Numerical and Statistical Methods For Computer Engineering Gujarat Technological University 2017 2Nd Edition Ravish R Singh Full Chapter

Numerical and Statistical Methods for
Computer Engineering Gujarat

Technological University 2017 2nd
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Numerical
and
Statistical Methods
for COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Gujarat Technological University 2017
Second Edition
About the Authors
Ravish R Singh is presently Academic Advisor at Thakur
Educational Trust, Mumbai. He obtained a BE degree from
University of Mumbai in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT
Bombay in 2001, and a PhD degree from Faculty of Technology,
University of Mumbai, in 2013. He has published several books
with McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited on varied
subjects like Engineering Mathematics (I and II), Applied
Mathematics, Electrical Engineering, Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional
curricula of some universities like Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University,
Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Anna University,
Uttarakhand Technical University, and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University
(formerly known as UPTU). Dr Singh is a member of IEEE, ISTE, and IETE, and has
published research papers in national and international journals. His fields of interest
include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and Engineering Mathematics.
Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

Humanities and Sciences, at Thakur College of Engineering
and Technology, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics)
from H N B Garhwal University in 1992. She has published
several books with McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited on Engineering Mathematics (I and II) and Applied
Mathematics for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula
of some universities like Gujarat Technological University,
Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand
Technical University, and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University (formerly known
as UPTU). She has seventeen years of teaching experience at various levels in
engineering colleges in Mumbai and her fields of interest include Integral Calculus,
Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of ISTE.
Numerical
and
Statistical Methods
for COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Gujarat Technological University 2017
Second Edition
Ravish R Singh
Academic Advisor
Thakur Educational Trust
Mumbai, Maharashtra
Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Sciences
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Numerical and Statistical Methods for COMPUTER ENgiNEERiNg
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Dedicated
To Our Parents
Late Shri Ramsagar Singh
and
Late Shrimati Premsheela Singh
Ravish R Singh
Late Shri Ved Prakash Sharma

and
Late Shrimati Vidyavati Hemdan
Mukul Bhatt
Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
1. Error Analysis 1.1–1.18
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Accuracy and Precision 1.1
1.3 Types of Errors 1.2
1.4 Sources of Errors 1.2
1.5 Significant Figures 1.3
Points to Remember 1.17
2. Roots of Equations 2.1–2.73
2.2 Bisection Method 2.2
2.3 Regula Falsi Method 2.15
2.4 Newton–Raphson Method 2.22
2.5 Secant Method 2.39
2.6 Successive Approximation Method (Iteration Method) 2.49
2.7 Descartes’ Rule of Signs 2.55
2.8 Budan’s Theorem 2.58
2.9 Bairstow’s Method 2.62
3. Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations 3.1–3.63
3.2 Solutions of a System of Linear Equations 3.2
3.3 Elementary Transformations 3.2
3.4 Numerical Methods for Solution of a System of Linear Equations 3.3
3.5 Gauss Elimination Method 3.4
3.6 Gauss Elimination Method with Partial Pivoting 3.15
3.7 Gauss–Jordan Method 3.20
3.8 Gauss–Jacobi Method 3.31
3.9 Gauss–Siedel Method 3.37
3.10 Ill-Conditioned Systems 3.61
viii Contents
4. Interpolation 4.1–4.100
4.2 Finite Differences 4.2
4.3 Different Operators and their Relations 4.6
4.4 Interpolation 4.19
4.5 Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formula 4.19
4.6 Newton’s Backward Interpolation Formula 4.30
4.7 Central Difference Interpolation 4.39
4.8 Gauss’s Forward Interpolation Formula 4.40
4.9 Gauss’s Backward Interpolation Formula 4.44
4.10 Stirling’s Formula 4.48
4.11 Interpolation with Unequal Intervals 4.55
4.12 Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula 4.56
4.13 Divided Differences 4.70
4.14 Newton’s Divided Difference Formula 4.71
4.15 Inverse Interpolation 4.84
4.16 Cubic Spline Interpolation 4.86
5. Curve Fitting 5.1–5.27
5.2 Least Square Method 5.2
5.3 Fitting of Linear Curves 5.2
5.4 Fitting of Quadratic Curves 5.10
5.5 Fitting of Exponential and Logarithmic Curves 5.18
6. Numerical Integration 6.1–6.41
6.2 Newton–Cotes Quadrature Formula 6.1
6.3 Trapezoidal Rule 6.2
6.4 Simpson’s 1/3 Rule 6.9
6.5 Simpson’s 3/8 Rule 6.19
6.6 Gaussian Quadrature Formulae 6.31
7. Ordinary Differential Equations 7.1–7.64
7.2 Taylor’s Series Method 7.2
7.3 Euler’s Method 7.9
7.4 Modified Euler’s Method 7.16
7.5 Runge–Kutta Methods 7.28
7.6 Milne’s Predictor-Corrector Method 7.53
Contents ix
8. Statistical Methods 8.1–8.98

8.2 Data Analysis 8.2
8.3 Classification of Data 8.2
8.4 Frequency Distribution 8.3
8.5 Graphical Representation 8.4
8.6 Measures of Central Tendency 8.15
8.7 Arithmetic Mean 8.15
8.8 Median 8.24
8.9 Mode 8.31
8.10 Standard Deviation 8.36
8.11 Moments 8.49
8.12 Random Variables 8.62
8.13 Discrete Probability Distribution 8.63
8.14 Discrete Distribution Function 8.64
8.15 Measures of Central Tendency for a Discrete Probability
Distribution 8.78
9. Correlation and Regression 9.1–9.58
9.2 Correlation 9.2
9.3 Types of Correlations 9.2
9.4 Methods of Studying Correlation 9.3
9.5 Scatter Diagram 9.4
9.6 Simple Graph 9.5
9.7 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation 9.5
9.8 Properties of Coefficient of Correlation 9.6
9.9 Rank Correlation 9.22
9.10 Regression 9.29
9.11 Types of Regression 9.30
9.12 Methods of Studying Regression 9.30
9.13 Lines of Regression 9.31
9.14 Regression Coefficients 9.31
9.15 Properties of Regression Coefficients 9.34
9.16 Properties of Lines of Regression (Linear Regression) 9.35
10. Trend Analysis 10.1–10.31
10.2 Objectives of Time-Series 10.1
10.3 Components of a Time-Series 10.2
10.4 Measurement of Trend 10.3
10.5 Freehand or Graphic Method 10.3
x Contents
10.6 Method of Semi-Averages 10.5

10.7 Method of Moving Averages 10.7
10.8 Method of Least Squares 10.16
10.9 Measurement of Seasonal Variations 10.23
10.10 Method of Ratio to Moving Average 10.23
Index I.1–I.3
Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.
Users
This book is designed for the 4th semester GTU Computer Engineering students
pursuing the course Numerical and Statistical Methods (CODE 2140706). It covers
the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Numerical and Statistical Methods for
computer engineering branches.
Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.
Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point-of-view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
is well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set following a
‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background to easily
grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved examples
enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain logical
understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving similar
exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface
Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Numerical and Statistical
Methods (Regulation 2014)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination papers from 2010 to 2015 present appropriately
within the chapters
∑ Solution of 2016 GTU examination paper can be accessible through weblink.
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
ã Solved Examples within chapters: 420
ã Solved GTU questions tagged within chapters: 112
ã Unsolved Exercises: 148
Online Learning Center

All the C Programs included in Numerical and Statistical Methods (Computer
Engineering) are available on OLC link http://www.mhhe.com/singh/nsm2e/cse/gtu2017
Chapter Organization
The content spans the following ten chapters which wholly and sequentially cover
each module of the syllabus.
o Chapter 1 introduces Error Analysis.
o Chapter 2 discusses Roots of Equations.
o Chapter 3 presents Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations.
o Chapter 4 covers Interpolation.
o Chapter 5 deals with Curve Fitting.
o Chapter 6 presents Numerical Integration.
o Chapter 7 explains Ordinary Differential Equations.
o Chapter 8 discusses Statistical Methods.
o Chapter 9 deals with Correlation and Regression.
o Chapter 10 introduces Trend Analysis.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed various chapters of the script
and generously shared their valuable comments:
Ramesh S Damor L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad

Jyotindra C Prajapati Marwadi Education Foundation Group of Institutions,
Rajkot
Preface xiii
Vijay Solanki Government Engineering College, Patan

Prakash Vihol Government Engineering College, Rajkot
Manokamna Agarwal Silver Oak College of Engineering and Technology,
Ahmedabad
Som Sahni Babaria Institute of Technology, Vadodara
Bhumika Maheshwari Gandhinagar Institute of Technology, Kalol
Urvi Trivedi SAL Institute of Technology and Engineering Research,
Ahmedabad
We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Piyali Chatterjee, Anuj Kr. Shriwastava, Koyel Ghosh, Satinder Singh Baveja,
and Vibha Mahajan for coordinating with us during the editorial, copyediting, and
production stages of this book.
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of
all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt
Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback,
comments, and ideas to enhance the quality of this book. You can reach us at
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RoAdmAP to the SyllAbuS
This text is useful for
Numerical and Statistical Methods (Code 2140706)
For Computer Engineering
Module 1: Mathematical Modelling and Engineering Problem-Solving
Approximations and errors; Significant figures; Accuracy and precision; Errors;
Round-off and truncation errors; Error propagation
GO TO
CHAPTER 1: Error Analysis
Module 2: Roots of Equations

Mathematical background; Bisection; Regula falsi method; Newton–Raphson
method; Secant method; Successive approximation method; Budan’s theorem;
Barristow’s method; Case studies
GO TO
CHAPTER 2: Roots of Equations
Module 3: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

Mathematical background; Gauss elimination; Pitfalls and techniques for
improvement; Matrix inversion and Gauss–Seidel methods; Ill-conditional
equations; Predictor-corrector methods; Case studies
GO TO
CHAPTER 3: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations
Module 4: Curve Fitting

Mathematical background; Least squares method; Linear and polynomial
regression; Lagrange’s interpolating polynomials; Spline interpolation; Case
studies
GO TO
CHAPTER 4: Interpolation
CHAPTER 5: Curve Fitting
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus
Module 5: Numerical Integration

Newton–Cotes integration formulae; Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rules;
Interpolation; Case studies
GO TO
CHAPTER 6: Numerical Integration
Module 6: Ordinary Differential Equations

Euler’s method; Runge–Kutta methods; General methods for boundary-value
problems; Case studies
GO TO
CHAPTER 7: Ordinary Differential Equations
Module 7: Statistical Methods

Frequency distributions; Data analysis; Expectations and moments; Corelation
and regression; Trend analysis; Seasonal effects; Cyclical fluctuation; Moving
average; MSE; Predictions; Non-parametric statistics; Computer-based
resampling techniques; Confidence intervals and statistical significance
GO TO
CHAPTER 8: Statistical Methods
CHAPTER 9: Correlation and Regression
CHAPTER 10: Trend Analysis
CHAPTER
1
Error Analysis
chapter outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Accuracy and Precision
1.3 Types of Errors
1.4 Sources of Errors
1.5 Significant Figures
1.1 IntroductIon
The main goal of numerical analysis is to develop efficient algorithms for computing
precise numerical values of mathematical quantities, including functions, integrals,
solutions of algebraic equations, solutions of differential equations, etc. Often the
numerical data and the methods used are approximate ones. Hence, the error in a
computed result may be caused by the errors in the data, or the errors in the method, or
both. In any numerical computation, there are four key sources of errors:
(i) Inexactness of mathematical model for the underlying physical phenomenon
(ii) Errors in measurements of parameters entering the model
(iii) Round-off errors in computer arithmetic
(iv) Approximations used to solve the mathematical systems
1.2 AccurAcy And PrecIsIon
Measurements and calculations can be characterized with regard to their accuracy and
precision. Accuracy refers to how closely a computed or measured value agrees with
the true value. Precision refers to how closely individually computed or measured
values agree with each other. Inaccuracy is the systematic deviation from the truth.
Imprecision refers to the magnitude of scatter. Figure 1.1 illustrates the concepts of
accuracy and precision.
1.2 Chapter 1 Error Analysis
Fig. 1.1
The term error represents the imprecision and inaccuracy of a numerical
computation.
1.3 tyPes oF errors
There are various types of errors in measurements and calculations:

(i) Absolute error
(ii) Relative error
(iii) Percentage error
Absolute error It is the difference between the measured or calculated value and
true value. If xexact is the true or exact value and xapprox is the measured or calculated or
approximate value, the absolute error dx is given by
Œa = d x = xexact - xapprox
relative error It is the ratio of absolute error and true value of the quantity.
dx xexact - xapprox
Œr = =
x xexact
Percentage error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

dx xexact - xapprox
Œp = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100
x xexact
1.4 sources oF errors
There are three sources of errors, namely, inherent error, truncation error, and round-
off error.
Inherent error It is the error that pre-exist in the problem statement itself before
its solution is obtained. Such errors arise in the values of data from the real world or
by uncertainty in measurements or due to the given data being approximate or due to

the limitations of mathematical tables, calculators, digital computer, etc. These errors
cannot be completely eliminated but can be minimized if better data is selected or
high-precision computer computations are employed, e.g., representation of irrational
numbers such as p, e, 2 cannot be represented with a finite number of digits. Even
a simple fraction in many cases has no exact representation, such as a rational number
1
.
3
truncation error It is the error that results from using an approximation in place
of exact mathematical expressions. It is caused by truncating a finite number of terms.
The most common example is the truncation of an infinite series to a finite number of
terms, e.g., sin x is represented by the Maclaurin series as
x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x - + - + -  • = xexact
3! 5! 7! 9!
But, if sin x is calculated by terminating the series up to x7 or x9,

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x - + - + = xapprox
3! 5! 7! 9!
Hence, truncation error = xexact – xapprox
round-off error It is the error that results due to chopping or rounding or arithmetic
operations using normalized floating-point numbers. It is due to the inaccuracies that
arise because of a finite number of digits of precision used to represent numbers. All
computers represent numbers, except for integer and some fractions, with imprecision.
Digital computers use floating-point numbers of fixed word length. This type of
representation will not express the exact or true values correctly. Error introduced by
the omission of significant figures due to computer imperfection is called round-off
error.
1.5 sIgnIFIcAnt FIgures
The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to its
measurement resolution. This includes all digits except (i) all leading zeros, and (ii) all
trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the number.
Rules for Identifying Significant Figures

(i) All nonzero digits are considered significant, e.g., 93 has two significant
figures, i.e., 9 and 3, while 135.76 has five significant figures, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7,
and 6.
(ii) All zeros between two nonzero digits are significant, e.g., 205.1308 has seven
significant figures, i.e., 2, 0, 5, 1, 3, 0 and 8.
(iii) Leading zeros are not significant, e.g., 0.00075 has two significant figures,
7 and 5.
(iv) Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant, e.g.,
13.4000 has six significant figures, i.e., 1, 3, 4, 0, 0, and 0. The number
0.000134000 still has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are
not significant). The number 120.00 has five significant figures since it has
three trailing zeros. The number of significant figures in 8200 is at least two,
but it could be three or four because it is not clear if the zeros are significant
or not. To avoid uncertainty, scientific notation is used to place zeros behind a
decimal point, i.e., 8.200 × 103 has four significant figures, whereas 8.2 × 103
has two significant figures.
example 1
Find the relative error and percentage error if 0.005998 is truncated to
three decimal digits.
Solution
xexact = 0.005998
xapprox = 0.005
xexact - xapprox
Relative error =
xexact
0.005998 - 0.005
=
0.005998
= 0.1664
xexact - xapprox
Percentage error = ¥ 100
xexact
= 0.1664 ¥ 100
= 16.64%
example 2
For a = 3.141592 and an approximation value of a as 3.14, evaluate
absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.
Solution
aexact = 3.141592, aapprox = 3.14
Absolute error = da = aexact – aapprox = 3.141592 – 3.14 = 0.001592
d a 0.001592
Relative error = = = 5.0675 ¥ 10 -4
a 3.141592
da
Percentage error = ¥ 100 = 5.0675 ¥ 10 -4 ¥ 100 = 0.05067%
a
example 3
If the approximate solution of a problem is x0 = 35.25 with relative error
of at the most 2%, find the range of values correct up to four decimal
digits in which the exact value of the solution lies.
Solution
x0approx = 35.25
Œr = 2% of 35.25 = 0.705
x0exact - x0approx
Œr =
x0exact
x0exact - 35.25
0.705 =
x0exact
(1 - 0.705) x0exact = 35.25
x0exact = 119.4915
The range of values correct up to four decimal digits in which the exact value of the
solution lies is [119.4915, 119.50].
example 4
The approximate solution of a problem is 3.436. If the absolute error in
the solution is less than 0.01 then find the interval within which the exact
solution lies.
Solution
xapprox = 3.436
d x < 0.01
xexact - xapprox
dx =
xexact
xexact - 3.436
< 0.01
xexact
xexact (1 - 0.01) < 3.436
xexact < 3.4707
Hence, the exact solution lies in the interval [3.47, 3.48].

example 5
If u = 2v6 – 5v, find the percentage error in u at v = 1 if the error in v is
0.05.
Solution
u = 2 v 6 - 5v
d u = 12 v 5 d v - 5d v
du 1
¥ 100 = ÈÎ12 v 5 d v ¥ 100 - 5 d v ¥ 100 ˘˚
u u
1 ÈÎ12 v 5 d v ¥ 100 - 5 d v ¥ 100 ˘˚
= 6
2 v - 5v
Putting dv = 0.05, v=1
du 1 ÈÎ12 (1)5 (0.05) (100) - 5(0.05) (100)˘˚
¥ 100 = 6
u 2(1) - 5(1)
= -11.67%
Hence, the percentage error in u = –11.67%.
example 6
Given the trigonometric function f (x) = sin x,
(i) expand f (x) about x = 0 using the Taylor series
(ii) truncate the series to n = 6 terms
p
(iii) find the relative error at x = due to truncation.
4
Solution
(i) f (x) = sin x
By the Taylor series,
x3 x5 x7 x9
f ( x ) = sin x = x - + - + -
3! 5! 7! 9!
(ii) Truncation of the Taylor series to n = 6 terms
x3 x5
f6 ( x ) = x - +
3! 5!
p
(iii) Relative error at x = due to truncation
4
Êpˆ Êpˆ
f Á ˜ = sin Á ˜
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
3 5
Êpˆ Êpˆ
Á ˜ ÁË ˜¯
Êp ˆ p Ë 4¯ 4
f6 Á ˜ = - +
Ë 4¯ 4 3! 5!
Êpˆ Êpˆ
f Á ˜ - f6 Á ˜
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
Œr =
Êpˆ
fÁ ˜
Ë 4¯
Ê p ˆ Ê p p3 p5 ˆ
sin Á ˜ - Á - +
Ë 4 ¯ Ë 4 384 122880 ˜¯
=
Êpˆ
sin Á ˜
Ë 4¯
= 5.1286 ¥ 10 -5
example 7
Given the function f (x) = e–x,
(i) expand f (x) about x = 0 using the Taylor series
(ii) truncate the series to n = 5 terms
(iii) find the relative error at x = 1 due to truncation.
Solution
(i) f (x) = e–x
By the Taylor series,
x2 x3 x 4 x5
e- x = 1 - x + - + - +
2! 3! 4! 5!
(ii) Truncation of the Taylor series to n = 5 terms
x2 x3 x 4
f5 ( x ) = 1 - x + - +
2! 3! 4!
(iii) The relative error at x = 1 due to truncation
1 1 1 3
f5 (1) = 1 - 1 + - + =
2! 3! 4! 8
f (1) = e -1
f (1) - f5 (1)
Œr =
f (1)
3
e -1 -
= 8
e -1
= 0.0194
= 1.94%
example 8
If R = x3 y2 z2 and 0.03, 0.01, 0.02 are errors in x, y, z respectively at
x = 1, y = 1, z = 2. Calculate the absolute error and percentage error in
calculation of R.
Solution
R = x3 y2 z2
Taking logarithm on both the sides,
log R = log x 3 + log y 2 + log z 2
= 3 log x + 2 log y + 2 log z
1 3 2 2
dR = d x + d y + d z
R x y z
dR dx dy dz
=3 +2 +2
R x y z
Putting dx = 0.03, dy = 0.01, dz = 0.02, x = 1, y = 1, z = 2,
R = (1)3(1)2(2)2 = 4
dR Ê 0.03 ˆ Ê 0.01ˆ Ê 0.02 ˆ
= 3Á ˜¯ + 2 ÁË ˜¯ + 2 ÁË ˜
4 Ë 1 1 1 ¯
dR
= 0.15
4
d R = 0.6
Hence, absolute error = 0.6.
dR
Percentage error in R = ¥ 100
R
= 0.15 ¥ 100
= 15%
example 9
Find the percentage error in calculating the area of a rectangle when an
error of 3% is made in measuring each of its sides.
Solution
Let a and b be the sides of the rectangle and A be its area.
A = ab
log A = log a + log b
1 1 1
d A = da + db
A a b
dA da db
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
A a b
da db
Putting × 100 = 3, × 100 = 3,
a b
δA
× 100 = 3 + 3
A
=6
Hence, percentage error in calculating area = 6%.
example 10
Find the percentage error in the area of an ellipse when errors of 2%
and 3% are made in measuring its major and minor axes respectively.
Solution
Let 2a and 2b be the major and minor axes of the ellipse and A be its area.
A = p ab
log A = log p + log a + log b
1 1 1
d A = 0 + da + db
A a b
dA da db
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
A a b
da db
Putting × 100 = 2, × 100 = 3,
a b
dA
¥ 100 = 2 + 3
A
=5
Hence, percentage error in area of ellipse = 5%.
example 11
2 1 1
The focal length of a mirror is found from the formula = - . Find
f v u
the percentage error in f if u and v are both in error by 2% each.
Solution
2 1 1
= -
f v u
2 1 1
− 2
δ f = − 2 δv + 2 δu
f v u
2δf 1 δv 1 δu
− × 100 = − × 100 + × 100
f f v v u u
du dv
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, ¥ 100 = 2,
u v
2df 1 1
- ¥ 100 = - (2) + (2)
f f v u
Ê 1 1ˆ Ê 2ˆ
= -2 Á - ˜ = -2 Á ˜
Ë v u¯ Ë f¯
df
¥ 100 = 2
f
Hence, percentage error in f = 2%.
example 12
Find the possible percentage error in computing the parallel resistance
R of two resistances R1 and R2 if R1, R2 are each in error by 2%.
Solution
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
- 2
dR = - d R1 - d R2
R R12 R22
1 dR 1 d R1 1 d R2
¥ 100 = ¥ 100 + ¥ 100
R R R1 R1 R2 R2
d R1 dR
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, 2 ¥ 100 = 2,
R1 R2
1 dR 1 1
¥ 100 = (2) + (2)
R R R1 R2
Ê 1 1 ˆ
= 2Á + ˜
Ë R1 R2 ¯
Ê 1ˆ
= 2Á ˜
Ë R¯
dR
\ ¥ 100 = 2
R
Hence, percentage error in R = 2%
example 13
The resonant frequency in a series electrical circuit is given by
1
f = . If the measurement of L and C are in error by 2% and
2p LC
−1% respectively, find the percentage error in f.
Solution
1
f =
2p LC
1 1 1
log f = log - log L - log C
2p 2 2
1 11 1 1
df = 0 - dL - dC
f 2L 2C
df 1 dL 1 dC
¥ 100 = - ¥ 100 - ¥ 100
f 2 L 2 C
dL dC
Putting ¥ 100 = 2, ¥ 100 = -1
L C
df 1 1
¥ 100 = - (2) - (-1)
f 2 2
= - 0.5
Hence, percentage error in f = − 0.5%
example 14
In calculating the volume of a right circular cone, errors of 2% and
1% are made in the height and radius of base respectively. Find the
percentage error in the calculating the volume.
Solution
Let r and h be the radius of base and height of the right circular cone and V be its
volume.
1
V = p r2h
3

p
log V = log + 2 log r + log h
3
1 2 1
dV = 0 + d r + d h
V r h
dV dr dh
¥ 100 = 2 ¥ 100 + ¥ 100
V r h
dr dh
Putting ¥ 100 = 1, ¥ 100 = 2,
r h
dV
¥ 100 = 2(1) + 2
V
=4
Hence, percentage error in volume = 4%
example 15
In calculating the volume of a right circular cylinder, errors of 2% and
1% are found in measuring the height and base radius respectively. Find
the percentage error in the calculated volume of the cylinder.
Solution
Let r and h be the base radius and height of the right circular cylinder and V be its
volume.
V = p r2 h
log V = log p + 2 log r + log h
1 2 1
dV = 0 + d r + d h
V r h
dV dr dh
¥ 100 = 2 ¥ 100 + ¥ 10
00
V r h
dr dh
Putting ¥ 100 = 1, ¥ 100 = 2,
r h
dV
¥ 100 = 2(1) + 2
V
=4
Hence, percentage error in volume = 4%.
example 16
1
Evaluate [(3.82)2 + 2(2.1)3 ] 5 using the theory of approximation.
Solution
1
2 3
Let z = (x + 2y )5
4 4
1 2 - 1 -
dz = ( x + 2 y3 ) 5 (2 x ) d x + ( x 2 + 2 y3 ) 5 (6 y 2 )d y
5 5
4
1 2 -
= 2 x d x + 6 y 2 d y)
( x + 2 y3 ) 5 (2
5
Putting x = 4, y = 2,
d x = 3.82 − 4 = − 0.18,
d y = 2.1 − 2 = 0.1
(x2 + 2y3) = 42 + 2(2)3
= 32
4
1 -
and d z = ◊ (32) 5 [2 (4)(-0.18) + 6 (2)2 (0.1)]
5
= 0.012
Approximate value = z + d z
= (32)1/5 + 0.012
= 2.012
example 17
1
Find the approximate value of ÈÎ(0.982 + (2.01)2 + (1.94)2 ˘˚ 2 .
Solution
Let u = x 2 + y2 + z2
u2 = x2 + y2 + z2
2ud u = 2xd x + 2yd y + 2zd z
ud u = xd x + yd y + zd z
Putting x = 1, y = 2, z = 2,
d x = 0.98 − 1 = − 0.02,
d y = 2.01 − 2 = 0.01,
d z = 1.94 − 2 = − 0.06
u = 12 + 22 + 22
=3
and ud u = 1(-0.02) + 2(0.01) + 2(-0.06)
= - 0.12
d u = - 0.04
Approximate value = u + d u
= 3 − 0.04
= 2.96
example 18
1
2 3 10
Evaluate (1.99) (3.01) (0.98) using approximation.
Solution
1
Let u = x 2 y3 z 10
1
log u = 2 log x + 3 log y +
log z
10
1 1 1 1 1
du = 2 d x + 3 d y + dz
u x y 10 z
Putting x = 2, y = 3, z = 1,
d x = 1.99 − 2 = − 0.01,
d y = 3.01 − 3 = 0.01,
d z = 0.98 − 1 = − 0.02
1
u = 22 33 110 = 108
1 Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ 1 Ê 1ˆ
and du = 2 ◊ Á ˜ (- 0.01) + 3 Á ˜ (0.01) + Á ˜ (- 0.02)
108 Ë 2¯ Ë 3¯ 10 Ë 1¯
du = -0.216
Approximate value = u + d u
= 108 − 0.216
= 107.784.
eXercIse 1.1
1. Round off the following numbers to 4-significant digits:
(i) 2.36345 (ii) 0.34176 (iii) 3.40087 (iv) 0.000143479
[Ans.: (i) 2.363 (ii) 0.3417 (iii) 3.401 (iv) 0.0001435]
2. Find the error and relative error in the following cases:
(i) xexact = 1000000, xapprox = 999996
(ii) xexact = 0.000012, xapprox = 0.000009
[Ans.: (i) 4, 0.000004 (ii) 0.000003, 0.25]
3. Find the relative error of x – y for x = 12.05 and y = 0.802 having
absolute error dx = 0.005 and dy = 0.001.
[Ans.: 0.00029]
2
4. Find absolute error, relative error, and percentage error if is
3
approximated to 4-significant digits.
[Ans.: 0.000033, 0.0000495, 0.005%]
p
5. If the approximate value of is 0.7854, calculate (i) absolute error,
4
(ii) relative error, and (iii) percentage error.
[Ans.: (i) 0.00031, (ii) 0.00039, (iii) 0.04%]
6. If dx = 0.005 and dy = 0.001 be the absolute errors in x = 2.11 and
y = 4.15, find the relative error in computation of x + y.
[Ans.: 0.000958]
7. In calculating the volume of right circular cone, errors of 2.75% and
1.25% are made in height and radius of the base. Find the percentage
error in volume.
[Ans.: 5.25%]
8. The height of a cone is H = 30 cm, the radius of base R = 10 cm. How
will the volume of the cone change if H is increasing by 3 mm while R
is decreasing by 1 mm?
[Ans.: decreased by 10p cm3]
9. Find the percentage error in calculating the area of a rectangle when
an error of 2% is made in measuring each of its sides.
[Ans.: 4%]
10. If R1 and R2 are two resistances in parallel, their resistance R is given by

1 1 1
= + . If there is an error of 2% in both R1 and R2, find percentage
R R1 R2
error in R.
[Ans.: 2%]
11. One side of a rectangle is a = 10 cm and the other side b = 24 cm. How
will the diagonal l of the rectangle change if a is increased by 4 mm
and b is decreased by 1 mm?
È 4 ˘
Í Ans.: 65 cm˙
Î ˚
E
12. The resistance R of circuit was found by using the formula I = . If there
R
is an error of 0.1 ampere in reading I and 0.5 volts in reading E, find the
corresponding percentage error in R when I = 15 amperes and E = 100
volts.
[Ans.: − 0.167%]
13. The voltage V across a resistor is measured with error h, and the
resistance R is measured with an error R. Show that the error in
V2 V
calculating the power W = is (2Rh - VR). If V can be measured to
R R2
an accuracy of 0.5% and to an accuracy of 1%, what is the approximate
possible percentage error in W?
[Ans.: 0%]
14. The radius and height of a cone are 4 cm and 6 cm respectively. What
is the error in its volume if the scale used in taking the measurement
is short by 0.01 cm per cm?
[Ans.: 0.96p cm3]
15. Show that the error in calculating the time period of a pendulum at
any place is zero if an error of µ% is made in measuring its length and
gravity at that place.
16. The diameter and the altitude of a right circular cylinder are measured
as 24 cm and 30 cm respectively. There is an error of 0.1 cm in each
measurement. Find the possible error in the volume of the cylinder.
[Ans.: 50.4p cm]
17. If the measurements of base radius and height of a right circular cone
are changed by −1% and 2%, show that there will be no error in the
volume.
1
18. If f = x 2 y 3 z 10 , find the approximate value of f when x = 1.99, y = 3.01
and z = 0.98.
[Ans.: 107.784]
19. If f = x3 y2 z4, find the approximate value of f when x = 1.99, y = 3.01,
z = 0.99.
1
[Ans.: 68.5202]
3 3 3
20. If f = (160 − x − y ) , find the approximate value of f (2.1, 2.9) − f (2, 3)
[Ans.: 0.016]
xyz
21. If f = e , find the approximate value of f when x = 0.01, y = 1.01,
z = 2.01. [Ans.: 1.02]
1
22. Find [(2.92)3 + (5.87)3 ]5 approximately by using the theory of

approximation.
1
[Ans.: 2.96]
2 2 2
23. Find [(11.99) + (5.01) ] approximately by using the theory of
approximation. [Ans.: 12.99]
24. Find (1.04)3.01 by using theory of approximation.
[Ans.: 1.1253]
1
25. If f(x, y) = (50 – x2 – y 2) find the approximate value of [f(3, 4) – f(3.1, 3.9)]
2
[Ans.: – 0.018]
26. Find log ÈÎ 3 1.04 + 4 0.97 - 1˘˚ approximately by using the theory of
approximation. [Ans.: 0.0058]
Points to remember
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy refers to how closely a computed or measured value agrees with the true
value. Precision refers to how closely individually computed or measured values
agree with each other.
Types of Errors
Absolute Error It is the difference between the measured or calculated value and
true value.
Œa = d x = xexact - xapprox
Relative Error It is the ratio of absolute error and true value of the quantity.
dx xexact - xapprox
Œr = =
x xexact
Percentage Error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

dx xexact - xapprox
Œp = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100
x xexact
Sources of Errors
Inherent Error It is the error that pre-exist in the problem statement itself before
its solution is obtained.
Truncation Error It is the error that results from using an approximation in place
of exact mathematical expressions.
Round-off Error It is the error that results due to chopping or rounding or
arithmetic operations using normalized floating-point numbers.
Significant Figures
The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to its
measurement resolution. This includes all digits except (i) all leading zeros, and
(ii) all trailing zeros when they are merely placeholders to indicate the scale of the
number.
CHAPTER
2
Roots of Equations
chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bisection Method
2.3 Regula Falsi Method
2.4 Newton–Raphson Method
2.5 Secant Method
2.6 Successive Approximation Method
2.7 Descartes’ Rule of Signs
2.8 Budan’s Theorem
2.9 Bairstow’s Method
2.1 IntroductIon
n n -1 n-2
An expression of the form f ( x ) = a0 x + a1 x + a2 x +  + an -1 x + an , where a0,
a1, a2, ..., an are constants and n is a positive integer, is called an algebraic polynomial
of degree n if a0 π 0. The equation f (x) = 0 is called an algebraic equation if f (x)
is an algebraic polynomial, e.g., x3 – 4x – 9 = 0. If f (x) contains functions such as
trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, etc., then f (x) = 0 is called a transcendental
equation, e.g., 2x3 – log (x + 3) tan x + ex = 0.
In general, an equation is solved by factorization. But in many cases, the method of
factorization fails. In such cases, numerical methods are used. There are some methods
to solve the equation f (x) = 0 such as
(i) Bisection method
(ii) Regula Falsi method
(iii) Newton–Raphson method
(iv) Secant method
2.2 Chapter 2 Roots of Equations
2.2 BIsectIon Method

Let f (x) = 0 be the given equation. Let x0
and x1 be two real values of x at P and Q
respectively such that f (x1) is positive and
f (x0) is negative or vice versa (Fig. 2.1).
Then there is one root of the equation f (x)
= 0 between x0 and x1. Now, this interval
[x0, x1] is divided into two sub-intervals
x +x
[x0, x2] and [x2, x1], where x2 = 0 1 .
2
If f (x0) and f (x2) are of opposite signs
then the interval [x0, x2] is divided into
x + x2
[x0, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 0 .
2 Fig. 2.1
However, if f (x0) and f (x2) are of the same
sign then f (x1) and f (x2) will be opposite signs and the interval [x1, x2] is divided into
x +x
[x1, x3] and [x3, x2], where x3 = 1 2 . This process is continued till the desired
2
accuracy is obtained.
example 1
Find the positive root of x3 – 2x – 5 = 0, correct up to two decimal
places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 2x – 5
f (1) = –6 and f (2) = –1, f (3) = 16

Since f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0, the root lies between 2 and 3.
2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = 5.625
Since f (2.5) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 2.5 and 2.
2.5 + 2
x2 = = 2.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.25) = 1.8906
2.25 + 2
x3 = = 2.125
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.125) = 0.3457
2.125 + 2
x4 = = 2.0625
2
f ( x4 ) = f (2.0625) = -0.3513
Since f (2.0625) < 0 and f (2.125) > 0, the root lies between 2.0625 and 2.125.
2.0625 + 2.125
x5 = = 2.09375
2
f ( x5 ) = f (2.09375) = -0.0089
2.09375 + 2.125
x6 = = 2.109375
2
f ( x6 ) = f (2.109375) = 0.1668
Since f (2.109375) > 0 and f (2.09375) < 0, the root lies between 2.109375 and
2.09375.
2.109375 + 2.09375
x7 = = 2.10156
2
Since x6 and x7 are same up to two decimal places, the positive root is 2.10.
example 2
Find a root of x3 – 5x + 3 = 0 by the bisection method correct up to four
decimal places. [Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 5x + 3
f (0) = 3 and f (1) = –1
Since f (0) > 0 and f (1) < 0, the root lies between 0 and 1.
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = 0.625
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = -0.3281
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = 0.1191
Since f (0.625) > 0 and f (0.75) < 0, the root lies between 0.625 and 0.75.
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = -0.1125
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.65625
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.65625) = 0.00137
0.65625 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.67188
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.67188) = -0.0561
0.67188 + 0.65625
x7 = = 0.66407
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.66407) = -0.02750
0.66407 + 0.65625
x8 = = 0.66016
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.66016) = -0.01309
0.66016 + 0.65625
x9 = = 0.65821
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.65821) = -0.00589
0.65821 + 0.65625
x10 = = 0.65723
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.65723) = -0.0023
0.65723 + 0.65625
x11 = = 0.65674
2
f ( x11 ) = f (0.65674) = -0.00044
0.65674 + 0.65625
x12 = = 0.6565
2
f ( x12 ) = f (0.6565) = 0.00044
0.6565 + 0.65674
x13 = = 0.6566
2
f ( x13 ) = f (0.6566) = 0.00075
0.6566 + 0.65674
x14 = = 0.65667
2
Since x13 and x14 are same up to four decimal places, the root is 0.6566.
example 3
Perform the five iterations of the bisection method to obtain a root of the
equation f(x) = x3 – x – 1 = 0.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – x – 1
f (1) = –1 and f (2) = 5
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.875
1.5 + 1
x2 = = 1.25
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.25) = -0.2968
1.25 + 1.5
x3 = = 1.375
2
f ( x3 ) = f (1.375) = 0.2246
1.375 + 1.25
x4 = = 1.3125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (1.3125) = -0.0515
1.3125 + 1.375
x5 = = 1.3438
2
Hence, the root is 1.3438 up to five iterations.
example 4
Find the approximate solution of x3 + x – 1 = 0 correct to three decimal
places. [Winter 2013]
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 + x – 1
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 1
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = -0.375
Since f (0.5) < 0 and f (1) > 0, the root lies between 0.5 and 1.
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.1719
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = -0.1309
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = 0.01245
0.6875 + 0.625
x5 = = 0.6563
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.6563) = -0.0644
0.6563 + 0.6875
x6 = = 0.6719
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.6719) = -0.0248
0.6719 + 0.6875
x7 = = 0.6797
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.6797) = -0.0141
0.6797 + 0.6875
x8 = = 0.6836
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.6836) = 0.0031
0.6836 + 0.6797
x9 = = 0.6817
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.6817) = -0.0015
0.6817 + 0.6836
x10 = = 0.6827
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.6827) = 0.00089
0.6827 + 0.6817
x11 = = 0.6822
2
Since x10 and x11 are same up to three decimal points, the root is 0.682.
example 5
Find a root of the equation x3 – 4x – 9 = 0 using the bisection method in
four stages.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 4x – 9
f (2) = –9 and f (3) = 6
2+3
x1 = = 2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (2.5) = -3.375
2.5 + 3
x2 = = 2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (2.75) = 0.7969
2.75 + 2.5
x3 = = 2.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (2.625) = -1.4121
2.625 + 2.75
x4 = = 2.6875
2
Hence, the root is 2.6875 up to four stages.
example 6
Find the negative root of x3 – 7x + 3 by the bisection method up to three
decimal places.
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 – 7x + 3
f (–2) = 9 and f (–3) = –3
Since f (–2) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2 and –3.
-2 - 3
x1 = = -2.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (-2.5) = 4.875
Since f (–2.5) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.5 and –3.
-2.5 - 3
x2 = = -2.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (-2.75) = 1.4531
Since f (–2.75) > 0 and f (–3) < 0, the root lies between –2.75 and –3.
-2.75 - 3
x3 = = -2.875
2
f ( x3 ) = f (-2.875) = -0.6387
Since f (–2.875) < 0 and f (–2.75) > 0, the root lies between –2.875 and –2.75.
-2.875 - 2.75
x4 = = -2.8125
2
f ( x4 ) = f (-2.8125) = 0.4402
Since f (–2.8125) > 0 and f (–2.875) < 0, the root lies between –2.8125 and –2.875.
-2.8125 - 2.875
x5 = = -2.8438
2
f ( x5 ) = f (-2.8438) = - 0.0918
-2.8438 - 2.8125
x6 = = -2.8282
2
f ( x6 ) = f (-2.8282) = 0.1754
-2.8282 - 2.8438
x7 = = -2.836
2
f ( x7 ) = f (-2.836) = 0.0423
-2.836 - 2.8438
x8 = = -2.8399
2
f ( x8 ) = f (-2.8399) = - 0.0246
-2.8399 - 2.836
x9 = = -2.838
2
f ( x9 ) = f (-2.838) = 0.0081
-2.838 - 2.8399
x10 = = -2.8389
2
Since x9 and x10 are same up to three decimal places, the negative root is –2.838.
example 7
Perform three iterations of the bisection method to obtain the root of the
equation 2 sin x – x = 0, correct up to three decimal places.
[Summer 2015]
Solution
Let f (x) = 2 sin x – x
f (1) = 0.6829 and f (2) = – 0.1814
Since f (1) > 0 and f (2) < 0, the root lies between 1 and 2.
1+ 2
x1 = = 1.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (1.5) = 0.4949
1.5 + 2
x2 = = 1.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (1.75) = 0.2179
1.75 + 2
x3 = = 1.875
2
Hence, the root is 1.875 up to three iterations.
example 8
Solve x = cos x by the bisection method correct to two decimal places.
[Summer 2014]
Solution
Let f (x) = x – cos x
f (0) = –1 and f (1) = 0.4597
0 +1
x1 = = 0.5
2
f ( x1 ) = f (0.5) = - 0.3776
0.5 + 1
x2 = = 0.75
2
f ( x2 ) = f (0.75) = 0.0183
0.75 + 0.5
x3 = = 0.625
2
f ( x3 ) = f (0.625) = - 0.186
0.625 + 0.75
x4 = = 0.6875
2
f ( x4 ) = f (0.6875) = - 0.0853
0.6875 + 0.75
x5 = = 0.71875
2
f ( x5 ) = f (0.71875) = - 0.0338
0.71875 + 0.75
x6 = = 0.7344
2
f ( x6 ) = f (0.7344) = - 0.0078
0.7344 + 0.75
x7 = = 0.7422
2
f ( x7 ) = f (0.7422) = 0.0052
0.7422 + 0.7344
x8 = = 0.7383
2
f ( x8 ) = f (0.7383) = -0.0013
0.7383 + 0.7422
x9 = = 0.74025
2
f ( x9 ) = f (0.74025) = 0.00195
0.74025 + 0.7383
x10 = = 0.7393
2
f ( x10 ) = f (0.7393) = 0.0004
0.7393 + 0.7383
x11 = = 0.7388
2
Since x 10 and x11 are the same up to two decimal places, the root is 0.73.
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performance, is as a whole only the intensification of this being-
human. Henceforward all that resists our sensations is not mere
resistance or thing or impression, as it is for animals and for children
also, but an expression as well. Not merely are things actually
contained in the world-around but also they possess meaning, as
phenomena in the world-view. Originally they possessed only a
relationship to men, but now there is also a relationship of men to
them. They have become emblems of his existence. And thus the
essence of every genuine—unconscious and inwardly necessary—
symbolism proceeds from the knowledge of death in which the
secret of space reveals itself. All symbolism implies a defensive; it is
the expression of a deep Scheu in the old double sense of the word,
[179]
and its form-language tells at once of hostility and of reverence.
Every thing-become is mortal. Not only peoples, languages, races
and Cultures are transient. In a few centuries from now there will no
more be a Western Culture, no more be German, English or French
than there were Romans in the time of Justinian. Not that the
sequence of human generations failed; it was the inner form of a
people, which had put together a number of these generations as a
single gesture, that was no longer there. The Civis Romanus, one of
the most powerful symbols of Classical being, had nevertheless, as
a form, only a duration of some centuries. But the primitive
phenomenon of the great Culture will itself have disappeared some
day, and with it the drama of world-history; aye, and man himself,
and beyond man the phenomenon of plant and animal existence on
the earth’s surface, the earth, the sun, the whole world of sun-
systems. All art is mortal, not merely the individual artifacts but the
arts themselves. One day the last portrait of Rembrandt and the last
bar of Mozart will have ceased to be—though possibly a coloured
canvas and a sheet of notes may remain—because the last eye and
the last ear accessible to their message will have gone. Every
thought, faith and science dies as soon as the spirits in whose
worlds their “eternal truths” were true and necessary are
extinguished. Dead, even, are the star-worlds which “appeared,” a
proper world to the proper eye, to the astronomers of the Nile and
the Euphrates, for our eye is different from theirs; and our eye in its
turn is mortal. All this we know. The beast does not know, and what
he does not know does not exist in his experienced world-around.
But if the image of the past vanishes, the longing to give a deeper
meaning to the passing vanishes also. And so it is with reference to
the purely human macrocosm that we apply the oft-quoted line,
which shall serve as motto for all that follows: Alles Vergängliche ist
nur ein Gleichnis.
From this we are led, without our noticing it, back to the space-
problem, though now it takes on a fresh and surprising form. Indeed,
it is as a corollary to these ideas that it appears for the first time as
capable of solution—or, to speak more modestly, of enunciation—
just as the time-problem was made more comprehensible by way of
the Destiny-idea. From the moment of our awakening, the fateful and
directed life appears in the phenomenal life as an experienced
depth. Everything extends itself, but it is not yet “space,” not
something established in itself but a self-extension continued from
the moving here to the moving there. World-experience is bound up
with the essence of depth (i.e., far-ness or distance). In the abstract
system of mathematics, “depth” is taken along with “length” and
“breadth” as a “third” dimension; but this trinity of elements of like
order is misleading from the outset, for in our impression of the
spatial world these elements are unquestionably not equivalents, let
alone homogeneous. Length and breadth are no doubt,
experientially, a unit and not a mere sum, but they are (the phrase is
used deliberately) simply a form of reception; they represent the
purely sensuous impression. But depth is a representation of
expression, of Nature, and with it begins the “world.”
This discrimination between the “third” and the other two
dimensions, so called, which needless to say is wholly alien to
mathematics, is inherent also in the opposition of the notions of
sensation and contemplation. Extension into depth converts the
former into the latter; in fact, depth is the first and genuine dimension
in the literal sense of the word.[180] In it the waking consciousness is
active, whereas in the others it is strictly passive. It is the symbolic
content of a particular order as understood by one particular Culture
that is expressed by this original fundamental and unanalysable
element. The experiencing of depth (this is a premiss upon which all
that follows is dependent) is an act, as entirely involuntary and
necessary as it is creative, whereby the ego keeps its world, so to
say, in subordination (zudiktiert erhält). Out of the rain of impressions
the ego fashions a formal unit, a cinematic picture, which as soon as
it is mastered by the understanding is subjected to law and the
causality principle; and therefore, as the projection of an individual
spirit it is transient and mortal.
There is no doubt, however reason may contest it, that this
extension is capable of infinite variety, and that it operates differently
not merely as between child and man, or nature-man and townsman,
or Chinese and Romans, but as between individual and individual
according as they experience their worlds contemplatively or alertly,
actively or placidly. Every artist has rendered “Nature” by line and by
tone, every physicist—Greek, Arabian or German—has dissected
“Nature” into ultimate elements, and how is it that they have not all
discovered the same? Because every one of them has had his own
Nature, though—with a naïveté that was really the salvation of his
world-idea and of his own self—every one believed that he had it in
common with all the rest. Nature is a possession which is saturated
through and through with the most personal connotations. Nature is
a function of the particular Culture.
III
Kant believed that he had decided the great question of whether

this a priori element was pre-existent or obtained by experience, by
his celebrated formula that Space is the form of perception which
underlies all world impressions. But the “world” of the careless child
and the dreamer undeniably possess this form in an insecure and
hesitant way,[181] and it is only the tense, practical, technical
treatment of the world-around—imposed on the free-moving being
which, unlike the lilies of the fields, must care for its life—that lets
sensuous self-extension stiffen into rational tridimensionality. And it
is only the city-man of matured Cultures that really lives in this
glaring wakefulness, and only for his thought that there is a Space
wholly divorced from sensuous life, “absolute,” dead and alien to
Time; and it exists not as a form of the intuitively-perceived but as a
form of the rationally-comprehended. There is no manner of doubt
that the “space” which Kant saw all around him with such
unconditional certainty when he was thinking out his theory, did not
exist in anything like so rigorous a form for his Carolingian ancestors.
Kant’s greatness consists in his having created the idea of a "form a
priori," but not in the application that he gave it. We have already
seen that Time is not a “form of perception” nor for that matter a form
at all—forms exist only in the extended—and that there is no
possibility of defining it except as a counter-concept to Space. But
there is the further question—does this word “space” exactly cover
the formal content of the intuitively-perceived? And beyond all this
there is the plain fact that the “form of perception” alters with
distance. Every distant mountain range is “perceived” as a scenic
plane. No one will pretend that he sees the moon as a body; for the
eye it is a pure plane and it is only by the aid of the telescope—i.e.
when the distance is artificially reduced—that it progressively obtains
a spatial form. Obviously, then, the “form of perception” is a function
of distance. Moreover, when we reflect upon anything, we do not
exactly remember the impressions that we received at the time, but
“represent to ourselves” the picture of a space abstracted from them.
But this representation may and does deceive us regarding the living
actuality. Kant let himself be misled; he should certainly not have
permitted himself to distinguish between forms of perception and
forms of ratiocination, for his notion of Space in principle embraced
both.[182]
Just as Kant marred the Time-problem by bringing it into relation
with an essentially misunderstood arithmetic and—on that basis—
dealing with a phantom sort of time that lacks the life-quality of
direction and is therefore a mere spatial scheme, so also he marred
the Space-problem by relating it to a common-place geometry.
It befell that a few years after the completion of Kant’s main work
Gauss discovered the first of the Non-Euclidean geometries. These,
irreproachably demonstrated as regards their own internal validity,
enable it to be proved that there are several strictly mathematical
kinds of three-dimensional extension, all of which are a priori certain,
and none of which can be singled out to rank as the genuine “form of
perception.”
It was a grave, and in a contemporary of Euler and Lagrange an
unpardonable, error to postulate that the Classical school-geometry
(for it was that which Kant always had in mind) was to be found
reproduced in the forms of Nature around us. In moments of
attentive observation at very short range, and in cases in which the
relations considered are sufficiently small, the living impressions and
the rules of customary geometry are certainly in approximate
agreement. But the exact conformity asserted by philosophy can be
demonstrated neither by the eye nor by measuring-instruments. Both
these must always stop short at a certain limit of accuracy which is
very far indeed below that which would be necessary, say, for
determining which of the Non-Euclidean geometries is the geometry
of “empirical” Space.[183] On the large scales and for great distances,
where the experience of depth completely dominates the perception-
picture (for example, looking on a broad landscape as against a
drawing) the form of perception is in fundamental contradiction with
mathematics. A glance down any avenue shows us that parallels
meet at the horizon. Western perspective and the otherwise quite
different perspective of Chinese painting are both alike based on this
fact, and the connexion of these perspectives with the root-problems
of their respective mathematics is unmistakable.
Experiential Depth, in the infinite variety of its modes, eludes every
sort of numerical definition. The whole of lyric poetry and music, the
entire painting of Egypt, China and the West by hypothesis deny any
strictly mathematical structure in space as felt and seen, and it is
only because all modern philosophers have been destitute of the
smallest understanding of painting that they have failed to note the
contradiction. The “horizon” in and by which every visual image
gradually passes into a definitive plane, is incapable of any
mathematical treatment. Every stroke of a landscape painter’s brush
refutes the assertions of conventional epistemology.
As mathematical magnitudes abstract from life, the “three
dimensions” have no natural limits. But when this proposition
becomes entangled with the surface-and-depth of experienced
impression, the original epistemological error leads to another, viz.,
that apprehended extension is also without limits, although in fact
our vision only comprises the illuminated portion of space and stops
at the light-limit of the particular moment, which may be the star-
heavens or merely the bright atmosphere. The “visual” world is the
totality of light-resistances, since vision depends on the presence of
radiated or reflected light. The Greeks took their stand on this and
stayed there. It is the Western world-feeling that has produced the
idea of a limitless universe of space—a space of infinite star-systems
and distances that far transcends all optical possibilities—and this
was a creation of the inner vision, incapable of all actualization
through the eye, and, even as an idea, alien to and unachievable by
the men of a differently-disposed Culture.
IV
The outcome, then, of Gauss’s discovery, which completely altered

the course of modern mathematics,[184] was the statement that there
are severally equally valid structures of three-dimensional extension.
That it should even be asked which of them corresponds to actual
perception shows that the problem was not in the least
comprehended. Mathematics, whether or not it employs visible
images and representations as working conveniences, concerns
itself with systems that are entirely emancipated from life, time and
distance, with form-worlds of pure numbers whose validity—not fact-
foundation—is timeless and like everything else that is “known” is
known by causal logic and not experienced.
With this, the difference between the living intuition-way and the
mathematical form-language became manifest and the secret of
spatial becoming opened out.
As becoming is the foundation of the become, continuous living
history that of fulfilled dead nature, the organic that of the
mechanical, destiny that of causal law and the causally-settled, so
too direction is the origin of extension. The secret of Life
accomplishing itself which is touched upon by the word Time forms
the foundation of that which, as accomplished, is understood by (or
rather indicated to an inner feeling in us by) the word Space. Every
extension that is actual has first been accomplished in and with an
experience of depth, and what is primarily indicated by the word
Time is just this process of extending, first sensuously (in the main,
visually) and only later intellectually, into depth and distance, i.e., the
step from the planar semi-impression to the macrocosmically
ordered world-picture with its mysterious-manifest kinesis. We feel—
and the feeling is what constitutes the state of all-round awareness
in us—that we are in an extension that encircles us; and it is only
necessary to follow out this original impression that we have of the
worldly to see that in reality there is only one true “dimension” of
space, which is direction from one’s self outwards into the distance,
the “there” and the future, and that the abstract system of three
dimensions is a mechanical representation and not a fact of life. By
the depth-experience sensation is expanded into the world. We have
seen already that the directedness that is in life wears the badge of
irreversibility, and there is something of this same hall-mark of Time
in our instinctive tendency to feel the depth that is in the world uni-
directionally also—viz., from ourselves outwards, and never from the
horizon inwards. The bodily mobility of man and beast is disposed in
this sense. We move forward—towards the Future, nearing with
every step not merely our aim but our old age—and we feel every
backward look as a glance at something that is past, that has
already become history.[185]
If we can describe the basic form of the understood, viz., causality,
as destiny become rigid, we may similarly speak of spatial depth as
a time become rigid. That which not only man but even the beast
feels operative around him as destiny, he perceives by touching,
looking, listening, scenting as movement, and under his intense
scrutiny it stiffens and becomes causal. We feel that it is drawing
towards spring and we feel in advance how the spring landscape
expands around us; but we know that the earth as it moves in space
revolves and that the duration of spring consists of ninety such
revolutions of the earth, or days. Time gives birth to Space, but
Space gives death to Time.
Had Kant been more precise, he would, instead of speaking of the
“two forms of perception,” have called time the form of perception
and space the form of the perceived, and then the connexion of the
two would probably have revealed itself to him. The logician,
mathematician, or scientist in his moments of intense thought, knows
only the Become—which has been detached from the singular event
by the very act of meditating upon it—and true systematic space—in
which everything possesses the property of a mathematically-
expressible “duration.” But it is just this that indicates to us how
space is continuously “becoming.” While we gaze into the distance
with our senses, it floats around us, but when we are startled, the
alert eye sees a tense and rigid space. This space is; the principle of
its existing at all is that it is, outside time and detached from it and
from life. In it duration, a piece of perished time, resides as a known
property of things. And, as we know ourselves too as being in this
space, we know that we also have a duration and a limit, of which
the moving finger of our clock ceaselessly warns us. But the rigid
Space itself is transient too—at the first relaxation of our intellectual
tension it vanishes from the many-coloured spread of our world-
around—and so it is a sign and symbol of the most elemental and
powerful symbol, of life itself.
For the involuntary and unqualified realization of depth, which
dominates the consciousness with the force of an elemental event
(simultaneously with the awakening of the inner life), marks the
frontier between child and ... Man. The symbolic experience of depth
is what is lacking in the child, who grasps at the moon and knows as
yet no meaning in the outer world but, like the soul of primitive man,
dawns in a dreamlike continuum of sensations (in traumhafter
Verbundenheit mit allem Empfindungshaften hindämmert). Of course
the child is not without experience of the extended, of a very simple
kind, but there is no world-perception; distance is felt, but it does not
yet speak to the soul. And with the soul’s awakening, direction, too,
first reaches living expression—Classical expression in steady
adherence to the near-present and exclusion of the distant and
future; Faustian in direction-energy which has an eye only for the
most distant horizons; Chinese, in free hither-and-thither wandering
that nevertheless goes to the goal; Egyptian in resolute march down
the path once entered. Thus the Destiny-idea manifests itself in
every line of a life. With it alone do we become members of a
particular Culture, whose members are connected by a common
world-feeling and a common world-form derived from it. A deep
identity unites the awakening of the soul, its birth into clear existence
in the name of a Culture, with the sudden realization of distance and
time, the birth of its outer world through the symbol of extension; and
thenceforth this symbol is and remains the prime symbol of that life,
imparting to it its specific style and the historical form in which it
progressively actualizes its inward possibilities. From the specific
directedness is derived the specific prime-symbol of extension,
namely, for the Classical world-view the near, strictly limited, self-
contained Body, for the Western infinitely wide and infinitely profound
three-dimensional Space, for the Arabian the world as a Cavern. And
therewith an old philosophical problem dissolves into nothing: this
prime form of the world is innate in so far as it is an original
possession of the soul of that Culture which is expressed by our life
as a whole, and acquired in so far that every individual soul re-
enacts for itself that creative act and unfolds in early childhood the
symbol of depth to which its existence is predestined, as the
emerging butterfly unfolds its wings. The first comprehension of
depth is an act of birth—the spiritual complement of the bodily.[186] In
it the Culture is born out of its mother-landscape, and the act is
repeated by every one of its individual souls throughout its life-
course. This is what Plato—connecting it with an early Hellenic belief
—called anamnesis. The definiteness of the world-form, which for
each dawning soul suddenly is, derives meaning from Becoming.
Kant the systematic, however, with his conception of the form a
priori, would approach the interpretation of this very riddle from a
dead result instead of along a living way.
From now on, we shall consider the kind of extension as the prime
symbol of a Culture. From it we are to deduce the entire form-
language of its actuality, its physiognomy as contrasted with the
physiognomy of every other Culture and still more with the almost
entire lack of physiognomy in primitive man’s world-around. For now
the interpretation of depth rises to acts, to formative expression in
works, to the trans-forming of actuality, not now merely in order to
subserve necessities of life (as in the case of the animals) but above
all to create a picture out of extensional elements of all sorts
(material, line, colour, tone, motion)—a picture, often, that re-
emerges with power to charm after lost centuries in the world-picture
of another Culture and tells new men of the way in which its authors
understood the world.
But the prime symbol does not actualize itself; it is operative
through the form-sense of every man, every community, age and
epoch and dictates the style of every life-expression. It is inherent in
the form of the state, the religious myths and cults, the ethical ideals,
the forms of painting and music and poetry, the fundamental notions
of each science—but it is not presented by these. Consequently, it is
not presentable by words, for language and words are themselves
derived symbols. Every individual symbol tells of it, but only to the
inner feelings, not to the understanding. And when we say, as
henceforth we shall say, that the prime-symbol of the Classical soul
is the material and individual body, that of the Western pure infinite
space, it must always be with the reservation that concepts cannot
represent the inconceivable, and thus at the most a significative
feeling may be evoked by the sound of words.
Infinite space is the ideal that the Western soul has always striven
to find, and to see immediately actualized, in its world-around; and
hence it is that the countless space-theories of the last centuries
possess—over and above all ostensible “results”—a deep import as
symptoms of a world-feeling. In how far does unlimited extension
underlie all objective things? There is hardly a single problem that
has been more earnestly pondered than this; it would almost seem
as if every other world-question was dependent upon the one
problem of the nature of space. And is it not in fact so—for us? And
how, then, has it escaped notice that the whole Classical world never
expended one word on it, and indeed did not even possess a
word[187] by which the problem could be exactly outlined? Why had
the great pre-Socratics nothing to say on it? Did they overlook in
their world just that which appears to us the problem of all problems?
Ought we not, in fact, to have seen long ago that the answer is in the
very fact of their silence? How is it that according to our deepest
feeling the “world” is nothing but that world-of-space which is the true
offspring of our depth-experience, and whose grand emptiness is
corroborated by the star-systems lost in it? Could a “world” of this
sense have been made even comprehensible to a Classical thinker?
In short, we suddenly discover that the “eternal problem” that Kant,
in the name of humanity, tackled with a passion that itself is
symbolic, is a purely Western problem that simply does not arise in
the intellects of other Cultures.
What then was it that Classical man, whose insight into his own
world-around was certainly not less piercing than ours, regarded as
the prime problem of all being? It was the problem of ἀρχή, the
material origin and foundation of all sensuously-perceptible things. If
we grasp this we shall get close to the significance of the fact—not
the fact of space, but the fact that made it a necessity of destiny for
the space-problem to become the problem of the Western, and only
the Western, soul.[188] This very spatiality (Räumlichkeit) that is the
truest and sublimest element in the aspect of our universe, that
absorbs into itself and begets out of itself the substantiality of all
things, Classical humanity (which knows no word for, and therefore
has no idea of, space) with one accord cuts out as the nonent, τὸ μὴ
ὄν, that which is not. The pathos of this denial can scarcely be
exaggerated. The whole passion of the Classical soul is in this act of
excluding by symbolic negation that which it would not feel as actual,
that in which its own existence could not be expressed. A world of
other colour suddenly confronts us here. The Classical statue in its
splendid bodiliness—all structure and expressive surfaces and no
incorporeal arrière-pensée whatsoever—contains without remainder
all that Actuality is for the Classical eye. The material, the optically
definite, the comprehensible, the immediately present—this list
exhausts the characteristics of this kind of extension. The Classical
universe, the Cosmos or well-ordered aggregate of all near and
completely viewable things, is concluded by the corporeal vault of
heaven. More there is not. The need that is in us to think of “space”
as being behind as well as before this shell was wholly absent from
the Classical world-feeling. The Stoics went so far as to treat even
properties and relations of things as “bodies.” For Chrysippus, the
Divine Pneuma is a “body,” for Democritus seeing consists in our
being penetrated by material particles of the things seen. The State
is a body which is made up of all the bodies of its citizens, the law
knows only corporeal persons and material things. And the feeling
finds its last and noblest expression in the stone body of the
Classical temple. The windowless interior is carefully concealed by
the array of columns; but outside there is not one truly straight line to
be found. Every flight of steps has a slight sweep outward, every
step relatively to the next. The pediment, the roof-ridge, the sides are
all curved. Every column has a slight swell and none stand truly
vertical or truly equidistant from one another. But swell and
inclination and distance vary from the corners to the centres of the
sides in a carefully toned-off ratio, and so the whole corpus is given
a something that swings mysterious about a centre. The curvatures
are so fine that to a certain extent they are invisible to the eye and
only to be “sensed.” But it is just by these means that direction in
depth is eliminated. While the Gothic style soars, the Ionic swings.
The interior of the cathedral pulls up with primeval force, but the
temple is laid down in majestic rest. All this is equally true as relating
to the Faustian and Apollinian Deity, and likewise of the fundamental
ideas of the respective physics. To the principles of position, material
and form we have opposed those of straining movement, force and
mass, and we have defined the last-named as a constant ratio
between force and acceleration, nay, finally volatilized both in the
purely spatial elements of capacity and intensity. It was an obligatory
consequence also of this way of conceiving actuality that the
instrumental music of the great 18th-Century masters should emerge
as a master-art—for it is the only one of the arts whose form-world is
inwardly related to the contemplative vision of pure space. In it, as
opposed to the statues of Classical temple and forum, we have
bodiless realms of tone, tone-intervals, tone-seas. The orchestra
swells, breaks, and ebbs, it depicts distances, lights, shadows,
storms, driving clouds, lightning flashes, colours etherealized and
transcendent—think of the instrumentation of Gluck and Beethoven.
“Contemporary,” in our sense, with the Canon of Polycletus, the
treatise in which the great sculptor laid down the strict rules of
human body-build which remained authoritative till beyond Lysippus,
we find the strict canon (completed by Stamitz about 1740) of the
sonata-movement of four elements which begins to relax in late-
Beethoven quartets and symphonies and, finally, in the lonely, utterly
infinitesimal tone-world of the “Tristan” music, frees itself from all
earthly comprehensibleness. This prime feeling of a loosing,
Erlösung, solution, of the Soul in the Infinite, of a liberation from all
material heaviness which the highest moments of our music always
awaken, sets free also the energy of depth that is in the Faustian
soul: whereas the effect of the Classical art-work is to bind and to
bound, and the body-feeling secures, brings back the eye from
distance to a Near and Still that is saturated with beauty.
V
Each of the great Cultures, then, has arrived at a secret language
of world-feeling that is only fully comprehensible by him whose soul
belongs to that Culture. We must not deceive ourselves. Perhaps we
can read a little way into the Classical soul, because its form-
language is almost the exact inversion of the Western; how far we
have succeeded or can ever succeed is a question which
necessarily forms the starting-point of all criticism of the
Renaissance, and it is a very difficult one. But when we are told that
probably (it is at best a doubtful venture to meditate upon so alien an
expression of Being) the Indians conceived numbers which
according to our ideas possessed neither value nor magnitude nor
relativity, and which only became positive and negative, great or
small units in virtue of position, we have to admit that it is impossible
for us exactly to re-experience what spiritually underlies this kind of
number. For us, 3 is always something, be it positive or negative; for
the Greeks it was unconditionally a positive magnitude, +3; but for
the Indian it indicates a possibility without existence, to which the
word “something” is not yet applicable, outside both existence and
non-existence which are properties to be introduced into it. +3, -3, ⅓,
are thus emanating actualities of subordinate rank which reside in
the mysterious substance (3) in some way that is entirely hidden
from us. It takes a Brahmanic soul to perceive these numbers as
self-evident, as ideal emblems of a self-complete world-form; to us
they are as unintelligible as is the Brahman Nirvana, for which, as
lying beyond life and death, sleep and waking, passion, compassion
and dispassion and yet somehow actual, words entirely fail us. Only
this spirituality could originate the grand conception of nothingness
as a true number, zero, and even then this zero is the Indian zero for
which existent and non-existent are equally external designations.[189]
Arabian thinkers of the ripest period—and they included minds of
the very first order like Alfarabi and Alkabi—in controverting the
ontology of Aristotle, proved that the body as such did not
necessarily assume space for existence, and deduced the essence
of this space—the Arabian kind of extension, that is—from the
characteristic of “one’s being in a position.”
But this does not prove that as against Aristotle and Kant they
were in error or that their thinking was muddled (as we so readily say
of what our own brains cannot take in). It shows that the Arabian
spirit possessed other world-categories than our own. They could
have rebutted Kant, or Kant them, with the same subtlety of proof—
and both disputants would have remained convinced of the
correctness of their respective standpoints.
When we talk of space to-day, we are all thinking more or less in
the same style, just as we are all using the same languages and
word-signs, whether we are considering mathematical space or
physical space or the space of painting or that of actuality, although
all philosophizing that insists (as it must) upon putting an identity of
understanding in the place of such kinship of significance-feeling
must remain somewhat questionable. But no Hellene or Egyptian or
Chinaman could re-experience any part of those feelings of ours,
and no artwork or thought-system could possibly convey to him
unequivocally what “space” means for us. Again, the prime
conceptions originated in the quite differently constituted soul of the
Greek, like ἀρχή, ὕλη, μορφἠ, comprise the whole content of his
world. But this world is differently constituted from ours. It is, for us,
alien and remote. We may take these words of Greek and translate
them by words of our own like “origin,” “matter” and “form,” but it is
mere imitation, a feeble effort to penetrate into a world of feeling in
which the finest and deepest elements, in spite of all we can do,
remain dumb; it is as though one tried to set the Parthenon
sculptures for a string quartet, or cast Voltaire’s God in bronze. The
master-traits of thought, life and world-consciousness are as
manifold and different as the features of individual men; in those
respects as in others there are distinctions of “races” and “peoples,”
and men are as unconscious of these distinctions as they are
ignorant of whether “red” and “yellow” do or do not mean the same
for others as for themselves. It is particularly the common symbolic
of language that nourishes the illusion of a homogeneous
constitution of human inner-life and an identical world-form; in this
respect the great thinkers of one and another Culture resemble the
colour-blind in that each is unaware of his own condition and smiles
at the errors of the rest.
And now I draw the conclusions. There is a plurality of prime
symbols. It is the depth-experience through which the world
becomes, through which perception extends itself to world. Its
signification is for the soul to which it belongs and only for that soul,
and it is different in waking and dreaming, acceptance and scrutiny,
as between young and old, townsmen and peasant, man and
woman. It actualizes for every high Culture the possibility of form
upon which that Culture’s existence rests and it does so of deep
necessity. All fundamentals words like our mass, substance,
material, thing, body, extension (and multitudes of words of the like
order in other culture-tongues) are emblems, obligatory and
determined by destiny, that out of the infinite abundance of world-
possibilities evoke in the name of the individual Culture those
possibilities that alone are significant and therefore necessary for it.
None of them is exactly transferable just as it is into the experiential
living and knowing of another Culture. And none of these prime
words ever recurs. The choice of prime symbol in the moment of the
Culture-soul’s awakening into self-consciousness on its own soil—a
moment that for one who can read world-history thus contains
something catastrophic—decides all.
Culture, as the soul’s total expression “become” and perceptible in
gestures and works, as its mortal transient body, obnoxious
to law, number and causality:
As the historical drama, a picture in the whole picture of world-
history:
As the sum of grand emblems of life, feeling and
understanding:
—this is the language through which alone a soul can tell of what it
undergoes.
The macrocosm, too, is a property of the individual soul; we can
never know how it stands with the soul of another. That which is
implied by “infinite space,” the space that “passeth all
understanding,” which is the creative interpretation of depth-
experience proper and peculiar to us men of the West—the kind of
extension that is nothingness to the Greeks, the Universe to us—
dyes our world in a colour that the Classical, the Indian and the
Egyptian souls had not on their palettes. One soul listens to the
world-experience in A flat major, another in F minor; one apprehends
it in the Euclidean spirit, another in the contrapuntal, a third in the
Magian spirit. From the purest analytical Space and from Nirvana to
the most somatic reality of Athens, there is a series of prime symbols
each of which is capable of forming a complete world out of itself.
And, as the idea of the Babylonian or that of the Indian world was
remote, strange and elusive for the men of the five or six Cultures
that followed, so also the Western world will be incomprehensible to
the men of Cultures yet unborn.
CHAPTER VI
MAKROKOSMOS
II
APOLLINIAN, FAUSTIAN AND MAGIAN SOUL

CHAPTER VI
MAKROKOSMOS
II
APOLLINIAN, FAUSTIAN AND MAGIAN SOUL
Henceforth we shall designate the soul of the Classical Culture,

which chose the sensuously-present individual body as the ideal
type of the extended, by the name (familiarized by Nietzsche) of the
Apollinian. In opposition to it we have the Faustian soul, whose
prime-symbol is pure and limitless space, and whose “body” is the
Western Culture that blossomed forth with the birth of the
Romanesque style in the 10th century in the Northern plain between
the Elbe and the Tagus. The nude statue is Apollinian, the art of the
fugue Faustian. Apollinian are: mechanical statics, the sensuous cult
of the Olympian gods, the politically individual city-states of Greece,
the doom of Œdipus and the phallus-symbol. Faustian are: Galileian
dynamics, Catholic and Protestant dogmatics, the great dynasties of
the Baroque with their cabinet diplomacy, the destiny of Lear and the
Madonna-ideal from Dante’s Beatrice to the last line of Faust II. The
painting that defines the individual body by contours is Apollinian,
that which forms space by means of light and shade is Faustian—
this is the difference between the fresco of Polygnotus and the oil
painting of Rembrandt. The Apollinian existence is that of the Greek
who describes his ego as soma and who lacks all idea of an inner
development and therefore all real history, inward and outward; the
Faustian is an existence which is led with a deep consciousness and
introspection of the ego, and a resolutely personal culture evidenced
in memoirs, reflections, retrospects and prospects and conscience.
And in the time of Augustus, in the countries between Nile and Tigris,
Black Sea and South Arabia, there appears—aloof but able to speak
to us through forms borrowed, adopted and inherited—the Magian
soul of the Arabian Culture with its algebra, astrology and alchemy,
its mosaics and arabesques, its caliphates and mosques, and the

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Numerical and Statistical Methods for

Computer Engineering Gujarat

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Late Shri Ved Prakash Sharma

8. Statistical Methods 8.1–8.98

10.6 Method of Semi-Averages 10.5

Online Learning Center

Ramesh S Damor L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad

Vijay Solanki Government Engineering College, Patan

Module 2: Roots of Equations

Module 3: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

Module 4: Curve Fitting

Module 5: Numerical Integration

Module 6: Ordinary Differential Equations

Module 7: Statistical Methods

1.2 AccurAcy And PrecIsIon

1.3 tyPes oF errors

There are various types of errors in measurements and calculations:

Percentage error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

1.4 sources oF errors

by uncertainty in measurements or due to the given data being approximate or due to

But, if sin x is calculated by terminating the series up to x7 or x9,

1.5 sIgnIFIcAnt FIgures

Rules for Identifying Significant Figures

Hence, the exact solution lies in the interval [3.47, 3.48].

Taking logarithm on both the sides,

10. If R1 and R2 are two resistances in parallel, their resistance R is given by

22. Find [(2.92)3 + (5.87)3 ]5 approximately by using the theory of

Percentage Error It is relative error expressed in terms of per 100.

2.2 BIsectIon Method

f (1) = –6 and f (2) = –1, f (3) = 16

Kant believed that he had decided the great question of whether

The outcome, then, of Gauss’s discovery, which completely altered

APOLLINIAN, FAUSTIAN AND MAGIAN SOUL

Henceforth we shall designate the soul of the Classical Culture,

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