Geography Final Vision IAS

QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSE AND
SOLAR SYSTEM
THE UNIVERSE: THE VAST SPACE
SURROUNDING US IS CALLED UNIVERSE.
IT IS MOSTLY EMPTY SPACE.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
BIG BANG THEORY OR EXPANDING UNIVERSE HYPOTHESIS
It was given by Edwin Hubble.
In the beginning, universe was a tiny ball (single atom) with unimaginably
small volume and infinite temperature and density.
13.7 billion years ago, this ball exploded leading to a huge expansion. This
expansion is continuing until now, at a smaller pace. First atom began to
form within 3 minutes of Big Bang.
Within 300,000 years of explosion, temperature dropped to 4500 K and gave

rise to atomic matter. Universe became transparent.
The expansion in universe means increase in space between the galaxies.

An alternative theory is ‘Hoyle’s concept of steady state’ which considers
universe to be roughly of same size at any point of time.
The Stars: They are the heavenly bodies like the sun that are extremely hot and
have light of their own. Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas, some
helium and dust.
Galaxies: They are building blocks of the universe. Galaxy is a vast system of
billions of stars, which also contains a large number of gas clouds mainly of
hydrogen gas (where stars are born), and dust, isolated in space from similar
system.
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NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of Hydrogen gas in the form of a

very large cloud called Nebula.
This growing Nebula starts developing localized clumps of gas.
These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise
to formation of star.
This event took place 5 to 6 billion years ago.
STELLAR EVOLUTION
LOW AND MEDIUM-MASS STARS (INCLUDING THE SUN)
White
Main “Planetary” dwarf
Sequence Red giant nebula
High-mass High-mass star

Nebula stars
Neutron
star
Main Sequence
Red supergiant Supernova
Very high-mass Black
star hole

BIRTH AND EVOLUTION OF A STAR
In the beginning, Galaxy had just very cold (-1730C), dense and
large cloud of gases (Hydrogen and Helium). Very large gravi-
tational pull led to the formation of a highly condensed body
PROTOSTAR called Protostar. A protostar is a huge, dark, ball of gases. It
does not emit light.
Further contraction of Protostar leads to collision of Hydrogen

gases and increases the temperature of the protostar from
-1730 C to 107 0C. Hence, fusion reaction, where 4 Hydrogen
STAR nuclei fuse to form Helium and release tremendous amount of
energy in the form of heat and light. It makes the star shine.
Fusion reaction stops in the core when its Hydrogen gets ex-
hausted. Pressure of the core diminishes and core starts shri-
nking. Fusion takes place as some Hydrogen remains in the
envelope/outer shell. It makes the star unstable. The star Ex-
RED STAR pands and turns Red.
Sun will enter its Red giant phase in 5000 million years from
now. Its expanding outer shell at the time will engulf inner
planets i.e. Mercury Venus and Earth.
When mass of star < 1.44 times the mass of Sun (Chandra
Shekhar limit), it ends up as a white dwarf.
The Red Giant Star looses its outer envelop and core shrinks
DWARF into an extremely dense ball of matter due to gravitation. This
STAR leads to another set of fusion reaction where Helium fuses to
form carbon. The fuel gets completely exhausted and the core
shrinks under its own weight and becomes a white dwarf.

When mass of star > 1.44 times that of Sun, there remains
enough Helium in the core for fusion reaction. The outer
envelope explodes causing Supernova Explosion.
When mass of the star is between 1.44 to 3 times that of Sun,
SUPERNOVA it becomes a Neutron Star
When mass of the star is bigger than 3 times that of Sun, it
becomes a Black hole.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM:
Sun is a ball of hot gases, Loop

mainly Hydrogen. THE SUN 6000o Prominence
Chromosphere Sun spots

Shining surface of the Spicules 1.5 Mo
Sun is called Photosphere. Radiative
Coronal
High
Zone 15 M o
Temp-
The outer layer of the Convection
Zone
erature
2 million
sun’s atmosphere is made Core Degress
up of thin hot gases is Photosphere
called Corona.
Coronal hole
Corona is visible only High speed
during full eclipse. Solar wind
GOLDILOCKS ZONE:
A habitable zone, also called a Goldilocks zone, is the region

around a star where orbiting planets similar to the Earth can
support liquid water. It is neither too hot, nor too cold.

PLANETS
Planets are solid heavenly bodies which revolve round a star (e.g. the sun) in
closed elliptical paths. A planet is made of rock and metal. It has no light of its
own. A planet shines because it reflects the light of the sun. The planets move
round the sun from west to east, so the relative positions of the planets keep
changing day by day. There are 8 major planets including the earth.
.
The jovian planets
The terrestrial planets
Jupiter Saturn
Uranus Naptune Pluto
Mercury Venus Earth Mars
CASE OF PLUTO:
As per International Astronomical Unit, three given characteristics are required to

qualify as a planet:
1 The celestial body has to be in orbit of the Sun
2 It must have sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. a nearly

round shape), and
3 It must have ‘cleared the neighbourhood’ around its orbit i.e. it must become
the dominant gravitational body in their orbit. Pluto lacks the third charac-
teristic. That’s why it is not a planet anymore and has been categorized as
a Dwarf Planet.

TWO GROUPS OF PLANETS: TERRESTRIAL VS JOVIAN
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS JOVIAN PLANETS
(EARTH LIKE) ( JUPITER LIKE)
Four innermost planets i.e. Mercury, Includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Ne-
Venus, Earth, and Mars ptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-
like) planets, because they are all gigantic
compared with Earth, and they have a
They have a compact, rocky surface like gaseous nature like Jupiter's -- mostly
Earth's terra firma. hydrogen, with some helium and trace
gases and ices.
None of the terrestrial planets have
rings, although Earth does have belts Also referred to as the "gas giants".
of trapped radiation.
All of them have significant planetary
Among the terrestrials, only Earth has magnetic fields, rings, and lots of satellites.
a substantial planetary magnetic field.
Mars and the Earth's moon have local- Jupiter is more massive than all the other
ized regional magnetic fields at differ- planets combined. It emits electromag-
ent places across their surfaces, but no netic energy from charged atomic part-
global field. icles spiraling through its strong magn-
etic field.
Of the terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth,
and Mars have significant atmospheres. Saturn, the farthest planet easily visible
to the unaided eye, is known for its ex-
tensive, complex system of rings. Its
Mercury lacks an atmosphere. Even moon Titan is the second largest moon
though most of its surface is very hot, after Ganymede (Jupiter’s moon).
there is strong evidence that water ice
exists in locations near its north and Among four Galilean satellites of Jupiter:
south poles which are kept permane- Lo is the most volcanically active body in the solar
ntly shaded by crater walls. system, due to heat resulting from tidal forces.
Europa is covered with an extremely smooth shell
of water ice. There is probably an ocean of liquid
Venus' atmosphere of carbon dioxide water below the shell.
is dense, hot, and permanently cloudy, Ganymede has mountains, valleys, craters, and
making the planet's surface invisible. cooled lava flows. Its ancient surface resembles
Earth's moon, and it is also suspected of having a
sub-surface ocean.
Mars' atmosphere, also carbon dioxide, Callisto, the outermost Galilean moon, is pocked
is much thinner than Earth’s. Mars has all over with impact craters, indicating that its
polar caps of carbon dioxide ice and surface has changed little since the early days of
water ice. its formation.

Together, they have just 3 moons (1 Saturn, Uranus and Neptune all have rings
of Earth and 2 of Mars). made up of myriad particles of ice ranging
in size from dust and sand to boulders.
SATELLITES:
A satellite (or moon) is a solid heavenly body that revolves round a planet.
Except Mercury and Venus all other planets of solar system have satellites.
The satellites have no light of their own. They shine because they reflect the
light of the sun.
- Jupiter has the largest number of Moons. It also has the biggest moon of the
solar system, Ganymede.
- Saturn’s moon ‘Titan’ has its own atmosphere.
ABOUT EARTH’S MOON

It is a natural satellite of Earth. It revolves around the Earth in a
definite regular path.
Gravitational attraction of the earth holds the moon into its orbit.
It is about 1/4th size of the Earth in diameter and 1/8th in weight.
Moon does not have air or water. Its surface is covered with hard and
loose dirt, craters and mountains.
Days are extremely hot and nights are very cold on moon.
THEORIES OF FORMATION OF MOON:

1. DARWIN: 2. MATERIALFORMING 3. GIANT IMPACT OR THE BIG
Both earth and moon The moon was separ- SPLAT:
formed a single rapidly ated from what we have A body of the size of one to
rotating body. The whole at present the depress- three times that of Mars coll-
mass became dumb-bell ion occupied by Pacific ided into the earth shortly
shaped and eventually ocean. after the earth was formed.
broke. It blasted a large part of
earth into the space. The
blasted portion started re-
volving around the earth
and eventually formed into
the present moon after 4.4
million years ago. Most
accepted theory.

OTHER OBJECTS IN THE SKY:
ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are a belt of debris composed of rock and metals,
which somehow failed to assemble into a planet and keep
revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
There are as many as 100,000 asteroids. The biggest aste-
roid called ‘Ceres’ has a diameter of about 800 km whereas
the smallest asteroid is of size of a pebble.
Asteroids can collide with earth. It is believed that the exti-
nction of dinosaur was due to such a collision. The Lonar
Lake in Maharashtra is a filled up crater formed after an as-
teroid collision.
COMETS They are celestial objects formed of ice and dust. They were
formed very early from the same gas clouds from which
other members of the solar system are formed.
They orbit the Sun. When their normal path gets disturbed,
they start moving towards the sun. As the comet approac-
hes Sun, the ice sublimates into gas and form along with
the entrained dust particle, a bright outflowing atmosphere
around the comet nucleus called Coma. The comet may also
form two tails, one of ionized molecules and radicals and
other of dust.
The tails of the comet always point away from the Sun. The
study of the tails of the comet has shown presence of Car-
bon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen in it.
Comets do not last forever. Whenever they come close to
sun, their gases get over and ultimately only dust particles
remain.
They are small celestial bodies (may include dust particles

METEORS of a comet, or a piece of broken asteroid) which enter into
the earth’s atmosphere and burns as a bright streak of light
due to heat produced by the friction of its impact with the
atmosphere.
They are also called shooting stars.
If a Meteor is big enough and does not gets burnt up comp-
letely, and lands on earth (like stones from sky), it is called
Meteorite.
It should be noted that the number of meteorites on moon’s
surface is much larger than that on earth because moon
does not have an atmosphere to burn the meteor.
Study of meteorites can reveal the nature of materials of
which the solar system is composed of.

THE EARTH’S MOVEMENT:
The Earth, as the rest of the planets of 23o 5'
the Solar System, rotates on its and Is the angle
(rotation movement) and around the Sun between the Earth’s
(Orbit movement). These two movements are axis and the Sun. MARCH 21st
responsible for phenomena such as day and Spring equinox
night and the sequence of the seasons. in the Northern
hemisphere. Day
and nigh hours
ORBIT JUNE 21st are the same.
The Earth takes 365 days. Summer solstice
5 hours and 48 minutes to in the Northern
complete a burn around the hemisphere. It is
Sun. As the Sun Varies its the longest day
position relation as the Sun. of the year.
The seasons appear and thee LEAP YEARS
variation of the days and nights.
Every four years
February has 29
days instead of
SEPTEMBER 21st 28 they are the
Autumnal equinox in the leap years.
Northern Hemisphere. Day
and night have the same
amount of hours.
DECEMBER 21st JET LAG

Winter solstice in the Northern Long distance trips on an airplane cause
same well known disorders such as jet lag.
hemisphere. It is the shortest day
Since they alter the habitual schedules of
of the year.
the body.
24:00 GREENWICH
HOURS MERIDIAN
21:00 3:00
TIME ZONES
The Earth is divided in twenty four areas or time zones, each with a
different time, with Greenwich Meridian as a central axis. As you areas a
18:00 N 6:00
meridian to the East, an hour is added, and when you cross it to the West,
an hour is substracted.
15:00 9:00
12:00
HOURS
ROTATION NORTHERN
Rotation is thee
HEMISPHERE
turn that the HEMISPHERES
earth does on The Earth is divided
ROTATION into two halves; the
its axis every day. AXIS northern hemisphere
It is the responsible EQUADOR
and southern hemis-
movement for the
phere. Equater is the
succession of days
imaginary line betw-
and nights, of the
een them. When it is
flattening of the summer is the north,
poles, the marine south is winter and
currents and the vice versa.
different time SOUTHERN
zones. HEMISPHERE

POSITION OF SUN OVERHEAD
VERNAL EQUINOX
Sun overhead at
Equator
SUMMER SOLSTICE WINTER SOLISTICE

Sun overhead at Sun overhead at
Tropic of cancer Tropic of Capricon
AUTUMNAL EQUINOX
Sun overhead at
Equator
ECLIPSE
SOLAR LUNER
ECLIPSE ECLIPSE
DAY NIGHT
NEW EARTH FULL

MOON MOON

ECLIPSE
EARTH’S
ORBIT
PENUMBRA
UMBRA
SUN MOON
TOTAL ECLIPSE EARTH
PARTIAL ECLIPSE
MOON’S
ORBIT
EARTH’S UMBRA
ORBIT
MOON
EARTH
SUN
MOON’S
ORBIT
PENUMBRA
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2VBSU[
1ZSPYFOF
Fig: Rock cycle.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
AND PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL
DRIFT AND PLATE
TECTONICS
SUPERCONTINENT
A supercontinent is the assembly of most or all the Earth’s continental blocks
to form a single large landmass. A supercontinent cycle is the breakup of one
supercontinent and the development of another. Pangaea, last supercontinent.
Pangaea
The Asia
Supercontinent North
Panthalassa America
250 Million
Ocean Asia
Years Ago
North Europe Europe
Tethys Sea
America Panthalassa
Equator Ocean
Equator Africa &
Africa &
South Arabia
Arabia
America
South
America India
India
Panthalasa
Ocean Australia
Antarctica Australia
Antarctica
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (ALFRED WEGNER

IN 1912)
All the continents formed a single continental mass (Pangaea), a mega ocean
(Panthalassa) surrounded by the same. Around 200 million years ago, the
Pangaea began to split. The initial two blocks – Gondwanaland and Laurasia –
started drifting away and in between a shallow sea emerged by filling up the
water from Panthalasa. It was known as Tethys Sea.
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EVIDENCE
Evidences
Evidences
Rock of same Placer deposits Distribution of

age acros fossils
oceans
Tillite deposits Jigsaw fit
Jig-Saw fit - The shorelines of Africa and South America facing each other have
a remarkable and unmistakable match.
Rock of same age across ocean - The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years
from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa.
Placer deposit - The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast
and the gold bearing veins are in Brazil.
Tillite - Tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.
Distribution of fossils - The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar

and Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these
three landmasses.
FORCES FOR DRIFTING –

The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth. This was, according to
Wegener, the cause for movement of continents towards equatorward.
Tidal force – due to the attraction of the Moon and the Sun was the main reason
given by Wegener for the westward movement of the Americas.
2
CONVECTION CURRENT THEORY
Ridge
Arthur Holmes put forward his PULL

” Lithosphere
B
Trench “SLA
theory of convection current in Trench
1928-29. Cause of the origin of these Ast

hen
osp
currents is the presence of Mantle her
e
radioactive elements which causes 700km
thermal differences in the mantle Outer Core
portion. Inner
Core
SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY –

ByThe
Harry Hess
ocean in 1961
crust rocks are much
younger than the continental rocks.
The sediments on the ocean floor

are unexpectedly very thin.
Convergent Mid-ocean ridge
boundary (divergent boundary)
Volcanoes Trench Trench
Continent
Mid-oceanic ridge was not found transform fault
only in Atlantic Ocean, but ridges Subducting

plate
were present in all the oceans. Convection Currents in mantle
The rocks equidistant on either

sides of the crest of mid-oceanic Lithosphere
Rising magma
ridges show remarkable similarities x-x-x- Earthquake
in terms of period of formation,
chemical compositions and
magnetic properties
PLATE TECTONICS –
Term plate was first used by Tuzo Wilson. Hypothesis of plate tectonics was first
outlined by W.J. Morgan in 1967.
There is spreading of sea floor and new oceanic crust is being continually
created at the active mid-oceanic ridges and destroyed at trenches.
3
The amount of crust consumed almost equals the amount of new crust created.
MAJOR AND MINOR PLATES –

90o 180o 0o
EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICA

PLATE
Mid-Atiantic
Ridge
JUAN DE FUCA EURASIAN PLATE
Aleutian
PLATE
Trench
San Andreas Fault
AR PLA
PH LAT
AB TE
East Pacific CA
RI
IA
ILI E
PL BBE
P
Rise
N
AT AN
PP
COCOS E AFRICAN PLATE

INE
PACIFIC PLATE PLATE

CAROLINE
0o 0o
PLATE
Java Trench SOUTH AMERICA
INDO - AUSTRALIAN NAZCA PLATE
PLATE PLATE
SCOTIA
60o PLATE Divergent Boundary
0 2000 6000 Km
Convergent Boundary
ANTARCTIC PLATE Transform Boundary
90o 180o 0o
TYPES OF BOUNDARIES –
Type of Margin Divergent Convergent Transform
Motion Spreading Subduction lateral Sliding
Constructive Destructive (oceanic lithosphere Conservative (lithosphere

Effect
(oceanic lithosphere created) destroyed) neither created or destroyed)
Topography Ridge/Rift Trench No major effect
Volcanic activity? Yes Yes No
Volcanoes
Ridge (voicanic arc) Trench
Earthquakes within crust
*
*
*
Lithosphere
*
Asthenosphere *
*
Earthquakes
4
TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES –
Oceanic-Oceanic convergence
Cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere
c
ch
sinks beneath the warmer, less
ar
en
nd
Tr
la
denseoceanic lithosphere. Oceanic crust
Is
Continental
water reduces the melting point of Lithosphere

crust
rocks in the asthenosphere and Lithosphere
causes partial melting Asthenosphere
Formation of volcanic Arcs.
Oceanic-Continent convergence
ch
Volcanice
Dense oceanic lithosphere subducts
en
arc
Tr
beneath the less dense continental Oceanic crust
lithosphere. Continental crust
Volcanic arcs form on continental Lithosphere

Lithosphere
lithosphere.
Accretionary wedge forms on the Asthenosphere
continental crust
Continent-Continent convergence
Both of them have a density that
e
au
ng
ra
Plate
tain
is much lower than the mantle, Mo
una
High
which prevents subduction Continental crust Continental crust
The intense compression can also
cause extensive folding and Lithosphere Lithosphere
faulting of rocks within the two Ancient oceanic crust Ancient oceanic crust
colliding plates
Exogenic forces – external forces caused by events occurring outside the earth
Endogenic forces – internal forces caused by events occurring inside the earth.
5
FORCES WHICH AFFECT THE EARTH’S CRUST
Endogenetic Forces
Exogenetic Forces
Diastrophic Forces Sudden Forces
Epeirogenetic Orogenetic Volcanic Eruption Earthquakes

Forces Forces
Tensional Forces Compressional Forces
Faulting
Warping Folding
Diastrophic forces - Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth’s crust.

Diastrophic movements are gradual and might stretch for thousands of years.
Epeirogenic or continent forming movements are radial movements . They can

cause upliftment or subsidence of continents.
Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth

surface. Folds are a result of ductile deformation of rocks in response to external
forces. Faulting is a process under which rocks are forcefully broken with
accompanying displacement.
DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
PROCESS Mass Movements Erosion/

Weathering
Transportation
Gravitational/
DRIVING/
FORCE/ Molecular Stresses/ Gravitational Kinetic Energy
ENERGY and/or Chemical Force
Actions
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Weathering – mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition
of rocks in situ by different geomorphic agents.
Chemical Hydration - process by which certain types of mineral

Weathering expand as they take up water and expand, causing
additional stresses in the rock due to increase in the
volume of mineral itself.
Oxidation and reduction - oxidation is the addition of
oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides while reduction
is the reverse of oxidation.
Solution - few minerals such as rock salt are significant
y soluble in water. Such rock-forming minerals are
easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
Carbonation - many minerals are soluble in rainwater,
which contains carbon dioxide and acts as a weak
carbonic acid.
Physical Expansion by unloading – pressure release (unloading)

Weathering mechanism causes disintegration of rock. Process is
termed as exfoliation.
Thermal expansion of rock – is the cause of rock
cracking and disintegration.
Salt weathering – On drying and crystallization the salts
expand and set up a disruptive effect.
Frost action and crystal growth – When water fills the
pores, cracks and crevices in rocks and then freezes, it
expands and exerts a bursting pressure.
Biological Burrowing and wedging by organisms.

Weathering Decaying plant and animal matter help in the
production of humic, carbonic and other acids.
Tree roots can occasionally be shown to have forced
apart adjacent blocks of rock.
7
Mass movement - Mass movement or mass wasting is the term used for the
movement of material down a slope under the influence of gravity.
Factors favouring mass movement are: (i) weathering; (ii) rock composition;
(iii) texture and structure of material; (iv) slope gradient; (v) extent of
lubrication.
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT –

Slow movements –
Creep - slow downhill movement of debris and soil on moderate slope.
Solifluction- slow downslope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris
saturated or lubricated with water.
Rapid movement –
Earthflow – movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials
down hillsides.
Mudflow – thick layers of weathered materials get saturated with water
and either slowly or rapidly flows down along definite channels.
Looks like a stream of mud.
Avalanche – Can be much faster than Mudflow
Landslides - Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear

stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to shearing)
of the materials that form the slope.
EROSION AND DEPOSITION –

Erosion is a term referring to those processes of Denudation which wear away
the land surface by the mechanical action of the debris which is being acquired
and transported by various agents of erosion. Deposition is a consequence of
erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence energy on gentler
slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
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MOUNTAIN BUILDING, ISLAND

FORMATIONS AND HOTSPOTS
MOUNTAIN TYPES
On the basis of Time Period
1. Pre-Cambrian : 4.6b years ago. E.g. Laurentian Mountain

2. Caledonian : 320mya. Mountains of Scotland, Satpura, Aravallis,
MahadeoHills
3. Hercynian : 240mya. Urals, Pennines, Appalachians
4. Alpine : 30mya. Young fold mountains such as Alps, Himalayas, Andes,
Rockies .
On the basis of formation

1. Circum-erosional or Relict Mountains : Mountains of denudation. Examples,
Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats etc.
2. Tectonic Mountains :
Fold Mountains
A. Young Fold: Himalayas, Rockies
B. Old Fold: Appalachian, Urals
Block/Horst Mountains
Form Rift Valleys. Sierra Nevada, Satpura, Vindhyas
Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of accumulation
Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro, Fuji
Dome Mountains
Magmatic intrusion and Upwarping.
Example: Batholithic domes, Salt domes

Fold Mountains
Anticline
Compression
Syncline
Shortened crust
Fig.1 Earth’s crush before folding Fig.2 Earth’s crush aftore folding
anticline asymmetric fold

simple fold recumbent fold
overfold nappe
syncline
thrustplane (fault line)
Fig.3 Type of Folding

2
Block Mountains
Fault
Fault
Fault
Rock
strata
Tension
Block MT (HORST)
Block Subsided Block Subsided
Fig. 4 Block mountains formed by tensional forces

Fault
Fault
Rock
strata
Compression
Bloc
Rises k Ri
Block ses
Rift Valley
Fig. 5 Rift valleyformed by compressive forces

3
Fold Mountains
Bending of Earth’s crust

Youngest and Highest mountains
Formed of sedimentary rocks, which were deposited in shallow seas
Length is much more than their width
Arc shaped mountains (Concave on one side, convex on other)
Found along margins of continents facing ocean
Mostly located in two directions i.e. North - South (Rockies and Andes) and
West-East (Himalayas and Alps)
Block Mountains
Tension or compression leads to Faulting

When crust on both sides subside, the upstanding block becomes Horst or
Block mountain. Example: Black Forest
When central portion between two adjacent fault blocks subside, it forms
Graben or Rift Valley. Example: East African Rift Valley
Most block mountains are formed due to tension rather than compression.
TYPES OF ISLAND
Continental Islands
Connected with mainlandthrough Strait, Channel or shallow Lagoon
1. Individual Islands: New Foundland, Madagascar

2. Archipelagoes: Island groups with varying shapes and sizes.
British Isles
3. Festoon or Island Arcs: Forms loop around mainland. One tectonic plate
subducts other one.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, East Indies

4
Oceanic Islands
No connection with the mainland
1. Volcanic Islands:
Topmost parts of the cones of extinct (mostly) volcanoes. Example: Mauna Loa,
Galapagos, Mauritius, Reunion Island
2. Coral Islands
Example: Marshall Islands, Bermuda, Lakshadweep, Maldives
Hotspots
It is a very hot region deep within the Earth, usually responsible for
volcanic activity.
Sometimes magma heats up groundwater creating Geysers.
40 to 50 hot spots around the world, including near the Galapagos Islands
and Iceland.
They can create entire chains of islands e.g. Hawaii.
They are used to track movement of earth’s plates.

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CORAL R EEFS
CORAL REEFS
"CORAL" ARE MADE UP OF POLYPS. CORALS CONTAIN
ALGAE CALLED ZOOXANTHELLAE. THEY BOTH LIVE IN
A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP.
TYPES OF CORALS
Hard coral Soft coral
Also known as Stony corals Ahermatypic coral, do not
and Hermatypic coral. They produce a rigid calcium
produce a rigid skeleton made carbonate skeleton and do not
of calcium carbonate in crystal form reefs. Soft coral colonies
form called aragonite. They tend to resemble trees, bushes,
are Reef building corals. fans, whips, and grasses.

CORAL FORMATION AND TYPES
Fringing
Forming border along the
shorelineand surrounding islands
Barrier
They are separated from
their adjacent land mass
by a lagoon of open, often
deep water
Atoll
Atolls are circular or oval,
with a central lagoon.
CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF CORALS
1. Warm water (70–85° F or 21–29° C). It is possible for soft corals

to grow in places with warmer or colder water.
2. Clear and shallow water.
3. Corals need salt water to survive, so they also grow poorly near
aXeTa^_T]X]VbfXcWUaTbWfPcTaad]^Ň
4. Other factors – availability of hard-bottom substrate and the
availability of food such as plankton.

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL ECOSYSTEM
1. They are referred as Rainforests of the Sea.

2. Coral reefs dissipate much of the force of incoming waves.
3. Contribute to local economies through tourism.
7âP[TR^bhbcT\b_a^SdRTQT]TŋRXP[RWT\XRP[R^\_^d]Sb
and medicines.
THREATS TO CORALS
FXbX]VcT\_TaPcdaTbP]S^RTP]PRXSXŋRPcX^]
8T\P]SUâŋbWTahaTb^daRTb
3. Pollution Impacts - on coral reef ecosystems include increased
sedimentation, nutrients, toxins, and pathogen introduction.
4. other threats like coral disease; tropical storms; tourism and
recreation; vessel damage; marine debris, and aquatic invasive
species.
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS
300N
Equator
300S

REGION TYPE OF REEF
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Fringing Reefs

Gulf Of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Fringing Reefs
Gulf of Kutchh (Gujarat) Fringing Reefs
Lakshadweep Islands Atolls
Gulf of Kutchh
Lakshadweep
Islands
Andaman
Islands
Nicobar
Gulf of Mannar
Islands

4
Vision IAS
LANDFORMS AND EVOLUTION

Causes.
Endogenic (tectonic forces) and Exogenic (gradational forces).
Landforms and crustal order of relief.
First order of relief Continental platforms and the ocean basins.
Mountains, plateaus, plains, continental shelves, continental slopes, abyssal plains, mid-oceanic
Second order of relief ridges, submarine canyons and trenches.
Third order of relief Mountain peaks, cliffs, hills, spurs, sand dunes, valleys, etc.
1. FLUVIAL (RIVER BASED) LANDFORMS
1.1 Erosion.
Hydraulic Action: Solution or Corrosion:

Breakdown of the rocks Hydraulic Chemical action
of valley sides due to action of river water.
the impact of
Water Currents.
Attrition
Solution
Attrition: Mechanical Abrasion Abrasion or Corrasion: Rock

tear and wear of the Particles bounce, scrape and drag
erosional tools in along the bottom and sides of the
themselves. river, they break off additional
rock fragments.
1.2 Transportation.
Suspension: Fine, light Solution: Minerals are

material is carried along dissolved in the water.
by the river This is a chemical change
Traction: Large boulders

and rocks are rolled along Saltation: small pebbles and
the river bed stones are bounced along the
river bed
River bed

1.3 Deposition: Including the features formed due to deposition.
Usually in plains and

Concave low lying areas.
side erode
actively and
Point bars are also known Floodplain
known as
cut bank. as meander bars, found in
convex side of meanders. Oxbow
Bar & swale lake Braided
topography Meander cut
stream:
off from the
Point Meander River splits
bar main stream
scars into a maze
and form of
of channels.
Channel an oxbow
Levee: cutoff lake.
Yazoo Fertile flood plain:
Raised Natural Incipient stream Layer of sediments
ridge of levee oxbow deposited during
coarse Alluvium
material. each flood forms
Bedrock flood plain.
Development of the river valley.
Headwater streams Erosional Landforms: Depositional Erosional and

swiftly flow down Waterfalls Landforms: Depositional:
steep mountain slopes Gorges Deltas Meanders
and cut deep, v-shaped Rapids Levees Oxbow lakes
valleys. Waterfalls and Potholes Braided Rivers Floodplains
rapids occur in this zone. V-shaped valleys
Interlocking spurs
At the lowest elevations,
Lower-elevtion streams a river meanders across
merge to flow down a broad, nearly flat valley
gentle slops. Valleys and floodplain. At a river’s
broaden as coalescing mouth, it may divide into
rivers start to meander. separate channels as it
flows across a delta
Youth extending out to sea. The
Stage coastal plain and delta
are made of river sediments.
ZONE
1 Head Maturity
wate Stage
rs
ZONE
2 Trans
Alluvial Fan fe r zone
Old Stage
ZONE
3 Depo
sition
al zon
e

Youthful Stage - Mature Stage - Old Stage -
Upper course Middle Course Lower Course
Vertical and headward Vertical and Lateral Deposition

erosion erosion Lateral erosion
Rough channel bed Wider and deeper channel High discharge & velocity
High competence, low Competence decreases, High capacity, low competence
capacity capacity increases Meandering course
Characteristics
Large gradient / slope Wide flood plain
High turbulence Channel depth & width at
Narrow channel maximum
Straight course Low gradient / slope
V-shaped valley, waterfalls, Meanders, river, cliffs, slip, Levees, deltas, point bars,
rapids, potholes, gorges, off slopes, flood plains, sand bars, oxbow lakes,
Features braided streams, meanders, larger flood
interlocking spurs plain, raised banks
River rejuvenation, River Terrace and Incised or Entrenched Meanders.

River rejuvenation : Either due to a fall in sea level relative to the level of the land or a rise of the land relative to the sea.
River Terrace:
Remnant of a former Land surface has been Incised
floodplain. lifted above base level meanders
Source Paired Terraces
knick point:
Sudden break Original
sea-level
Or
or irregularity ig in
al gra
ded profile
in the gradient First fall in
sea-leavel
along the long Fir
st r
egra
ded
profile of a profile
Second fall in &
Unpaired Terraces
Uplift
river. Mo
st re present sea-lavel
cent gra
Knick points de d profile
Mouth Base level

2. COASTAL LANDFORMS: PROCESS INCLUDED TIDES,
CURRENT AND WAVES.
Direction of wind
Upper layer breaking wave

of air sinks Surf zone: Zone of breaking
of waves.
swash
Swash: After wave breaks,
water from it runs up the
Friction from the beach slows beach known as Swash.
air pressure the lower part of the wave but
creates waves upper part continues to move Backwash: Movement of
forward and breaks backwash water back down the beach
to the sea.
2.1 Coastal erosion.
Sea Arch: if Blow Hole: Hole on the roof of

Cave developed the cave due to hydraulic action Former
Cliff: Rock rising
on two sides, of waves. sea cliffs
Terrace vertically above
then
sea water with
headland join Sea Cave Wave- cut platform (terrace) steep slope.
to form Sea arch
sea arch
Sea Cliff
es Wave-cut platfrom:
slid
nd Cliff retreats
La
Sea stack
Notched cliff Wave-cut forming
platform gentle sloping
rock cut flat
Wave- Built Platform: surface.
Due to deposition of
sediments derived from Geos: Roof of cave
Wave-built the erosion (Deopsitional collapses forming a
Continual erosion by waves in caves led to terrace feature) long narrow inlet, or
arch stack stump creek.

2.2 Depositional Features.
2.2.1 Wave-Built Platform or Terrace (Included in coastal erosion dig)
2.2.2 Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.
If bars are formed

in such a way that
one end is linked to
land and the other
end projects into
Offshore bars may enclose the sea, they are
a water body to from a called spits.
lagoon.
Spit
Lagoon Baymouth bar
Tombola Sand bars that obtain a length

of hundreds of kilometres are
called offshore bars or
A connecting bar that joins longshore bars.
two landmasses (mainland to
island) is known as a tombola.
2.3 Types of Coasts.
2.3.1 Coastlines of submergence: Become lowered below current sea level.

Type of Coast Features Examples Image
Formed when a non-

glaciated highland coast
becomes submerged and North-western Spain and
Ria Coasts the valleys filled with sea south-western Ireland.
water. Often “V” shaped.
Fjord is a narrow, high-

walled, and very long
submerged glacial valley.
Fiord (Fjord) Coasts Fjord coasts of Norway.
Formed when a descending
glacier carves a U-shaped
valley into the bedrock.
ridges
Formed when a mountain
ridge running parallel to
Dalmatian or
the sea coast is submerged. Dalmatian coast of
Longitudinal former course
Alternating crests and Yugoslavia. of rivers whose
Coasts valleys have
troughs runs parallel to the been drowned
sea coast.
River
Coasts where lowland coast
are submerged, flooding
river. Their entrances are
Estuarine Coast Thames of Britain. Delta Estuary
sand and silt free.

2.3.2 Coastlines of Emergence: The coast has been raised (due to fall in
sea level or a rising of the crust) and the ocean waves now erode a lower level.
Type of Coast Features Examples Image

Old Coastline
Raised
Formedwhen coastal beach
plateau lands are raised Uplifted part

of continental
Emerged Upland above sea level. Northern part of west shelf forming
coastial plain
Coasts coast of India
Spit Bars
Raised beach or cliff-line.
Inlet
Produced by the uplift of Waves cut old Cave
part of the neighbouring Platform
continental shelf.
Present
Emerged Lowland cliff Inlet
Coasts of Kerala and
Coasts
Tamil Nadu Sea
Main feature: spits lagoons,
bars, marshes and beaches.

3. GLACIAL LANDFORMS: MOVING MASS OF ICE AND
SNOW. PROCESSES INVOLVED ARE OF ACCUMULATION,
COMPACTION AND RE-CRYSTALLISATION OF SNOW.
3.1 Action of Glacier.
Freeze-thaw is when melt Plucking is when melt Roche moutonnee: Rock hill shaped by the
water or rain gets into cracks water from a glacier passage of ice to give a smooth up-ice slide
in the bed rock and at night freezes around lumps of (stoss side) and a rough plucked surface on the
the water freezes, expands cracked and broken rock. down-ice side (lee side)
and causes the crack to get When the ice moves
larger. downhill, rock is plucked
from the back wall.
Freeze-thaw
Roche
Abrasion is when rock frozen moutonnee
Plucking
to the base and the back of the
glacier scrapes the bed rock.
Plucking
Abrasion
Ice
Rock lip
Abrasion Stoss side Lee side
3.2 The Landforms created by glacial erosion.
Pyramidal Peaks Arete: Narrow, knife edge Bergschrund: Crevasse or

or Horns: Formed when ridge separating two corries. wide crack opens along
three or more corries the headwall of a glacier.
from in the side of Tarn: Lake found in Cirque: Arm chair
one mountain. a corrie shaped hollow found in
the side of a mountain.
Arete
Horn A series of Tarns lakes,
Pater resembling a string of
Truncated spurs: Tarn noster prayer beads, are known
These ridges that have Hanging lakes Cirques as paternoster lakes.
triangular facets valley
produced by glacial Glacial trough
erosion at their
lower ends are
termed as
truncated
spurs.

3.3 Glacial landforms resulting from deposition.
Drumlins are Erratics: Boulders of considerable Outwash Deposits: Rock debris

elongated hills size are deposited far from their origin. washed down and deposited.
of glacial deposits. Outwash deposits are roughly
stratified and assorted.
Direction of glacier movement
Eskers: Drumlin Kames: Rounded mounds/
Sinuous ridges hills of fluvioglacial deposits.
Kettle lake
of sand and
gravel Te Kame
rm Outwash Plain: Broad
Esker
Stream
in
al Out wash plain surface of stratified
M
or
ai drifts is formed.
Glacial till or Boulder Lake behind Moraine ne
Clay: Unassorted coarse Boulder Clay

Sand and gravels
and fine debris dropped Kettle: Depressions
by the melting glaciers. found between the
outwash plains.
Glacio-Fluvial Deposits
Terminal moraines are

found at the terminus or
the furthest (end) point
reached by a glacier.
Lateral moraines are

found deposited along
the sides of the glacier.
Medial moraines are

found at the junction
between two glaciers.
Medial moraines Ground moraines are
disorganised piles of
Lateral moraines
rocks of various shapes,
Terminal moraines sizes and of differing
rock types.

4. LANDFORM BY THE ACTION OF WIND (AEOLIAN): MOST
OF THE DESERTS ARE CONFINED WITHIN THE 15° TO 30°
NORTH AND SOUTH LATITUDINAL BELTS. FACTORS
INCLUDING: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL, COLD CURRENTS,
CONTINETIALITY, ETC.
Processes involved: Attrition, Deflation, Abrasion or Corrosion, etc.
Surfaces formed in desert.
Surface Features Example
Almost horizontal, sand sheets or of Erg in the Sahara and Saudi Arabia,
Erg (Sandy or True Desert) regular dune lines, or of an koum in Turkmenistan.
undulating sand sea.
Stony desert, horizontal sheets of

Stony Desert smoothly angular gravel cover the Reg in Algeria and Serir in Libya and
Surface. Egypt.
Characterised by deep dissection,

Badland ravines, gullies, and sharp- edged South Dakota, U.S.A.
ridges.
Large areas of sand and dust, with Deserts in Sahara are known
Hamada or Rocky Desert patches of barerock. as Hamada.
In highlands, mountain ranges and Ahaggar Mountain and Tibesti

Mountain Desert
the plateau areas. mountain of Sahara.
4.1 Erosional Landforms-Wind.

MESA resistant
Ventifact: Less resistant Resistant hard rock
Stone with one rock rock
CLIFF BENCH soft rock Mesa: Flat, table- like
or more Resistant landmass with a very
highly Rock rock worn CANYON resistant horizontal
polished, pedestals away slown top layer and very
BUTTE
flattened or steep sides.
facets as a Mushroom
result of Ventifacts or Rocks
erosion by Dreikanter Buttes: Mesas
windblown Hard rock gives rise to that are reduced to
sand. upstanding ridges flat- topped hills.
Upstanding ridges of Zeugens
Yardangs Inselberg or
resistant rock
bomhardts.:
Steepsided hill
Inselberg of solid
rock, rising
Undercutting by Prevailing Wind abraded furrows abruptly
wind abrasion wind in soft rock from a plain.

4.2 Depositional Landforms-wind.
Barchans: Crescent- Ripple Marks: Small

shaped sand dune. scale depositional
Barchan Seif features of sand.
Two”horns” that
face downwind.
Gradually migrate Sand dunes: Mounds
with the wind. or ridges of windblown
sand.
Transverse
Parabolic dunes
form when Seif has only one
sandy surfaces Parabolic wing or point.
are partially
covered with
veqetation. Transverse dunes are aligned
parabolic dunes perpendicular to wind direction.
are reversed
barchans. Direction of Wind
Langitudinal dunes form

when supply of sand is
poor and wind direction is
Longitudinal constant.
Loess: Fine-grained material that has been transported and deposited by the wind.
4.3 Fluvial Desert Landforms: Influenced by the action of running water.
material washed streams spread

old saline lake deposits forward into the alluvial fans at wadi or enclosing
(these deposits hold sudden changes arroyos rill mountains
alluvial zone
clues to climatic change) in slops
bajada
piedmont slope
piedmont
water table
playa lake (shallow
seen as a response to need for
temporary and salty)
the removal of debris, its angle sufficient
to ‘power’ water that carries debris

5. KARST TOPOGRAPHY: LIMESTONE OR DOLOMITIC
REGION SHOWING TYPICAL LANDFORMS PRODUCED BY
THE ACTION OF GROUNDWATER THROUGH THE
PROCESSES OF SOLUTION AND DEPOSITION IS CALLED
KARST TOPOGRAPHY.
5.1 Erosional landform.
Section of
collapse sink
Sequence: Sink Hole: Surface
Sink holes depression or hole in a
region of limestone
Sink hole->
terrain.
Swallow hole->
Doline->Uvalas
Cave Cave Swallow hole:
Coalescence of closely
spaced sink holes into
one large hole.
Caves having openings
at both the ends are Valley sinks/ Uvalas
Dolines: Futher Larger
called tunnels.
depression.
Uvalas are extensive Lapies: Weathered limestone

depression. surface found in karst
regions.
5.2 Depositional Landforms.
Well Jointed Lime stone

Stalactite: The depsoit
of limestone grows
downwards like pillars.
Vertical
Coloumns
Stalactite (pillars) Stalagamite: The deposite
grows upward from the floor.
Cave Stalagamite
Pillars: Both stalactite

and stalagmite often join
together to form vertical
Underground water column.

11
Vision IAS
QUICK REVISION MODULE (UPSC PRELIMS 2024)
GEOGRAPHY
AIR MASS
WARM COLD
AIR MASS
+25OF
-15OF
A large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and

moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called
the source regions .
FIVE MAJOR SOURCE PRIMARY AIR

REGIONS MASSES
1. Warm tropical and 1. Maritime tropical
subtropical oceans (mT)
2. The subtropical hot 2. Continental cA Arctic Front
deserts tropical (cT) mP

cP mP
3. The relatively cold high 3. Maritime polar
latitude oceans (mP) mT T Polar Front
mT
4. The very cold snow 4. Continental polar
covered continents in (cP)
high latitudes 5. Continental arctic
5. Permanently ice (cA)
covered continents in ‘m’ stands for Maritime;
the Arctic ‘c’ stands for continental;
‘T’ stands for tropical;
and Antarctica ‘P’ stands for polar and
‘A’ stands for arctic region

FRONTS Cold Warm
When two different air masses with distinct properties (temperature, mois-
ture, density, pressure etc.) meet, the boundary zone between them is called a
front . The process of formation of the fronts is known as Frontogenesis while
Frontolysis is the end stage of a front .
FRONT CAN BE RECOGNIZED WITH FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS:
Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance.

Sometimes change of 10 degrees to 20 degrees Celsius may be observed.
Change in moisture content
Rapid shifts in wind direction
Pressure changes
Clouds and precipitation patterns
TYPE OF FRONTS
WARM FRONT US CIRRU

S
STRAT
When a warmer and lighter air mass moves against an existing CIRRO
AIR
cold and dense airmass, it rises over the coldet and denser air WARM
S
TRATU
ALTOS
mass. Unlike the cold front, the changes in temperature and wind STR ATUS
NIMBO COLD AIR
direction are gradual.
COLD FRONT CO
L
WARM AIR
When a cold and dense airmass forces its way under warm and
DA
IR CUMULONIMBUS
lighter airmass it makes the warm and lighter airmass to ride over
it. Cold front is much steeper than the warm front.
STATIONERY FRONT COL

D
This happens when two masses of air are pushing against each M
WAR
other but neither is powerful enough to move the
other. Wind blows parallel to the front.
WARM
OCCLUDED FRONT
At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets VERY COLD
the cool air that was ahead of the warm front.
COLD

CYCLONES
Extra-Tropical cyclone (Temperate cyclone) – These are the weather

disturbances in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics.
1. The general
direction of
North Cold Air
movement of
Cold Air
Cold Air temperate cyclones
Front Coldnt
nt is from west to east.
W
Fro War
Fro
ar
m Fron
m
ld
2. Heavy
t Co
Fr
Air
on
Warm Air Warm A
ir
t
m
South War concentration of
storms tracks in the
1 2 3 vicinity of the
First Stage; (Open Stage) Cold and
warm Air Masses move almost
Second Stage; The cold and warm
airmass attempt to force their
Third Stage; On account of the
rising of warm airmass a low Aleutian and
parallel to each other and the
fronts are localised.
entry into each other’s territory.
Therefore the fronts have become
pressure centre develops. The air
moves towards the low pressure Icelandic lows.
a zone of conflict. centre forming whirlwinds. As a
result a cyclone develops. Cold and 3. During winter
months, the
warm fronts too have been fully
developed.
opposing air masses

Cold Air have greater
contrasts in their
properties. So the
ld
Fro
nt
nt winter cyclones are
Co Warm Fro
Warm Air Front
Co
ld
ir
Warm Front
Front greater in number
Cold A
Warm Air and are more
4 5 6 intense.
Fourth Stage; On account of great Fifth Stage; Warm front is riding Sixth and Last Stage; The warm
4. Jet streams
surge ahead of cold front both
fronts are coming closer and warm
over the cold front. It is called
occluded front. It is the end stage
front has dissolved. Warm and cold
Air Masses move in opposite
supports the growth
front is shrinking away. of a cyclone. direction on both sides of polar
front. This is the end of a cyclone.
and influence the
path of temperate
cyclones.

TROPICAL CYCLONE
Undisturbed Winds
Tropopause The tropical cyclone Conditions favoura-
km Tropo
p ause
Tropo
p ause develops from the ble for the formation
15
Steering Wind Flow
‘warm core’ of extreme- and intensification of
Subsiding
12 Warm Air ly low pressure area in tropical storms are:
Out F Flow
the tropical oceanic
low Out
Large sea surface
areas.
9
T2
with temperature
6
T1 Ra
in nd
s They are energized higher than 27° C
Ba Ba
from condensation
in
Presence of the
nd
Ra
Eye Wall
Eye Wall
s
3 Nb
process in the towering Coriolis force

P2 Nb Cu
Cu K K
cumulonimbus clouds,
P1
Small variations
Eye
300 200 200 300
surrounding the centre in the vertical

Direction of the Storm of the storm. wind
On reaching the land A pre-existingweak
the moisture supply is low-pressure area
cut off and the storm or low-level-cyclon-
Top View
dissipates. ic circulation
Coriolis force causes Upper divergence
cyclonic circulation. above the sea
Eye
level system.
At the equator, the
Coriolis force is zero Small variations
and the wind blows in the vertical
perpendicular to the wind speed
Eyewall
isobars. The low pres-
sure gets filled instead
of getting intensified.
That is the reason why
0 miles 100 200
tropical cyclones are
100 200 300 not formed near the
equator.
Because of weak verti-
cal wind shear, cyclone
Region Local Name
formation processes are
Indian Ocean Cyclone or limited to latitudes
Chakrvaat
equatorword of the
Atlantic Hurricanes
sub-tropical jet stream.
Western Pacific Typhoons
and South China
Sea
Western Australia Willy-willies

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRA-TROPICAL AND
TROPICAL CYCLONES –
EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONE TROPICAL CYCLONE
Have a clear frontal system and get Fronts are not present and get
energy from the horizontal tempera- energy from warm and moist air
ture contrasts that exist in the atmos- of ocean
phere
Can originate over the land and sea Originate only over the seas
Travel both on oceans and land On reaching the land they dissipate.
Affects a much larger area as Wind velocity in a tropical
compared to the tropical cyclone. cyclone is much higher and it is
more destructive.
Move from west to east Move from east to west
THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES

Thunderstorm – A storm accompa- Tornado – From severe thunder-
nied by thunder and lightning is storms sometimes spiraling wind
called thunderstorm. It is associated descends like a trunk of an ele-
with the cumulonimbus clouds. Thun- phant with great force, with very
derstorms are caused by intense con- low pressure at the centre causing
vection on moist hot days. massive destruction on its way.
Such a phenomenon is called a
tornado.
TORNADO
Descending
air
Funnel
cloud with
upward
current
Low
Pressure

5
Vision IAS
2024
2024
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CLIMATE AND GLOBAL

CLIMATE ZONES
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE
Ocean Local
Latitude Altitude Continentality Current Winds
Relief & Natural Slope, Shelter Human

Topography Vegetation & Aspect El Nino Influence
FACTS ABOUT FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE:
A fall of 6.5°C occurs with an ascent of 1000 meters or 1.0°C per 165 meters.
It takes less energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of land by 1.0°C as compared to same
volume of water body.
Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it
cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall.
Dry soils like sands are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much
moisture and warm up or cool down more slowly.
Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-
facing 'sunny slope' than the north facing 'sheltered slope’.
The warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall
patterns.

Heat Zones Classifications
THESE RAYS ALWAYS HORIZONTAL

N.
FR
NO IG
ID
RT
H T
EM
23 PE
S U N ‘ S ¹ /2 N RA S U N ‘ S
TRO OR TE
EQ PIC TH
UA
TO O F L AT
CA IT
R NC UDE
R A Y S ER R A Y S
PERPENDICULAR RAY TO PERPENDICULAR RAY
RR
ID
23
ABOUT T R O ¹/2 S O ABOUT
PIC UTH
OF L
SO
UT C A AT I T U
PR
D E C E M B E R
H T I CO D E J U N E
EM RN
PE
RA
S.
FR TE
21st I GI
D
21st
THESE RAYS ALWAYS HORIZONTAL
SOME FACTS ABOUT HEAT ZONES CLASSIFICATION:

Tropical or Torrid Zone: The sunrays are almost vertical throughout the year. The temperature always
remains high. There is no winter season in this zone.
Frigid Zones: The sunrays in these two zones in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere fall in slanting
form throughout the year. Therefore these zones experience very low temperature and high degree of
coldness.
North Pole
90°N
66.5° Frigid zone
66.5°
23.5° Temperat e Zone 23.5°
Tro p i c s
Torrid Zone Tro p i c s
0° Equator 0°
Tro p i c s
Tro p i c s Torrid Zone
23.5° Temperat e Zone 23.5°
Frigid zone
66.5° 66.5°
90°S
South Pole

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE:
Koeppen classification
Based on annual averages of temperature and precipitation. 5 main climate types + Highland type climate
S.N. Chief Climatic Groups Climatic Types

Tropical Climate (Average temperature of the coldest 1. Tropical rain forest type climate
A month is 18 C or higher) 2. Savannah type climate
3. Monsoon type climate
Dry Climate ( potential evaporation ) exceeds precipitation 4. Desert climate

B 5. Steppe (Semi-desert) climate
Temperate Climate (The average temperature of the 6. Mediterranean climate

C coldest month is higher than minus 3° C but below 18° C) 7. China type climate
8. West European type climate
Continental Climate (The average temperature of the 9. Taiga climate
D coldest month is minus 3° C or below) 10. Easter costal cold climate
11. Continental climate
E Polar Climate (Average temperature for all month is below 12. Tundra climate
10° C) 13. Snow-capped region type climate
H Highland Climate (Cold due to elevation)
Thornthwaite Classification
5 humidity region based on Precipitation effectiveness and Temperature efficiency
S.N. Humidity Region Special type of Vegetation

A Very Humid Rain Forest
B Humid Forest
C Semi Humid Grassland
D Semi Dry Steppe
E Dry Desert
On the basis of distribution of seasonal rainfall the above types of humidity regions were further divided
into following subdivisions:
Y = Heavy rainfall in all seasons
s = Scarcity of rainfall in summer season
w = Scarcity of rainfall in winter season
d = Scarcity of rainfall in all seasons
After linking precipitation effectiveness and seasonal distribution of rainfall to temperature anomalies,
the climates could be of 120 different types.

1. The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
Location
Found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies
Bogota Kuala
Lumpur
hot, wet equatorial regions
Climatic Conditions
5-10 degrees North and South of the equator.
Great uniformity of temperature throughout the year (around 27°C).
No winter. Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderates the daily temperature.
Vegetation
Multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood.
Lianas, epiphytic and parasitic plants are also found.

2. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
Location
Tropical Monsoon Climate:
They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam
and south China and northern Australia.
Tropical Marine Climate:
It is experienced in Central America. West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East
Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
Cairns
Tropical marine
Tropical monsoon
Climatic Conditions
Found in the zones between 5° and 30° latitudes on either side of the equator.
The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea.
Tropical Monsoon Climate: In regions like the Indian sub-continent which have a true Tropical Monsoon
Climate, three distinct seasons are distinguishable - The cool, dry season (October to February), the hot
dry season (March to mid-June) and the rainy season (mid-June to September).
Tropical Marine Climate: This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of tropical lands,
receiving steady rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time.
Vegetation
Trees are normally deciduous because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their leaves to
withstand the drought.
Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in Southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal
regions with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is forest.

3. The Savannah or Sudan Climate
Location
The Savannah or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forest and
the trade wind hot deserts
It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons are
most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East Africa and southern Africa
north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
In South America, there are two distinct regions of savannah north and south of the equator, namely the
llanos of the Orinoco basin and the Campos of the Brazilian Highlands.
Tropic of Cancer
Kang
Lianos
Equator
Salisbury
Tropic of Capricorn Campos
Savanna
Climatic Conditions
It is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.
The extreme diurnal range of temperature is also a characteristic of Sudan type of climate.
The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds which bring rain to the coastal districts.
The savannah, particularly in Africa, is the home of wild animals. It is known as the 'big game country’.
Vegetation
Tall grass and short trees. The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld’ is also used.
The trees are deciduous and show adaptation to withstand drought.

4. The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates
Location
They include the Sahara Desert, the Great Australian Desert , the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar
Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
In North America, the desert extends from Mexico to USA and is called by different names at different
places, e.g. the Mohave Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (driest). The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-
shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than to continentality
Turkestan
Gobi
Mohave
ian
Canaries Kasngar
n
Cal urre
Ira
Current Thar
Sahara
C
ifo nt
Ara
rni
bia
Massawa n
an
Atacama Kalahari
Benguela
Current Namib Australian
Peruv nt
W. Australian
Curre
Current
Patagonian
ain
Hot Desert
Mid Latitude deserts
cold ocean currents
Climatic Conditions
The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15
and 30 degrees N and S.
The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air is
descending (least favourable for precipitation)
There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around 30°C.
Vegetation
Vegetation include grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs.

5. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
Location
The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
Though the area around the Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of 'winter rain
climate', and gives rise to the more popular name Mediterranean Climate.
Other Mediterranean regions include California (around San Francisco), the south-western tip of Africa
(around Cape Town), southern Australia (in southern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the St.
Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia (Swanland).
Mistral
Sirocco
Cape Town
Mediterranean regions
Climatic Conditions
They are entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and
south of the equator.
The Mediterranean type of climate is characterized by very distinctive climatic features - a warm summer
with off-shore trades, a concentration of rainfall in winter with onshore westerlies, bright, sunny
weather with hot dry summers and wet, mild winters and the prominence of local winds around the
Mediterranean Sea (Sirocco, Mistral).
Growth is slow in the cooler and wetter season, even though more rain comes in winter. The warm, bright
summers and cool, moist winters enable a wide range of crops to be cultivated Some 85 per cent of
grapes produced, go into wine. The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen and then they are
handpicked. Economy: The area is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and
agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining.
Vegetation
The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world's orchard lands. A wide range of citrus fruits such as
oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown. Wine production is another specialty.
The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.

6. The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
Location
In Eurasia: Steppes. Stretch eastwards from the Black Sea to the Altai Mountains.
In North America: Prairies. They lie between the Rockies and the Great Lakes.
In South America: Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay. Extend right to the sea and enjoy much maritime
influence.
In South Africa: Tropical Bushveld in North and High Veld in the South. They lie between the Drakensberg
and the Kalahari Desert.
Manchuria
Winnipeg Grassland
Pustaz
Prairies
Steppes
k
noo
Chi nds
wi
Pretoria Downs
Veld
Pampas
Temperate Grasslands Canterbury

Grassland
Warm ocean currents
Climatic Conditions
Summers are very warm and winters are very cold in the continental steppes of Eurasia because of the
enormous distances from the nearest sea.
In contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe. The winters are mild.
Temperatures below freezing point are exceptional.
Temperate grasslands are found bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the
interiors continents.
Their greatest difference from the tropical savannah is that they are practically treeless and the grasses
are much shorter.
Vegetation
Trees are very scarce in the steppes, because of the scanty rainfall, long droughts and severe winters.
Tall, fresh and nutritious prairie grass are found. Granaries of the world.

7. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
Location
It can be sub-divided into three main types:
The China type: Central and North China including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal).
The Gulf type: South-eastern United States bordering Gulf of Mexico (slight monsoonal).
The Natal type: The entire warm temperate eastern margin (non-monsoonal areas) of the southern
hemisphere including Natal, eastern Australia and southern Brazil-Paraguay-Uruguay and northern
Argentina.
do
Torna
Hurricane
Track Nanking
Ty
Miami ph
oo
n Tra
ck
Pampero Berg Wind Sydney

rly
t he r
u e
Warm temperate eastern margin regions So urst
B
Local winds
Climatic Conditions
Warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter.
Fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
It has comparatively more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate.
The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a much heavier rainfall than either the western
margins or the continental interiors and thus have luxuriant vegetation.
Vegetation
Lowlands: Evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees.
Highlands: Conifers such as pines and cypresses that are important softwood.

8. The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
Location
Permanent influence of Westerlies through out the year.
They are also regions of much cyclonic activity, typical of Britain.
Climatic belt stretches from Britain to North-West Europe.
In the southern hemisphere, the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts of
New Zealand, particularly in South Island.
London
rt
ba
Ho
British Type of climate
Climatic Conditions
Summers are never very warm.
Adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum
from cyclonic sources.
The rain-bearing winds come from the west, the western margins have the heaviest rainfall.
Vegetation
Deciduous forests used for Lumbering
Trees shed their leaves in winter as a protection mechanism.

9. The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
Location
Experienced only in the northern hemisphere where the continents within the high latitudes have a
broad east-west spread.
The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of
the southern continents in the high latitudes.
Churchill
Moscow
coniferous forest
Climatic Conditions
Characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration, and a cool brief summer. Spring and autumn are
merely brief transitional periods.
The extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the 'cold pole of the
earth’.
Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk.
Vegetation
Coniferous forests (Softwood)
There are four major species in the coniferous forests – a) Pine, e.g. white pine, red pine b) Fir, e.g.,
Douglas fir and balsam fir, c) Spruce and d) Larch.

10. The Cool, Temperate Eastern Margin Climate
Location
This climate is found only in two regions.

North American Region: north-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A. and
Newfoundland.
Asiatic Region: The eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea
and northern Japan.
In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is absent because only a small section of the southern
continents extends south of the latitude of 40° S.
Climatic Conditions
This climate has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers
It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.
It is an intermediate type of climate between the British and the Siberian type of climate.
Vegetation
The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest.
Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal trees.

11. The Polar Climate
Location
Two subtypes:
Tundra Climate
Ice-Cap Climate
Climatic Conditions
Exists poleward beyond 70° latitude.
Tundra-Climate [ET] is found in regions with permafrost. Short growing season i.e. summer with very
long duration of day light. Drainage in the tundra is usually poor as the sub-soil is permanently frozen.
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior Greenland and Antarctica. Even in summer, the temperature
is below freezing point.
Vegetation
Tundra vegetation i.e. Mosses, Lichens and flowering plants.

The Global climatic conditions can be studied under the following twelve classifications.
Latitude Rainfall Regime Natural

Climatic Zone Climatic Type
(Approachmate ) (with approx. total) Vegetation
1. Hot wet Rainfall all year Equatorial rain

Equatorial Zone 0°-10°N and S equatorial round: 80 inches forests
Heavy summer
2. a) Tropical
rain: 80 inches Monsoon
Hot Zone 10°-30°N and S Monsoon
b) Tropical Marine Much summer forests
rain: 70 inches
3. Sudan Type Rain mainly in Savanna (tropical

summer: 30 inches grassland)
4. Desert: a)
Saharan type Desert vegetation
Little rain: 5 inches
b) Mid-latitide type and scrub
5. Western Margin Mediterranean

Warm Temperate Winter rain: 35
10°-40°N and S (Mediterranean forests and
Zone type) inches shrub
6. Central Steppe or
Light summer rain: temperate
Continental
(Steppe type ) 20 inches grassland
7. Eastern Margin:
a) China type Light summer rain: Warm, wet forests
b) Gulf type 20 inches and bamboo
c) Natal type
Cool Temperate 8. Western Margin More rain in autuma

45°-65°N and S (British type) Deciduous forests
Zone & winter: 30 inches
9. Cental Continental Light summer rain: Evergreen

(Siberian type) 25 inches coniferous
forests
10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer Mixed forests

(Laurentian type ) rain: 40 inches (coniferous and
deciduous)
Cool Zone Very light summer Tundra, mosses,

65°-90°N and S 11. Arctic or Polar
rain: 10 inches lichens
Alpine Zone 65°-90°N and S 12. Mountain Heavy rainfall Alpine pastures,
climate (variable) conifers, fern, show

Quick Revision Module
(UPSC Prelims 2024) Geography
Drainage Pattern
and Types
A geometric arrangement of streams in a region determined by slope, differing rock resistance to weathering and
erosion, climate, hydrologic variability, and structural controls of the landscape is known as drainage pattern.
Rivers on basis
of Drainage
Antecedent Consequent
The rivers that existed The rivers which Godavari and krishna
Indus, Sutlej, etc. rivers descending
before the upheaval of follow general
Ganga are from the Western Ghats
the Himalayas and cut direction of slope
few examples are known as the are some consequent
their courses by making
gorges in the mountains consequent rivers rivers.
Types of Drainage Patterns:
Mains Stream Ridges of

Tributary Resistant Rocks
(a) Dendritic Drainage (c) Trellis Drainage

Central Uplift
(a) Rectangular Drainage (d) Radial Drainage
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Himalayan River System Vs Peninsular

River System
98°E 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°E
36°N
36°N
INDIA
INDUS RIVER BASINS
32° BASIN
PAKISTAN 32°
West Flowing River:

Rivers in Kuchchh,
Saurastra and
river Luni CHINA
28°
(TIBET)
NE
PA
L
BHUTAN
Ganga
Ganga Brahma Putra
Basin
Basin
Basin
BANGLADESH Barak 24°

Basin
i
sin at
Ba arm
Mehar
Su
b
Tropic of
Sa
ba Ba
Bhasin
Ba
rn sin
Cancer
ar
Narmada Basin ita

ek
R ra
ha
Ba ive ni a
Mahanadi si r nd
Tapi Basin n MYANMAR
20° Basin
20°
Godawari Basin
ARABIAN BAY OF
SEA BENGAL
Krishna Basin East Flowing Rivers:

16° Rivers between
Mahandi and Pennar
West Flowing
Pennar
Rivers: Rivers
south of Tapi Basin
East Flowing
Rivers: Rivers
12° between
Kaveri Pennar and
Basin Kanyakumari
12°
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)
8°N SRI OCEAN

LANKA 0 200 400 60 km 8°N
INDIA
72°E 76° 84° 88° 92°E
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Himalayan River System Vs Peninsular

River System
Aspects Himalayan River Peninsular River
Place of Origin Himalayan mountain covered with Peninsular plateau and central highland
glaciers
Nature of flow Perennial Ephemeral
Type of Antecedent and Consequent leading Super imposed, rejuvenated resulting in

drainage to dendritic pattern trellis, radial and rectangular patterns
Nature of Long course, flowing through rugged Smaller, fixed course with well adjusted
river mountains experiencing headward valleys
erosion and river capturing;
In plains meandering and shifting of
course
Catchment age Very large basins Relatively smaller basin
Age of the Young, active and deepening of valley Old rivers with graded profile and
river lateral erosion
Irrigation Flow through plains and canal system Flow over uneven plateau; canals only in
deltaic region
Hydroelectricity Eastern region has very high potential Natural waterfalls for generating
and large dams are building up electricity
AFGHANISTAN
Ka
bu yo
Sh The Himalayan
l k
Wul ar La ke In
Dal Lake us
d River System
m Chenab
lu
J he
as
j C H I N A
Rav
i Satlu
Be
PAKISTAN luj
al
Sat TIBET
n
Sard
Ca
r
dhi gha Tsangpo
us an hag N
a
G
Ind a
G G
an E
Indr Sambhar Salt Ya
g a P
m G A
Lake un om Gha L BHUTAN utra
a at ghar ap
u n i ahm
l
L Br
ba
i a
Ga
s
am
na
Kosi
nd
Ch
Ba
i
a
at
ak
Parbali
tw
rm
Kali Sing
Be
Rann Son
ba
BANGLADESH
Kachchh
Sa
Damodar
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Ganga River System
The river has a length of 2,525 km and is the largest river basin in India with about one-fourth area
of the country under it.
It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarakhand where it is known as the
Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alakananda and both makes Ganga.
Along with Brahmaputra, it makes largest delta of the world.
It flows through major cities of India – Kanpur, Allahabad, Patna, and Kolkata.
Western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the
Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Bander punch range (6,316 km).
Meets Ganga at Allahabad (Prayag).
Yamuna The right bank tributaries involve the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken
which originates in the Peninsular plateau.
Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna join it on its left bank.
It flows through cities such as Karnal, Delhi, and Agra.
The Gandak river comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
Gandak
It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between Dhaulagiri and Mt. Everest.
It enters the Ganga Plains of India in Champaran, Bihar and joins Ganga at
Sonpur near Patna.
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. It comes out of the
mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
Ghaghara
The river Sarda joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
It flows through famous Ayodhya town.
The Ramganga is the first major tributary to join the Ganga from its left near
Kannauj.
Ramaganga
It rises in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. A large dam has been built on this river
near Kalagarh.
The Damodar drains the eastern parts of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows
through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli at Falta.
Damodar The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ the
Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley Corporation, a
multipurpose project.
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau from Vindhyan. From Kota,
it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the
Yamuna at Etawah.
Chambal The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the Chambal
ravines. Ravines are being reclaimed for agricultural and pastoral activities.
Banas river is its main tributary. The main dams across the river are Gandhi Sagar
(Kota), Rana Pratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar.
The Son originates from the Amarkantak plateau. It has length of 780km.
Son After forming a series of waterfall at the edge of plateau, it reaches Arrah, west
of Patna to join the Ganga. It is known for its frequent river shifting.
The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where
Sharda it is known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or
Chauk, where it joins the Ghaghara.
The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling
Mahananda
hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
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Indus River System
The most important drainage systems of the Indian subcontinent and one of the largest in the
world. It covers a length of 2,880 km, out of which 1,114 km length is in India.
Indus has origin from a glacier near Bokar Chu in the Kailash Mountain range in the Tibet province
of China. In Tibet, it is known as 'Singi Khamban'; or Lion's mouth.
Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Dras, Panjnad rivers are its major left-bank tributaries.
Shyok River, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river, Gomal River, Tochi, Khurram
and Kabul river are its major right-bank tributaries.
The River finally drains into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi city.
Rises from a spring at Verinag Spring situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal.
Jhelum Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan.
Joins the Chenab in Pakistan.
The Chenab (Asikni) flows in India for about 1180km draining around 26,755 sq km
area.
It is the largest tributary of the Indus.
Chenab
It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
Major hydro power plants installed in Chenab are Salal, Baghliar, and Dulhasti.
The Ravi (Parushni) river flows for about 725 km and drains 6000 sqkm area in
India.
Ravi Rises near the Rohtang Pass in Kullu hills in Himachal Pradesh.
Flows through the famous Chamba valley.
Drains an area lying between Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges.
The Beas (Vipasa) river originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass.
Flows through the Kullu valley & Kangra Valley.
Beas Enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike in India's Punjab.
Indira Gandhi Canal that feeds western Rajasthan has origin at Harike,
confluence of Beas and Satluj.
The Satluj (Satadru) river rises from the Rakas Lake near Mansarovar (4,555m) in
Tibet.
This is an antecedent river.
Passes through the Shipki La (4300 m) on the Himalayan ranges at India-China
Satluj
border.
It cuts the Zaskar ranges, Dhaula Dhar range, Shiwalik and finally enters the
Punjab plains.
Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
The Ghaggar (Saraswati) is an inland drainage which rises in the talus fan of the
Shiwalik near Ambala, Haryana.
Ghaggar After entering the plains, it disappears but reappears at Karnal. Further on, the
stream disappears near Hanumargarh in Bikaner.
It is believed that it is an old tributary of the Indus.
Brahmaputra River System
Ne
Zangbo
ya
ng
Tsangpo Q
u
Dibang
Rai
BharilKa
dak
Lohit
Subans
/Du Burhi
dhk Dha
Manas
meng
Dihing
Sank
iri
um rla
Dik
osh
ar
Te
Dh
hu
Atr
e
an
sta
i-G
sir
um
an
i
i-H Bra Kopili
ura hmOld
sag ap
Ga ar u tra
a
ng hn
es
eg
Dha
lesh
rM
wat
i
pe
Up
Meghn
Lower
a
Bay of Bengal
The Brahmaputra is one of the largest river of not only India but the world. Its total length is 2900km
and basin area is 5,80,000 sq km (916 km and 1,87,00 sqkm in India).
Its origin is in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. From
here, it flows parallel to the Greater Himalayas in the dry and flat Tibetan region where it is known as
Tsangpo.
The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna.
Left Bank
Dibang or Sikang, Lohit, Burhi Dihing, Dhansari (South) and Kalang
Tributaries
Right Bank
Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh
Tributaries
Godavari River System
76° 78° 80° 82° E
Winganga R.
Amravati
Wa Wardha
N 18 rd
ha
Pu R
rn Chandrapur
20° Ayrangabad D a
ud R
Go na 17 Penganga R. 2 3
dav R. 4
ari Adilabad
R. R.
16 Indravati
14 Nanded
15 13 11 Vloncherial Sironcha
Gangakher 7 5
Nizamabad 6
i R.
ar
Go
12
Ma
b
Sa
da
n
Tirna R.
v
Karinnagar
jar
ari
18°
aR
R
uR
.
10 Siler
.
Bhadrahalam
9
Secunderabad
Rajhamundry
Mouths of
16° Godavari
Bay of Bengal
The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It is 1,465 km long with 49 per cent of river course, lying
in Maharashtra.
The Godavari River is the second-longest course in India with brownish water.
The river is often referred to as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga.
This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.
Left Bank
Purna, Pranhita (Penganga and Warda), Indravathi, Sabari
Right Bank Dharna river, Pravara river, Sindphana river, Manjira river, Peddavagu river
Cauvery River Basin
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its length is 800 km.
It flows into the Bay of Bengal at Kaveripatnam. It drains parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.
Left Bank the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
Right Bank Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the
Amaravati
Krishna River System
Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that
originate in the Western Ghats.
Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, and Musi are some
of the other tributaries.
Left Bank the Bhima,Koyna, the Musi and the Munneru.
Right Bank The Ghatprabha, the Malprabha and the Tungabhadra
Mahanadi River System
The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa, Amarkantak hills in the highlands of Chhattisgarh and runs through
Orissa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long.
It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, and Orissa.
The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.
Left Bank Sheonath, Mand, Ib, Hasdeo
Right Bank Ong, Jonk, Tel
Narmada River system
The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m.
Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north, it
forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
It meets the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its length is 1312 km.
All the tributaries are very short and make trellis pattern. The Sardar Sarovar Project has been
constructed on this river.
Burhner River, Banjar River, Shar River, Shakkar River, Dudhi River, Tawa River,
Left Bank
Ganjal River, Chhota Tawa River, Karjan River
Right Bank Hiran River, Tendoni River, Kolar River, Hatni River, Orsang River
Other Notable Rivers

West Flowing Rivers
Originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh and discharge
Tapi in Surat district, Gujarat.
The Purna, Girna and Panjhra are its important tributaries.
Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of the Aravallis.

Originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the
Luni Sabarmati.
Flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the
Rann of Kutch.
The Mahi river rises in the Satmala hills of the Vindhyan mountains.
Mahi After flowing for 533km, it drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
It is only river which cuts through Tropic of Cancer Twice along its course.
Rises in the Aravalli hills
Sabarmati
Flows into Arabian Sea after flowing over a distance of 300km.
Bharathapuzha The longest river of Kerala, rises near Annamalai hills. Also known as Ponnani.
and Periyar The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala.
Important river in Karnataka flowing towards the west.

Sharavati
The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka.
The Mandovi and the Zuari are rivers in the state of Goa.
Mahadayi/Mandovi River is described as the lifeline of the Indian state of Goa.
Zuari and
Mandovi joins with the Zuari at a common creek at Cabo Aguada, forming the
Mandovi Rivers
Mormugao harbour.
Panaji, the state capital is situated on the left bank of the Mandovi.
East Flowing Rivers
Comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near
Rourkela.
The basin is bounded in the North by Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South
by the Mahanadi basin and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
Brahmani
The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains
into Bay of Bengal.
Together with the river Baitarani, it forms a large delta before emptying into the Bay
of Bengal at Dhamra Port.
South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the
longest.
This basin is bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the
Vaigai
Cardaman hills and the Palani hills on the West and by the Palk strait and Palk
Bay on the East.
The Vaigai entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
The Pennar (also known as Uttara Pinakini) rises in the Chenna Kasava hill of the
Nandidurg range, in Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka.
Pennar basin extends over states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Pennar
The fan shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala range on the north, by the
Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by the
Nandidurg hills on the south.
The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river are the Seshachalam
[famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda ranges.
The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the
boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
Subarnarekha
Joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi
deltas.
Narmada River
Important National
system
Waterways
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INDIAN AGRICULTURE
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
High percentage of Subsistence Pressure of

reporting area under Agriculture population on
cultivation agriculture
Seasonal Patterns - Dependent upon Predominance

Rabi, Kharif, Zaid Monsoon of food crops
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Land fragmentation Lack of crop Low productivity

and disguised diversification and failure
unemployment of land reform
Low use of manures, Lack of Absense of

fertilizers and irrigation and agriculture marketing
biocides mechanisation and storage facilities

LAND USE CATEGORIES
Land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows –
Fallow other than Current Fallow- uncultivated between 1 and 5 year

Net sown area - land on which crops are sown.
Current Fallow - Left without cultivation for one or less than one year
Culturable Wasteland - Fallow for more than 5 years
Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves
Area under permanent pastures
Land under non-agricultural use
Barren and waste land - can not be brought under cultivation
Forest
LAND USE CHANGES
50 Change in Shares of Land-use Categories in india :

1950-51 and 2014-15 45.5
Per cant of reporting area
45
41.7
40
35
30
25 23.3
20
17
15 13.4
10 8.7 8
5.5 6.9 6.1
5 3.2 2.3 3.3 4 3.6 3.7 4.9
1.0
0
Forests Area Barren Perma- Area Culturable Fallow Current Net Area
under and nent Under Waste other falow sown
non- uncult- pasture Misc Land than
agricu- urable and Tree Current
ltural waste gazing crops fallow
use land land and groves
1950-51 2014-15

1
The following observations can be made:
Observation-1
Trend
The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural

uses. The area under non-agricultural uses is increasing at the expense of
wastelands and agricultural land.
Reason
Due to the changing structure of Indian economy, and expansion of area

under both urban and rural settlements.
Observation-2
Trend
The increase in the share under forest
Reason
Can be accounted for by increase in the demarcated area under forest rather
than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.
Observation-3
Trend
Trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over years

1
Reason
Depending on the variability of rainfall and cropping cycles.
Observation-4
Trend
Increase in net area sown
Reason
Due to use of culturable waste land for agricultural purpose.
CROPPING SEASONS
Major Crops Cultivated

Cropping
Season
Northan States Southern States
Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra Rice, Maize, Ragi,

June -September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, Groundnut
Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi,

October-March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar
Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables,

April-June Fodder Fodder

1
MAJOR CROPS
Crop Climatic Area of

conditions cultivation
• Rice • Tropical andsub-tropical • West Bengal,
plant • Punjab,
• Requires high temperature • Uttar Pradesh,
of more than 22°C • Andhra Pradesh
• Rainfall more than 100 cm. • Tamil Nadu.
• Soil - Clayey alluvial soil.
Map
MAJOR AREA
MINOR AREA

1
• Wheat • Crop of temperate zone • Uttar Pradesh,
• Winter temperature of 10° • Punjab,
to 15° C and summer tem- • Haryana,
perature of 21°C to 26°C • Rajasthan
• It requires a rainfall of 50 • Madhya Pradesh
to 75 cm.
• Soil – clay loam or loam
texture
Map
MAJOR AREA
MINOR AREA

1
• Pulses • India is a leading producer • Dryland of Deccan
of pulses (one-fifth of the and
total production of pulses). • central plateaus
• Temperature: 20° - 27°C and north western
• Rainfall : 25 - 60 cm parts of the
• Soil : Sandy - loam country.
Map
3.06 2.19
(Uttar Pradesh)
(Rajasthan)
598 866
4 6.25
(Madhya Pradesh)
3 2.52 938
5.12
0.77
(Jharkhand)
7 1 0.76 8 1009
0.82 0.94 6.66
(Gujarat) 0.73
0.88(Chattisgarh)
868 823
9
4.60
0.69 0.49
3.81 2 (Telengana)
(Maharashtra) 10 703
828
1.41 6
2.96 0.97
1.72 (Andhra Pradesh)
(Karnataka) 5 687
580
(Area in Million Hectares) (Production in Million Tonnes) (Yield in KG./Hectare)

1
• Oil seeds • Temperature: 15° - 30°C • Dryland of Malwa plateau
• Rainfall : 30 - 50 cm • Marathwada,
• Soil : loam to clayey loam • Gujarat,
• Rajasthan,
• Telangana and
• Rayalseema region of
Andhra Pradesh and
• Karnataka plateau
Map
0.92
(Haryana)
1712 1.06
(Uttar Pradesh)
7 845
6.31
(Rajasthan) 0.54 5 8.68
1386 (Madhya Pradesh)
2 1.26 1243
4.55 6
4 1 0.79
4.78 2.77 6.99
(Gujarat) 0.92
81725 (West Bengal)
0.71 1164
4.44 (Telengana)
1353
0.52
5.26 3
(Maharashtra) 10
1185
1.15 9
1.26 0.78
0.79 (Andhra Pradesh)
(Karnataka) 8 679
628
(Area in Million Hectares) (Production in Million Tonnes) (Yield in KG./Hectare)

1
• Cotton • Tropical crop grown in • Part of Punjab, Haryana
• Kharif season in semi-arid and northern Rajasthan in
• areas of the country. north-west,
Cotton requires clear sky • Gujarat and Maharashtra in
during flowering stage. the west and
Temperature : 21°C – 30°C Plateaus of Andhra
Rainfall : 50 - 100 cm. Pradesh, Karnataka and
Soil : well - drained loam, Tamil Nadu in south.
and regur.
Map
Cotton

1
• Jute • Temperature : 24°C – 35°C • West Bengal accounts
and for about three - fourth
• Rainfall : 120 - 150 cm. of the production in the
• Soil : Well drained alluvial country.
Soil • Bihar and Assam.
Map
Jute

1
• Tea • It is grown over undulating • Brahmaputra valley of
topography of hilly areas & Assam,
• well drained soils in humid • Sub-Himalayan region of
and sub - humid tropics and West Bengal (Darjiling,
sub - tropics. Jalpaiguri and Cooch
• Temperature : 20°C – 30°C Bihar districts) and
• Rainfall : 150 - 300 cm. • lower slopes of Nilgiris
• Soil : well - drained, light and Cardamom hills of
loamy Soil Western Ghats.
Map
Himachal
pradesh
Kangra
Asom
(Assam)
Darjeeling
Meghalaya
Tea
Kerala
Nilgiris

1
• Sugarcane • Crop of tropical areas. • In Indo-Gangetic plain, its
• Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivation is largely
cultivated in sub humid and concentrated in Uttar
humid climates. Pradesh (2/5th of India).
• It requires hot and humid • In western India –
climate. Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Temperature : 21°C - 27°C • In southern India –
• Rainfall : 75 - 100 cm Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Soil : Well - drained alluvium, and Andhra Pradesh.
• black, red and brown regur soil
Map
Sugarcane

1
• Coffee • Tropical plantation crop. • Cultivated in the high-
• Temperature : 15°C and lands of Western Ghats
28°C in Karnataka, Kerala and
• Rainfall : 150 cm to Tamil Nadu
250 cm.
• Soil : well - drained alluvial
soil
Map
Karnataka
Tamil Nadu
Kerala

1
OTHER CROPS
Climatic Soil Area of

Crop requirements cultivation
conditions
Jowar Temp: 26°C – 33°C Clayey, regur and Maharashtra,
Rain: About 30 cm alluvium Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajas-
than and Gujarat
Bajra Temp: 25°C – 30°C Sandy loams, Maharashtra,

Rain: 40 - 50 cm black and red Gujarat, Uttar
Soils Pradesh, Rajas-
than and Haryana.
Maize Temp: 21°C – 27°C Deep fertile well Madhya Pradesh,

Rain: 50 - 100 cm drained soil rich Andhra Pradesh,
in organic matter Karnataka, Rajas-
with good water than and Uttar
holding Pradesh
capacity
Ragi Temp: 20°C – 30°C Red, light black Karnataka, Tamil

Rain: 50 - 100 cm sandy loams Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa,
Bihar, Gujarat and
Maharashtra
Gram Temp: 20°C – 25°C Well-drained fer- Madhya Pradesh,
Rain: 40 - 50 cm tile silt and clayey Uttar Pradesh,
loams Rajasthan, Hary-
ana and Maha-
rashtra

1
Groundnut Temp: 20°C – 30°C Sandy loams and Andhra Pradesh,
Rain: 50 - 80 cm black soil Tamil Nadu, Kar-
nataka, Gujarat &
Maharashtra.
Rapeseed Temp: 10°C – 20°C Alluvial soil Uttar Pradesh,
& Mustard Rain: 50 - 100 cm Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh
Sesamum Temp: 20°C – 25°C Well-drained light Orissa, Rajasthan,
(Til) Rain: About 50 cm loamy soils Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu, Maharash-
tra, West Bengal
and Madhya
Pradesh.
Sunflower Temp: 15°C – 25°C Well-drained Karnataka, Maha-
Rain: About 50 cm loamy soil rashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Haryana,
Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh
Soyabean Temp: 15°C – 25°C Friable loamy Maharashtra,
Rain: 40 - 60 cm soils can retain Uttar Pradesh,
moisture. Uttarakhand,
Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and
Chhattisgarh.
Linseed Temp: 10°C – 20°C Clay loams, deep Madhya Pradesh,
Rain: 50 - 75 cm black soils and Uttar Pradesh,
alluvial soils mois- Bihar,
ture. Chhattisgarh and
Maharashtra
Coconut Temp: 20°C – 25°C Loose porous or Kerala, Tamil
Rain: Above 150 cm sandy along sea Nadu and Karna-
shores taka

1
Rubber Temp: 25°C – 35°C Deep, rich and Kerala, Tamil
Rain: Above well drained Nadu, Karnataka
300 cm loamy soil, at an and Andaman and
elevation of Nicobar Islands
about 400 metres
GREEN REVOLUTION
In mid-1960s and India introduced package

technology comprising HYVs, along with
chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of
Punjab,Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
Components of green revolution

1. HYV seeds.
2. Irrigation
3. Use of fertilizer, insecticide and pesticide.
4. Command area development.
5. Consolidation of land holding.
6. Land reform.
7. Agriculture marketing, farm mechanisation and rural electrification.
Impact of Green revolution

1. Increase in agriculture production – reduction in import of foodgrains.
2. Diffusion of rice and wheat technologies to new areas.
3. Prosperity of farmers.
4. Industrial growth and rural employment.
5. Change in attitude of farmers.

1
Demerits of green revolution
1. Inter-crop imbalances – only cereals were benefitted from GR.
2. Regional disparities
3. Increase in inter-personal inequalities.
4. Some experts doubt about capability of HYV seeds.
5. Increase in unemployment due to farm mechanisation by green revolution.
6. Environmental pollution
ICAR
Indian Council of Agricultural Research is an

autonomous organisation under the Department
of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE),
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
Mandates for the ICAR are to –

Plan, Undertake, Coordinate and Promote Research and Technology
Development for Sustainable Agriculture.
Aid, Impart and Coordinate Agricultural Education to enable Quality

Human Resource Development.
Frontline Extension for technology application, adoption, knowledge

management and capacity development for agri-based rural develop-
ment.
Policy, Cooperation and Consultancy in Agricultural Research, Educa-

tion & Extension.

6
18
Vision IAS
2024

Geography Final Vision IAS

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QUICK REVISION MODULE

(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) GEOGRAPHY

BIG BANG THEORY OR EXPANDING UNIVERSE HYPOTHESIS

It was given by Edwin Hubble.

Within 300,000 years of explosion, temperature dropped to 4500 K and gave

The expansion in universe means increase in space between the galaxies.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of Hydrogen gas in the form of a

High-mass High-mass star

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Further contraction of Protostar leads to collision of Hydrogen

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM:

Sun is a ball of hot gases, Loop

Chromosphere Sun spots

A habitable zone, also called a Goldilocks zone, is the region

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The jovian planets

The terrestrial planets

As per International Astronomical Unit, three given characteristics are required to

1 The celestial body has to be in orbit of the Sun

2 It must have suﬃcient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. a nearly

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ABOUT EARTH’S MOON

THEORIES OF FORMATION OF MOON:

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They are small celestial bodies (may include dust particles

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DECEMBER 21st JET LAG

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SUMMER SOLSTICE WINTER SOLISTICE

NEW EARTH FULL

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FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (ALFRED WEGNER

Rock of same Placer deposits Distribution of

Tillite deposits Jigsaw fit

Tillite - Tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.

Distribution of fossils - The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar

FORCES FOR DRIFTING –

Arthur Holmes put forward his PULL

1928-29. Cause of the origin of these Ast

thermal diﬀerences in the mantle Outer Core

SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY –

The sediments on the ocean ﬂoor

Mid-oceanic ridge was not found transform fault

only in Atlantic Ocean, but ridges Subducting

were present in all the oceans. Convection Currents in mantle

The rocks equidistant on either

MAJOR AND MINOR PLATES –

EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICA

COCOS E AFRICAN PLATE

PACIFIC PLATE PLATE

Motion Spreading Subduction lateral Sliding

Constructive Destructive (oceanic lithosphere Conservative (lithosphere

Topography Ridge/Rift Trench No major eﬀect

Volcanic activity? Yes Yes No

water reduces the melting point of Lithosphere

rocks in the asthenosphere and Lithosphere

causes partial melting Asthenosphere

Formation of volcanic Arcs.

Volcanic arcs form on continental Lithosphere

Diastrophic Forces Sudden Forces