above question would be inappropriate if the purpose of the
question was to eek the public‘s view of the service in general to children.
9. Try to avoid subjective terms: such as ―usually‖, often‖ and ―many‖, as they can be
interpreted in various ways. For example ―many people‖ to a city dweller will probably
mean something different to someone in living in rural isolation as far as population of
their setting is concerned.
10. Keep the item as short as possible: there is nothing irritating than a lengthy sentence that
needs someone to re-read again and again before he gets the message.
11. Ensure that all response options are included: It is quite surprising how many
questionnaires do not include categories such as ―don‘t know‖ or ―not applicable‖.
Knowing that respondents don‘t know can be variable piece of information.
12. Avoid acronyms and abbreviation e.g. STD may stand for Standard Trunk Dialing or
Sexually Transmitted Disease. So use full letters in questionnaire.
13. Pilot the questionnaire: Once you have constructed a questionnaire, try it out on a small
sample to check if it is operational.
14. Intensity questions: It is quite likely that you may need to measure strength opinion. The
most common format is the LIKERT scale. This permits the respondent to select from a
number of degrees of intensity (usually five). For example:
Parents of pre-scholars are committed to knowing their children‘s learning development
from the class teachers (circle appropriate response.)
SA A U D SD
(SA: Strongly Agree, A: Agree, U: Undecided, D: Disagree, SD: Strongly
Disagree)
This type of item is usually associated with the measurement of Attitude. 15 Constructing
relevant questions: Depending on the subject matter of the questionnaire, there may be times
when you will have difficulties arriving at appropriate questions i.e. those that will give you
the information you are seeking. It is good to think deep and focus in questions that can give
relevant information.
The Questionnaire Layout
As with most products the usual impact can be a big plus. Check your question for the
following:
 Physical Layout — It may be restating the obvious but, make sure your questionnaire is
need, easy to use, easy to code and easy to store.
 Production cost — the information you get should be worth the cost of production.
 Identification — put an individual identification number on each questionnaire you
distribute.
 Sender‘s name and address always put your name and address on the questionnaire just in
case the original questionnaire is misplaced.
 Use fairly good quality paper and if possible use only one side.
 Space your questions. Nothing looks worse than a large group of questions corn pressed
into a single page.
 Clear instruction -- It is important to have clear instruction on how to answer each
question.
 Clear explanation — if your questionnaire has different section then begin each on with a
few words of explanation.
INTERVIEWS
Interviews involve a researcher meet a respondent physically or through phone and a series of
questions orally asked as part of research project. There are 3 types of interviews in an
education set up, especially in ECDT program:
i) Unstructured interview
ii) Semi structured interview
iii) Structured/Systematic interview
i. UN-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE
It is one of the most widely used techniques of data collection in education. In this approach
of interviewing, the researcher has some idea in mind of the topic covered and may use son e
sort of topic list as a reminder, but there is minimal control over the order in which topic are
covered and over the respondent answers. In unstructured interviewing, neither the specific
questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answer are pre-defined.
Unstructured interviewing is informal and conversational, and the aim is to get informant to
open up and to express themselves in their own terms.
Strength unstructured interviews:
 The main strength of an informal conversational approach to interviewing is that ii allows
the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and situational characteristics.
 This style of interviewing builds well upon observations and can help discover relevant
questions and their appropriate wording ensure communication with the respondent
 It‘s also useful for building initial rapport with informants, before conducting more
formal interviews and for talking with the people or in situations where more formal
interview may not be tolerated e.g. in studies of street girls drug addiction in relationship
to effects on their pregnancies and their infants.
 Unstructured interviews are also useful for studying sensitive topics such as sexuality or
certain teratogen topics experienced by mothers.
Weakness of unstructured interview:
 Because there is no set format for conducting conversational interviews each interview
tends to be unique. This makes it difficult to systemize and analyses data.
 It may take several conversations before obtaining a similar set of information from each
informant thus time wasting.
ii. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
Semi-structured interview area based on the use of interview guide. This is a written list n
questions or topics that need to be covered during the interview. However, the exact order
and wording of the questions may vary from respondent to respondent. The interviewer may
still follow leads and new topics that arise in the course of the interview, but the interview
guide is a set of clear instructions concerning the main questions to 1e asked or topic to be
prob. Semi- structured interview include: Depth/focused interviews that intensively
investigate a particular topic and case studies that collect comprehensive, systematic and in
depth information about particular cases of interest.
iii. STRUCTURED/SYSTEMATIC INTERVIEWS
Structured interviewing involves subjecting every informant in a simple to the same stimuli
i.e. asking each informant the exact same question. Survey researchers are most familiar with
the structured questionnaire.
The data collection technique under discussion produces numerical quantifiable data.
Nonetheless, these methods are included in the discussions of qualitative research because
their purpose is to help describe and analyses the culture and behaviour of respondent from
the respondent point of view. Furthermore, their effective use depends on prior understanding
of the study population‘s view and perspective.
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES AND GUIDELINES
Observations provide information about actual behaviour. Direct observation of behaviour is
useful because some behaviour involves habitual routine which people are hardly aware of. In
such cases, observation can reveal more information than interviews or questionnaires direct
observation also allow the researcher to put behaviour in context and thereby understanding it
better. Observation can either be unobtrusive and non-reactive or obvious and reactive.
Unobtrusive observations are whereby people are observed without their knowing it, but
involve serious ethical dilemmas. Here we will only discuss obvious and reactive techniques.
The approaches are three, namely:
 Participant observation
 Unstructured observation
 Structured observation
Participant Observation
Participant observation refers to an approach whereby the investigator becomes to a greater
or lesser extent, an active functioning member of the culture under study for example a
family health organization, teaching staff or community. The investigator participated in any
activities appropriate for a person of the status in which is assumed. Observe what others do
and in general attempt to see through the eyes of a member of a culture rather than through
those of an outsider. Participant observation in itself does not constitute a specific data,
unstructured interview and unstructured observation; rather it simply means living in or
hanging around the community or culture under study. In participant observation, the people
being observed are aware of the researcher‘s presence in the community and usually know
the purpose of the researcher‘s presence is to learn about their way of life. Participant
observation produces textual, descriptive account.
Strength of Participant Observation
 Participant observation facilitates all other data collection in the field by helping to reduce
reactivity (the degree to which people change theft behaviour when the‘ know they are
being studied). People become more and more comfortable with researcher‘s presence.
 It helps the researcher to learn how to formulate appropriate and relevant questions in the
native language.
 It gives the researcher an intuitive understanding of what is happening in a culture helps
the researcher understand the meaning of the data being collected; maximizes the
researcher‘s ability to make valid statements about the culture being studied.
 It is useful when if the context is new or not well known and when the topic of interest is
especially complex. It is particularly useful at the beginning of research when a problem
is not well understood.
 It is useful when the situation of interest is hidden from the public or when people appear
to have significantly different than do outsiders.
 It is especially appropriate for understanding processes, events, norms and values and the
context of a social situation.
Weakness of Participant Observation
 Depending on the population studied, participant observation can be quite time
consuming, taking anywhere from a few weeks to many months.
 To conduct participant observation, a researcher must speak the local language well, be
skilled at observing the little details of life, have good memory (in order to write down
later what was observed) and be skilled at writing what was detailed and copies about
what was observed or discussed.
 Sometimes researchers become so familiar with the future that it becomes more and more
difficult to notice things that should be considered different or important.
Unstructured Observation
It is also referred to as open observation. The observer takes the position of an onlooker
rather than a participant observer. Those being observed know that they are being observed,
but the ‗what‖ to be observed is only very broadly defined for example, infant feeding.
Unstructured observation is broadly focused and their aim is to observe behavior in its
context. Data are collected in the form of detailed descriptive accounts. Unstructured
observations are often used or conducted when the researcher is trying to discover unknown
aspects of a problem. They allow the discovery of ―surprises‖ which can then be followed up
in later stages of the research. Unstructured observation is particularly helpful for
understanding behaviours in their physical and social context.
Structured Observation
In structured observation, the observer is an on-looker, he or she observes as an outsider.
Those observed know they are being observed but usually do not know the exact behaviours
hat are being observed and recorded. The focus tends to be on small number of very specific
behaviour. Only those behaviours appearing on a pre defined observation list are recorded.
Structure observations produce quantitative data with little contextual description. In order to
conduct structured observation, the behaviours and actors of interest must be clearly
specified.
The importance of the timing of observations must be determined (time of day, season etc)
and focal behaviours must be defined, broken down so that recording is reliable.
This approach ensures that the observation will be optimally reproducible, comparable and
quantifiable.
Unless the behaviours of interest are well understood, it is not possible to develop a good
observation recording sheet. Therefore structured observations should never be used heft re
first, rather conducting unstructured observations and interviews to explore what really need
to be known, and in what detail.
The approach may include continuous monitoring, spot check and rating checks.
 Spot checks are observations whereby the observer records the presence or absence of
behaviour or physical characteristics of interest at the first moment of observation. For
example, to make a round after lunch to see how many pupils have left dishes unwashed
after meals (as an indicator of dishwashing behaviour)
 Rating checks require the observer to make judgment on individuals and environments
e.g. ―woman washes hand‖ is a pure observation of behaviour while ―women‘s hands are
clean‖ involves judgment by the observer that may not be true. Rating should t e made as
explicit as possible.
Strength of Structured Observation
They provide precise, numerical results which are applicable to statistical analysis and can be
repeated to monitor behaviour change over item.
Weakness of Structured Observation
 The problem to be studied need to be clearly defined.
 Training of observer is intensive and time consuming.
 Pre determined structure of the observation limits discovery of other potentially relevant
behaviours.
 Data coding, entry and analysis can be very time consuming.
RATING SCALE
Scale can be created for any number of concepts or attributes, and items can be rated on
single conceptual scale or each may be rated on a series of scales representing a variety of
concepts or attributes. Scales can be presented numerically or graphically. For example:
1. Circle the number that corresponds to the level of severity you will associate with pupil‘s
dropout rate in each stage in your school.
 Pre primary stage 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (From least to severe)
 Lower primary stage 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (From L to S)

 Upper primary stage 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (From L to S)
2. Mark an X on the line below indicating where you will rate the dropout rate of pupils by
gender
Boy
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mild severe
Girl
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mild severe
Strength of Rating Scales
Rating scales are easier to administer.
Weakness of Rating Scales
Rating scale can be extremely sensitive to responses bias (the propensity of an individual to
always use one end of the scale or a narrow range in the middle of the scale).
RANK ORDER METHODS
Rank order method require information to rank items i.e. from most to least in term of a
specific characteristic, for exam dropout rate by class and gender in terms of severity.
Below are the 2 most common methods for rank ordering items?
 Complete rank ordering method usually require that informant be literate and involves
presenting respondent with a list of items which they are asked to order from most to on
some scales or attribute by putting number next to each item. another method is to present
each informant with visual stimuli or a stack of cords on which items names are written
and ask them to order the item or cards from most to least (best to worst or whatever the
attribute of interest is).
 Partial rank ordering: Pair each item with each of the other item. The pair of items is
presented to respondents who are asked to indicate which is more or less, best or worst,
most preferred or least preferred. This technique is also called a pair comparison. A total
rank ordering is obtained by summing the number of items each item was chosen.
Strength of Rank Order Method
 The complete rank ordering technique produces a great deal of information and is
productive for the time spent by the informant. The method is ideal for study individual
differences.
 Paired comparisons are probably the easiest and most reliable method to u: e with
illiterate when there are small numbers of items to be ordered.
Weakness of rank order method
 The complete rank ordering technique can be tedious for non-literate respondent. For
paired comparison, pre testing is crucial for identifying the maximum number of pairs
that informant will tolerate. Some researchers have found that even as few as 15 pairs can
be tedious.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE AND ORGANISATION
 The process of data collection is much decided by the research and amount of resources
available (time and money).
 After choosing appropriate research tools which can be a combination of 2 or more
research tool, if not one, a researcher may decide to do it in personal or hire other skilled
people in the collection of data.
 For interview he may decide to interview informant through the phone or me t them
personally for an interview.
 As for questionnaire he may present them personally to informants, then collect it
personally after the informants have filled the questionnaire or he may send them through
post office and wait for informant to fill the questionnaire and send them back to him.
 Other such as rating scale and Ranking order, he can present them personally or u e some
institutions that have interest on the area of study e.g. schools, hospitals, government
offices etc.
 In the ease of observation approach, it is advisable for him to do it personally as chances
of getting other relevant information out of what was plan can arise and it is him being
knowledgeable to identify.
Organization of Data
After collecting data are research will organize the raw data using the following methods.
i. Tallying
ii. Classifying variables
Tally method
If questionnaire are short, but answered by a sizable number of people (say about 120), it may
be more efficient and quicker to use a tally mark method of cording and counting.
In its simplest form, a tally mark method involves using a piece of paper to write down the
expected responses types for a particular question and then indicate, with a single line,
response type given by each respondent in the study to a particular question.
Classification Variables
There are three methods of classifying, Variable, namely, experimental, mathematical arid
measurement classification.
Experimental variable; A researcher may classify variable according to the function they
serve in the experiment.
Mathematical variable; Variable may also be classified in terms of the number mathematical
value that may take on within a given interval e.g. height and weight of pupils at given
interval. Measurement classification: Measurement is the assignment or coded to observation
or responses by informants.
CHAPTER 8:
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Explain data analysis and presentations procedures.
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Data Analysis
The analysis of data is done through the use of statistical tests either manually or by
electronic/automatic devices (computer).
The analysis of data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more elaborate reduction and
multivariate associate techniques. For our discussion we shall deal with simple analysis
namely:
i. Frequencies
ii. Percentage
iii. Mean
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Frequencies
Frequency is the number of times a certain figure (or quantity) occurs in a given data. The
method can be used for both group and ungrouped data using frequency distribution table
Frequency Distribution Table for Ungrouped Data
Example:
In a research, a sample of 40 primary pupils of age 6 was used in a study. The following
result
Of their height in cm was recorded 49, 50, 49, 51, 47, 53, 50, 51, 48, 49, 48, 48, 49, 50, 50,
51, 49, 51, 48, 47,49,49,48, 51, 50, 47, 52, 49, 50, 48, 50, 50, 48, 47, 49, 53, 49, 50, 48, 49.
NOTE: This is ungrouped data as it takes individual figures not when grouped.
 First, note the longest height is 53 cm and the smallest is 47 cm. So when constructing
frequency table, write the first column the score starting with 47 at the top 53 at the
bottom.
 In the second column, tabulation, we enter one stroke, one for each height found in a
sample. We mark in rows by a stroke till four and the fifth is marked by a stroke across
the four i.e. IIII represent 5.
 In the third column, called frequency column, we enter total number of strokes. The
entries in this column are frequencies and the sum of frequencies is sample size
Score (Cm) Tally Frequency
47 IIII 4
48 IIII III 8
49 IIII IIII I 11
50 IIII IIII 10
51 IIII 4
52 I 1
53 II 2
Total 40
Frequency Distribution Table for grouped data
In the previous table we recorded each score. If the number of scores is too large, it is
troublesome to consider each score. A quick or more convenient way is to divide the overall
range of values with the number of classes and then find the number of observations that fall
into each of these classes- The resulting frequency table is called a grouped frequency
distribution. Example:
The following are scores of sample of 50 pupils in a test of a certain region under study:
35, 50, 30, 40, 42, 30, 60, 65, 60, 55, 50, 40, 45, 35, 38, 30, 30, 50, 45, 50, 50, 60,48, 38, 92,
59,35, 55, 45, 50, 43, 56, 45, 40, 61, 72, 49,24, 10, 95, 82, 70, 69, 8,37,64,43,36,58,90.
Range of scores = Highest score—lowest score
=95—8=87
A better way is to group the data in interval of fives, tens, and hundreds, although smaller
interval may be used depending of the data collected. Each interval has an upper and a lower
limit. The range between these limits is called the class interval or the class width. In this
case we can try e.g. 87  5 = 18 (too many interval), 87 ÷ 10 = 9.
Hence, class interval of 10, starting with 0 — 9 will be appropriate.
CLASS TALLY FREQUENCY
0 -9 I 1
10 – 19 I 1
20 – 29 I 1
30 – 39 IIII IIII I 11
40 – 49 IIII IIII 12
50 – 59 II 11
60 – 69 IIII IIII I 7
70 – 79 IIII II 2
80 – 89 II 1
90 – 99 I 3
III
TOTAL 50
Although some accuracy is lost by working in grouped data, it simplifies calculations when
large data is involved.
MEAN
To find the mean, add the scores (quantities) and then divide it by the number of scores
(quantities) given.
Mean (X) = Sum of all quantities
Number of quantities
Mean From Frequency Distribution Table
For example: The table below shows the number of children in 30 families.
Number of children per family (x) Number of family (frequency)
1 10
2 12
3 4
4 3
5 1
Find the mean of children per family.

- 10 families with one child —> 10 x 1 = 10 children
- 12 families with 2 children —> 12 x 2 = 24 children
- 4 families with 3 children —> 4x3 = 12 children
- 3 families with 4 children —> 3x4 = 12 children
- 1 family with 5 children —> 1x5 = 5 children
Therefore Total number of children = 10 + 24 + 12 + 12 + 5 = 63
There are 30 families, so the mean = 63 = 2.1
30
There are on average, 2.1 children per family. The answer seems absurd, but in statistics it
has a meaning. If there are 1000 families in a location, we can estimate that there would be
1000 x 2.1 = 2100 children. The calculation can be done systematically by writing the
frequency table vertically as shown below. –
Number of children (x) Number of families (f) fx
1 10 10
2 12 24
3 4 12
4 3 12
5 1 5
Total 30 63
Mean X = Total fx = 63 = 2.1

Total f 30
Note: In symbol, ‗totals‘ or ‗sum of‘ is written as ∑ (sigma)
Hence, Mean X= ∑ fx
∑f
PERCENTAGES
The simplest percentage is taking item over total number multiply by a hundred
i.e. Item x 100
Total items
The cumulative percentage is the value obtained when cumulative frequency corresponding
to each class boundary is expressed as a percentage of the total number of items in given set
of data. The graph obtained when each cumulative percentage is plotted against the
corresponding upper class boundary is ogive, Teacher often use it to determine pass mark and
judging performance using pass mark. Example
The following frequency distribution table gives the marks obtained by a sample of 500
pupils in mock examination
Marks Frequency
1 < X  10 15
10 < X  20 25
20 < X  30 30
30 < X  40 77
40 < X  50 101
50 < X  60 84
61
60 < X  70
53
70 < X  80
22
80 < X  90
33
90 < X  100
We can construct cumulative frequency table and express each cumulative frequency as a
percentage of the total number of frequencies.
Upper boundary Cumulative frequency Cumulative percentage %
10 15 3.0
20 40 8.0
30 70 14.0
40 150 30.0
50 257 51.4
60 341 68.2
70 402 80.4
80 455 91.0
90 477 95.4
100 500 100
From the cumulative percentage you can plot cumulative frequency graph
REPRESENTATION OF DATA
The following are used to represent data in a research:
1) Bar graphs
2) Pie charts
3) Line and curve graphs
4) Histographs
BAR GRAPH
In a bar chart, information is represented by a series of bars. The height of each bar is
proportional to the quality represented. All bars must be of the same size in width. The bars
may be drawn vertically or horizontally.
Note that there are two axes: the horizontal axis across page representing one part of the data
and the vertical axis, up the page representing other part of the data. Great care is needed in
the choice of scale. Example:
STD I pupils enrollment in Nairobi county
Example: Represent this in a bar graph
Constituency Enrollment in thousands
Embakasi 60
Kamukunji 20
Starehe 40
Kasarani 15
PIE CHART
A pie chart is made by dividing a circle into a number of sectors, where each sector
represents a quantity. The angle of the sector is proportional to the quantity represented.
Example: represent Peter‘s daily routine on a pie chart.
Self study School Play/meals Recreation Sleep Total
3hrs 6hrs 3hrs 4hrs 8hrs 24hrs
Angles representing each activity
Self study School Play/meals Recreation Sleep
3/24X360 6/24X360 3/24X360 4/24X360 8/24X360
45° 90° 45° 60° 120°
These facts are represented on a pie chart. It makes us to make useful comparisons. Not only
can we compare one quantity with another with easy but we can also compare each quantity
with the total. By looking at the chart, we can say that:
i) Sleep takes the longest largest time.
ii) Meals/play takes the same time as self study.
iii) Recreation and sleep take half the time.
LINE AND CURVE GRAPHS
A very good example of line/curved graph it shown below, showing parents visiting Kashule
academy inquiring their children learning progress.
In a line graph, the points plotted with the given data are joined by line segments. The graphs
of quantities that do not vary in direct proportion are usually drawn in the form of curves. For
data collected over a period of time, the horizontal axis is normally used for the time axis.
The quantities whose values are observed or calculated are usually taken on the vertical axis.
The scale of the graph must always be shown clearly. Choose the largest possible scale t Lat
the paper will allow and which makes plotting reading easy.
NOTE that the graph below does not start at zero (o) as the number of parents is above 200.
To include all value will waste the paper. For example the graph shows the monthly number
of parents who visit the school to discuss pupil‘s progress in a certain year.
HISTOGRAPH
The table below represents the average mark obtained by KG II pupils.
Marks 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74
Frequency 3 2 5 10 12 11 5 2
This can be displayed graphically by a histogram, a vertical bar chart and/or a frequency
polygon. When the entire class interval is equal width, the frequency is used as the height of
each rectangle.
Class Limits:
The value of average marks given is given to the nearest whole number. it would be more
accurate to express the group or class as class limits e.g. Class interval 35-39 can have class
limit 34.5 — 39.5.
34.5 is the lower limit while 39.5 is the upper limit
Class 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74
interval
Class 34.5- 39.5- 44.5- 49.5- 54.5- 59.5- 64.5- 69.5-
limit 39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 74.5
frequency 3 2 5 10 12 11 5 2
FREQUENCY POLYGON
A frequency polygon is obtained by joining two mid points of the tops of two successive bars
of Histogram by a straight line.
Instead of drawing bars for the data, we could mark the points and join up by segments. We
re-write the above table as follows:
Class interval 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74
Class limit 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72
frequency 3 2 5 10 12 11 5 2
CHAPTER 9:
RESEARCH PROPOSAL & RESEARCH REPORT
 Discuss the format and importance of research proposal.
 Design and undertake a research project and write the report.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
In proposal writing, whether for thesis or for competitive funding, the researcher discusses
what research is meant for, why it should be carried out, problems it should solve and how
the research should be carried (procedure). This section of a proposal merely answers to these
concerns. Generally for most educationists the following format should be adopted.
The proposal has a preliminary page which include the cover page, table of content and
abstract, typically, the cover page contain title of the study, the name of the candidate
(researcher) and registration number. The table of content shows the pages where the relevant
section of the proposal is to be found. The abstract contains information on the essential
components of the research content such as the statement of the problem, objectives,
hypothesis, methodological approaches and end up with the expected result of the proposed
study.
The proposal also contains end matter which consists of the reference or bibliography and
appendices. The reference shows the names and details of all sources cited in the study
arranged alphabetically with years and titles as well as publishers. The appendices contain
san pie of research instrument/tools, budget time-table. However the substantive portion of
the proposal is usually in the described in the following section in details.
THE MAJOR COMPONENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Chapter One — Introduction
i. Background of the study
ii. Statement of the research problem.
iii. Purpose and objective of the study
iv. Hypothesis
v. Limitation of the study
vi. Assumptions of the study
vii. Significance of the study
viii. Definition of central terms
Chapter two
Literature Review
Chapter three – Research Methodology
 Design and locate of the study
 Target population and sample selection
 Research instrument
 Data analytical techniques.
 Bibliography or reference
 Appendices
Chapter One - Introduction
Background of the study: This problem starts by rationalizing the problem. For example,
study on factor influencing ECDE program would begin by stating that in the modem world,
early childhood development and education is perceived as the cornerstones of socio-
economical advances and therefore the need to devote more resources on this sector. Kenya
as a developing country needs to nurture the early childhood population.
In the year 2000, the Government of Kenya spent a staggering 20 percent of its annual budget
on free primary education and ECDE programme. Despite huge budgetary, allocation there is
little evidence that increase expenditure on education has declining over the years (Mwaura
2002 :) current trends show that this decline has persisted (Daily Nation 2004).
This general problem is developed until a stage when you must now specifically state the
problem as shown in the next section.
Objectives / Purposes of the Study
This section should position the problem regarding the context, theories explaining the issue
and explanatory approach to be utilized. The researcher should state the problem in strong
terms giving implication of the problem to the whole topic being investigated. For examine
the purpose of the study is to find out factor influencing children enrollment in early
childhood education centers in Kajiado North district.
The specific objective would be to investigate:
 How many public early childhood educations centers are there compared to private
centers.
 Attitude of the parents towards public early childhood education institutions.
 Qualification of teachers and teacher, pupil ratio in public early childhood education
center.
 Quality of public early childhood institutions compared to public one in Kajiado North
district.
Hypotheses
These are education guesses about possible differences, relationships or cause of research
problem. In order to focus our information gathering, we try to identify possible solutions to
our problem and then gather information needed to show that a given explanation is correct.
This is when we use hypothesis. The wording of the hypothesis should be done in a clear and
precise manner but still using conceptual definitions. The reader should be convinced that
there are good grounds to state the hypothesis.
For example the following are directional hypothesis.
Ho.1 Parents in Kajiado North district prefer taking their children in private early childhood
education center that public.
Ho.2 There is positive and significant relationship between teacher pupil‘s ration and the
quality of education given to children.
In contrast to directional hypothesis, the null hypothesis state that no relationship exists
between the variable studied. For example:
Ho.1 There is no positive relation between teacher‘s qualification and quality of education
gained by children in ECDE centers.
Limitation of the study
This section discusses the limitation will be encountered in the research study. This includes
time and financial limitations that influence the scope of the study, data inaccessibility, and
unanticipated occurrences. However the researcher should make an attempt to state how the
challenges will be or were overcome.
Assumption of the study
In this section, you must outlines the facts presumed to be true but have not been verified. In
a research report these would appear as assumption of the study. This involves the creation of
a level of playing field. A good example of an assumption is when you state that all parents
prefer their children to go to school. Other factors rather than what type of school, and at
what stage of child age to start schooling should feature.
Significance of the study
The researcher should indicate the anticipated condition of the research to the existing today
of knowledge. This contribution in itself is a potential outcome of the research. The relevance
of the problem is highlighted considering two aspects: Its theoretical and practical
implication.
Thus, the anticipated outcomes should relate to the practical significant of the research. In the
context, the pertinent questions that emerge include: what will the results mean to the
practicing educator or social scientists? Will the results, regardless of outcome, influence
programmes or methods?
If the research will set a stage for deciding on alternative courses of action for imp roving
educational enterprise and processes, then this contribution is quite significant. What will be
improved or changed as a result of the study is disseminated. In conducting a review the
following four broad issues should be kept in mind.
Conceptual Framework
A concept is an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances. A concept
is a word or phrase that symbolizes several interrelated ideas. A conceptual framework is a
set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of study and used to structure a
subsequent presentation.
Chapter Two - Literature Review
The purpose of the review
• The literature sources
• The reviewing technique
• The reporting
In order to conceptualize the research, the research topic in a way that permits a clear
formulation of the problem and appropriate objective and hypotheses, some focused
background information is necessary. This is mainly done by aggressive reading whatever
piece of literature that has been written and published and what appears relevant to the study.
This in essence is the process of level of literacy, professional qualification, language
proficiency and the culture of the subjects. A description of how the chosen instrument will
be constructed and piloted should be provided. You particularly explain how the validity and
reliability of the research instrument will be determined. Finally you should provide a
detailed description of how the data will be collected observing all the ethical and human
relations principles.
Chapter Three — research methods
In writing this chapter, the subsection should be geared towards describing the research
design target population and sample section, research instrument/tool and method of data
analysis.
Design and locate of the study
This section should provide a description of the type of research design that is intends d to be
used i.e. descriptive of the case study or correction whether exposed factor or casual
comparative experimental. The extent to which their study will rely on qualitative or
qualitative methodology should be identified.
You must specie the location of the study with adequate description such as a case study of
coast star academy, Mombasa town. Target population and sample selection. This section
indicates the unit of sampling by stating the institution implemented and what innovations
will come about.
Definition of central terms
In research, you seek to communicate to others, including your project supervisor, the finding
recovered. Hence for you to communicate effectively, you need to prepare a common ground
in which you can share your sentiments worth the rest. It is therefore important that you
define key terms operationally. An operational definition is one based on measurable tracts. It
would also mean a special meaning attached to a world, concept, object expressing exactly
what you actually mean and the way the term is used in the study.
This is important section because several educational and social science terms are defined
differently by different researcher.
Data Analytical Techniques
The section should provide the envisaged method for processing and analyzing data. For
example, you should indicate any statistical technique, which might be descriptive statistics.
Other matter of relevance is the computer programs that will be used to analyses the data
Bibliography or reference
You should arrange the list of all books or articles cited in the entire proposal. The list should
be presented in alphabetical order of surname and authors and title of all books or articles
mentioned.
One of the frequently used methods is the surname of the author(s) then year of publication in
bracket, the name of publisher and page number.
Research Instruments/Tools
It is important to explain which of the three commonly used research instruments i.e.
questionnaire, interview schedules or observation guideline will be used. You must explain,
giving appropriate reasons, the choice of each or combination of the research instrument is
for a particular subject depending on the situations.
Appendices
Appendices should contain a copy of the research instrument that will be used in the study,
the time plan and budget.
The information that could be carried in the, appendices are map showing the locale of the
study, graph or diagrams which shows result in numerical and title to each appendix in line
with how they are referred to in the text.
RESEARCH REPORT
The research report is written after collecting data, analyzing data and having chosen the
procedure of presenting the data. In fact it is the final aspect of the research study that all the
information of what the study was about, how information was collected and organizes what
the information is addressing and recommendation on problem at hand or improving the
knowledge area of the topic in the study.
In education set up the practical implication of research results and report are incorporated
into day today learning — teaching situation for effective learning.
Importance of Research Report
It gives a detailed report of problem at hand and what this problem is all about e.g. effect of
teratogens on early childhood education in Mathare slums. Here the report may address
common drugs used by mothers and their effects on children learning. The information will
not focus on general overview of teratogens; rather it will give detailed information on
common teratogens in the area and the impact it has on the learning of young children in the
area.
It also gives detailed solutions to the problem, in that; it does not leave the problem hanging.
This is identified through the recommendations the researcher has written in the research
report.
If the hypothesis in the research is respected it is reported in the research report. As a result,
further research may be suggested in research report and limitations of the study listed in the
report so that there will be improvement of later research.
Format of the Research Report
1. The Front Matter
2. Title Page
3. Declaration Page
4. Dedication
5. Table of content
6. Acknowledgement
7. Abstract
Body of thesis
8. Chapter one - Introduction
9. Chapter two — Literature review
10. Chapter three — research methodology
 Research design and locate
 Analytical technique
11. Chapter four -- Research finding
12. Chapter five — Discussions and recommendations
13. Present finding by objective or research question
14. Present data using table and figures
15. Conclusion and recommendations
16. Bibliography and References
17 Appendices
CHAPTER 10:
RESEARCH ETHICS & PRINCIPLES
Discuss the ethical approaches and principles governing research.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION IN RESEARCH
Through the process of data collection, the problems of persuading participants to cooperate
with the researcher and participate in the research is ever present. Lack of co-operation can be
disastrous in a research task; Participants have the right to refuse openly to take part.
Generally, acceptable ethical right must be followed, This is particularly the case when
dealing with public schools and other educational institutions, When you are working with
school children and teachers as subject, it‘s necessary to have understanding and co-operation
of school administration, (the education officer, head teacher, teacher), Interested community
groups and other key stakeholders.
Ethical Principles
Researcher needs to be conversant with ethical principles to ensure that human rights ant
public relations are strictly adhered to. Apart from one overall observation of professional
outlook, mannerism, mien and decorum, one needs to ensure that the following are observed:
1. Informed Consent
Educational or social science research invades person‘s privacy. An investigator might want
information of a private nature or observed people in situations harmful to or at least
uncomfortable to participants. People should not be subjected to research of such nature
unless they agree to participate in it. Participation in research must be voluntary and people
have the right to refuse to divulge certain information about themselves. This right to privacy
demands that direct consent for participation must be obtained from adults and incase of
children from their parents or teachers.
2. Ensure confidentiality
The participant must be assured that the information will be kept confidential and only used
for the purpose of the research alone. The participants must be told who will access to the
data. In this case, the participant must be assured that the data will only be used for the stated
pm pose of the research and that no undesirable person will have access to the data. Assured
of these conditions, a respondent will feel free to give honest and complete information.
Therefore to ensure confidentiality, researcher should:
o Not include or write names of respondent to the data except a code.
o Ensure nobody can link the data to specific subject.
o Substitute names with number so that only a person who has access to the codes can
identify the subject.
3. Plagiarism
This is the use of somebody else ideas or research purporting it to be yours, without
acknowledging the source. It is an academic crime and it is punishable. It is protected by
writer‘s copyright (patent rights to writer‘s creation). When using somebody else ideas, you
should quote the worker‘s work using quotations.
4. Risk to Participants
The subject/participant should not be harmed in anyway — mentally, psychologically,
physically, emotionally or morally for the sake of obtaining information in the m me of
scientifically research. If the research involves any risk, the subject should be informed. If
school children are involved in the study for example, the parent or guardians should be
informed and written permission secured from them. It is thus unethical for a researcher r to
do otherwise.
5. Permission to interview Children
In addition to parental consent, researcher should seek the informed consent of children age 7
and above for research participation. The use of deception in research with children is
especially risky since debriefing can undermine their basic faith in the trustworthiness of
adults.
6. Using of human beings as specimen object
At no one time in a research should human beings be subjected as specimen in the study i.e.
being used without human integrity or reduced to animal level.
7. Deception
Since studies can only take effect when some vital information is withheld or subject not told,
the absolute truth is necessary. Although needed data can be collected without deception,
practical considerations such as limited fund and time lead some researchers to use deception.
This is used in extreme cases where serious issues such as crime and potential respondents
may be violent if they discover that one is collecting data on theta (e.g. criminals).
8. Should ensure good human relation
For example, it should not bring conflict between Head teacher and his teacher or among
pupils or in families and societies.
CHAPTER 11:
MONITORING & EVALUATION OF ECDE PROGRAMMES
Discuss the importance of monitoring and evaluation.
MONITORING
Monitoring is the systematic and continuous assessment of the progress of a piece of
program/work over time. It is a basic and a universal management tool for identifying
strength and weaknesses in a programme.
EVALUATION
An evaluation is the assessment at one point in a time of the impact of a piece of
work/programme and the extent to which stated objectives have been achieved. Importance
of Monitoring and Evaluation
i) They help to show what impact the work/programme is having and the progress towards
meeting objectives so that activity can be adjusted if necessary.
ii) Monitoring and evaluation assist in maintaining high standard of a programme i.e. assess
the quality, effectiveness and efficiency of activities, as well as the volume of work
iii) They make sure resources are used effectively i.e. to find out what resources are required
to produce certain effects, or how resources can be distributed differently to be more
effective.
iv) They are used to plan work i.e. to show what and who will be available when, am I how
work could be affected by seasonal trends.
v) Evaluation and monitoring identify problems and find solutions at an early stage of the
programme to make sure problems can be discussed and tackled before they become too
serious.
vi) They help staff feel their work has a definite purpose. Knowing more about objectives,
progress, impact and quality of work in a programme will help staff feel motivated and
involved in the programme.
vii) They help analyze the style of work, whether this is the best way of working to a achieve
more self— motivation, capacity building, awareness of gender in equality etc.
Monitoring and Evaluation Tools/Method
There are many different methods of data collection. The most appropriate method can be
selected according to the kind of information that is needed and when and how it will be
used. Combination of objects should always be used so that data can be cross checked.
Possible Method for Collecting Data at Specific Point during Monitoring
1. Survey with a set of questionnaire
Survey samples can be selected to compare population affected by the programme or to
compare current data with the results of a baseline carried out before the programme started.
Regular surveys can be used in a monitoring system to collect information about key
indicators to see how the target population is affected by a piece of work over time.
2. Participatory method
Participatory method including those discussed in PLA can be useful for finding out how the
different people involved in a programme, including people affected by the programme,
views its progress.
3. Measuring skills and knowledge
The skills and knowledge of trainees in ECDE programmes can be assessed to assure
effectiveness of activities designed to train and teach people or to influence their attitude or
behaviour method. Measuring can be done through the following methods:
 Written, oral or practical test
 Role play and games
 Demonstration of a particular task
 Observation of normal practices using checklist.
Possible Methods for Collecting Data Regularly for Monitoring System Include:
1. Regular record-keeping Forms and diaries
Some information about activities is recorded on regular basis. Forms and set formats are
often used for recording quantitative and qualitative information.
The following factors are important:
 Good form design will facilitate the accurate recording of information.
 Clear instructions on how to use form should always be available.
 The form should contain enough information to be useful to the people collecting the
data.
 The people collecting the data need to understand how the information 1 will be used,
 The information needed to complete the forms should be available without too much
extra effort.
 The format should be the same in the different forms and registers used.
2. Supervision Checklist and Reports
The collection of data during supervision meetings provides an opportunity to discuss the
information as it is being collected. This can be useful for both supervisors and those being
supervised. Checklist and set formats can be used to ensure that information about key
indicators is collected.
3. Case Studies
Case study can be used to examine the impact of a programme on a particular set up
(community). A checklist can be used to ensure certain questions are addressed without being
restricted only to a pre-determined indicator. It can be useful way of looking at unexpected
outcome and indirect effects of a programme and to see how other factors have contributed to
any change in people‘s lives.
4. Spot checks
Periodic studies into a particular aspect of the programme. Selected activities may be
monitored in detail over a specific period. For example, all staff could fill in activity sheet
everyday for several weeks to assess the effectiveness of their use of time. This can be useful
exercise leading up to a more formal evaluation, since it gives staff and participants a clearer
idea of what they are doing, especially if they do not usually keep regular record of activities.
Uses of Monitoring and Evaluation Data
The data collected is used:
1. To assess the progress and impact of programme toward achieving set objectives.
2. To assess the objectives of the programme that has been running for some time.
3. To identify the issues and problems faced by the programmes, so that they can be solved.
4. When lesson learned from work experience need to be analyzed to help formulate policy
and guidelines for future for the programme.
1. Select a topic of research relevant to ECDE( it should bring about the variables,
sample, location of study) [4marks]
2. Write a declaration and acknowledgement for your research study [4marks]
3. What is the Background of your research study? [3marks]
4. What is the problem that your research will investigate? [3marks]
5. What is the Purpose of your research study? [2marks]
6. What are the objectives of your research? [3marks]
7. What is the significance of your study? [2marks]
8. What are the likely Limitations to your study [3marks]
9. How are you going to overcome those limitations? [3marks]
10. What literature have you reviewed to arrive at your research topic? [5marks]
11. What will be the location of your study and why? [4marks]
12. What is the target population? [2marks]
13. What will be your sample size and why? [2marks]
14. What sampling techniques will you use and why? [2marks]
15. Which research instruments will you employ to collect data? [2marks]
16. How will you analyse your data? [3marks]
17. What will you include in your appendices? [3marks]
6016 MODULE SIX - UNIT 13:

GENERAL METHODS OF TEACHING
YOUNG CHILDREN AND MATERIAL
DEVELOPMENT
In order for young children to learn and enjoy the activities effectively, appropriate methods
and materials need to be used. The purpose of this unit is to equip the learner with various
methods and materials of teaching and learning in ECDE centers. The unit examines the
concepts of learning and teaching environment in ECDE as well as various approaches of
planning and material development for instruction. It also highlights various techniques of
motivating and sustaining children‘s interests, learning through play, instructional resources
and knowing the children. The unit also introduces the learner to microteaching.
1. Define concepts in teaching and learning
2. Identify appropriate teaching/learning approaches in ECDE
3. Demonstrate various learning/teaching strategies in ECDE
4. Describe various techniques of class organization and class control in ECDE
5. Compare modern theories associated with instructional methods in ECDE
6. Discuss various techniques of sustaining children‘s/pupils interests
7. Discuss purpose and elements of professional documents used in teaching
8. Prepare schemes of work and lesson plans using the syllabus and timetables
9. Apply microteaching skills
10. Identify relevant and safe teaching/learning materials for ECDE
11. Develop and display materials for learning
12. Discuss various techniques of assessing children‘s achievement
CHAPTER 1:
DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS/LEARNING AND TEACHING
APPROACHES
 Define the terms and concepts used in Teaching.
 Identify appropriate teaching/learning approaches in ECDE
DEFINITION OF TERM AND CONCEPTS
Learning
It is the process of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, experience or being taught.
Learning is becoming aware of something through information or observation.
Teaching
Teaching is giving instruction to somebody or to cause somebody to know or be able to do
something. It is the communication of knowledge, skills. Teaching is the work of a teacher
i.e. giving instruction. It is a profession.
Formal Teaching
It is giving of instruction to somebody following expected rules of behaviour, showing or
expecting careful, serious behaviour in a school setting.
Informal Teaching
This is the process of giving knowledge, skills without any formality. There is no following
of social conventions. It is non-academic but significant in school. It is non-planned or
hidden.
TEACHING METHODS
Teaching method or educational method has a long history and relates to the questions,
"What is the purpose of education?" and "What are the best ways of achieving these
purposes?" For much of human history, educational method was largely unconscious and
consisted of children imitating or modelling their behaviour on that of their elders, learning
through observation and play, such as, how to make meals, set places for the family, hunt for
food, pick berries and how to play-fight and return home with little trophies.
Ancient education
About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more conscious or self-
reflective, with specialized occupations requiring particular skills and knowledge--how to be
a scribe, an astronomer, etc.
Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of educational method entering national
discourse. In his Republic, Plato describes a system of instruction that he felt would lead to
an ideal state. In his Dialogues, Plato describes the Socratic Method--the questions and
answers of the great Socrates--who was able to show even an uneducated slave boy how the
logic leading to the Pythagorean Theorem was within him.
It has been the intent of the largest-minded among educators since then--such as the Roman
educator Quintilian--to find specific, interesting ways to bring out of children the possibilities
of intelligence and to encourage them to learn.
Medieval education
Comenius, in what would become Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic,) wanted all boys
and girls to learn. In his famous The World in Pictures he gave the first vivid, illustrated text
book which contained much that children would be familiar with in everyday life and use it to
teach the academic subjects they needed to know. Rabelais described how the student
Gargantua learned about the world and what is in it.
Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile, presented methodology to teach children
the elements of science and much more. In this he famously avoided books, saying the world
is one's book. And so Emile was brought out into the woods without breakfast to learn the
cardinal directions and the positions of the sun as he found his way home for something to
eat.
Then there is Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland, whose methodology during
Napoleonic warfare enabled refugee children, of a class believed to be un-teachable, to learn
– and love to learn. He describes this in his account of the educational experiment at Stanz.
He felt the key to have children learn is for them to be loved. But his method, though
transmitted later in the school for educators he founded, has been thought too unclear to be
taught today. One result was, when he would ask, "Children, do you want to learn more or go
to sleep?" they would reply, "Learn more!"
20th century
In the 20th century, the philosopher Eli Siegel, who believed that all children are equally
capable of learning regardless of ethnic background or social class, stated: "The purpose of
all education is to like the world through knowing it." This is a goal which is implicit in
previous educators but in this principle is made conscious. With this principle at basis,
teachers have found that students learn the curriculum with the kind of eagerness that
Pestalozzi describes for his students at Stanz centuries earlier.
Some critical ideas in today's education environment include:
a) Instructional scaffolding
b) Graphic organizers
c) Standardized testing
According to Dr. Shaikh Imran, the teaching methodology in education is a new concept in
the teaching learning process. New methods involved in the teaching learning process are
television, radio, computer, etc. Other educators believe that the use of technology, while
facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational method that brings out
critical thinking and a desire to learn.
LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES
1. CHILD CENTRED APPROACH
This method places the child at the central point of learning. The child is involved in his own
learning. He learns by doing and by using his own senses. The child controls the speed at
which he/she learns new ideas. The role of an adult/teacher is to encourage the child, guide
him and provide materials required for learning and playing. The teacher should realize that
the child is just learning how-to-learn, and the teacher‘s job is to help children to create
favourable attitudes, skills and knowledge of themselves and the surroundings. (S)He needs
to encourage children to take part in planning their activities and collecting materials.
2. TEACHER CENTERED APPROACH
It is the most common approach used in teaching. The teacher directs the responses of
students or children by telling them what to do and showing how to do or practice. The
teacher evaluates what they are doing and provides instruction. Each teacher‘s decision or
instruction is based on the responses the children gave in the previous task. The content is
communicated by the teacher and the pacing of the lesson is controlled by the teacher.
Usually, the entire class practices the same task. This method is effective when the teacher‘s
goal is to have the children learn a specific skill, and perform that skill in a specified manner.
3. LEARNING THROUGH PLAY
Play is a natural way through which children learn and develop. When free, they spend more
time in play of their own creation. The parents and teachers should try to give time for the
child‘s free play. The teacher should work closely with children as they play with their
materials. They should observe children as they play giving suggestions and encouragement
to those who need it. In order to give the children more ideas and skills the parents or the
teachers have to create new learning situations by providing additional and different materials
and activities. The teacher needs to learn when to keep away materials already used and
introduce them later when children show interest in them.
At school, it is important that the children are engaged in play both inside and outside the
classroom. Facilities for both quiet and more active play should be provided. When children
play actively out-door, they exercise their bodies, learn to play with other children and get
enough fresh air, which is important for their healthy growth and development. When
children play indoors with materials and toys provided, they acquire more ideas and skills
and learn to share and work with other children.
Dramatic play and pretend activities take a large part of the child's play time. Through
dramatic play, imitation or pretend activities children learn more about their surroundings,
how people and things work, how to express themselves by imitating people or happenings
and to mix with others. Children are usually lively; learn well with a lot of enjoyment when
provided with sufficient toys and materials and when the teacher takes an active part in the
play.
The teacher needs to ensure that she builds on their experiences. She needs to provide a lot of
materials and activities beginning with those that children are familiar with. She needs to
involve parents in the activities and in the collection of materials. She has to explain to the
parents the importance of allowing children to play with and handle various kinds of
materials. It is important that parents need also learn to explain things to children and to ask
them questions related to what they are doing. Parents who provide the materials and find
time to play with or talk to their children are not wasting time. They are providing the most
important experience and strong foundation on which the pre-school will be built.
4. LEARNING THROUGH EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY
Children learn through their senses. They handle what is at hand, see what it will do and what
they can do with it. They look, feel, listen, smell, taste, imagine and dream about things. In
free play and by using their senses they discover new knowledge and increase their ideas as
they grow. As explained in the above section, the parents and the pre-school should provide
opportunities to enable children to investigate and find out things on their own.
Young children are active by nature and learn better when not over-controlled. They need to
be encouraged to take part in many learning activities. These activities help children to
develop ideas and understand the world around them better. Children who have new findings
or discoveries build a foundation for further growth and development of new ideas. To ensure
this growth, parents and teachers have to be friendly, understanding and encouraging.
When exploring the surroundings, children need to be given enough time to discuss, express
themselves, and to do other activities related to what they have seen. The teacher can
encourage the children to collect materials of interest. These materials can be used in further
discussion and activities in the classroom.
5. PEER TEACHING
It is an instructional approach that uses peers in pairs or small groups to actively teach one
another. In peer teaching, the teacher plans the tasks and communicates them with the
children, the children assume the roles of providing feedback and assessing. Demonstration
of tasks is shared between children and the teacher. Often the teacher will initially
demonstrate and the children as peer teachers will repeat the demonstration as necessary.
After initial demonstration and practice, children divide into pairs. Their task is to ‗coach‘
their partners to see if the partner brings out what is expected for peer teaching to be
effective, the skills taught should be simple, the cues for observation very clear and
performance be easily measured. Many teaches start by suing one peer teaching task or
activity in a lesson and then expand as children become more competent teachers. Children
must be able to work co-operatively and independently for peer reaching to be a success.
They must be responsible enough to take seriously the task of teaching other students. The
teacher must be able to provide the feedback to peer teachers to assist them in their teaching.
Children thoroughly enjoy being the teacher but for the strategy to be successful they must be
able to both analyze the skill and provide feedback.
6. GROUP TEACHING
In group teaching, group work is carefully designed to promote group interdependence and
individual responsibility. Small groups are used to create a project with naming component of
the larger project. This method works well with children who have highly developed
responsibility skills or with children who need to learn to work together. This method has
affective as well as cognitive benefits. Teachers must be skilled in designing tasks that are
meaningful to children. This method provides a chance for skill learning and teaches
responsibility. Its primary purpose is group development and problem solving.
7. THEMATIC APPROACH
It is a learning method based on themes. The teacher identifies a theme which runs through
the objectives of the curriculum and spends a week or two on that theme. The theme could be
from activity areas like: Science, Mathematics, environmental studies, music and movement,
physical activities, creative activities
Example:
Theme: MY HOME
Science = Name plants found at home
Mathematics = Count the family members who live in the home
Environmental studies = Name items found in the home compound
Music and movement = Sing song in praise of our home
Physical activities = Pretend and do things done at home
Creative activities = draw and colour things found at home
CHAPTER 2:
LEARNING AND TEACHING STRATEGIES
Demonstrate various learning/teaching strategies in ECDE
The following are some of the strategies that a teacher can use during teaching and learning:
1. DRAMATIC PLAY AND PRETEND ACTIVITIES
Dramatic play and pretend activities refer to the children's spontaneous role-playing.
Dramatic play is a characteristic of children under six years. It contributes to the development
of mental, physical, creative, social and emotional aspects of children. Children clarify their
concepts in their imaginative play. They question, wonder and experiment. They take
decisions and practice oral skills in their pretend games. Many original thoughts, words and
deeds develop as children ‗pretend‘. In dramatic play, children develop the concept of their
own sex role and also understand various other roles as they play them. Children also
experience and express many feelings as they play. They come to recognize who they are and
that they have very personal feelings. Children will engage in pretend activities even if they
do not have any materials and without any suggestions from adults. But their role play will be
increased and improved if the teacher provides appropriate materials and guidance. Some
suggestions are given below.
a) The teacher should provide a lot of materials some of which are suggestive of certain
roles, situations or events. She should begin by providing materials that relate to
children's experiences. For example, the teacher may not provide clothes for a petrol
station attendant if children have never seen one. However a range of materials for
dressing up, housekeeping, market, construction and so on should be provided.
b) The teacher should make sure that children have adequate time to play with these
materials, with little interference from the teacher. This is the reason why the free choice
activity period should be longer than all the others
During dramatic play the teacher who is a keen observer can learn a lot about children.
2. PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS
In programmed instructions the subject or content presented to students is controlled by the
active participation of students in a series of steps. Ideally the student will keep answers to
some problems and then compare with those given in the programme. Programmed
instructions materials are mostly in form of text books that are mostly given in mandatory
stages. A student is advised not to skip any stage. Like any other method of teaching, it has
merits and demerits.
Merits/advantages
a) There is a logical sequence of thinking provided by this method and students can easily
follow
b) Materials for programmed instructions are adopted after being tested in the field revised
and summarized to suit the students
c) Materials are provided to suit many kinds of learning activities and tasks.
Demerits/disadvantages
a) Functions when students are interested in learning facts and skills that belong to the
cognitive domain of learning of knowledge.
b) Some programmes are dull for brilliant students
c) Preparing instrumental programmes is very expensive especially for developing countries.
d) It is time consuming.
3. DRAMATIZATION
Arising from the children's natural role play, the teacher can develop simple play and drama
for children. Children drama should arise from other ongoing activities. For example, when
children dramatize a story, a poem or activities observed during a visit.
The children and the teacher can bring or make costumes and props to make the drama more
interesting. The children should be allowed to choose the part they want to act. It is better to
encourage them to use their own words rather than giving them prepared sentences.
Organized drama is more appropriate for older pre-school children.
4. EDUCATIONAL VISITS/FIELD TRIPS
It involves conducting lessons outside the classroom. It includes visiting community resource
centers, private property, industries, institutions etc.
Providing for a field-trip
It is a method that requires a lesson both in classroom and outside the class i.e. learning will
continue at the site of the visit. In class the teacher prepares the students psychologically for
the trip. The teachers selects the date for the trip the place, site and informs the students on
what to expect and what to do while there. A questionnaire might be prepared for students to
be responded to by people they will meet at the site for instance, a chemistry class visiting an
industry should have questions prepared concerning some chemical processes, the risks of
handling some chemicals and the resultant way of combating this risks while at the site, the
teacher moves closely at each stage issues once back at school. A field trip is only organized
with the permission of the school‘s administration and subject teacher. It requires therefore,
prior arrangement since some subjects will not be taught on that particular day. The teacher
must consult the schools term‘s calendar. The teacher organizes transport in consultation with
an administration and also feeding, and then notifies the management of the site to be visited.
Advantages
a) Students get to practically experience what they might have learnt or what they will learn
theoretically.
b) Students get excited because of traveling hence they learn in a relaxed atmosphere.
c) A single trip will serve a number of subjects e.g. visiting a factory will serve science,
agriculture etc
d) People working in the visited stations will explain the activities that go on in there and
hence as resource persons and therefore have stimulus variations
Disadvantages
a) Field visits/trips are expensive.
b) They are time consuming as classes are suspended.
c) It is open to abuse by either the students or the teachers e.g. picking a faraway place when
the school is not in a position to transport students.
d) Some students might be excited and carried away by the new environment and fail to
learn.
5. STORIES
Children enjoy listening to stories. Stories are important in the social and moral development
of children. They are used to instill acceptable behaviour and to learn about social
relationships. They develop listening ability, concentration and are a rich source of ideas.
Stories also stimulate children‘s thinking and imagination.
There are a number of techniques that can be employed in the pre-school to make story
telling interesting for young children.
a) The common way of telling stories is to have children sit comfortably in a semi-circle
preferably on a mat or on the grass. The teacher sits on a low seat in a position where all
children can see him/her. The teacher needs to vary the voice so that he/she can
emphasize those parts that require special attention. (S)he can also use gestures or a
costume to make the story more interesting.
b) Some stories particularly those with good illustrations are also interesting when the
teacher reads them to the children. Later the teacher could present the story through the
picture sequence only giving short explanations.
c) The teacher can also make simple flannel or pin-up boards. As the teacher tells a story
he/she sticks or pins up the story characters. Children can make their own stories with
these characters after the story telling session and during free choice activities.
d) Stories can also be presented quite effectively using puppets. Puppets often stimulate
quiet children to talk. This happens when they are given a chance to be one of the
characters through a puppet. The teacher will decide whether she or the children will
speak for the puppets depending on the age and experience of the children. Stories which
have a lot of conversation are more suitable for use with puppets.
e) By use of creative dramatics, children can actively be involved in a story. The teacher
may tell or read a story then let children present their version. The children can be
encouraged to dramatize the story by playing various roles and attaching them to the
story. They should be left to use their own words and expressions and not necessarily
those used in the story.
f) Scrap story books can be made by the teacher or by the children in picture sequences that
suggest stories. The teacher can start the story by describing the first picture and asking
the children to suggest the other sequences.
Additional information for the teacher
a) It is important that the teacher selects suitable stories for children. Many of these stories
are available in the community. Children enjoy stories that talk about familiar situations
and those that have a lot of action, repetition and singing.
b) The teacher should vary the methods of presenting the stories. A number of these
methods and techniques have been given above.
c) Children should be given an opportunity to create and tell their own stories. The teacher
can write some of the stories and read them to the children later.
Other methods of representing stories should be used. Children can for example, draw, paint
or model certain story characters or scenes.
6. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS METHOD
This is a very useful method or technique particularly when learners are engaged in class
discussions. Effective teachers keep discussions going on smoothly by asking questions that
require more than just supervision answers. This can be done in one or both of the following
types of questions:
a) Probing questions
b) Higher order questions
Probing questions
These are questions that can be asked after the learner has given a supervision answer or
response to a question asked by the teacher once the learner has given his/her response.
Instead of advancing to another question, the teacher probes the learner by requiring him/her
beyond the initial response.
Probing questions are initiated by the teacher soon after the learner has responded to the
teacher question and they require the learner to go beyond the initial response.
Higher order questions
This requires abstract thinking on part of the learner. There are questions that cannot be
answered merely from memory (reproduction of what has been learned. The learner is
required to go beyond factual or descriptive statements and demonstrate the ability to do the
following: -
a) To generalize
b) To relate facts in meaningful patterns
c) To compare and contrast ideals, objects or events
d) To make inferences
e) To perceive cause and effects
Higher order questions call for discovery of ideas rather than their definitions. They also
prompt the learner to use ideas rather than just remember them. The key word related to
higher order questions is why.
7. DISCUSSION METHODS
It involves exchange of ideas in a given topic. This exchange can be between:
 Teachers and pupils
 Pupils in small groups under the teachers supervision
Types of classroom discussions
a) Teacher directed recitation
b) Guided discovery dialogue
c) Inquiry oriented group discussions
Teacher directed recitation
The teacher poses oral questions to pupils to determine whether they have understood what
they have learnt or whether they have completed the assigned work to whether they are ready
to move to the next topic. Although this type is teacher centered, it enables the teacher to
evaluate pupils work and also their readiness for the work to be done later on, and also to
determine whether pupils have acquired relevant preliquisite knowledge.
Guided discovery dialogue
The main aim of this is to leave learners to discover or come up with new knowledge in the
areas of study. The teacher directs or leads the discussion in the desired direction by asking
most of questions aimed at enabling the pupils to make the required discovery. There is more
learner to learner interactions in guided discovery dialogue than the teacher directed
recitation.
Inquiry oriented group discussion
Here the learners play an active role in generating or formulating the topic to be discussed
and also in discussion pupils determine the question themselves and guidelines. The teacher
can also give them the topic and guidelines for discussions. Such discussions are learner
centered with the teacher acting as a facilitator/guide but not a source of answers to all
questions. The learners are left to draw or make most of the conclusions.
8. DEMONSTRATION METHOD
It is a visual way to present information to the learner and it always supplements what is
written. It is an instance of showing and explaining how something works or is done e.g. how
a certain food is cooked or how a computer works. It is used when a topic or idea has more
direct impact when presented visually. The following guidelines are to be followed.
1. Should be well explained and the facilitator should prepare the demonstration.
2. Make the use of the method interesting
3. Ensure that the materials are available and ready for use.
4. Ensure that you pretest the materials to ensure that they will work.
5. Ensure that the students are well positioned so that they can view the demonstration.
6. Do not demonstrate in silence and allow students to ask questions and also ask them
questions
7. If after demonstrations pupils have to do something, write the instructions on the board.
8. The demo should be presented in a logical manner i.e. follow a sequence.
9. After the demo, encourage students to write a report.
Advantages
a) It is economical in terms of time and money
b) Dangerous, complex or expensive materials are handled by the teacher alone so as to
avert risks
c) It is a psychologically sound method because students see and handle objects
d) It maintains creativity, encourages critical thinking and heuristic skills.
e) The method cannot be used in large groups.
CHAPTER 3
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL
 Describe various techniques of class organization and class control in an early learning
centre.
SEATING ARRANGEMENTS
Children's furniture should be easy to move about It should be arranged in such a way that a
group of children can work easily and children can move easily from one place to another. It
is better not to arrange desks in rows with all children facing the teacher. This creates a
distance between the children and the teacher and hinders free movement in the classroom. If
the classroom is large enough, there should be a central place where children can sit for group
activities, such as storytelling, reciting of poems, games or construction activities. A locally
made mat can be spread out in this area for children to sit on.
GROUPING CHILDREN AND MATERIAL DISTRIBUTION
Grouping children enables a teacher to give them more individual attention. When the teacher
is working with a small group of children he/she is able to give close attention to each child.
This closeness makes the children feel loved and recognized by the teacher. It is this
recognition that gives the child self confidence and interest in learning.
When children work in groups they learn to share materials and ideas. The teacher and the
parents have to encourage the children to help one another so that they are able to work
independently when the teacher is helping other children or is engaged in another activity. In
this way the children learn to respect each other‘s abilities. For example, a child can teach
others in that group a new poem, or show them how to complete a puzzle. In school situations
the teacher may find it easier to supply sufficient materials of one kind for one or two groups
at a time than to supply the whole class.
The teacher needs to group her children according to their abilities particularly when he/she
intends that children learn specific skills as in mathematics or reading readiness skills. In
some cases the teacher has to consider the ages of the children. When children of same
abilities work together in a group, they share materials, ideas and are able to do activities
better. At times the children can be grouped according to their interests. This kind of group
can work very well in projects where specific things to be done can be assigned to children
who are interested in them. For instance, after the children have visited a local market the
teacher can discuss with the children what they saw in the market.
Sometimes the teacher needs to allow the children to work in friendship groups. Younger
children might want to work near their older brothers or sisters if in the same class. The
teacher should allow this so that the younger child will feel more secure near his brother.
When the children are being admitted to the pre-school, the teacher could use ages for
grouping while trying to find out their abilities.
For children to work well in groups, the teacher should give them clear instructions. She
should move from one group to another quickly making sure children followed her
instructions. She might need to demonstrate quickly to each group what they are expected to
do. It helps if the teacher distributes materials before giving instructions. Children can help in
giving out materials. They can do this in turns so that they are trained in leadership and
responsibility.
When the children have started working, the teacher has to follow up each group making
close observation, giving suggestions, asking and answering questions and helping the
children where necessary. The teacher should make sure that the children have enough
working space. If the classroom is very small the teacher is encouraged to work with the
children outside if a convenient place is available. Each group has to be provided with
enough materials to work with.
Should some children finish their work early, they have to be allowed either to join another
group if it has extra materials or play individually with other materials. At the end of the
activities the teacher and the children can go round observing the work. If possible the
children need to display their work. Some of their work can be taken home to be shared with
the family. The teacher should encourage the children to keep the classroom tidy and store
the materials they have been using safely and neatly. Materials should be stored close to the
activity areas in which they are used. This makes it easy for the children to get the materials
when they require them.
The diagram on next page gives an example of how a pre-school classroom can be organized.
LEARNING AREAS
Sand play Entrance

Water play
Display of Construction and

Nature children’s work
wood corner
corner on walls
Table
Table
Dressing up
corner
Table
Story telling Quiet

activities singing
Table
Table
Home
Music
corner
Teacher’s corner
Display of table with
pictures charts on drawers

Shop
Book corner
wall Storage cupboard
corner
CHAPTER 4:
MODERN THEORIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOCUSING ON ECDE
 Compare modern theories associated with instructional methods in ECDE.
In this study we will discuss various educational theorists/philosophers and their contribution
to instructional methods of ECDE.
1. Maria Montessori (1870 -1952)
Montessori became the first female physician in Italy. She worked in the slums of Rome with
poor children and with mentally retarded children. Sensing that they were lacking proper
motivation and environment, she opened a preschool, Casa di Bambini, in 1907. Montessori
designed materials, classrooms and a teaching procedure that proved her point to the
astonishment of people all over Europe and America. Before her, no one with medical or
psychiatric training had articulated so clearly the needs of the growing child. Her medical
background added credibility to her findings and helped her ideas gain recognition in the
country. The Montessori concept is both a philosophy of child development and a plan for
guiding growth, believing that education begins at birth and the early years are of the utmost
importance. During this time, children pass through ―sensitive periods,‖ in which their
curiosity makes them ready for acquiring certain skills and knowledge. Through her
enlightenment, child-sized furniture and materials are now used in classrooms. By focusing
on sequential steps of learning, Montessori developed a set of learning materials still widely
used today. One of her most valuable contribution was a theory of how children learn. She
believed that any task could be reduced to a series of small steps. By using this process,
children could learn to sweep a floor, dress themselves, or multiply numbers. Montessori
materials are graded in difficulty and emphasize her interest in self-help skills. To foster this,
she developed frames with buttons and laces so children could learn to be responsible for
their own dressing. The layout of the room and the distribution and presentation of materials
furthered this concept. Montessori placed great emphasis on the environment, the ―prepared
environment,‖ as she called it. A sense of order, a place for everything, and clear rationale are
hallmarks of the Montessori influence. Her procedures as well as her materials contain self-
correcting features. Nesting cylinders, for example, fit together only one way and are to be
used that way. Montessori supported earlier educational ideas of sensory development; she
felt that cognitive abilities stem from sensory discrimination. Thus most of her equipment
was tactile and enhanced the senses as well as the mind. In the Montessori Method, the role
of the teacher is primarily one of observer and facilitator. Teachers demonstrate proper use of
materials and communicate as needed, avoiding any acts that might cause the child to become
dependent on them for help or approval. At the same time, Montessori saw the goal of
education as the formation of the child and development of character.
2. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782 -1852)
Froebel is one of the major contributors to early childhood education, particularly in his
organization of educational thought and ideas about learning, curriculum, and the teacher
training. He is known to many as the ―father of kindergarten,‖ not only for giving it a name,
but for devoting his life to the development of a system of education for young children. The
German word kindergarten means ―children‘s garden,‖ and that is what Froebel felt best
expressed what he wanted for children less than 6 years of age. Since his own childhood had
been unhappy, he resolved that early education should be pleasant. He advocated the radical
thought that children should be able to play, to have toys, and to be with trained teachers. He
started the first training school. Over 100 years ago, Froebel‘s kindergarten included blocks,
pets and finger-plays. In practice, Froebel advocated the radical notions of play in school, of
children having toys as learning tools, and of offering teacher training. Froebel observed
children and came to understand how they learned and what they liked to do. He developed
the first educational toys, which he called ―gifts.‖ Some of his theories about children and
their education later influenced Montessori and were reflected in the educational materials
she developed. Every day, teachers in centers and homes across the country are increasingly
practicing the Froebelian belief that a child‘s first educational experiences should be a
garden: full of pleasant discoveries and delightful adventure, where the adults‘ role is to plant
ideas and materials for children to use as they grow at their own pace.
3. John Dewey (1858 -1952)
By the end of the 1800s, a nationwide reform movement had begun in America. In education,
the progressive Movement, as it was called, got its direction primarily through one individual,
John Dewey. Dewey was the first real American influence on American education. Raised in
Vermont, he became a professor of philosophy at both the University of Chicago and
Columbia University. In the years that followed, Dewey would be responsible for one of the
greatest impacts on American education of all time. Dewey believed that children were
valuable and that childhood was an important part of their lives. Like Froebel, he felt that
education should be integrated with life and should provide a training ground for cooperative
living. As did Pestalozzi and Rousseau, Dewey felt that schools should focus on the nature of
the child. Until this time, children were considered of little consequence. Childhood was
rushed. Children as young as seven were regular part of the work force – on the farms, in the
mines, and in the factories. A new kind of school emerged from these ideals. Even the
buildings began to take on a different look. Movable furniture replaced rows of benches.
Children‘s projects, some still under construction were found everywhere. The curriculum of
the school began to focus on all of the basics, not just a few of the academics. If a group of 6-
year-olds decided to make a woodworking table, they would first learn to read in order to
understand the directions. After calculating the cost, they would purchase the materials. In
building the table, geometry, physics and math were learned along the way. This was a group
effort that encouraged children to work together in teams and so schools became a society in
miniature. Children‘s social skills were developed along with reading, science and math. The
teacher‘s role in the process was one of ongoing support, involvement, and encouragement.
The contribution of John Dewey to American education cannot be underestimated. Dewey‘s
ideas are part of today‘s classrooms in several ways. His child-oriented schools are a model
of child care centers and family child care homes, as learning and living are inseparable.
4. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778)
Rousseau, a writer and philosopher of the middle 1700s, brought forth the idea that children
were not inherently evil, but naturally good. He is best known for his book Emile in which he
raised a hypothetical (imaginary) child to adulthood. He reasoned that education should
reflect this goodness and allow spontaneous interests and activities of the children. Soon
children were actively involved in their own education. Each child was considered unique
and valuable. While he was not an educator, Rousseau offered insights that were valuable. He
suggested that school atmosphere should be less restrained and more flexible to meet the
needs of the children. He insisted on using concrete teaching materials, leaving the abstract
and symbolism for later years. His call to naturalism transformed education in such a way
that led educators to eventually focus more on the early years. Pestalozzi, Froebel and
Montessori were greatly influenced by him. Rousseau ideas are still followed today in early
childhood classes. Free play is based on Rousseau‘s belief in children inherent goodness and
ability to choose what they need to learn. Environments that stress autonomy and self-
regulation have their roots in Rousseau‘s philosophy. Using concrete rather than abstract
materials for young children is still one of the cornerstones of developmentally appropriate
curriculum in the early years.
5. Johann Heinrick Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827)
Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator whose theories on education and caring have formed the
basis of many common teaching practices of early childhood education. Like Rousseau, he
used nature study as part of the curriculum and believed that good education meant the
development of the senses. Rather than simply glorify nature, Pestalozzi became more
pragmatic, including principles on how to teach basic skills and the idea of ―caring‖ as well
as ―educating‖ the child. Pestalozzi stressed the idea of integrated curriculum which would
develop the whole child. He wanted education to be of the hand, the head and the heart of the
child. Teachers were to guide self-activity through intuition, exercise and the senses. Along
with the intellectual content, he proposed that practical skills be taught in schools. He differed
from Rousseau in that he proposed teaching children in groups rather than using a tutor with
an individual child. Pestalozzi‘s work How Gertrude Teaches Her Children and Book for
Mothers detailed some procedures for mothers to use at home with their children. Probably
his greatest contribution is the blending of Rousseau‘s strong romantic ideals with his own
egalitarian attitude that built skills and independence in a school atmosphere that paralleled
that of a firm and loving home.
6. Jean Piaget
Through background in biology, Piaget viewed cognitive development as an adaptive process
influenced Piaget theory of cognitive development. By acting directly on the environment,
children move through four stages in which internal structures achieve a better fit with
external reality.
In Piaget‘s theory, psychological structures or sequences change in 2 ways; Assimilation and
accommodation. The second is through organization, the internal rearrangement of schemas
so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. Piaget assumed that the stages
are invariant and universal. He came up with 4 major stages of cognitive development. We
will only discuss the first 2 stages of cognitive development since they are largely associated
with the Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE)
Stages of cognitive Development
They include: -
e) Sensori motor stage (birth to 2years)
f) The pre-operational stage (2-7years)
g) The concrete operational stage (7-11years)
h) The formal operational stage (11 and older)
e) THE SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD/STAGE
Piaget labeled the period of infant intelligence as sensor motor period or stage. During this
stage infants obtain information (acquire knowledge) through the senses and action. As they
develop, infants increasingly become curious and seek to explore the environment. Their
increasing physical and motor abilities increase the amount and types of explorative activities
they can do. By performing actions on objects in the environment, they obtain information
about their environment and consequently advance in their knowledge and understanding.
They also change their way of thinking. The sensor motor stage extends from birth to 2 years
of age within this period infants pass through six levels or sub stages as follows:
Stage 1: Reflexes (Birth to about 1 month)
As discussed in this module, the infant is born with reflexes that are involuntary responses to
the environment. At this stage, behaviour is demanded by the use of reflexes. Infants for
instance, will suckle anything that touches their lips. They do not take long to learn that
sucking provides nourishment.
The baby begins to classify objects so that the object that provides nourishment such as the
nipples, the teat of a bottle are sucked differently from those that simply provide pleasure
such as a thumb. Their thinking is based on their prior experience. What they think in turn
influences what they do.
Stage 2: Primary circular reaction (1-4month)
Increasingly, the baby seeks pleasure sensations. A primary circular reaction occurs when a
baby does something accidentally that leads to an interesting result. The baby tries to achieve
the results again by repeating the original action, which again leads to an interesting result.
This again makes the baby repeat the action again and on. The reaction is called circular
because an action is repeated in sequence and it is repeated over and over again. It‘s primary
because it involves only the baby and not anything in the environment. A good example of
primary circular reaction is cooing. The baby makes the sound, hears and enjoys it, makes it
again and so on. Thumb sucking is also primary circular reaction.
Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction (4-8months)
Secondary circular reactions are like primary circular reactions, except that they are centered
in an objects and events in the external environment not just on the baby‘s body. For example
a hanging toy attached to a string is tied to the baby‘s hand and the baby with no intention
moves his/her arms such that the toy moves.
By moving the arm the toy moves, so he moves the arm again to make the toy move and the
event is repeated. This reaction is circular because it involves something beyond the baby‘s
body. In both primary and secondary circular reaction the first action is not intentional.
Stage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reaction (8-12months)
is not new but the idea is. For example a baby can remove a mother‘s arm that is blocking the
breast in order to get the breast. In this case the baby thinks of putting two actions together to
achieve a goal.
This is made possible by the fact that the baby has now developed the concept of object
permanence. This concept refers to the ability to know that an object continues to exist even
when it is out of the baby‘s sight. This enables the baby to look for the object that is not
immediately at sight. For example if you take the baby‘s toy and put it behind him, he can
look around for it.
The infant also shows interest in quality of objects. They anticipate events. For example a
baby may hide her mother‘s shoes, if the mother acts as if she is getting ready to leave, to
prevent her from going.
Stage5: Territory circular reactions (12-18months)
The baby is less interested in achieving goal and more interested in experimenting ways of
achieving it. In the course of these experiments they often invent and discover new ways of
acting on the world. Good example of this stage/behavior is the dropping experiment that
most parents recognize. Baby will drop a spoon onto a plastic plate. He picks up the spoon
and drops it: this time on a pillow, repeats this twice then drops it on a sufuria, then in to a
basin of water. The baby is experimenting with different ways of dropping the spoon.
Stage6: Invention of New means Through Mental combination (18-24)
This stage is marked by the development of symbols .The baby begins to use symbols to
represent objects. For example a child can pretend that a stick is a spoon and use it
accordingly.
The child understands that the symbol is separate from the object. The other characteristics
that progressively develop this stage are:
 Imitation
 Object permanence
Imitation
Piaget believed that the baby‗s ability to imitate others moves through a series of steps. In
stage 1 and 2 the baby cannot imitate at all. In stage 3, the baby can imitate an action that he
already has in his repertoire, that is, if he already has a scheme. In stage 4, the baby can
imitate something new while deferred imitation occurs in stage 6, the infant is now capable
of deferred Imitation in which he sees some action and then imitates it at a later time. For
example, he baby can see a bigger child jumping and be able to imitate the jumping action at
a later time.
Object permanence
Another thing that an infant learns in stages is object permanence. This is the knowledge that
objects exist even when we cannot see them. As adults we know that objects we see on two
different occasion existed somewhere; unseen by us, in the mean time. A six months old baby
does not make this assumption‘s. Such a child sees a favorite toy being covered by a piece of
cloth, he or she will not pick up the cloth to get toy. It is out-of-sight–out–of mind. However
12 months old will search for the toy. The 12 month old has developed object permanence. It
develops at around 8 months of age. At this time the child begins to protest the disappearance
of people.
f) THE PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 YEARS)
These are mainly pre-school age children aged between 2and 7 years. Children in this age are
in Piaget‘s pre-operational stage. Piaget believed that three behaviors emerge during the early
part of the pre-operational stage that affects the pre-schoolers use of symbols to represent
thought. These are:
Differed Imitation: Where the child imitates the earlier observed behavior. For example,
children act from TV programmes or what they have observed happening at home. In this
chance they represent the behaviors in form of reality.
Symbolic play: Play is where by children perform pretending activities. They role play
family situations like drinking from an imaginary cap. They also use objects to stand for
something else. Sand, for example, may be used to stand for food.
Use of language: Children acquire skills quickly during pre-school years. Initially, the word
and the object it represents are assigned the same properties. You may find the word cat
being associated with sound meow and soft fur, or even a child calling out word ‗cat‘ on
seeing its feeding bowl.
Characteristics of Pre-operational Thought
How will you distinguish a child operating at this level from the other levels or stages? This
stage is marked by minor characteristics that will be discussed here. They include:
a. Ego-centricism
Ego-centricism refers to self- centeredness. Due to this quality the language of pre-schoolers
is full of I, me, mine, and my. Further they tend to assume that others think as they do, share
their views, feelings and desires. They also think things happen because of them. For
example, they blame themselves when things go wrong, such as parents fighting, separating
or divorcing. This can be carried on as childhood fixation in adulthood, making people
alcoholic or workaholic.
b. Lack of knowledge of cause and effect
Children at this stage fail to see the relationship between the causes of things/events or the
effects of actions. Sometime they see cause and effect in relationship where there is name.
Take for example of a child gets hurt after falling on a slippery floor when others are loudly
cheering a football match in the field. The child may associate being hurt with the cheers and
come to fear noisy crowds. The child fails to see the slipperiness of the floor as the cause to
the injury.
c. Animism
Pre-schoolers (Pre-operational stage) tend to assign human characteristics to inanimate (non
living) things. You may have children saying that a doll has refused to eat or sleep. In such
instances the child seems to treat this non-living toy like a living thing.
d. Centration
The child tends to concentrate on one attribute or aspect of the object he/she observes.
The child centers his/her concentration on features of things that are most noticeable and
ignores the other features. Thus, if you present a pre-operate child with two glasses of milk,
one slender and tall, the other wider and short, but having the same volume and ask which
glass has more milk, the child is most likely to say the tall one. In this case, the child centers
on the height.
e. Artificialism
Children believe that everything that happens has psychological reasons. This means that it
has a reason that is related to how a child reasons and feels. For example, flower grows to
make us happy. They do not think in term of physical reasons.
f. Perceptual bound thought
Children judge the world by the way it looks to them. Two halves of an object looks like
more than the whole. In addition to the onset of pre-operational thought, children do not
group objects according to categories of size and shape but according to pattern. They
arrange them so that they look ―nice‖. These are termed by Inhaler and Piaget (1964) as
graphic collections. Given a set of circles, squares and triangles, for an example, a child may
place a triangle on top of a square and say it makes a house.
g. Inflexible and irreversibility though
A child does not think backwards e.g. it is difficult for a girl to think of her only sister as
having a sister. They also cannot reason that if 2 + 1 = 3 then 3 – 2 = 1.
h. Lack of conservation
Due to centration, the child is unable to perceive the reality of liquids, substances, numbers
and weights remaining the same in spite of changes in appearance owing to the space they
occupy.
i. Overgeneralization
A child tends to over use the few acquired concepts e.g. all men are called daddy. People in
white coats are doctors and all aches may be termed as head ache. Piaget saw little value in
teaching operational skills to young children.
CHAPTER 5:
TECHNIQUES OF SUSTAINING PUPILS‘ INTERESTS
 Discuss various techniques of sustaining pupils‘ interests during teaching and learning.
Motivating pupils in a class
There are several ways of promoting intrinsic orientation towards learning in a class.
1. Provide motivating learning materials
The materials should be personally challenging, meaningful, and should call for pupil‘s active
participation in the learning process. The teacher should use a variety of learning activities
and should know that even minor changes can have an impact. The teacher should stimulate
pupil‘s curiosity by asking questions that are surprising and discrepant from pupils‘ current
understanding.
2. Emphasize the intrinsic value of learning
The teacher should help the pupils to see the value of learning. They should also help them to
connect what they are learning with the life outside school. They should link learning
materials to current events or familiar experience and learning activities should have a
worthwhile instructional objective.
3. Promote positive feeling of competence
The teacher should provide a feedback to let them know that they are improving their skills
and use learning activities that build on one another for students to see that they are
improving. The teacher should help the pupils set realistic short term goals to receive
continuous feedback. The teacher should also support their independent learning effort and
when they perform poorly provide feedback on how they can improve.
4. Recognize personal improvement
The teacher can use improvement oriented grading system. The teacher can use multiple
opportunities for students to complete task. The teacher should avoid public forms of
evaluation and if so recognize all pupils.
5. Increase opportunity for choice
Pupils should be let to design their learning tasks and choose how to complete a lesson. Also
help them determine criteria for evaluating assignments. They should be involved in
developing guidelines for classroom behaviour.
6. Increase opportunity for choice
Pupils should be let to design their learning tasks and choose how to complete a lesson. Also
help them determine criteria for evaluation assignments. They should be involved in
developing guidelines for classroom behaviour.
7. Provide opportunities for peer collaboration
The teacher should organize co-operative learning, peer tutoring and peer interaction
opportunities. He should use a combination of heterogeneous and homogenous grouping
arrangements. The teacher should establish learning atmosphere where differences among
them are accepted and valued. Pupils should be given activities according to their level and
the teacher should attend to their individual needs.
CHAPTER 6:
PROFESSIONAL DOCUMENTS USED IN TEACHING
 Discuss the purpose and elements of various professional documents used in teaching.
1. THE SYLLABUS
The syllabus outlines the main things or topics to be taught in a specific subject. The topics
should be logically developed and presented by the teacher for an ideal syllabus.
Characteristics of a typical syllabus
a) It contains national goals/objectives of education in Kenya
b) It indicates teaching themes
c) It indicates facilitates needed for teaching
d) It indicates sources of information or resources i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary
e) It is developed by subject specialists‘ panel comprising of seasoned teachers (Those
who have taught for over ten successful years).
 Ministry of Education from K.I.C.D. and Expectorate
 Stakeholders in education e.g. the publishers
f) It indicates the period and level e.g. term I, II, III etc class I or form II etc.
The value of syllabus in the process of planning
a) It provides the teacher with goals and objectives
b) It provides the objectives of teaching subjects
c) It shows topics to be taught which should be logically and concentrically developed.
d) It is a source of information, references, resources and facilities for teaching
e) It provides the teacher with foundations of preparing the schemes of work.
f) It provides information on time to be taken when teaching the categories (e.g. class 1,
2, 3, 4..) of pupils to be taught.
2. SCHEMES OF WORK
A scheme of work is a forecast of the work one expects to cover within a specified period. In
other words it is the breakdown of the learning units into convenient parts that can be covered
within a week, a month or a term.
The teacher should make long-term plans, involving a year or a term. She should select the
topic or activities to be covered, materials required, and resource material. This helps her to
map out links between activity areas say, language, mathematics or environmental activities
and to see how easier or simple ideas or skills can be built up to more difficult ideas or skills.
A sample Schemes of work for pre-school is found on page 44.
3. TIMETABLE
A teacher requires a guide showing the type of experiences that children should be involved
in everyday (time-table). The time-table should not control the teacher but should respond to
the interests of the children. By including some routines such as assembly, or toileting in the
time-table children learn what they are expected to do at certain times and this makes them
feel more secure at the pre-school.
An example of time allocation for different activity areas on the plan is given below. This
should help the teacher to make his/her own timetable to suit the children and the
surroundings.
Time allocation on a daily basis
Timing Activity area
20 minutes Arrival, assembly and prayers
45 minutes Indoor free choice activities
30 minutes Language activities
45 minutes Outdoor play and break
30 minutes Mathematics
30 minutes Environmental activities and craft/music and movement (A double period
session may be useful for environmental activities, creative activities or
15 minutes any other project work) preparation for lunch or home lunch
Afternoon Rest for the whole-day pre-school children
Quiet activities and preparation for home
PRE-SCHOOL ROUTINE
The time-table guides all the activities carried on in a pre-school every day. Morning
assembly, roll call, health inspection, toileting and prayers are recommended to be done the
first thing in the morning. Activity time and break have to follow later with other toileting if
necessary.
The pre-school teacher is required to adopt or follow a flexible timing according to children‘s
interests or needs. If children are interested in a certain activity, they should not be forced to
stop because the time is over. They may be given an allowance to wind up what they have
been doing. Their interest or curiosity must not be cut off promptly for this leaves them
dissatisfied.
During break time the teacher is required to keep an eye on the children, assist them in
learning how to use toilets or latrines and washing hands after visiting the toilets or before
eating their snacks. They should also be encouraged to be orderly or line up while the snacks
are being served.
When children go home at lunch time or in the evening, the teacher must make sure that they
leave school safely. She must know those children who walk home alone or accompanied by
their older brothers and sisters and those who are collected from school by their parents or
adults. If a child is not collected at that time or is late to be picked-up by the parent the
teacher must find a way of making sure that, the child gets home safely.
If children are not well handled and taken care of properly, they may dislike school
completely.
The other important factor is that the time-table should be flexible and should be changed
with the children's changing needs and interests.
If children are engaged in a project they can carry it out for a whole morning. What the
teacher should try to do is to link all activity areas to the project. For example she can ensure
that children learn and practice their mathematics skills, language development, creative
work etc. In fact some teachers always carry out their daily activities in this integrated way,
where learning and teaching are guided by group or individual interests. This method should
be encouraged because it places the child at the central point in learning.
Otherwise during indoor free choice activities the teacher has an opportunity of enabling
children to cover all areas they are supposed to carry out in their daily activities in an
integrated way. If we take say, drawing and colouring the activity can be opened up to cover
mathematics, reading readiness, environmental, language and creative activities.
SAMPLE OF HALF DAY PRE-SCHOOL TIMETABLE
8.00 8.15 9.00 9.30 10.00 10.30 11.00 11.45
Day/Time 8.15 9.00 9.30 10.00 10.30 11.00 11.45 12.00
Monday Indoor Language Outdo Mathema Environmental P
A Free Activities B or tics Activities R
S Choice R Play E F
S Activitie E P O
E s A A R
Tuesday M K Art & Craft R
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
B A H
Wednesday L Environmental T O
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
Y activities I M
Thursday Art & Graft O E
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ N
Friday Music &
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
Movement
SAMPLE OF HALF FULL PRE-SCHOOL TIMETABLE
Day 8.00 8.15 9.00 9.30 10.45 11.15 11.45 12.00 2.00 2.45
8.15 9.00 9.30 10.45 11.15 11.45 12.00 2.00 2.45 3.30
Monday Indoor Langu Mathe Environm Rest P

A Free age matics O A ental P and R
S Choice Activit U N R L quiet E
S Activities ies T D E U activ F
E D P N ities P O
Tuesday M O B Art & A C A
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
B O R Craft R H R
Wednesday L R E Environm A R
Y ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ A T ‘‘ A
ental
Thursday P K Art & I H
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ L O ‘‘ T
Craft
Friday A Music & N O
Y Movement I
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ M
O E
N
4. LESSON PLAN
When making daily lesson plans the teacher needs to consider the children's interests, and
how much they are able to do.
The teacher should make her plans open and be ready to add activities from the children. The
teacher should also involve the children in making the day to day programmes. She can ask
them to say what they would like to do the following day. They can be asked to bring the
materials used for these activities.
While planning, the pre-school teacher should bear in mind what children have to learn, who
is to learn, and how the whole activity is going to be handled. The planning should also take
into account those skills and concepts that are to be developed.
The lesson plan needs to show the topic objectives, materials, resources, children's activities,
and teacher's activities. The teacher should show how to begin a lesson and how to end it. She
should also show how to cater for children who finish early or those who do not want to
participate in the activities given.
NB: The above documents will be discussed details during Curriculum Activity Areas
session.
CHAPTER 7:
DEVELOPMENT & DISPLAY OF RELEVANT AND SAFE MATERIALS FOR
ECDE
 Identify relevant and safe teaching/learning materials for ECDE.
 Develop various learning aids for use while teaching.
DISPLAY OF MATERIALS
The material displays in the classroom are part of the learning environment. The way
materials are displayed can affect children's learning. The displays whether on the walls or
tables should be at a height where children can reach and see them clearly.
The displays should be arranged properly for example by theme or activity area. Wall
displays should be fixed properly and the teacher should see that they stand straight in
relation to natural vertical and horizontal lines for example walls and floors. Displays of
concrete materials as mentioned earlier are better arranged in learning centers. There should
be enough working and movement room between the corners. It is important that some of the
children's work be displayed for some time. It gives them a feeling of success and confidence.
They can take the rest of their work home.
TEACHING AND LEARNING MATERIALS/AIDS
1. PICTORIAL AID
Pictorial aid can be categorized into three
 Pictures
 Charts
 Wall maps
a) Pictures
They are the most popular way of learning. There is a Chinese saying ―A picture is worth a
thousand words‖. A picture tells us much more of what is written. It brings a sense of reality
to what is being learnt interests and helps in creating a background for many activities. The
teacher/instructor is always expected to draw coloured pictures because they are attractive.
Importance of pictures in the school
They are suitable for indirect instruction and can be used as follows: -
a) Training imagination by showing a picture representing a specific story
b) Oral composition i.e. talking about the picture
c) Teaching vocabulary by use of sounds, cards with pictures on them
d) Teaching simple sentences
b) Charts
They are a combination of pictorial, graphic and verbal materials presented visually. It
presents information to be learnt in a memorable form. A chart should be clear and attractive.
Charts are used in a class for providing indirect experience supplemented with explanations.
They can be used in teaching several subjects or activities e.g. language, math etc. A few
points have been suggested in making charts;
a) Use of white manila paper rather than the coloured and if coloured, a careful selection of
what colours to use on shading and labeling is required.
b) Make sure that the charts are clear print large enough to be seen, accurate in every detail
and be horizontal. It should be clear, attractive and appealing to the eye.
c) The outline of the diagram should be in block
d) Do not use many colours
e) Be brief to avoid confusion
f) It should suit the age and maturity of the class
Maintaining a chart
a) Do not fold but put on a flat surface, lamination, binding or hemming may be done,
b) The chart should be cleaned
c) Numbering them according to the information
d) Repairing or replacing them may be done.
c) Wall maps
Wall maps should be enlarged and professionally made by the teacher in a way to be
displayed avoiding overcrowding and over writing. They represent something that is real in
visual form. Use the right colours to give proper representation e.g. green for vegetation.
2. BULLETIN BOARD DISPLAYS AND EXHIBITS
They are used as teaching aids especially in arts and other subjects. Most of the art work is
placed on the bulletin board. Topical materials, beautiful pictures, seasonal decorations can
be pasted on them to make the room beautiful. This teaching aid helps the teacher to focus his
discussion especially when he/she has lots of information to represent to the learner. This
method motivates and gives children other chances of trying to do something during the
learning process. It helps the learner to be creative and enjoy learning as he/she gets involved
in the work. It reinforces the learners experience during learning.
3. THE CHALKBOARD
The chalkboard is the most popular aid used in almost everyday learning. It is considered as a
teaching aid that gives information at low cost compared to books and other sources. It can be
used particularly to enhance learner‘s degree of learning participation and retention of
information as it is visualized.
Reasons why chalkboard is popular
a) It can be used in teaching a variety of activities or subjects
b) It is cheap to maintain and is durable
c) It is readily available
d) It is strategically placed making it convenient as a point of focus for the whole class
e) It is re-usable since you can erase
f) It is effective in arousing and sustaining the interest of the learner.
g) It is helpful for the teacher in controlling information, when they see it and for how long.
h) It is useful for displaying notes and their grammatical information especially when text
books are scarce.
When on the chalkboard, information should be neat, legible and in print form in a pre-
school. Children with sight problem, short concentration span or those who are short should
sit in front.
Effective use of a chalkboard
a) Clean properly before writing
b) Use appropriate size of letters
c) Be simple and to the point
d) Develop one point at a time
e) Use the duster
f) Stand on one side to make it visible
g) Use coloured chalk for illustration
h) Use 2/3 for writing and 1/3 for illustrations
i) Don‘t over write the chalkboard
j) Use uniform spacing between letters.
4. FLANNEL/BLANKETS
The flannels or blankets can be used for telling stories or imagination. They are used to place
some teaching items related to the subject of teaching. It can also be used in playing matching
games in class. The teacher helps the learner by placing the names of the objects and telling
them to match with the pictures. Flannel boards are usually used in language teaching to
encourage children form sentences from a given word. For pre-school, stick pictures or words
and ask them to pronounce these words. They can also be used for imaginative story telling.
5. REALIA MATERIALS
They are real objects collected from the local environment to illustrate various subjects of the
lesson. Realia refers to specimens or artifacts and it is better than pictorial in learning because
pictures are represented real objects. Examples of realia include fruits, flowers, tins, clothes,
jembes etc.
6. TEMPLATE MATERIALS
A template refers to a piece of equipment made by cutting outlines of a map, figures, pictures
of animals drawn on a cardboard. They are used for teaching upper classes especially for all
types of lessons. They can also be used at pre-school for both language and numerical
teaching. They can be made of wood, cardboard, hard manila paper etc.
7. HARD MATERIALS
They require the sense of sight and hearing and are referred to as audio-visual aid. Visual and
sensory skills are the most powerful of all senses. The learner can visualize, perceive and
interpret with different meaning. For learners not able to see, they may find acquisition and
retention of knowledge very difficult unless other technical and mechanical means are used to
record what has been the subject of learning. Hard materials are either visual or audio aids
like T.V, video, films, radio etc. The following are some examples:
i) Projector materials
This is demonstrated with aid of a machine. They have an advantage of retaining viewer‘s
attention; develop interest and anticipation with limited instructions.
ii) Aural teaching aids
They include record player, radios and can be used in teaching music. Those who cannot read
can operate and discuss the programs. A radio appeals for hearing especially for prepared
lessons.
iii) Audio cassettes
They are used in learning and teaching especially in language during pronunciation and
storytelling.
iv) Television
It combines both audio and visual presentation. When connected with the video, it produces a
very good play back and engages most of the major senses and is capable of creating different
tastes. Information received from T.V is richer than radio programmes. T.V. helps the learner
by showing them real life pictures.
v) Films and slides
They are used for displaying relevant materials e.g. charts, diagrams etc. There are films with
sound tracks and are ideal for depicting real life situation or bring to life a popular story to
children
vi) Internet
Internet helps the learners to process their inner knowledge when interacting with the
materials. Internet materials are operated through listening and use of sight in the computer.
Internet is a useful teaching aid which gives the learner a certain level of independence and
confidence.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING TEACHING AIDS/MATERIALS
1. Durability
2. Availability
3. Children‘s age i.e. learners ability to understand and comprehend
4. Economical i.e. can be used in various learning activities
5. Quality of the material
6. The cost of the materials to be bought
7. Should be simple to administer
8. The locality of the school to suit the materials
9. Consider the subject matter to be taught i.e. teaching method to be used
10. Political consideration i.e. avoid provocative language and materials
11. Religious consideration
12. The size of the class
13. Teacher‘s needs, personality, interests and resourcefulness
14. The syllabus coverage, topic and lesson objective
15. Suitability, clearness, visibility, and ease of representation
CHAPTER 8
MICROTEACHING SKILLS
 Apply Microteaching Skills.
WHAT IS MICROTEACHING?
A microteaching session involves a small group of teacher-trainees teaching short lessons in
front of each other in order to gain feedback on their teaching. The lessons may be recorded
for later viewing and discussion. Microteaching enables instructors to:
 Focus on practicing teaching skills in a confidential, non-threatening environment;
 Receive feedback on their teaching from multiple perspectives;
 Receive supportive feedback from peers.
While it is normal to feel somewhat nervous before a microteaching session, many teacher
students and trainers report microteaching to be one of the most valuable and important steps
in their development as teachers. It is also a lot of fun!
WHAT DO YOU NEED TO DO TO PREPARE FOR MICROTEACHING?
You must come prepared to your microteaching session with a 10-minute lesson. This time
limit includes questions from the ―students‖, your peer observers. In order to make sure
everyone has equal time to participate and receive feedback, the time limits for
microteaching lessons will be strictly enforced. We strongly suggest that you practice and
time yourself before your session.
Your lesson can be either ―high-tech‖, involving presentation software, video or sound clips,
etc. or it can be ―low-tech‖, using only paper handouts and chalk on the blackboard. (If you
are running a presentation using PowerPoint we ask that you bring a USB key to the session
and a laptop. The choice is yours. You will need a whiteboard with markers, or chalk. Use
what you are most comfortable using—or, use the teaching aids about which you would like
to receive feedback.
WHAT SHOULD YOU TEACH?
The lesson you prepare can be on the topic of your choice. The topic could be a basic concept
or skill from an ACTIVTY AREA in the ECDE course or it could be a subject of personal
interest, such as a story. Try to choose a topic you are comfortable teaching. Assume,
whatever you decide to teach, that you will be addressing beginner learners. Keep your topic
focused. Streamline your material – quantity of content is not nearly as important as the
clarity, organization and impact of the material taught. You are showcasing your
communication skills, not your research skills.
As much as possible, your lesson should also be interactive—we will be assessing your
ability to manage questions from the audience and your skill at engaging the audience. In
other words, we discourage you from reading a conference presentation or only reading from
lecture notes. Presenting information is not the same as teaching. Try to think of your lesson
more as a dialogue or a conversation with your audience instead of a presentation to your
audience.
Examples of microteaching lessons may include:
 how to read the letters of the alphabet (focusing on only three characters)
 how to pronounce different sounds (focusing on only three sounds)
 how to write numbers (focusing on only three numbers)
 how to draw a picture (focusing on only one picture)
 demonstrating how to make shape using paper and glue (focusing on only one shape)
 how to colour a picture (focusing on only three pictures)
 story telling (focusing on a short story with only two characters)
In the microteaching session, you will be asked to state your objective for the session. This
will guide you and your audience in reviewing the lesson.
BENEFITS OF MICROTEACHING
Participants in microteaching sessions will be able to hone their skills in the following areas:
 Oral presentation skills (voice modulation and articulation, enthusiasm, gestures, non-
verbal cues, clarity of explanations and examples)
 Organization skills (structure of lesson, strong opening and closing, good transitions
between sections, clear learning objectives, effective use of time, good pacing)
 Relating to the student (speaker engages audience, material is audience-appropriate,
effective questioning, use of relatable examples)
 Effective use of teaching aids (handouts, blackboard, presentation software, overhead
transparencies, props, charts, etc.)
NOTE: Question 12 of the Assignment will be your MICROTEACHING activity
CHAPTER 9
TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSING CHILDREN ACHIEVEMENT
 Discuss various techniques of assessing children‘s achievement.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
The following are some of the methods used in assessing children achievement:
1. Practical work by the children
2. Observation of children
3. Oral questions/Interviews
4. Self report
1. PRACTICAL WORK BY THE CHILDREN
Information can be gathered about their development through observation of children work
especially when assessing their achievement in class work activities.
Example
You can assess cognitive aspect by observing class work that involves reasoning such as Pre-
school or STD 1 mathematics book. You can assess psychomotor aspect again by observing
class work of a child that involves drawing, painting and mould.
2. OBSERVATION OF CHILDREN
 The procedure whereby we gather information about child/children in their natural
environment through observations. The procedures used in the observation depend on
which aspects are assessed. Some investigators choose the specimen record, a description
of the subject‘s (child's) entire stream of behaviours (all aspects) for a particular period of
time.
 In other studies, information on only one or few kind of behaviours/aspects is needed and
preserving the entire stream of aspects is unnecessary. In this case the investigator may
select more efficient observation procedure.
 One common approach is event sampling, in which the observer records all instances
particular developmental aspect during a specific period of time, ignoring other aspects
e.g. he may be checking physical development and psychomotor skills of nursery school
pupils over a period of one year.
 Another observation approach is time sampling. In this procedure, the teacher records
whether or not a certain aspect of development occur during a sampling of short time
intervals, e.g. in socialization aspects of pre-schoolers, a teacher may divide kindergarten
time span into a series of time interval e.g. 30 minutes, 1 hour to check on how child is
related to each other as far as social aspect of development is concerned.
3. ORAL QUESTIONS/INTERVIEWS
This is where by, the teacher present him/herself before the subject (child or parent or
teacher) and ask questions verbally. When interviews are conducted in a supportive and
respective way, they can be powerful source of information especially in societies where
children are not given opportunity to speak.
Example 1
Is when you ask a few open questions concerning the child‘s personal life such as how do
your parents help you? To check on expressive and receptive language attributes.
Example 2
The teacher can give few mathematical problem to see how the child solves and how fast,
when you ask oral mathematical questions.
4. SELF REPORT
Self report are instruments that ask children to provide information on their perceptions,
thoughts, abilities, feeling, attitudes, beliefs and past behaviours. This is mostly used by a
teacher to identify the developmental stage of children.
Tools used in assessment of developmental aspects
Among the tools used include:
 Observation schedules
 Interview schedules
 Check list
 Rating scale etc
a) Observation schedules:
This is a plan of observational activities or events and when they will happen. In the
observation schedule, the aspect of development and subject of interest (child) must be
clearly specified; the importance of the timing of observations must be determined (time of
day, season etc) and the factual development aspect must be defined and broken down so that
it is recordable.
b) Interview Schedules
This is plan of interview activities and time when the interview will be taken. In the
schedules the following should be included:
 Target group (child age and class or teacher and parent concerned).
 Specific developmental aspect (s) to assess.
 How to quantify data collected in order to identify level of development.
 Period of interview i.e. interval of time series or time span of interviews.
c) Rating scale
Scale can be created for any number of aspects of development and child can be rated on a
series of scales representing a variety of aspects. Scales can be presented numerically or
graphically.
E.g. Teacher can circle the number that corresponds to the level of cognitive development of
the pupil/child in relation to class work from poor to standard and above standard, the teacher
marks [X] on the line to indicate where he would rate the pupil‘s social development aspect
from best to poor.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d) Checklist
It is a list of things and attributes that investigator need to consider in analyzing
developmental aspect/aspects e.g. in physical aspect of development the list may include: -
a) Height
b) Weight
c) Body proportion
d) Teething
And judge the extent of physical development from the above attributes.
ASSIGNMENT (COMPULSORY)
[MARKED OUT OF 100]
1. Using appropriate example define Non-formal teaching. [2marks]
2. Briefly discuss when the formal and informal methods of teaching would be most
appropriate. [6marks]
3. Describe your most preferred teaching approach and give reasons why it works (or
would work) well for you. [4marks]
4. Suggest ways in which you would enhance child-teacher interaction and individual
teaching in your classroom. [4marks]
5. Is it wise for a teacher to use various teaching strategies in a single lesson? Why?
[4marks]
6. Discuss the importance of using the following strategies while teaching;
a. Singing/songs [2marks]
b. Exploration and discoveries [2marks]
c. Video programmes and games [2marks]
7. Suggest different ways of maintaining discipline in your class. [4marks]
8. How do you ensure that children needs and interests are taken into consideration during
the learning process? [2marks]
9. Discuss various ways of enhancing active participation in children learning. [4marks]
10. Discuss the following instructional methods that focus on ECDE. [4marks]
a. DICECE b. Reggio Emilia
11. Giving appropriate examples, discuss the most common techniques that teachers use to
sustain pupils‘ interests in a classroom setting. Suggest how these techniques can be
improved. [4marks]
12. Identify a pre-primary topic on any activity area of your choice (From Curriculum
Design) and prepare a 10 -minute lesson plan. (To be presented during Micro Teaching
Session) [5marks]
13. Draw or stick pictures that you would use to teach sounds ‗x‘, ‗g‘, ‗v‘, ‗r‘, ‗c‘ [5marks]
14. Prepare simple attractive flashcards that you will use to teach numbers 0 to 9 [10marks]
15. Using the knowledge gained on pictorial materials, prepare an attractive manila chart
that you will display in your class while teaching capital and small letters of the alphabet.
[10marks]
16. How would you ensure that the learning materials used in school are safe with children?
[8marks]
17. Give five examples of each of the following
a. Indoor teaching materials [4marks]
b. Outdoor teaching aids [4marks]
18. Prepare a simple test that will determine whether preschool children have achieved the
following skills;
a. number writing [2marks]
b. letter writing [2marks]
c. number value [2marks]
d. sounds recognition [2marks]
e. matching pictures (discrimination) [2marks
6017 MODULE SEVEN:

RESEARCH PROJECT WRITING
GUIDELINE
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT
The project work will be a piece of work carried out by an individual trainee or a group of
trainees without inhibiting their initiative but having a definite objective or aim to achieve for
a period of SIX months.
This is part of Research, Monitoring and Evaluation unit/module. The project will be
practical, research based unit and will be both internally and externally assessed.
The project marks from the supervisor will be submitted to KNEC two weeks before the start
of the final theory papers offered by the council.
All trainees will be required to write a project paper on a subject of their own, which they
will find more comfortable and competent to research and write on.
The Institute does not bar any student from writing on any subject touching on children, as
long as it is within the subjects covered during the course.
Students are advised to write their project from between 30-50 pages typed paper on one side.
The research problem must remain in focus throughout the paper. It is important to ignore
information that does not further the objectives of the research paper.
All project documents must be typed and bound. Students are advised to make three (3)
copies, which MUST be certified. The Institute will remain with one copy, another with the
school and one with the student (researcher)
COVER PAGE; The Title should be focused to bring about the variables, sample, location
of study relevant to ECDE. (4mrks)
DECLARATION: Confirm originality and authenticity of your work. (1mrk)
TABLE OF CONTENT: Should match the sequence of the pages; be consistent in the use
of heading and subheading in both the table of content and the text. (3marks)
PRELIMINARIES: Title, declaration, abstract, acknowledgement should be presented in
roman page numbers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Appreciation to those who contributed in the research project.
(1mrk)
ABSTRACT: Should highlight the key points of the research project. Background of the
study, purpose, the methodology, results and recommendations of the research project
(5mrks)
ORGANIZATION/FORMAT: The research should follow a logical sequence i.e.
preliminaries, chapters one to five, reference, appendices. (4mrks)
GENERAL PRESENTATION: There should be neatness of the research project and proper
formatting. Sections should stand out clearly, be interrelated, flow in logical manner, and
have an introduction to each chapter. (2mrks)
CHAPTER ONE: Should have
(I) Background of the study [3marks]
(II) Statement of the problem [3marks]
(III) Purpose [2marks]
(IV) Objectives [2marks]
(V) Significance of the study [2marks]
(VI) Delimitation and Limitation [2marks]
(VII) Operational definition of terms. [2marks]
CHAPTER TWO: Should have
(i) Review of related literature showing its relevance to the research project
(ii) The literature should address all the objectives of the research project. (8mrks)
CHAPTER THREE: Should have
(i) Research Design [2marks]
(ii) Location of the study [2marks]
(iii) Target population [2marks]
(iv) Sampling techniques and sample size [2marks]
(v) Research instruments [2marks]
(vi) Data analysis [2marks]
CHAPTER FOUR: Should show
(i) The ability to represent analysis simply and effectively [4marks]
(ii) Mode of data presentation, use of tables, charts, graphs etc. [4marks]
(iii) Interpretation of the data e.g. patterns and trends emerging. [4marks]
CHAPTER FIVE: Should have
(i) At least 3 relevant conclusions arising from the findings [3marks]
(ii) At least 3 relevant recommendations that are consistent with the findings.
[3marks]
REFERENCES: Should be according to the American Psychology Association (APA) for
both the citation and references arranges in order A-Z, following the order of Author, year,
title, place, and publisher. (3mrks)
APPENDICES: There should be at least three appendices used in your research project,
copies of questionnaire, photographs, maps, letters of enquiry. (3mrks)
COMMUNICATION: Use of appropriate language. (3mrks)
(i) terminology relevant to ECDE,
(ii) Technical academic tone,
(iii) Simple, clear vocabulary to the level of the candidate
CORRECT GRAMMAR: (i) correct tense (ii) punctuation (iii) spelling (iv) syntax (v)
semantics. (5mrks)
PRESENTATION OF SECTIONS: (i) Stand out clearly (ii) be interrelated (iii) flow
logically (iv) have an introduction to each chapter. (8mrks)
ORIGINALITY: The research area should reflect creativity and authenticity of the
candidate. (4mrks)
TOTAL MARKS = 100
6018 - MODULE EIGHT

TEACHING PRACTICE GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
Preschool children learn best through play, manipulating materials, by observing things and
by talking to other people. The preschool teachers should therefore provide a rich and
suitable environment to enable children to learn well. A rich environment is one whereby the
teacher provides safety, love, care and also materials that are interesting and suitable for
children. In observing a preschool class and assessing the quality of teaching – learning
activities, the assessors should try to find out if the children are enjoying, are free to play with
materials and to interact with others and the teacher. He or she should also be interested in
whether the teacher caters for the holistic development of the child.
The following guidelines are intended to assist the assessor in carrying out the assessment
fairly. They are not rigid rules hence flexibility and personal interpretation of various
situation is left to the assessor. It is however essential that the assessor reads all the guidelines
thoroughly before starting the assessment.
DURATION OF ASSESSMENT
To assess a preschool teacher, the assessor needs to observe at least THREE (3) activity
areas for Diploma.
Activity Areas; They Include:
1) Language Activities
2) Mathematics Activities
3) Environmental Activities
4) Outdoor Play/Physical Activities (Psychomotor)
5) Creative Activities (Art & Craft)
6) Creative Activities (Music Activities)
7) Religious Activities
These Activity areas are well elaborated in The Guidelines for Pre-school Education in
Kenya (2006) Revised Edition and KICD Pre-Primary 1 & 2 Curriculum Designs (2017).
It is recommended that the assessor should familiarize himself/herself with these Guidelines
and Curriculum Designs before engaging in the assessment exercise.
INTEGRATION OF ACTIVITIES
An integrated approach is recommended at pre-school level. This means that in helping
children to acquire concepts and skills and teacher uses different activities which sometimes
cut across different areas. The reason for this is that children take a long time to acquire any
one particular concept or skill.
GROUPING OF CHILDREN
Teachers are encouraged to group children either by age, abilities and interests. Groups need
not to be permanent. They may change according to the type of activity or changing interest
of children. Teachers are encouraged to ensure that the groups know what they are supposed
to do as soon as possible.
TEACHER-CHILD AND CHILD-CHILD INTERACTION
At this age children are extremely active and curious. To satisfy their curiosity the children
are constantly exploring the environment around them. As they do so they talk to themselves,
to other children and the teacher. These exploratory activities and talking help children not
only to develop language but also to acquire skills and to develop concepts all of which are
fundamental for further learning.
In a pre-school class therefore children‘s talking and movement should not always be
misinterpreted to mean disobedience, disorderliness and lack of class control, rather it is
important to take into consideration, adequacy and relevancy of materials and children‘s
involvement in the activities. It is also encouraged that children should freely interact with
each other and with their teachers as they work. The teacher is expected to do less talking as
the children do the activities.
ASSESSMENT REPORT
The officer assessing a preschool teacher will be required to write up a report on the
assessment in triplicate as provided in the assessment booklet. These reports will be as
follows:
1) Original (blue copy)– Teacher
2) Duplicate (yellow copy)– College
3) Triplicate (pink copy)– Assessor
No marks should be written on the teacher‘s original copy.
NAME OF TEACHER: .......................................................................................................
INDEX NUMBER:...............................................................................................................
CENTRE (SCHOOL): .........................................................................................................
ZONE: ...................................................................................................................................
SUB-COUNTY: ....................................................................................................................
COUNTY: .............................................................................................................................
ECDE DIPLOMA STUDENTS
TEACHING ASSESSMENT FORM
Name of Candidate ………………………...………………..………………… Adm/Reg No: ………...………
Centre/School ……………………………….………………………………………… Level …………...…………
Training center/Institution: The Institute of Teachers Professional Development
(ITPD)
Date ……………………….… Time …………..………………… Assessment (I, II, III) …………………….
ITEM ACTIVITIES ASSESSOR‘S MARKS
REMARKS AWARDED
Scheme of Work (10 marks)
 Available
 Relevance
 Suitability
Preparation
 Use
 Objectives – SMART
Lesson plan (10 marks)
 Available
 Trainee centered
 Relevance
 Suitability and use
Introduction (5 marks)
Lesson development (35 marks)
 Teacher child interaction
Presentation
 Involvement of children in
 learning activities
 Methods used (participatory)
 theme based
 Sequencing of activities
 Mastery of content
Conclusion (5 marks)
 Teacher‘s confidence
Presentation
 Teacher‘s warmth
Personal
 Grooming
 Gender sensitivity
 Language
 Teacher‘s initiatives (10 marks)
(10 marks)
Availability/Use
 Progress Records
 Health Records
Records
 Attendance Register
 Record of work
 Timetable
 Neatness of records
(10 marks)
 Appropriateness
 Safety
Materials
 Relevance
 Durability
 Adequacy
 Improvisation/innovativeness
 Display of materials
(10 marks)
 Classroom organization/display
management
Classroom
 Cleanliness
 Class control and discipline
 Children‘s work/display
 Time management
Additional remarks
TOTAL
(100 Marks)
Name of Assessor ………………………….………… Signature ………………………..….

Station and address of Assessor …………………………..…………..……………………….
………………………………….……………………………………………………………..
Name of trainee ……………………………………… Signature ………………………..….
Filled in Triplicate
 Original to Teacher
 Duplicate to College
 Triplicate to Assessor
(Do not indicate marks on the trainee‘s copy)

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KNEC DIPLOMA

2019 First Edition

Prepared and Compiled by

MODULE ONE (KNEC PAPER 1)

6011 (UNIT 1) Philosophical, Sociological and Historical Foundations of ECDE .....3

6011 (UNIT 2) Curriculum Development ...................................................................46

MODULE TWO (KNEC PAPER 2)

6012 (UNIT 3) General Psychology ............................................................................75

6012 (UNIT 4) Guidance and Counselling ................................................................104

6012 (UNIT 5) Personality Development ..................................................................128

MODULE THREE (KNEC PAPER 3)

MODULE FOUR (KNEC PAPER 4)

6014 (UNIT 7) Child, Rights and Protection .............................................................202

6014 (UNIT 8) Health, Nutrition and Care ................................................................239

6014 (UNIT 9) Children in Need of Special Protection ............................................291

MODULE FIVE (KNEC PAPER 5)

6015 (UNIT 10) Community Development ...............................................................325

6015 (UNIT 11) Training and Management of ECDE ..............................................351

6015 (UNIT 12) Research, Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................375

MODULE SIX (KNEC PAPER 6)

6016 (UNIT 14-20) Curriculum Activity Areas .................................. Separate Booklet

(PP1 and PP2 curriculum Designs)

6017 (UNIT 21) Research Project Guidelines ...........................................................451

6018 (UNIT 22) Teaching Practice Guidelines .........................................................453

6011 (MODULE ONE - UNIT 1)

3. It erodes dogmatism by making an ECDE teacher more flexible and accommodative to

Issues or concerns of sociology

1. A CHILD VIEWED FROM THE AFRICAN TRADITIONAL CONTEXT

Summary and Conclusion

1. PERCEPTION OF PREGNANCY AND TREATMENT OF PREGNANT

 Health and nutrition

e) John Dewey (1858 -1952)

 Chronic herpes condition

Gender roles are not static

ASSIGNMENT (Compulsory) - (Marked out of 100%)

6011 (MODULE ONE - UNIT 2)

Definition of the terms Theory and Model

Selection of learning experiences

Organization of learning experiences

c) Suggestions from subject specialist –teachers, writers and other educationist-Their

EVALUATION LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Similarities and differences of Taba‘s and Tyler‘s Model

Evaluation Organization & Integration of

Selection of learning experience

Education in Kenya should:

 Everything should be taught without comparison with another

16. Training of trainers/teacher programs and services

8. Consistency with social reality

 Describe the role of various curriculum development agents in Kenya.

 Child trafficking and abuse

2. Treatment of sexually transmitted disease

6012 (MODULE TWO - UNIT 3)

Researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting. It is used extensively to study

Piaget theory of Cognitive Development

 Teacher - child relationship

c) Organization: - If the information to be learnt is well organized by breaking it into

4) Expectancy Theory (by C. Tallman (1959)

(a) Physiological Needs

e) Need to be aware of the impact of students self-esteem on their motivation by treating

Research Studies on Concepts

Componential – It‘s the elementary information processes operating on internal

(a) We learn to identify and interpret objects or arrangement of objects. Hebb

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONS

Strongly agree Neutral Strongly Disagree