Nutrition: concepts and controversies

Fourteenth Edition Webb

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/nutrition-concepts-and-controversies-fourteenth-editio
n-webb/
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) include two sets of
values that serve as goals for nutrient intake—Recom-
mended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes
(AI). The RDA reflect the average daily amount of a nutri-
ent considered adequate to meet the needs of most healthy
­people. If there is insufficient evidence to determine an
RDA, an AI is set. AI values are more tentative than
RDA, but both may be used as goals for nutrient intakes.
­(Chapter 2 provides more details.)
In addition to the values that serve as goals for nutrient
intakes (presented in the tables on these two pages), the
DRI include a set of values called Tolerable Upper Intake
Levels (UL). The UL represent the maximum amount of a
nutrient that appears safe for most healthy people to con-
sume on a regular basis. Turn the page for a listing of the
UL for selected vitamins and minerals.

Estimated Energy Requirements (EER), Recommended Dietary Allowances

(RDA), and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Water, Energy, and the Energy Nutrients
ht
ht

da c i d c
eig
eig
MI

ay)
g/d t e

da i d
ay)
(lb n c e W

ay) d
/m 2 e B

(in e H

(g/ F i b e r
A ( dra

(g/ n i c A
(g/ i c A c

g/d
ay)
l/d

(g/ t
y)

y)

y)

y)
( kg e r e n c

cm e r e n c

y)

AI l F a
RD o h y

RD t e i n

A ( in
AI t e r a

g/d

g/k
da

da
)

(ca
da

EER b r g y
e

ole

ole
)

e
r

l
)

t
b

a
e

(L/

Pro

Pro
A(
Car
Ref

Ref

Ref

Ene

Tot

Tot

Lin

Lin
Wa

A ge ( yr )
kg

RD
AI

AI

AI
M ales
0–0.5 — 62 (24) 6 (13) 0.7e 570 60 — 31 4.4 0.5 9.1 1.52
0.5–1 — 71 (28) 9 (20) 0.8f 743 95 — 30 4.6 0.5 11 1.20
1–3g — 86 (34) 12 (27) 1.3 1046 130 19 — 7 0.7 13 1.05
4–8g 15.3 115 (45) 20 (44) 1.7 1742 130 25 — 10 0.9 19 0.95
9–13 17.2 144 (57) 36 (79) 2.4 2279 130 31 — 12 1.2 34 0.95
14–18 20.5 174 (68) 61 (134) 3.3 3152 130 38 — 16 1.6 52 0.85
19–30 22.5 177 (70) 70 (154) 3.7 3067h 130 38 — 17 1.6 56 0.80
31–50 22.5i 177 (70)i 70 (154)i 3.7 3067h 130 38 — 17 1.6 56 0.80
50 22.5i 177 (70)i 70 (154)i 3.7 3067h 130 30 — 14 1.6 56 0.80

F emales
0–0.5 — 62 (24) 6 (13) 0.7e 520 60 — 31 4.4 0.5 9.1 1.52
0.5–1 — 71 (28) 9 (20) 0.8f 676 95 — 30 4.6 0.5 11 1.20
1–3g — 86 (34) 12 (27) 1.3 992 130 19 — 7 0.7 13 1.05
4–8g 15.3 115 (45) 20 (44) 1.7 1642 130 25 — 10 0.9 19 0.95
9–13 17.4 144 (57) 37 (81) 2.1 2071 130 26 — 10 1.0 34 0.95
14–18 20.4 163 (64) 54 (119) 2.3 2368 130 26 — 11 1.1 46 0.85
19–30 21.5 163 (64) 57 (126) 2.7 2403j 130 25 — 12 1.1 46 0.80
31–50 21.5i 163 (64)i 57 (126)i 2.7 2403j 130 25 — 12 1.1 46 0.80
50 21.5i 163 (64)i 57 (126)i 2.7 2403j 130 21 — 11 1.1 46 0.80

P regnancy
1st trimester 3.0 10 175 28 — 13 1.4 46 0.80
2nd trimester 3.0 1340 175 28 — 13 1.4 71 1.10
3rd trimester 3.0 1452 175 28 — 13 1.4 71 1.10

L actation
1st 6 months 3.8 1330 210 29 — 13 1.3 71 1.30
2nd 6 months 3.8 1400 210 29 — 13 1.3 71 1.30

NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI. Dashes indicate that values have
not been determined.
aThe water AI includes drinking water, water in beverages, and water in foods; in
general, drinking water and other beverages contribute about 70 to 80 percent,
and foods, the remainder. Conversion factors: 1 L 5 33.8 fluid oz; 1 L 5 1.06 qt;
1 cup 5 8 fluid oz.
bThe
EER represents the average dietary energy intake that will maintain energy
balance in a healthy person of a given gender, age, weight, height, and physical
activity level. The values listed are based on an “active” person at the reference
height and weight and at the midpoint ages for each group until age 19. Chapter 9
and Appendix H provide equations and tables to determine estimated energy
requirements.
cThe linolenic acid referred to in this table and text is the omega-3 fatty acid known
as alpha-linolenic acid.
dThe values listed are based on reference body weights.
eAssumed to be from human milk.
fAssumed to be from human milk and complementary foods and beverages. This
includes approximately 0.6 L (~2½ cups) as total fluid including formula, juices,
and drinking water.
gFor energy, the age groups for young children are 1–2 years and 3–8 years.
hFor males, subtract 10 calories per day for each year of age above 19.
iBecause weight need not change as adults age if activity is maintained, reference
weights for adults 19 through 30 years are applied to all adult age groups.
jFor females, subtract 7 calories per day for each year of age above 19.
SOURCE: Adapted from the Dietary Reference Intakes series, National Academies
Press. Copyright 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2011 by the National
Academy of Sciences.

27994_IFC_rev02.indd 2 21/12/15 5:29 pm

 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Vitamins

V i t day) aci d
)a

)e
V i t /day b

V i t /day) c

y) d
RD o f l a )

RD ami n )
( m e n ic

)
R i b /day

N iaci /day

B i o /day

F o l /day

V i t /day

V i t /day
µg 1 2
A ( vin

C h o /day

V i t day)
mg B6
P a day)

y)
B

µg A

IU/ D

( µg n K
mg C

A( nE
da

/da
AI o t h
A( n

RD ami n

RD ami n

RD ami n

RD ami n
AI l i n e
mg

mg

mg

mg
T h iami

A( n

AI t i n

ami

ami
g/

g/
RD a t e
µg
/
( µg
nt

(m
A(

A(

A(

A(

A(

A(
Vit
A ge ( yr )

RD

RD

RD

AI
I nfants
0–0.5 0.2 0.3 2 5 1.7 0.1 65 0.4 125 40 400 400 (10 μg) 4 2.0
0.5–1 0.3 0.4 4 6 1.8 0.3 80 0.5 150 50 500 400 (10 μg) 5 2.5
C hildren
1–3 0.5 0.5 6 8 2 0.5 150 0.9 200 15 300 600 (15 μg) 6 30
4–8 0.6 0.6 8 12 3 0.6 200 1.2 250 25 400 600 (15 μg) 7 55
M ales
9–13 0.9 0.9 12 20 4 1.0 300 1.8 375 45 600 600 (15 μg) 11 60
14–18 1.2 1.3 16 25 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 75 900 600 (15 μg) 15 75
19–30 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 μg) 15 120
31–50 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 μg) 15 120
51–70 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.7 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 μg) 15 120
70 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.7 400 2.4 550 90 900 800 (20 μg) 15 120
F emales
9–13 0.9 0.9 12 20 4 1.0 300 1.8 375 45 600 600 (15 μg) 11 60
14–18 1.0 1.0 14 25 5 1.2 400 2.4 400 65 700 600 (15 μg) 15 75
19–30 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 μg) 15 90
31–50 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 μg) 15 90
51–70 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.5 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 μg) 15 90
70 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.5 400 2.4 425 75 700 800 (20 μg) 15 90
P regnancy
18 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 80 750 600 (15 μg) 15 75
19–30 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 85 770 600 (15 μg) 15 90
31–50 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 85 770 600 (15 μg) 15 90
L actation
18 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 115 1200 600 (15 μg) 19 75
19–30 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 120 1300 600 (15 μg) 19 90
31–50 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 120 1300 600 (15 μg) 19 90

NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI. The table on page Y defines units
of nutrient measure.
aNiacin recommendations are expressed as niacin equivalents (NE), except for
recommendations for infants younger than 6 months, which are expressed as
preformed niacin.
bFolate recommendations are expressed as dietary folate equivalents (DFE).
cVitamin A recommendations are expressed as retinol activity equivalents (RAE).
dVitamin D recommendations are expressed as cholecalciferol and assume an
absence of adequate exposure to sunlight. Pregnant or lactating girls ages 14–18
also need 15 micrograms vitamin D per day.
eVitamin E recommendations are expressed as a-tocopherol.

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Minerals
RD g n e s i y)

y)

y)

RD i n e y)
RD p h o y)

y)
RD n i u )

RD e r )

AI n g a n )

µg m
m rus

F l u /day)

C h r /day)
C h l /day)

P o /day)

C a l /day)

S e l /day

C o pp /day

M a /day
m um

(m ese
M a g/da

I r o g/da

Z i n g/da

I o d g/da

M o day)
A ( nu
P h g/da
(m um

/da
( µg m
(m e
(m e

A( m

AI mi u

RD b d e
AI r i d
AI s s i
AI o r i d

RD ci u m
AI d i u m

µg

µg

µg

/
m

g
m
g

y
ta

os

RD n

o
(m

e
A(

A(

A(

A(

A(

A(

l
A(
So

A ge ( yr )
RD

I nfants
0–0.5 120 180 400 200 100 30 0.27 2 110 15 200 0.003 0.01 0.2 2
0.5–1 370 570 700 260 275 75 11 3 130 20 220 0.6 0.5 5.5 3
C hildren
1–3 1000 1500 3000 700 460 80 7 3 90 20 340 1.2 0.7 11 17
4–8 1200 1900 3800 1000 500 130 10 5 90 30 440 1.5 1.0 15 22
M ales
9–13 1500 2300 4500 1300 1250 240 8 8 120 40 700 1.9 2 25 34
14–18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 410 11 11 150 55 890 2.2 3 35 43
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 400 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
51–70 1300 2000 4700 1000 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
70 1200 1800 4700 1200 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
F emales
9–13 1500 2300 4500 1300 1250 240 8 8 120 40 700 1.6 2 21 34
14–18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 360 15 9 150 55 890 1.6 3 24 43
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 310 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 320 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
51–70 1300 2000 4700 1200 700 320 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
70 1200 1800 4700 1200 700 320 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
P regnancy
18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 400 27 12 220 60 1000 2.0 3 29 50
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 350 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 360 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
L actation
18 1500 2300 5100 1300 1250 360 10 13 290 70 1300 2.6 3 44 50
19–30 1500 2300 5100 1000 700 310 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50
31–50 1500 2300 5100 1000 700 320 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50

NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI.

B

27994_B-C_rev02.indd 1 21/12/15 11:52 am

 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Vitamins

ay) 6
g/d B

/da A

/da D
g/d C

g/d E
ay) a

ay) c
y) a

y) b
ay)

ay)
( m ami n

( m ami n

( µg ami n

( IU ami n

( m ami n
(m line

y)
g/d n

( µg l a t e
N iaci

/da

g/d
Cho
Vit

Vit

Vit

Vit

Vit
Fo
A ge ( yr )
(m
I nfants
0–0.5 — — — — — 600 1000 (25 μg) —
0.5–1 — — — — — 600 1500 (38 μg) —

C hildren
1–3 10 30 300 1000 400 600 2500 (63 μg) 200
4–8 15 40 400 1000 650 900 3000 (75 μg) 300
9–13 20 60 600 2000 1200 1700 4000 (100 μg) 600

A dolescents
14–18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 μg) 800

A dults
19–70 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 μg) 1000
70 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 μg) 1000

P regnancy
18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 μg) 800
19–50 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 μg) 1000

L actation
18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 μg) 800
19–50 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 μg) 1000
aThe UL for niacin and folate apply to synthetic forms bThe UL for vitamin A applies to the preformed vitamin only.
obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination cThe
of the two. UL for vitamin E applies to any form of supplemental
a-tocopherol, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Minerals

/da n u m
s

g/d u m
g/d r u

g/d e s e

g/d m
I r o ay) d
g/d e

/da m

g/d e
(m ospho

(m gnesi

(m adiu
C h l ay)

C a l ay)

P h ay)

M a ay)

Z i n ay)

I o d ay)

F l u ay)

M o ay)

N ick ay)

V a n ay)

ay)
( µg l y b d e
(m orid

( m ci u m

(m orid
(m ngan
S e l y)

C o pp y)

M a y)

B o y)
( µg e n i u
(m dium

( µg e r
( µg i n e

(m el
(m ron
/da

/da
g/d

g/d

g/d

g/d

g/d

g/d
(m n

(m c
So

A ge ( yr )
I nfants
0–0.5 — — 1000 — — 40 4 — 45 — — 0.7 — — — —
0.5–1 — — 1500 — — 40 5 — 60 — — 0.9 — — — —

C hildren
1–3 1500 2300 2500 3000 65 40 7 200 90 1000 2 1.3 300 3 0.2 —
4–8 1900 2900 2500 3000 110 40 12 300 150 3000 3 2.2 600 6 0.3 —
9–13 2200 3400 3000 4000 350 40 23 600 280 5000 6 10 1100 11 0.6 —

A dolescents
14–18 2300 3600 3000 4000 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —

A dults
19–50 2300 3600 2500 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8
51–70 2300 3600 2000 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8
70 2300 3600 2000 3000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8

P regnancy
18 2300 3600 3000 3500 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —
19–50 2300 3600 2500 3500 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 —

L actation
18 2300 3600 3000 4000 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —
19–50 2300 3600 2500 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 —
dThe UL for magnesium applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements or SOURCE: Adapted from the Dietary Reference Intakes series, National Academies
drugs only. Press. Copyright 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2011 by the National
­Academy of Sciences.
NOTE: A UL was not established for vitamins and minerals not listed and for those
age groups listed with a dash (—) because of a lack of data, not because these
nutrients are safe to consume at any level of intake. All nutrients can have adverse
effects when intakes are excessive.

27994_B-C_rev02.indd 2 21/12/15 11:52 am

 Siz e r • Wh it n e y

Nu t r it io n
Concepts and Controversies
Fo ur t een t h Edit io n

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

27994_FM_rev04.indd 1 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Nutrition: Concepts & Controversies,
Fourteenth Edition
Frances Sienkiewicz Sizer and Ellie Whitney
Product Manager: Krista Mastroianni
Content Developer: Miriam Myers
Product Assistant: Victor Luu
Marketing Manager: Tom Ziolkowski
Content Project Manager: Carol Samet
Art Director: Michael Cook
Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt
Production Service: Heidi Allgair,
Cenveo® ­Publisher Services
Photo Researcher: Lumina Datamatics
Text Researcher: Lumina Datamatics
Text Designer: Tani Hasegawa, Michael Cook
Cover Designer: Michael Cook
Cover Image: Dave Le/Moment/Getty Images
Compositor: Cenveo® Publisher Services
Printed in the United States of America
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
27994_FM_rev04.indd 2
© 2017, 2014, Cengage Learning
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner.
For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.
For permission to use material from this text or product,
submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.
Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to
permissionrequest@cengage.com.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015936118
ISBN: 978-1-305-62799-4
Loose-leaf Edition:
ISBN: 978-1-305-63938-6
Cengage Learning
20 Channel Center Street
Boston MA 02210
USA
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions
with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com.
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson
Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com.
Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred
online store www.cengagebrain.com.
29/01/16 6:13 PM
 About the Authors
Frances Sienkiewicz Sizer
M.S., R.D.N., F.A.N.D., attended Florida State University where, in 1980, To my family, near
she received her B.S., and in 1982 her M.S., in nutrition. She is certified as a and far, and especially to
charter Fellow of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. She is a founding Joan Spencer Webb.
member and vice president of Nutrition and Health Associates, an informa- –Fran
tion and resource center in Tallahassee, Florida, that maintains an ongoing
bibliographic database tracking research in more than 1,000 topic areas of
nutrition. Her textbooks include Life Choices: Health Concepts and Strategies;
Making Life Choices; The Fitness Triad: Motivation, Training, and Nutrition; and
others. She also authored Nutrition Interactive, an instructional college-level
nutrition CD-ROM that pioneered the animation of nutrition concepts in
college classrooms. She consults with an advisory board of professors from
around the nation, and attends workshops on innovations in nutrition educa-
tion. She has lectured at universities and at national and regional confer-
ences and supports local hunger and homelessness relief organizations in her
community.

Eleanor Noss Whitney

Ph.D., received her B.A. in biology from Radcliffe College in 1960 and her To Max, Zoey, Emily, Rebecca,
Ph.D. in biology from Washington University, St. Louis, in 1970. Formerly Kalijah, and Duchess with
on the faculty at Florida State University and a dietitian registered with the love.
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, she now devotes full time to research, –Ellie
writing, and consulting in nutrition, health, and environmental issues. Her
earlier publications include articles in Science, Genetics, and other journals.
Her textbooks include Understanding Nutrition, Understanding Normal and
­Clinical Nutrition, Nutrition and Diet Therapy, and Essential Life Choices for
college students and Making Life Choices for high school students. Her most
intense interests presently include energy conservation, solar energy uses,
alternatively fueled vehicles, and ecosystem restoration. She is an activist
who volunteers full-time for the Citizens Climate Lobby.

27994_FM_rev04.indd 3 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Brief Contents
Preface xvii

1 Food Choices and Human Health 1

2 Nutrition Tools—Standards and

Guidelines 31

3 The Remarkable Body 70

4 The Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, Glycogen,

and Fiber 113

5 The Lipids: Fats, Oils, Phospholipids,

and Sterols 160

6 The Proteins and Amino Acids 201

7 The Vitamins 240

8 Water and Minerals 292

9 Energy Balance and Healthy Body

Weight 343

10 Performance Nutrition 389

11 Diet and Health 428
12 Food Safety and Food Technology 470
13 Life Cycle Nutrition: Mother and Infant 516

14 Child, Teen, and Older Adult 558

15 Hunger and the Future of Food 599
Appendixes A-1
Glossary GL-1
Index IN-1

27994_FM_rev04.indd 4 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Contents
Preface xvii CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Reading Nutrition

1
News 19
Chapter Taking Stock and Setting Goals 20
Food Choices and Human Start Now 20
Health 1 FOOD FEATURE: How Can I Get Enough
Nutrients Without Consuming Too Many
A Lifetime of Nourishment 2 Calories? 21
The Diet and Health Connection 3 Concepts in Action: Track Your Diet 22
Genetics, Nutrition, and Individuality 4 Self Check 23
Other Lifestyle Choices 4 CONTROVERSY 1: Sorting the Imposters from
Think Fitness: Why Be Physically Active? 5 the Real Nutrition Experts 24

Healthy People: Nutrition Objectives for

the Nation 5
Chapter 2
The Human Body and Its Food 6
Nutrition Tools—Standards
Meet the Nutrients 7 and Guidelines 31
Can I Live on Just Supplements? 8 Nutrient Recommendations 32
The Challenge of Choosing Foods 9 Dietary Reference Intakes 32

The Abundance of Foods to Choose The DRI Lists and Purposes 33

From 9 Understanding the DRI Recommended
How, Exactly, Can I Recognize a Nutritious Intakes 34
Diet? 11 How the Committee Establishes DRI
Why People Choose Foods 12 Values—An RDA Example 35
Determining Individual Requirements 36
The Science of Nutrition 14
Setting Energy Requirements 36
The Scientific Approac 14
Why Are Daily Values Used on Labels? 37
Scientific Challeng 14
Can I Trust the Media to Deliver Nutrition Dietary Guidelines for Americans 37
News? 17 Diet Planning with the USDA Eating
National Nutrition Research 17 Patterns 39
MY TURN: Lose Think Fitness: Recommendations
Weight While You for Daily Physical Activity 42
Sleep! 17
The Food Groups and
Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com

Changing Subgroups 42
Behaviors 18 Choosing Nutrient-Dense
The Process of Foods 43
Change 18 Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com

27994_FM_rev04.indd 5 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Diet Planning Application 44 The Digestive System 80
MyPlate Educational Tool 46 Why Do People Like Sugar, Salt,
MY TURN: Right Size—Supersize? 46 and Fat? 80

Flexibility of the USDA Eating The Digestive Tract 81

Patterns 47 The Mechanical Aspect of Digestion 83
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: The Chemical Aspect of Digestion 85
Controlling Portion Sizes at Home Microbes in the Digestive Tract 87
and Away 48 Are Some Food Combinations More Easily
Food Lists for Diabetes and Weight Digested Than Others? 87
Management 50 If “I Am What I Eat,” Then How Does a
The Last Word on Diet Planning 51 Peanut Butter Sandwich Become “Me”? 89
Absorption and Transport of Nutrients 90
Checking Out Food Labels 51
A Letter from Your Digestive Tract 92
What Food Labels Must Include 51
The Excretory System 96
What Food Labels May Include 54
FOOD FEATURE: Getting a Feel for the Nutrients Storage Systems 96
in Foods 57 When I Eat More Than My Body Needs, What
Concepts in Action: Compare Your Intakes Happens to the Extra Nutrients? 97
with USDA Guidelines 60 Variations in Nutrient Stores 97
Self Check 61 Conclusion 97
CONTROVERSY 2: Are Some Foods Superfoods Self Check 98
for Health? 62
MY TURN: I Am What I Drink 99

Chapter 3 CONTROVERSY 3: Alcohol: Do the Benefits

Outweigh the Risks? 100
The Remarkable Body 70
The Body’s Cells 71 Chapter 4
Genes Control Functions 72 The Carbohydrates: Sugar,
Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems 73 Starch, Glycogen, and
The Body Fluids and the Fiber 113
Cardiovascular System 74
A Close Look at Carbohydrates 114
The Hormonal and Nervous Sugars 115
Systems 76
Starch 117
What Do Hormones Have to Do
Glycogen 117
with Nutrition? 76
Fibers 117
How Does the Nervous System
Interact with Nutrition? 77 The Need for
The Immune System 79 Carbohydrates 119
iStockphoto.com/Floortje
iStockphoto.com/Floortje

If I Want to Lose Weight and

Immune Defenses 79
Stay Healthy, Should I Avoid
Inflammatio 80
Carbohydrates? 119

vi Contents  

27994_FM_rev04.indd 6 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Why Do Nutrition Experts Recommend
Fiber-Rich Foods? 120
Fiber Intakes and Excesses 125
Whole Grains 127
From Carbohydrates to Glucose 128
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrate 129
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Finding Whole-Grain
Foods 130
Why Do Some People Have Trouble
Digesting Milk? 134
The Body’s Use of Glucose 135
Splitting Glucose for Energy 135
How Is Glucose Regulated in the
Body? 136
Excess Glucose and Body Fatness
Think Fitness: What Can I Eat to Make
Workouts Easier? 139
The Glycemic Index of Food 140
Diabetes 141
The Dangers of Diabetes 141
Prediabetes and the Importance of
Testing 142
Type 1 Diabetes 142
Type 2 Diabetes 143
Medical Nutrition Therapy 144
Chapter 5
The Lipids: Fats, Oils,
Phospholipids, and
Sterols 160
Introducing the Lipids 161
How Are Fats Useful to the Body? 161
How Are Fats Useful in Food? 163
A Close Look at Lipids 164
Triglycerides: Fatty Acids and Glycerol 164
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids 165
Phospholipids and Sterols 167
Lipids in the Body 168
How Are Fats Digested and Absorbed? 168
137
Transport of Fats 169
Storing and Using the Body’s Fat 171
Dietary Fat, Cholesterol, and Health 172
Recommendations for Lipid Intakes 172
Lipoproteins and Heart Disease Risk 174
What Does Food Cholesterol Have to Do
with Blood Cholesterol? 176
Recommendations Applied 176
Think Fitness: Why Exercise the Body for the
Health of the Heart? 177

MY TURN: 21st-Century Epidemic? 144 Essential Polyunsaturated Fatty

Physical Activity 146 Acids 178
Why Do I Need Essential Fatty Acids? 178
If I Feel Dizzy between Meals, Do I Have
Hypoglycemia? 146 Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acid
Families 178
Conclusion 147 Health Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids 179
FOOD FEATURE: Finding the Carbohydrates Where Are the Omega-3 Fatty Acids in
in Foods 147
Foods? 180
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your
Carbohydrate Intake 152 The Effects of Processing on Unsaturated
Fats 181
Self Check 153
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Weighing Seafood’s
CONTROVERSY 4: Are Added Sugars “Bad” Risks and Benefits 182
for You? 154

Contents vii

27994_FM_rev04.indd 7 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 What Is “Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil,” Providing Energy and Glucose 215
and What’s It Doing in My Chocolate Chip The Fate of an Amino Acid 217
Cookies? 183
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Evaluating Protein
What Are Trans-Fatty Acids, and Are They and Amino Acid Supplements 218
Harmful? 184
MY TURN: Heart to Heart 184
Food Protein: Need and Quality 219
How Much Protein Do People Need? 219
Fat in the Diet 185 Nitrogen Balance 220
Get to Know the Fats in Foods 185 MY TURN: Veggin’ Out 221
Fats in Protein Foods 186 Protein Quality 222
Milk and Milk Products 187
Protein Deficiency and Excess 224
Grains 188
What Happens When People Consume Too
FOOD FEATURE: Defensive Dining 189
Little Protein? 224
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Lipid Is It Possible to Consume Too Much
Intake 194 Protein? 224
Self Check 195 Is a Gluten-Free Diet Best for
CONTROVERSY 5: Is Butter Really Back? The Health? 225
Lipid Guidelines Debate 196
FOOD FEATURE: Getting Enough but Not
Too Much Protein 226
Chapter 6 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Protein
The Proteins and Amino Intake 230
Self Check 231
Acids 201 CONTROVERSY 6: Vegetarian and Meat-
The Structure of Proteins 202 Containing Diets: What Are the Benefits and
Pitfalls? 232
Amino Acids 202
How Do Amino Acids Build Proteins?
The Variety of Proteins 204
204
Chapter 7
Denaturation of Proteins 207 The Vitamins 240
Think Fitness: Can Eating Extra Protein Make Definition and Classification of
Muscles Grow Stronger? 209
Vitamins 242
Digestion and Absorption of Dietary The Concept of Vitamin Precursors 242
Protein 209 Two Classes of Vitamins: Fat-Soluble
Protein Digestion 209 and Water-Soluble 242
What Happens to Amino The Fat-Soluble
Acids after Protein Is Vitamins 243
Digested? 210
Vitamin A 244
iStockphoto.com/only_fabrizio

The Importance
iStockphoto.com/only_fabrizio

Roles of Vitamin A
of Protein 212
and Consequences of
The Roles of Body Deficienc 244
Proteins 212

viii Contents  

27994_FM_rev04.indd 8 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Vitamin A Toxicity 246 The B Vitamins in Unison 264
Vitamin A Recommendations B Vitamin Roles in Metabolism 265
and Sources 247 B Vitamin Deficiencie 265

Evgeny Karandaev/
Shutterstock.com
Beta-Carotene 248
The B Vitamins as
MY TURN: Take Your
Vitamins? 249 Individuals 266
Thiamin 266
Vitamin D 249 Riboflavin Role 268
Roles of Vitamin D 250 Niacin 269
Too Little Vitamin D—A Danger to Folate 269
Bones 250
Vitamin B12 272
Too Much Vitamin D—A Danger to Soft
Vitamin B6 273
Tissues 252
Biotin and Pantothenic Acid 275
Vitamin D from Sunlight 253
Non–B Vitamins 275
Vitamin D Intake Recommendations 254
FOOD FEATURE: Choosing Foods Rich
Vitamin D Food Sources 254
in Vitamins 280
Vitamin E 255 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Vitamin
Roles of Vitamin E 255 Intake 283
Vitamin E Deficienc 255 Self Check 284
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Sources of CONTROVERSY 7: Vitamin Supplements:
Vitamin D 256 What Are the Benefits and Risks? 285
Toxicity of Vitamin E 257
Vitamin E Recommendations and U.S. Chapter 8
Intakes 257
Water and Minerals 292
Vitamin E Food Sources 257
Water 294
Vitamin K 258 Why Is Water the Most Indispensable
Roles of Vitamin K 258 Nutrient? 295
Vitamin K Deficienc 259 The Body’s Water Balance 296
Vitamin K Toxicity 259 Quenching Thirst and Balancing Losses 296
Vitamin K Requirements and Sources 259 How Much Water Do I Need to Drink
in a Day? 298
The Water-Soluble Vitamins 260
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Liquid Calories 299
Vitamin C 260
Think Fitness: Vitamins for Athletes 261 Drinking Water: Types, Safety, and
Sources 301
The Roles of Vitamin C 261
Hard Water or Soft Water—Which Is
Deficiency Symptoms and Intake 262
Best? 301
Vitamin C Toxicity 262
Safety of Public Water 301
Vitamin C Recommendations 263
Water Sources 302
Vitamin C Food Sources 263
Body Fluids and Minerals 304

Contents ix

27994_FM_rev04.indd 9 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Water Follows Salt 304 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Calcium
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance 305 Intakes 333
Acid-Base Balance 305 Self Check 334
CONTROVERSY 8: Osteoporosis: Can Lifestyle
The Major Minerals 305 Choices Reduce the Risk? 335
Calcium 305
Phosphorus
MY TURN: Drink Your Milk! 309
308
Chapter 9
Magnesium 310
Energy Balance and
Sodium 312
Healthy Body Weight 343
Potassium 316 The Problems of Too Little or Too Much
Chloride 317 Body Fat 344
Sulfate 317 What Are the Risks from Underweight? 345
What Are the Risks from Too Much
The Trace Minerals 318 Body Fat? 345
Iodine 318
What Are the Risks from Central
Iron 319 Obesity? 346
Think Fitness: Exercise-Deficiency How Fat Is Too Fat? 347
Fatigue 321
Zinc 324
The Body’s Energy Balance 349
Energy In and Energy Out 349
Selenium 326
How Many Calories Do I Need Each
Fluoride 326
Day? 349
Chromium 327
Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) 351
Copper 328
The DRI Method of Estimating Energy
Other Trace Minerals and Some
Requirements 351
Candidates 328
FOOD FEATURE: Meeting the Need for Body Weight vs. Body Fatness 352
Calcium 331 Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) 352
Measuring Body Composition and Fat
Distribution 352
How Much Body Fat Is Ideal? 353

The Appetite and Its Control 354

Hunger and Appetite—“Go” Signals 354
Satiation and Satiety—“Stop” Signals 356

Inside-the-Body Theories of Obesity 358

Robyn Mackenzie/Shutterstock.com

MY TURN: How Many Calories? 359

Outside-the-Body Theories of Obesity 359

Think Fitness: Activity for a Healthy Body
Weight 361

x Contents  

27994_FM_rev04.indd 10 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 How the Body Loses and Gains How Do Muscles Adapt to
Weight 362 Physical Activity? 394
The Body’s Response to How Does Aerobic Training
Energy Defici 362 Benefit the Heart 395
The Body’s Response to Think Fitness: Exercise

Nativania/Shutterstock.com
Energy Surplus 364 Safety 396

Achieving and Maintaining Three Energy

a Healthy Body Weight 365 Systems 396
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Fad Diets 367 The Muscles’ Energy
Reservoir 397
What Food Strategies Are Best for Weight
Loss? 369 The Anaerobic Energy System 398
Physical Activity in Weight Loss The Aerobic Energy System 398
and Maintenance 372 The Active Body’s Use of Fuels 399
What Strategies Are Best for Weight The Need for Food Energy 399
Gain? 373
Glucose: A Major Fuel for Physical
Medical Treatment of Obesity 374 Activity 400
Obesity Medications 374 Other Factors Affecting Glycogen 402
Obesity Surgery 374 MY TURN: How Much Is Enough? 403
Herbal Products and Gimmicks 376 Carbohydrate Recommendations for
Once I’ve Changed My Weight, How Can Athletes 403
I Stay Changed? 377 Lipid Fuel for Physical Activity 404

Conclusion 378 Protein for Building Muscles and for

Fuel 406
FOOD FEATURE: Behavior Modification for
Weight Control 379 How Much Protein Should an Athlete
Consume? 407
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Energy
Balance 381 Vitamins and Minerals—Keys to
Self Check 382 Performance 408
CONTROVERSY 9: The Perils of Eating Do Nutrient Supplements Benefit Athleti
Disorders 383 Performance? 408
Iron—A Mineral of Concern 409
Chapter 10 Fluids and Temperature Regulation
Performance in Physical Activity 410
Nutrition 389 Water Losses during Physical
Activity 410
The Benefits of Fitness 390 Fluid and Electrolyte Needs during Physical
The Nature of Fitness 390 Activity 411
Physical Activity Guidelines 392 Sodium Depletion and Water
Intoxication 412
The Essentials of Fitness 393

Contents xi

27994_FM_rev04.indd 11 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Selecting Sports CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Deciding about
Drinks 413 CAM 450
Other Beverages 414 How Does Cancer Develop? 453
Putting It All Together 415 Which Diet Factors Affect Cancer Risk? 455
FOOD FEATURE: Choosing a Performance
Conclusion 458
Diet 416
FOOD FEATURE: The DASH Diet: Preventive
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Diet Medicine 459
and Activities 420
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Diet
Self Check 421
for Health Promotion 462
CONTROVERSY 10: Ergogenic Aids:
Self Check 463
Breakthroughs, Gimmicks, or Dangers? 422
CONTROVERSY 11: Nutritional Genomics:

11
Can It Deliver on Its Promises? 464
Chapter

Diet and Health 428 Chapter 12

The Immune System, Nutrition, Food Safety and Food
and Diseases 430
Technology 470
The Effects of Malnutrition 430
The Immune System and Chronic Microbes and Food Safety 472
Diseases 432 How Do Microbes in Food Cause Illness
in the Body? 472
The Concept of Risk Factors 433
Food Safety from Farm to Plate 473
Cardiovascular Diseases 435 Safe Food Practices for Individuals 477
Atherosclerosis 436
Which Foods Are Most Likely to Cause
Risk Factors for CVD 437 Illness? 481
Think Fitness: Ways to Include Physical Protein Foods 482
Activity in a Day 441
Raw Produce 484
Recommendations for Reducing CVD
Other Foods 485
Risk 442
Advances in Microbial Food Safety 487
Nutrition and Hypertension 444
Is Irradiation Safe? 488
How Does Blood Pressure Work
in the Body? 445 Other Technologies 489

Risk Factors for Toxins, Residues, and

Hypertension 446 Contaminants in
How Does Foods 490
Nutrition Affect
Viktar Malyshchyts/Shutterstock.com

Natural Toxins in
Hypertension? 446 Foods 490
MY TURN: Fast-Food Pesticides 491
Generation? 448
CONSUMER’S GUIDE
TO: Understanding Organic
Nutrition and Cancer 449 Foods 493

xii Contents  

27994_FM_rev04.indd 12 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 MY TURN: Organic: Does It Matter? 495 Some Cautions for the Pregnant
Animal Drugs—What Are the Risks? 495 Woman 530

Environmental Contaminants 497 Drinking during Pregnancy 532

Are Food Additives Safe? 499 Alcohol’s Effects 532

Regulations Governing Additives 500 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 533

Additives to Improve Safety and Experts’ Advice 534

Quality 500 Troubleshooting 534
Flavoring Agents 501 Diabetes 534
Fat Replacers and Artificial Fat 504 Hypertension 535
Incidental Food Additives 504 Preeclampsia 535
Conclusion 505 Lactation 535
FOOD FEATURE: Processing and the Nutrients MY TURN: Bringing Up Baby 536
in Foods 505
Nutrition during Lactation 536
Self Check 508
When Should a Woman Not Breastfeed? 537
CONTROVERSY 12: Genetically Engineered
Foods: What Are the Pros and Cons? 509 Feeding the Infant 538
Nutrient Needs 538
Chapter 13 Why Is Breast Milk So Good for

Life Cycle Nutrition: Mother Babies? 540

Formula Feeding 542
and Infant 516 CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Formula Advertising
Pregnancy: The Impact of Nutrition on the versus Breastfeeding Advocacy 543
Future 517 An Infant’s First Solid Foods 544
Preparing for Pregnancy 517 Looking Ahead 547
The Events of Pregnancy 519 FOOD FEATURE: Mealtimes with Infants 548
Increased Need for Nutrients 521 Concepts in Action: Analyze the Adequacy
Food Assistance Programs 526 of a Diet for Pregnancy 549
How Much Weight Should a Woman Self Check 550
Gain during Pregnancy? 526 CONTROVERSY 13: Childhood Obesity and
Weight Loss after Pregnancy 527 Early Chronic Diseases 551
Should Pregnant Women Be Physically
Active? 528 Chapter 14
Teen Pregnancy 528
Child, Teen, and Older
Think Fitness: Physical Activities for the
Pregnant Woman 529 Adult 558
Why Do Some Women Crave Pickles and Ice Early and Middle Childhood 559
Cream While Others Can’t Keep Anything Feeding a Healthy Young Child 559
Down? 529
Mealtimes and Snacking 563

Contents xiii

27994_FM_rev04.indd 13 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 How Do Nutrient Concepts in Action: Analyze Three
Deficiencies Affect Diets 592
Child’s Brain? 566 Self Check 593
The Problem of CONTROVERSY 14: Nutrient–
Lead 567 Drug Interactions: Who Should
Food Allergy, Be Concerned? 594
Intolerance, and
Aversion 568
iStockphoto.com/marmo81
iStockphoto.com/marmo81
Chapter 15
Can Diet
Make a Child
Hunger and the
Hyperactive? 571 Future of Food 599
Dental Caries 572
U.S. Food Insecurity 600
Is Breakfast Really the Most Important Meal
Food Poverty in the United States 600
of the Day for Children? 573
What U.S. Food Programs Address
How Nourishing Are the Meals Served at
Low Food Security? 602
School? 573
World Poverty and Hunger 604
Nutrition in Adolescence 574
Nutrient Needs 576 The Malnutrition of Extreme Poverty 606
Common Concerns 577 Hidden Hunger—Vitamin and Mineral
Deficiencie 606
Eating Patterns and Nutrient Intakes 578
Two Faces of Childhood Malnutrition 607
The Later Years 578 Rehabilitation 608
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Nutrition for PMS
Relief 579 The Future Food Supply
and the Environment 608
Nutrition in the Later Years 581 Threats to the Food Supply 609
Energy, Activity, and the Muscles 581
Fisheries and Food Waste 610
Protein Needs 582
MY TURN: How Responsible Am I? 611
Think Fitness: Benefits of Physical Activity
for the Older Adult 583 How Can People Help? 612
Carbohydrates and Fiber 583 Government Action 612
Fats and Arthritis 583 Private and Community Enterprises 613
Vitamin Needs 584 Educators and Students 613
Water and the Minerals 585 Food and Nutrition Professionals 613
Can Nutrition Help People to Live Longer? 587 Individuals 613
Immunity and Inflammatio 588 Conclusion 613
Can Foods or Supplements Affect the Course CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Making
of Alzheimer’s Disease? 588 “Green” Choices (Without Getting
“Greenwashed”) 614
Food Choices of Older Adults 589
Self Check 616
FOOD FEATURE: Single Survival and Nutrition
on the Run 590 CONTROVERSY 15: How Can We Feed Ourselves
Sustainably? 617
MY TURN: Eating Solo 591

xiv Contents  

27994_FM_rev04.indd 14 29/01/16 6:13 PM

 Appendixes G Answers to Chapter Questions G-1
A Table of Food Composition A-3 H Physical Activity Levels and Energy
B Dietary Guidelines B-1 Requirements H-1
C Aids to Calculations C-1 I Chemical Structures: Carbohydrates,
Lipids, and Amino Acids I-1
D Food Lists for Diabetes and Weight
Management D-1
E Eating Patterns to Meet the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans E-1
Glossary GL-1
F Notes F-1 Index IN-1

Contents xv

27994_FM_rev04.indd 15 29/01/16 6:13 PM

27994_FM_rev04.indd 16 29/01/16 6:13 PM
 Preface
A billboard in Louisiana reads, “Come as you are. Leave dif-
ferent,” meaning that once you’ve seen, smelled, tasted,
and listened to Louisiana, you’ll never be the same. This book
extends the same invitation to its readers: come to nutrition
science as you are, with all of the knowledge and enthusiasm
you possess, with all of your unanswered questions and mis-
conceptions, and with the habits and preferences that now dic-
tate what you eat.
But leave different. Take with you from this study a more
complete understanding of nutrition science. Take a greater
ability to discern between nutrition truth and fiction, to ask
sophisticated questions, and to find the answers. Finally, take
with you a better sense of how to feed yourself in ways that not
only please you and soothe your spirit but nourish your body
as well.
For over 35 years, Nutrition: Concepts and Controversies has
been a cornerstone of nutrition classes across North America,
serving the needs of students and professors. In keeping with
our tradition, in this, our 14th edition, we continue exploring
the ever-changing frontier of nutrition science, confronting its
mysteries through its scientific roots. We maintain our sense of
personal connection with instructors and learners alike, writ-
ing for them in the clear, informal style that has become our
trademark.
Pedagogical Features
Throughout these chapters, features tickle the reader’s inter-
est and inform. For both verbal and visual learners, our logi-
cal presentation and our lively figures keep interest high and
understanding at a peak. The photos that adorn many of our
pages add pleasure to reading.
Many tried-and-true features return in this edition: Each
chapter begins with What Do You Think? questions to pique
interest. What Did You Decide? at the chapter’s end asks read-
ers to draw conclusions. A list of Learning Objectives (LO)
offers a preview of the chapter’s major
goals, and the LO reappear under sec-
tion headings to make clear the
main take-away messages. Do the
Math margin features challenge
readers to solve nutrition prob-
lems, with examples provided.
My Turn features invite the
reader to hear stories from stu-
dents in nutrition classes around
the nation offer solutions to real-life
Workmans Photos/
situations. Think Fitness reminders alert Shutterstock.com
readers to links among nutrition, ­ fitness,
and health. Food Feature sections act as
bridges between theory and practice; they are practical
applications of the chapter concepts. The consumer sections,
27994_FM_rev04.indd 17
entitled A Consumer’s Guide To . . ., lead readers through an
often bewildering marketplace with scientific clarity, prepar-
ing them to move ahead with sound marketplace decisions.
Each Consumer’s Guide ends with review questions to improve
recall of the main points.
By popular demand, we have retained our Snapshots of
vitamins and minerals, which now reflect the 2015 Daily Val-
ues. These concentrated capsules of information depict food
sources of vitamins and minerals, present DRI values, and offer
the chief functions of each nutrient along with deficiency and
­toxicity symptoms.
New or major terms are defined in the margins of chapter
pages or in nearby tables, and they also appear in the Glossary
at the end of the book. The reader who wishes to locate any
term can quickly do so by consulting the Index, which lists the
page numbers of definitions in boldface type.
Two useful features close each chapter. First, our popular
Concepts in Action diet and exercise tracking activities inte-
grate chapter concepts with the Diet & Wellness Plus program.
The second is the indispensible Self Check that provides study
questions, with answers in Appendix G to provide immediate
feedback to the learner.
Controversies
The Controversies of this book’s title invite you to explore
beyond the safe boundaries of established nutrition knowl-
edge. These optional readings, which appear at the end of each
chapter, delve into current scientific topics and emerging con-
troversies. These fast-changing topics are relevant to nutrition
science today.
Chapter Contents
Chapter 1 begins the text with a personal challenge to stu-
dents. It asks the question so many people ask of nutrition
­educators—“Why should people care about nutrition?” We
answer with a lesson in the ways in which
nutritious foods affect diseases and present a
continuum of diseases from purely genetic in
origin to those almost totally preventable
by nutrition. After presenting some
beginning facts about the genes,
nutrients, bioactive food compo-
nents, and nature of foods, the chap-
ter goes on to present the Healthy
Workmans Photos/Shutterstock.com
People goals for the nation. It con-
cludes with a discussion of scientific
research and quackery.
Chapter 2 brings together the con-
cepts of nutrient standards, such as
the Dietary Reference Intakes, and diet
planning using the Dietary Guidelines for
x vii
29/01/16 6:13 PM
 Americans 2015–2020. Chapter 3 presents a thorough, but
brief, introduction to the workings of the human body from
the genes to the organs, with major emphasis on the digestive
system and its microbiota. Chapters 4–6 are devoted to the
energy-yielding nutrients—carbohydrates, lipids, and protein.
Controversy 4 has renewed its focus on theories and fables
surrounding the health effects of added sugars in the diet.
Controversy 5, new to this edition, considers the scientific
debate surrounding lipid guidelines.
Chapters 7 and 8 present the vitamins, minerals, and water.
Chapter 9 relates energy balance to body composition, obesity,
and underweight and provides guidance on lifelong weight
maintenance. Chapter 10 presents the relationships among
physical activity, athletic performance, and nutrition, with
some guidance about products marketed to athletes. Chapter 11
applies the essence of the first 10 chapters to disease prevention.
Chapter 12 delivers urgently important concepts of food
safety. It also addresses the usefulness and safety of food addi-
tives, including artificial sweeteners and artificial fats, and
explains the widely varying effects of processing on nutrients in
foods. Chapters 13 and 14 emphasize the importance of nutri-
tion through the life span, with issues surrounding childhood
obesity in Controversy 13. Chapter 14 includes nutrition advice
for feeding preschoolers, schoolchildren, teens, and the elderly.
Chapter 15 devotes attention to hunger and malnutrition,
both in the United States and throughout the world. It also
touches on the vast network of problems that threaten the
future food supply, and explores sustainable diets as part of
the solution.
Our Message to You
Our purpose in writing this text, as always, is to enhance our
readers’ understanding of nutrition science. We also hope the
information on this book’s pages will reach beyond the class-
room into our readers’ lives. Take the information you find
inside this book home with you. Use it in your life: nourish
yourself, educate your loved ones, and nurture others to be
healthy. Stay up with the news, too—for despite all the conflict-
ing messages, inflated claims, and even quackery that abound
in the marketplace, true nutrition knowledge progresses with
a genuine scientific spirit, and important new truths are con-
stantly unfolding.
New to This Edition
Every section of each chapter of this text reflects the changes in
nutrition science occurring since the last edition. The changes
range from subtle shifts of emphasis to entirely new sections
that demand our attention. Appendix F supplies current ref-
erences; older references may be viewed in previous editions,
available from the publisher.
Chapter 1
• New introductory section on water.
• Defines NHANES.
• Defines registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN).
x viii Preface  
27994_FM_rev04.indd 18
• Condensed and enhanced Tables C1–2 and C1–3.
• Condensed Tables C1–5 and C1–6.
Chapter 2
• Integration of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans
2015–2020.
• New table of shortfall and overconsumed nutrients.
• Defines empty calories.
• Introduces the American Diabetes Association’s Choose
Your Foods lists.
• New figure of dining-out trends.
• Updated labeling discussion and new figure to illustrate
proposed changes to the Nutrition Facts Panel.
• Newly approved Daily Values used in inside back cover,
figures, and discussions.
• New front of package labeling information and figure.
• New phytochemical Point/Counterpoint table.
Chapter 3
• Clarified Figure 3–4.
• New section to introduce microbiota of the intestinal tract.
• New table of definitions of common digestive disorders.
• New Point/Counterpoint table summarizing issues of
alcohol and health.
Chapter 4
• Expanded coverage of the health effects of fermentable
fibers and their products.
• New coverage and table of the glycemic index.
• New nutrition guidelines for diabetes.
• New section on relationship between obesity and diabetes.
• Updated table of diabetes diagnostic criteria.
• New figure illustrating sugar alcohols on a label.
• New table of added sugar intake through the life span.
• New coverage of added sugars and blood pressure.
• New Point/Counterpoint table on the health effects of
added sugars.
Chapter 5
• Expanded coverage of dietary fat and satiety.
• Updated lipid intake recommendations.
• New emphasis on fat sources in Mediterranean eating
patterns.
• Updated presentation of fast food choices.
• New figure explaining the Supplement Facts panel of a fish
oil supplement.
• New Do the Math feature on percentages of fat in ground
meats.
• New practical tips for consuming fish and seafood in Food
Feature.
• New Controversy on scientific debate surrounding lipid
guidelines, concluding with new eating patterns approach.
• New Point, Counterpoint table on lipid guidelines debate.
Chapter 6
• Expanded section on gluten-free diets, celiac disease, and
gluten sensitivity.
29/01/16 6:13 PM
 • New discussion of protein labeling.
• New figure highlighting protein labeling.
• New Point/Counterpoint table on vegetarian and meat-
containing diets.
Chapter 7
• Introduces the role of obesity in vitamin D deficiency.
• New table highlighting current research on the role of
vitamin D in disease.
• New Daily Values for vitamins reflected in the Snapshots.
• New explanation of food fortification with B vitamins.
• New Point/Counterpoint table on arguments for and
against dietary supplements.
Chapter 8
• New sports-drink labeling figure in Consumer’s Guide.
• New Daily Values for minerals throughout the Snapshots.
• Revised and updated graph on sodium intakes of U.S.
adults.
• Revised and updated graph on calcium sources in the
U.S. diet.
• New presentation of lifetime plan for healthy bones.
• New Point/Counterpoint table on arguments for and
against calcium supplements.
Chapter 9
• New table on underweight, overweight, and obesity in
U.S. adults.
• New table presents American College of Cardiology/­
American Heart Association Task Force Guidelines.
• New coverage of intermittent fasting for weight control.
• Updated table of eating patterns for weight loss to reflect
recent research and reviews.
• New figure and text coverage of calorie labels on restau-
rant menus.
• New section on potential benefits and risks, including
nutrient deficiency risks, of obesity surgery.
• Added Contrave and Saxenda information.
• New discussion of the idea of binge eating as addiction.
Chapter 10
• New table on benefits of fitness.
• New discussion of exercise factors as molecular links
between physical activity and health.
• Condensed and reorganized fitness sections.
• New major section on the body’s three energy systems
that support physical activity.
• Explains the “train low, compete high” theory.
• Expanded coverage of protein intakes for athletes.
• New table of protein-rich snacks for athletes.
• New coverage of vitamin D for athletes.
• Added DMAA and DMBA as unsafe supplements for athletes.
Chapter 11
• Enhanced the table of selected nutrients’ roles in immune
function.
27994_FM_rev04.indd 19
• Newly revised tables of recommendations and strategies
to reduce the risk of CVD and recommendations and strat-
egies to reduce the risk of cancer.
• Emphasizes the role of obesity as a major risk factor for
other chronic diseases throughout the chapter.
• New information related to the 2013 American College
of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines for
assessment of CVD risk and lifestyle modifications for
reducing the risk of heart disease.
• New emphasis on risks and benefits of alternative therapies.
• New figure summarizing the relationship between risks
and benefits.
Chapter 12
• Updated hand washing figure to reflect new guidelines.
• New table on how to wash produce.
• New figure depicting imported food in the U.S. diet.
• Updated figure on organic food labels.
• New table on natural toxins.
• New discussion of arsenic in apple juice and rice.
• New discussion of artificial sweeteners and GI flora.
Chapter 13
• New discussion of choline during pregnancy.
• New table of complications associated with smoking dur-
ing pregnancy.
• New discussion of the importance of zinc in complemen-
tary foods for breastfed infants.
• Restructured and simplified table of nutrient supplements
for infants.
• Reorganized Controversy 13.
• New table of physical complications of obesity during
childhood.
• New figure demonstrating how to read a growth chart.
• New figure of sleep, screen time, and obesity in children.
Chapter 14
• Updated energy intake needs for children.
• New table of healthy snack ideas from each food group.
• Updated USDA Eating Pattern calorie intakes for children.
• New figure of physical symptoms of lead toxicity in
children.
• New discussion on vitamin D and PMS.
• Increased coverage of dietary protein and muscle protein
synthesis in the elderly.
• Caffeine information from the Scientific Report of the 2015
Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee.
Chapter 15
• Title change reflects current trends in sustainability
research.
• New table of U.S. food security terms.
• New figure of expenditures for U.S. food programs.
• Reorganized world hunger and malnutrition section.
• New figure on mid-upper arm circumference.
• Defines wasting, stunting, and marasmic kwashiorkor.
Preface xix
29/01/16 6:13 PM
 Appendixes:
Appendix D: Presents the 2014 Food Lists for Diabetes and
Weight Management.
Appendix E: Presents Eating Patterns recommended by the
2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Healthy U.S.-
Style, Healthy Vegetarian, and Healthy Mediterranean-Style,
and support materials for the Mediterrranean diet.
Appendix H: Offers tables and figures to support physical
activity.
Appendix I: New appendix of selected nutrient chemical
structures.
Ancillary Materials
Students and instructors alike will appreciate the innovative
teaching and learning materials that accompany this text.
MindTap: A new approach to highly personalized online
learning. Beyond an eBook, homework solution, digital supple-
ment, or premium website, MindTap is a digital learning plat-
form that works alongside your campus LMS to deliver course
curriculum across the range of electronic devices in your life.
MindTap is built on an “app” model allowing enhanced digital
collaboration and delivery of engaging content across a spec-
trum of Cengage and non-Cengage resources.
Instructor Companion Site: Everything you need for your
course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture and
class tools is available online via www.­cengage.com/login. ­Access
and download PowerPoint presentations, images, ­instructor’s
manual, videos, and more.
Test Bank with Cognero: Cengage Learning Testing Pow-
ered by Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to:
• Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple
Cengage Learning solutions.
• Create multiple test versions in an instant.
• Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever
you want.
Diet & Wellness Plus: Diet & Wellness Plus helps you un-
derstand how nutrition relates to your personal health goals.
Track your diet and activity, generate reports, and analyze
the nutritional value of the food you eat. Diet & Wellness Plus
includes over 75,000 foods as well as custom food and recipe
features. The new Behavior Change Planner helps you identify
risks in your life and guides you through the key steps to make
positive changes.
Global Nutrition Watch: Bring currency to the classroom
with Global Nutrition Watch from Cengage Learning. This
user-friendly website provides convenient access to thou-
sands of trusted sources, including academic journals, news-
papers, videos, and podcasts, for you to use for research
projects or classroom discussion. Global Nutrition Watch
is updated daily to offer the most current news about topics
­r elated to nutrition.
xx Preface  
27994_FM_rev04.indd 20
Acknowledgments
Our thanks to our partners Linda Kelly DeBruyne and Sharon
Rolfes for decades of support. Thank you, Spencer Webb, RD,
CSCS, for your guidance in Chapter 10 (and for getting us into
shape, too). Thank you, K. Autumn Ehsaei, R.D.N., for generat-
ing our orderly endnote lists. And to Kathy Guilday, the Queen
of Minutiae, many heartfelt thanks for your meticulous work
and cheerful nature.
We are also grateful to the nutrition professionals who
updated sections of this edition.
• Linda DeBruyne, M.S., R.D.N. (Chapter 11 and Chapter 13).
Linda received her master’s degree in nutrition from Flor-
ida State University and is a founding member of Nutri-
tion and Health Associates. She also coauthors the college
nutrition texts Nutrition and Diet Therapy and Nutrition for
Health and Health Care.
• Crystal Clark Douglas, Ph.D., R.D.N./L.D.N. (Controversy 13
and Chapter 14). Crystal holds a doctoral degree in nutri-
tion sciences from the University of Alabama at Bir-
mingham and is the coauthor of multiple peer-reviewed
publications. After teaching nutrition at Florida State Uni-
versity, she has maintained her professional skills working
as a clinical dietitian and continuing to write on topics in
nutrition.
• Shannon Dooies Gower-Winter, M.S., R.D.N./L.D.N.
(­Controversy 2, Chapter 7, and Chapter 8). Shannon grad-
uated from Florida State University with her master’s
degree in nutrition. She has taught nutrition at Florida
State University and lectured on topics related to child-
hood nutrition throughout the state. She currently con-
ducts research in the area of nutritional neuroscience,
where her work focuses on various roles of zinc in the
brain. Her research has been presented at regional and
national scientific conferences, and she has coauthored
multiple articles in peer-reviewed journals.
Our special thanks to our publishing team—Miriam Myers,
Heidi Allgair, and Carol Samet—for their hard work and ded-
ication to excellence. Thank you to our marketing manager,
Tom Ziolkowski, for ensuring that our text finds the hands of
its readers.
We would also like to thank Chimborazo Publishing, Inc.
for their work on the student and instructor ancillaries for the
14th edition, which includes the test bank, instructor’s man-
ual, and PowerLecture.
Reviewers of Recent Editions
As always, we are grateful for the instructors who took the
time to comment on this revision. Your suggestions were
invaluable in strengthening the book and suggesting new lines
of thought. We hope you will continue to provide your com-
ments and suggestions.
Alex Kojo Anderson, University of Georgia, Athens
Sharon Antonelli, San Jose City College
L. Rao Ayyagari, Lindenwood University
29/01/16 6:13 PM
 James W. Bailey, University of Tennessee
Ana Barreras, Central New Mexico Community College
Karen Basinger, Montgomery College
Leah Carter, Bakersfield College
Melissa Chabot, SUNY at Buffalo
Janet Colson, Middle Tennessee State University
Priscilla Connors, University of North Texas
Karen Davidowitz Corbin, The Translational Research Institute
for Metabolism and Diabetes
Monica L. Easterling, Wayne County Community College District
Katie Faulk, Pacific Oregon University
Shannon Gower-Winter, Florida State University
Jena Nelson Hall, Butte Community College
Charlene G. Harkins, University of Minnesota, Duluth
Sharon Anne Himmelstein, Central New Mexico Community College
Rachel Johnson, University of Vermont
Judy Kaufman, Monroe Community College
David Lightsey, Bakersfield College
Craig Meservey, New Hampshire Technical Institute
27994_FM_rev04.indd 21
Liza Marie Mohanty, Olive-Harvey College
Eimear M. Mullen, Northern Kentucky University
Suzanne Linn Nelson, University of Colorado at Boulder
Steven Nizielski, Grand Valley State University
Carmen Nochera, Grand Valley State University
David J. Pavlat, Central College
Begoña Cirera Perez, Chabot College
Cydne Perry, Shepherd University
Liz Quintana, West Virginia University
Janice M. Rueda, Wayne State University
Donal Scheidel, University of South Dakota
Carole A. Sloan, Henry Ford Community College
Leslie S. Spencer, Rowan University
Ilene Sutter, California State University, Northridge
Sue Ellen Warren, El Camino College
Barbara P. Zabitz, Wayne County Community College
District
Joseph Zielinski, SUNY at Brockport
Nancy Zwick, Northern Kentucky University
Preface x xi
29/01/16 6:13 PM
27994_FM_rev04.indd 22 29/01/16 6:13 PM
 1 Food Choices
and Human Health

what do you think?

Can your diet make a real difference between getting sick
or staying healthy?
Are supplements more powerful than food for ensuring
Photographee.eu/Shutterstock.com

good nutrition?
What makes your favorite foods your favorites?
Are news and media nutrition reports informative or confusing?

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 1 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to accomplish the following:
LO 1.1 Discuss the impact of food choices on a person’s
health.
LO 1.2 List seven major categories of nutrition and
weight-related objectives included in the publica-
tion Healthy People 2020.
LO 1.3 Specify the six classes of nutrients.
LO 1.4 Recognize the challenges and solutions to choosing
a health-promoting diet.
Jack Frog/Shutterstock.com
When you choose foods with nutrition in
mind, you can enhance your own well-being.
food medically, any substance that the body
can take in and assimilate that will enable it to
stay alive and to grow; the carrier of nourish-
ment; socially, a more limited number of such
substances defined as acceptable by eac
culture.
nutrition the study of the nutrients in foods
and in the body; sometimes also the study of
human behaviors related to food.
diet the foods (including beverages) a person
usually eats and drinks.
nutrients components of food that are indis-
pensable to the body’s functioning. They provide
energy, serve as building material, help maintain
or repair body parts, and support growth. The
nutrients include water, carbohydrate, fat, pro-
tein, vitamins, and minerals.
2 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health
27994_ch01_rev04.indd 2
LO 1.5 Describe the science of nutrition.
LO 1.6 Explain the significance of behavior change i
improving a person’s diet.
LO 1.7 Discuss the importance of nutrient density in
creating an effective diet plan.
LO 1.8 Evaluate the authenticity of nutrition information
sources.
I f you care about your body, and if you have strong feelings about food, then you
have much to gain from learning about nutrition—the science of how food nour-
ishes the body. Nutrition is a fascinating, much talked-about subject. Each day, news-
papers, Internet websites, radio, and television present stories of new findings on
nutrition and heart health or nutrition and cancer prevention, and at the same time,
advertisements and commercials bombard us with multicolored pictures of tempting
foods—pizza, burgers, cakes, and chips. If you are like most people, when you eat
you sometimes wonder, “Is this food good for me?” or you berate yourself, “I probably
shouldn’t be eating this.”
When you study nutrition, you learn which foods serve you best, and you can work
out ways of choosing foods, planning meals, and designing your diet wisely. Know-
ing the facts can enhance your health and your enjoyment of eating while relieving
your feelings of guilt or worry that you aren’t eating well.
This chapter addresses these “why,” “what,” and “how” questions about nutrition:
▪▪ Why care about nutrition? Why be concerned about the nutrients in your foods?
Why not just take supplements?
▪▪ What are the nutrients in foods, and what roles do they play in the body? What
are the differences between vitamins and minerals?
▪▪ What constitutes a nutritious diet? How can you choose foods wisely, for nutri-
tion’s sake? What factors motivate your choices?
▪▪ How do we know what we know about nutrition? How does nutrition science
work, and how can a person keep up with changing information?
Controversy 1 concludes the chapter by offering ways to distinguish between
trustworthy sources of nutrition information and those that are less reliable.
A Lifetime of Nourishment
LO 1.1 Discuss the impact of food choices on a person’s health.
If you live for 65 years or longer, you will have consumed more than 70,000 meals,
and your remarkable body will have disposed of 50 tons of food. The foods you choose
most often have cumulative effects on your body.1* As you age, you will see and feel
those effects—if you know what to look for.
Your body renews its structures continuously, and each day, it builds a little mus-
cle, bone, skin, and blood, replacing old tissues with new. It may also add a little fat if
*Reference notes are found in Appendix F.
29/01/16 5:42 PM
 you consume excess food energy (calories) or subtract a little if you consume less than
you require. Some of the food you eat today becomes part of “you” tomorrow.
The best food for you, then, is the kind that supports the growth and maintenance
of strong muscles, sound bones, healthy skin, and sufficient blood to cleanse and
nourish all parts of your body. This means you need food that provides not only the
right amount of energy but also sufficient nutrients—that is, enough water, carbohy-
drates, fats, protein, vitamins, and minerals. If the foods you eat provide too little or
too much of any nutrient today, your health may suffer just a little today. If the foods
you eat provide too little or too much of one or more nutrients every day for years,
then in later life you may suffer severe disease effects.
A well-chosen diet supplies enough energy and enough of each nutrient to prevent
malnutrition. Malnutrition includes deficiencies, imbalances, and excesses of nutri-
ents, alone or in combination, any of which can take a toll on health over time.

Ke y Point s
▪▪ The nutrients in food support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body.
▪▪ Deficiencies, excesses, and imbalances of energy and nutrients bring on the
diseases of malnutrition.

The Diet and Health Connection

Your choice of diet profoundly affects your health, both today and in the future. Only
two common lifestyle habits are more influential: smoking and using other forms
of tobacco and drinking alcohol in excess. Of the leading causes of death listed in
Table 1–1, four—heart disease, cancers, strokes, and diabetes—are directly related to
nutrition, and another—accidents—is related to drinking alcohol.
Many older people suffer from debilitating conditions that could have been largely
prevented had they known and applied the nutrition principles known today. The
chronic diseases—heart disease, diabetes, some kinds of cancer, dental disease,
and adult bone loss—all have a connection to poor diet. These diseases cannot be
prevented by a good diet alone; they are to some extent determined by a person’s
genetic constitution, activities, and lifestyle. Within the range set by your genetic

T able 1–1
Leading Causes of Death in the United S tates
Percentage of T otal Deaths

1. Heart disease 23.7

2. Cancers 22.9

3. Chronic lung diseases 5.7

4. Strokes 5.1

5. Accidents 4.9

6. Alzheimer’s disease 3.4

malnutrition any condition caused by excess
7. Diabetes mellitus 2.9 or deficient food energy or nutrient intake or b
an imbalance of nutrients. Nutrient or energy
8. Pneumonia and influenz 2.1 deficiencies are forms of undernutrition; nutrien
or energy excesses are forms of overnutrition.
9. Kidney disease 1.8
chronic diseases degenerative conditions
10. Suicide 1.5 or illnesses that progress slowly, are long in
duration, and lack an immediate cure; chronic
Note: The diseases highlighted in bold have relationships with diet. diseases limit functioning, productivity, and the
Source: J. Xu and coauthors, Mortality in the United States, 2012, NCHS Data Brief 168, October 2014. quality and length of life. Examples include heart
disease, cancer, and diabetes.

A Lifetime of Nourishment 3

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 3 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Figure 1–1
N utrition and Disease
Not all diseases are equally influenced by diet. Some are almost purely genetic, like the anemia of sickle-cell disease
Some may be inherited (or the tendency to develop them may be inherited in the genes) but may be influenced by diet
like some forms of diabetes. Some are purely dietary, like the vitamin and mineral deficiency diseases
Less
nutrition-
related Down syndrome
Hemophilia
Sickle-cell anemia
anemia a blood condition in which red blood
cells, the body’s oxygen carriers, are inadequate
or impaired and so cannot meet the oxygen
demands of the body.
genome (GEE-nome) the full complement of
genetic information in the chromosomes of a
cell. In human beings, the genome consists of
about 35,000 genes and supporting materials.
The study of genomes is genomics. Also define
in the Controversy section of Chapter 11.
genes units of a cell’s inheritance; sections
of the larger genetic molecule DNA (deoxyribo-
nucleic acid). Each gene directs the making of
one or more of the body’s proteins.
DNA an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic
(dee-OX-ee-RYE-bow-nu-CLAY-ick) acid, the
thread-like molecule that encodes genetic
information in its structure; DNA strands coil
up densely to form the chromosomes (Chapter 3
provides more details).
4 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health
27994_ch01_rev04.indd 4
More
nutrition-
Adult bone loss Diabetes Iron-deficiency related
(osteoporosis) Hypertension anemia
Cancer Heart disease Vitamin deficiencies
Infectious diseases Mineral deficiencies
Toxicities
Poor resistance to
disease
inheritance, however, the likelihood of developing these diseases is strongly influ-
enced by your daily choices.
Ke y Point
▪▪ Nutrition profoundly affects health.
Genetics, Nutrition, and Individuality
Consider the role of genetics. Genetics and nutrition affect different diseases to vary-
ing degrees (see Figure 1–1). The anemia caused by sickle-cell disease, for example,
is purely hereditary and thus appears at the left of Figure 1–1 as a genetic condition
largely unrelated to nutrition. Nothing a person eats affects the person’s chances of
contracting this anemia, although nutrition therapy may help ease its course. At the
other end of the spectrum, iron-deficiency anemia most often results from under-
nutrition. Diseases and conditions of poor health appear all along this continuum,
from almost entirely genetically based to purely nutritional in origin; the more
nutrition-related a disease or health condition is, the more successfully sound nutri-
tion can prevent it.
Furthermore, some diseases, such as heart disease and cancer, are not one dis-
ease but many. Two people may both have heart disease but not the same form; one
person’s cancer may be nutrition-related, but another’s may not be. Individual people
differ genetically from each other in thousands of subtle ways, so no simple statement
can be made about the extent to which diet can help any one person avoid such dis-
eases or slow their progress.
The identification of the human genome establishes the entire sequence of the
genes in human DNA. This work has, in essence, revealed the body’s instructions
for making all of the working parts of a human being. The human genome is 99.9%
the same in all people; all of the normal variations such as differences in hair color,
as well as variations that result in diseases such as sickle-cell anemia, lie in the 0.1%
of the genome that varies. Nutrition scientists are working quickly to apply this new
wealth of knowledge to benefit human health. Later chapters expand on the emerging
story of nutrition and the genes.
Ke y Point s
▪▪ Diet influences long-term health within the range set by genetic inheritance.
▪▪ Nutrition has little influence on some diseases but strongly affects others.
Other Lifestyle Choices
Besides food choices, other lifestyle choices affect people’s health. Tobacco use and
alcohol and other substance abuse can destroy health. Physical activity, sleep, emotional
stress, and other environmental factors can also modify the severity of some diseases.
29/01/16 5:42 PM
 move
Think Fitness it! Why Be Physically Active?

Why should people bother to be
physically active? A person’s daily food
choices can powerfully affect health,
but the combination of nutrition and
physical activity is more powerful
still. People who combine regular
physical activity with a nutritious diet
can expect to receive at least some of
these benefits:
▪▪ Reduced risks of cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes, certain cancers,
hypertension, and other diseases.
▪▪ Increased endurance, strength, and
flexibilit .
▪▪ More cheerful outlook and less likeli-
hood of depression.
▪▪ Improved mental functioning.
▪▪ Feeling of vigor. If even half of these benefits were yours
▪▪ Feeling of belonging—the compan- for the asking, wouldn’t you step up to
ionship of sports. claim them? In truth, they are yours to
▪▪ Stronger self-image. claim, at the price of including physical
▪▪ Reduced body fat and increased lean activity in your day. Chapter 10 explores
tissue. the topics of fitness and physical activit .
▪▪ A more youthful appearance,
start now! Ready to make
healthy skin, and improved mus-
a change? Go to Diet & Wellness
cle tone.
Plus online and track your physical
▪▪ Greater bone density and lessened activities—all of them—for three days.
risk of adult bone loss in later life. (The Concepts in Action activity at
▪▪ Increased independence in the the end of this chapter will use this
elderly. information.) After you have recorded
▪▪ Sound, beneficial sleep your activities, see how much time
▪▪ Faster wound healing. you spent exercising at a moderate to
▪▪ Reduced menstrual symptoms. vigorous level. Could you increase your
▪▪ Improved resistance to infection. level and amount of activity?

Physical activity is so closely linked with nutrition in supporting health that most
chapters of this book offer a feature called Think Fitness, such as the one above.

Ke y Point
▪▪ Life choices, such as being physically active or using tobacco or alcohol, can
improve or damage health.

Healthy People: Nutrition Objectives

for the Nation
LO 1.2 List seven major categories of nutrition and weight-related objectives included
in the publication Healthy People 2020.

In its publication Healthy People, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices sets specific 10-year objectives to guide national health promotion efforts.2 The
vision of Healthy People 2020 is a society in which all people live long, healthy lives.
Table 1–2 (p. 6) provides a quick scan of the nutrition and weight-related objectives
set for this decade. The inclusion of nutrition and food-safety objectives shows that
public health officials consider these areas to be top national priorities.
In 2015, the nation’s health report was mixed: the number of adults meeting phys-
ical activity and muscle strengthening guidelines increased from 18 percent to over
20 percent of the population, but most people’s diets still lacked enough vegetables, and
obesity rates were creeping higher among people aged two years and older.3 To fully
Tmcphotos/Shutterstock.com

meet the current Healthy People goals, our nation must take steps to change its habits.
The next section shifts our focus to the nutrients at the core of nutrition science. As
your course of study progresses, the individual nutrients will become like old friends,
revealing more and more about themselves as you move through the chapters.

Ke y Point
▪▪ Each decade, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services sets health and The aim of Healthy People 2020 is to help
nutrition objectives for the nation. people live long, healthy lives.

Healthy People: Nutrition Objectives for the Nation 5

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 5 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 T able 1–2
Healthy People 2020, S elected N utrition and Body Weight Objectives

Many other Objectives for the Nation are available at www.healthypeople.gov.

Chronic Diseases

▪▪ Reduce the proportion of adults with osteoporosis.

▪▪ Reduce the death rates from cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.

▪▪ Reduce the annual number of new cases of diabetes.

Food S afety

▪▪ Reduce outbreaks of certain infections transmitted through food.

▪▪ Reduce severe allergic reactions to food among adults with diagnosed food allergy.

Maternal, Infant, and Child Health

▪▪ Reduce the number of low birthweight infants and preterm births.

▪▪ Increase the proportion of infants who are breastfed.

▪▪ Reduce the occurrence of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).

▪▪ Reduce iron deficiency among children, adolescents, women of childbearing age, and pregnant women

▪▪ Reduce blood lead levels in children.

▪▪ Increase the number of schools offering breakfast.

Food and N utrient Consumption

▪▪ Increase vegetables, fruits, and whole grains in the diets of those aged 2 years and older, and reduce solid fats and added sugars.

E ating Disorders

▪▪ Reduce the proportion of adolescents who engage in disordered eating behaviors in an attempt to control their weight.

Physical Activity and Weight Control

▪▪ Increase the proportion of children, adolescents, and adults who are at a healthy weight.

▪▪ Reduce the proportions of children, adolescents, and adults who are obese.

▪▪ Reduce the proportion of people who engage in no leisure-time physical activity.

▪▪ Increase the proportion of schools that require daily physical education for all students.

Food S ecurity

▪▪ Eliminate very low food security among children in U.S. households.

Source: www.healthypeople.gov.

The Human Body and Its Food

energy the capacity to do work. The energy in
food is chemical energy; it can be converted to
mechanical, electrical, thermal, or other forms of
energy in the body. Food energy is measured in
calories, defined on page 8
LO 1.3 Specify the six classes of nutrients.
As your body moves and works each day, it must use energy. The energy that fu-
els the body’s work comes indirectly from the sun by way of plants. Plants capture
and store the sun’s energy in their tissues as they grow. When you eat plant-derived
foods such as fruits, grains, or vegetables, you obtain and use the solar energy they

6 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 6 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 T able 1–3
E lements in the S ix Classes of N utrients

The nutrients that contain carbon are organic.

Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen N itrogen Minerals

Carbohydrate ✓ ✓ ✓

Fat ✓ ✓ ✓

Protein ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ b

Vitamins ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓a b

Minerals ✓

Water ✓ ✓
a
All of the B vitamins contain nitrogen; amine means nitrogen.
b
Protein and some vitamins contain the mineral sulfur; vitamin B12 contains the mineral cobalt.

have stored. Plant-eating animals obtain their energy in the same way, so when you
eat animal tissues, you are eating compounds containing energy that came origi-
nally from the sun.
The body requires six kinds of nutrients—families of molecules indispensable to its
functioning—and foods deliver these. Table 1–3 lists the six classes of nutrients. Four
of these six are organic; that is, the nutrients contain the element carbon derived
from living things.

Meet the Nutrients

The human body and foods are made of the same materials, arranged in different
ways (see Figure 1–2). When considering quantities of foods and nutrients, scientists
often measure them in grams, units of weight.

Figure 1–2
Components of Food and the Human Body

Foods and the human body are made of the same materials.

Vitamins organic carbon containing. Four of the six

Minerals classes of nutrients are organic: carbohydrate,
fat, protein, and vitamins. Organic compounds
Fat
include only those made by living things and do
Protein
not include compounds such as carbon dioxide,
Carbohydrate diamonds, and a few carbon salts.
Water
grams units of weight. A gram (g) is the weight
of a cubic centimeter (cc) or milliliter (ml) of
water under defined conditions of temperatur
and pressure. About 28 grams equal an ounce.

The Human Body and Its Food 7

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 7 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 T able 1–4
Calorie Values
of E nergy-Y ielding N utrients
The energy a person consumes in a
day’s meals comes from these three
energy-yielding nutrients; alcohol, if
consumed, also contributes energy.
E nergy N utrient E nergy
Carbohydrate 4 cal/g
Fat (lipid) 9 cal/g
Protein 4 cal/g
Note: Alcohol contributes 7 cal/g that the human
body can use for energy. Alcohol is not classed as a
nutrient, however, because it interferes with growth,
maintenance, and repair of body tissues.
energy-yielding nutrients the nutrients the
body can use for energy—carbohydrate, fat, and
protein. These also may supply building blocks
for body structures. Also called macronutrients.
essential nutrients the nutrients the body
cannot make for itself (or cannot make fast
enough) from other raw materials; nutrients
that must be obtained from food to prevent
deficiencies
calories units of energy. In nutrition science,
the unit used to measure the energy in foods is
a kilocalorie (also called kcalorie or Calorie): it
is the amount of heat energy necessary to raise
the temperature of a kilogram (a liter) of water
1 degree Celsius. This book follows the common
practice of using the lowercase term calorie
(abbreviated cal) to mean the same thing.
8 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health
27994_ch01_rev04.indd 8
The Energy-Yielding Nutrients Of the four organic nutrients, three are energy-
yielding nutrients, meaning that the body can use the energy they contain. The
carbohydrates and fats (fats are also called lipids) are especially important ener-
gy-yielding nutrients. As for protein, it does double duty: it can yield energy, but it also
provides materials that form structures and working parts of body tissues. (Alcohol
yields energy, too—see the note to Table 1–4).
Vitamins and Minerals The fourth and fifth classes of nutrients are the vitamins
and the minerals, sometimes referred to as micronutrients because they are present
in tiny amounts. These provide no energy to the body. A few minerals serve as parts
of body structures (calcium and phosphorus, for example, are major constituents of
bone), but all vitamins and minerals act as regulators. As regulators, the vitamins
and minerals assist in all body processes: digesting food; moving muscles; disposing of
wastes; growing new tissues; healing wounds; obtaining energy from carbohydrate,
fat, and protein; and participating in every other process necessary to maintain life.
Later chapters are devoted to these six classes of nutrients.
Water Although last on the list, water is foremost in quantity among the six
classes of nutrients. The body constantly loses water, mainly through sweat, breath,
and urine, and that water must constantly be replaced. Without sufficient water, the
body’s cells cannot function.
The Concept of Essential Nutrients When you eat food, then, you are pro-
viding your body with energy and nutrients. Furthermore, some of the nutrients are
essential nutrients, meaning that if you do not ingest them, you will develop defi-
ciencies; the body cannot make these nutrients for itself. Essential nutrients are found
in all six classes of nutrients. Water is an essential nutrient; so is a form of carbohy-
drate; so are some lipids, some parts of protein, all of the vitamins, and the minerals
important in human nutrition.
Calorie Values Food scientists measure food energy in kilocalories, units of heat.
This book uses the common word calories to mean the same thing. It behooves the
person who wishes to control food energy intake and body fatness to learn the cal-
orie values of the energy nutrients, listed in Table 1–4. The most energy-rich of the
nutrients is fat, which contains 9 calories in each gram. Carbohydrate and protein
each contain only 4 calories in a gram. Weight, measure, and other conversion fac-
tors needed for the study of nutrition are found in Appendix C at the back of the book.
Scientists have worked out ways to measure the energy and nutrient contents of
foods. They have also calculated the amounts of energy and nutrients various types
of people need—by gender, age, life stage, and activity. Thus, after studying human
nutrient requirements (in Chapter 2), you will be able to state with some accuracy just
what your own body needs—this much water, that much carbohydrate, so much vita-
min C, and so forth. So why not simply take pills or dietary supplements in place of
food? Because, as it turns out, food offers more than just the six basic nutrients.
Ke y Point s
▪▪ The energy-yielding nutrients are carbohydrates, fats (lipids), and protein.
▪▪ The regulator nutrients are vitamins and minerals.
▪▪ Foremost among the nutrients in food is water.
▪▪ Essential nutrients in the diet prevent deficiencies.
▪▪ Food energy is measured in calories; nutrient quantities are often measured in grams.
Can I Live on Just Supplements?
Nutrition science can state what nutrients human beings need to survive—at least for
a time. Scientists are becoming skilled at making elemental diets—life-saving liquid
diets of precise chemical composition for hospital patients and others who cannot eat
ordinary food. These formulas, administered for days or weeks, support not only con-
tinued life but also recovery from nutrient deficiencies, infections, and wounds. Formu-
las can also stave off weight loss in the elderly or anyone in whom eating is impaired.
29/01/16 5:42 PM
 Formula diets are essential to help sick people to survive, but they do not enable
people to thrive over long periods. Even in hospitals, elemental diet formulas do
not support optimal growth and health and may even lead to medical compli-
cations. Although serious problems are rare and can be detected and corrected,
they show that the composition of these diets is not yet perfect for all people in all
settings.
Lately, marketers have taken these liquid supplement formulas out of the medi-
cal setting and have advertised them heavily to healthy people of all ages as “meal
replacers” or “insurance” against malnutrition. The truth is that real food is superior
to such supplements. Most healthy people who eat a nutritious diet need no dietary
supplements at all.

Food Is Best Even if a person’s basic nutrient needs are perfectly understood and

Brian Chase/Shutterstock.com
met, concoctions of nutrients still lack something that foods provide. Hospitalized cli-
ents who are fed nutrient mixtures through a vein often improve dramatically when
they can finally eat food. Something in real food is important to health—but what is
it? What does food offer that cannot be provided through a needle or a tube? Science
has some partial explanations, some physical and some psychological.
In the digestive tract, the stomach and intestine are dynamic, living organs,
changing constantly in response to the foods they receive—even to just the sight, Some foods offer phytochemicals in
aroma, and taste of food. When a person is fed through a vein, the digestive organs, addition to the six classes of nutrients.
like unused muscles, weaken and grow smaller. Medical wisdom now dictates that a
person should be fed through a vein for as short a time as possible and that real food
taken by mouth should be reintroduced as early as possible. The digestive organs also
release hormones in response to food, and these send messages to the brain that bring
the eater a feeling of satisfaction: “There, that was good. Now I’m full.” Eating offers
both physical and emotional comfort.

Complex Interactions Foods are chemically complex. In addition to their

nutrients, foods contain phytochemicals, compounds that confer color, taste, and
other characteristics to foods. Some may be bioactive food components that interact
with metabolic processes in the body and may affect disease risks. Even an ordinary
baked potato contains hundreds of different compounds. Nutrients and other food
components interact with each other in the body and operate best in harmony with
one another. In view of all this, it is not surprising that food gives us more than just
nutrients. If it were otherwise, that would be surprising.

Ke y Point s
▪▪ Nutritious food is superior to supplements for maintaining optimal health.
▪▪ Most healthy people who eat a nutritious diet do not need supplements at all.

The Challenge of Choosing Foods

LO 1.4 Recognize the challenges and solutions to a health-promoting diet.

Well-planned meals convey pleasure and are nutritious, too, fitting your tastes, per-
sonality, family and cultural traditions, lifestyle, and budget. Given the astounding dietary supplements pills, liquids, or
numbers and varieties available, a consumer can easily lose track of what individual powders that contain purified nutrients or othe
foods contain and how to put them together into a health-promoting diet. A few defi- ingredients (see Controversy in Chapter 7).
nitions and basic guidelines can help. elemental diets diets composed of purifie
ingredients of known chemical composition;
The Abundance of Foods to Choose From intended to supply all essential nutrients to
people who cannot eat foods.
A list of the foods available 100 years ago would be relatively short. It would consist
phytochemicals compounds in plant-derived
mostly of whole foods—foods that have been around for a long time, such as vegeta- foods (phyto, pronounced FYE-toe, means
bles, fruits, meats, milk, and grains (see Table 1–5 for a glossary of food types, p. 10). “plant”).
These foods have been called basic, unprocessed, natural, or farm foods. By whatever
bioactive having chemical or physical proper-
name, choosing a sufficient variety of these foods each day is an easy way to obtain ties that affect the functions of the body tissues.
a nutritious diet. On a given day, however, well over 80 percent of our population See also the Controversy in Chapter 2.

The Challenge of Choosing Foods 9

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 9 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 T able 1–5
Glossary of Food T ypes

▪▪ enriched foods and fortified food foods to which nutrients have
been added. If the starting material is a whole, basic food such
as milk or whole grain, the result may be highly nutritious. If the
starting material is a concentrated form of sugar or fat, the result
is likely to be less nutritious.
▪▪ fast foods restaurant foods that are available within minutes
after customers order them—traditionally, hamburgers, French
fries, and milkshakes; more recently, salads and other vegetable
dishes as well. These foods may or may not meet people’s
nutrient needs, depending on the selections made and on the
energy allowances and nutrient needs of the eaters.
▪▪ functional foods whole or modified foods that contain bioactiv
food components believed to provide health benefits, such a
reduced disease risks, beyond the benefits that their nutrient
confer. However, all nutritious foods can support health in some
ways; Controversy 2 provides details.
▪▪ medical foods foods specially manufactured for use by people
with medical disorders and administered on the advice of a
physician.
▪▪ natural foods a term that has no legal definition but is often use
to imply wholesomeness.
▪▪ organic foods understood to mean foods grown without synthetic
pesticides or fertilizers. In chemistry, however, all foods are made
mostly of organic (carbon-containing) compounds.
▪▪ processed foods foods subjected to any process, such as milling,
alteration of texture, addition of additives, cooking, or others.
Depending on the starting material and the process, a processed
food may or may not be nutritious.
▪▪ staple foods foods used frequently or daily—for example, rice
(in East and Southeast Asia) or potatoes (in Ireland). If well
chosen, these foods are nutritious.
▪▪ ultra-processed foods a term used to describe products of
manufacturing made from industrial ingredients and additives,
such as sugars, refined starches, fats, imitation flavors a
colors, or industrial remnants, such as meat fats and scraps,
with little or no whole food added. They are often high in fat,
sugar, salt, and calories, and heavily advertised.
▪▪ whole foods milk and milk products; meats and similar foods
such as fish and poultry; vegetables, including dried bean
and peas; fruits; and grains. These foods are generally
considered to form the basis of a nutritious diet. Also called
basic foods.

c­ onsumes too few servings of fruit and vegetables each day.4 And when people do
choose to eat a vegetable, the one they most often choose is potatoes, usually prepared
as French fries. Such choices, repeated over time, make development of chronic dis-
eases more likely.
The number of foods supplied by the food industry today is astounding. Tens of
thousands of foods now line the market shelves—many are processed mixtures of
the basic ones, and some are constructed entirely from highly processed ingredients.
Ironically, this abundance often makes it more difficult, rather than easier, to plan a
nutritious diet.
The food-related terms defined in Table 1–5 reveal that all types of food—including
fast foods, processed foods, and ultra-processed foods—offer various constit-
uents to the eater. You may also hear about functional foods, a marketing term
coined to identify those foods containing substances, natural or added, that might
Baloncici/Shutterstock.com

© Polara Inc. Studios

All foods once looked like this . . . . . . but now many foods look like this.

10 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 10 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 lend protection against chronic diseases. The trouble with trying to single out the
most health-promoting foods is that almost every naturally occurring food—even
chocolate—is functional in some way with regard to human health.5
The extent to which foods support good health depends on the calories, nutrients,
and phytochemicals they contain. In short, to select well among foods, you need to
know more than their names; you need to know the foods’ inner qualities. Even
more important, you need to know how to combine foods into nutritious diets.
Foods are not nutritious by themselves; each is of value only insofar as it contrib-

Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com
utes to a nutritious diet. A key to wise diet planning is to make sure that
the foods you eat daily, your staple foods, are especially nutritious.

Ke y Point
▪▪ Foods that form the basis of a nutritious diet are whole foods,
such as ordinary milk and milk products; meats, fish, and
poultry; vegetables and dried peas and beans; fruits; and grains.
Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com

How, Exactly, Can I Recognize a Nutritious Diet?

A nutritious diet is really an eating pattern, a habitual way of choosing foods, with
five characteristics. First is adequacy: the foods provide enough of each essential nu-
trient, fiber, and energy. Second is balance: the choices do not overemphasize one nu-
trient or food type at the expense of another. Third is calorie control: the foods provide
the amount of energy you need to maintain appropriate weight—not more, not less.
Fourth is moderation: the foods do not provide excess fat, salt, sugar, or other
unwanted constituents. Fifth is variety: the foods chosen differ from one day to the
next. In addition, to maintain a steady supply of nutrients, meals should occur with
regular timing throughout the day. To recap, then, a nutritious diet is an eating
pattern that follows the A, B, C, M, V principles: Adequacy, Balance, Calorie control,
Moderation, and Variety.

Adequacy Any nutrient could be used to demonstrate the importance of dietary

adequacy. Iron provides a familiar example. It is an essential nutrient: you lose some
every day, so you have to keep replacing it, and you can get it into your body only by
eating foods that contain it.* If you eat too few of the iron-containing foods, you can
develop iron-deficiency anemia. With anemia, you may feel weak, tired, cold, sad, and eating pattern the combination of foods
and beverages that constitute an individual’s
unenthusiastic; you may have frequent headaches; and you can do very little muscu-
complete dietary intake over time; a person’s
lar work without disabling fatigue. Some foods are rich in iron; others are notoriously usual diet.
poor. If you add iron-rich foods to your diet, you soon feel more energetic. Meat, fish,
adequacy the dietary characteristic of pro-
poultry, and legumes are in the iron-rich category, and an easy way to obtain the
viding all of the essential nutrients, fibe , and
needed iron is to include these foods in your diet regularly. energy in amounts sufficient to maintain healt
and body weight.
Balance To appreciate the importance of dietary balance, consider a second essen-
tial nutrient, calcium. A diet lacking calcium causes poor bone development during balance the dietary characteristic of providing
foods of a number of types in proportion to each
the growing years and increases a person’s susceptibility to disabling bone loss in adult
other, such that foods rich in some nutrients do
life. Most foods that are rich in iron are poor in calcium. Calcium’s richest food sources not crowd out of the diet foods that are rich in
are milk and milk products, which happen to be extraordinarily poor iron sources. other nutrients.
Clearly, to obtain enough of both iron and calcium, people have to balance their food calorie control the dietary characteristic of
choices among the types of foods that provide both nutrients. Balancing the whole controlling energy intake; a feature of a sound
diet to provide enough of every one of the 40-odd nutrients the body needs for health diet plan.
requires considerable juggling, however. As you will see in Chapter 2, food group plans moderation the dietary characteristic of
ease this task by clustering rich sources of nutrients into food groups that will help you providing constituents within set limits, not to
to achieve both dietary adequacy and balance within an eating pattern that meets excess.
your needs. variety the dietary characteristic of provid-
ing a wide selection of foods—the opposite of
Calorie Control Energy intakes should not exceed or fall short of energy needs. monotony.
Named calorie control, this characteristic ensures that energy intakes from food
legumes (leg-GOOMS, LEG-yooms) beans,
balance energy expenditures required for body functions and physical activity. peas, and lentils, valued as inexpensive sources
of protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber tha
contribute little fat to the diet. Also defined i
*A person can also take supplements of iron, but as later discussions demonstrate, eating iron-rich foods is preferable. Chapter 6.

The Challenge of Choosing Foods 11

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 11 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Figure 1–3 Eating such a diet helps to control body fat content and weight. The many strategies
that promote this goal appear in Chapter 9.
Components of a N utritious
Diet Moderation Intakes of certain food constituents such as saturated fats, added
sugars, and salt should be limited for health’s sake. Some people take this to mean
All of these factors help to build a that they must never indulge in a delicious beefsteak or hot-fudge sundae, but they
nutritious diet. are misinformed: moderation, not total abstinence, is the key.6 A steady diet of steak
and ice cream might be harmful, but once a week as part of an otherwise health-
ful eating pattern, these foods may have little impact; as once-a-month treats, these
Variety
Variety foods would have practically no effect at all. Moderation also means that limits are
necessary, even for desirable food constituents. For example, a certain amount of fiber
Moderation
Moderation in foods contributes to the health of the digestive system, but too much fiber leads to
nutrient losses.

Calorie
Calorie control
control Variety As for variety, nutrition scientists agree that people should not eat the
same foods, even highly nutritious ones, day after day, for a number of reasons. First,
a varied diet is more likely to be adequate in nutrients. Second, some less-well-known
Balance
Balance nutrients and phytochemicals could be important to health, and some foods may
be better sources of these than others. Third, a monotonous diet may deliver large
Adequacy
Adequacy amounts of toxins or contaminants. Such undesirable compounds in one food are
diluted by all the other foods eaten with it and are diluted still further if the food is not
eaten again for several days. Finally, variety adds interest—trying new foods can be
a source of pleasure.
Variety applies to nutritious foods consumed within the context of all of the other
dietary principles just discussed. Relying solely on the principle of variety to dictate
food choices could easily result in a low-nutrient, high-calorie eating pattern with a
variety of nutrient-poor snack foods and sweets. If you establish the habit of using all
of the principles just described, you will find that choosing a healthful diet becomes as
automatic as brushing your teeth or falling asleep. Establishing the A, B, C, M, V habit
(summed up in Figure 1–3) may take some effort, but the payoff in terms of improved
health is overwhelming. Table 1–6 takes an honest look at some common excuses for
not eating well.

Ke y Point
▪▪ A well-planned diet is adequate, balanced, moderate in energy, and moderate in
unwanted constituents and offers a variety of nutritious foods.

Why People Choose Foods

Eating is an intentional act. Each day, people choose from the available foods, prepare
the foods, and decide where to eat, which customs to follow, and with whom to dine.
Many factors influence food-related choices.

T able 1–6
What’s T oday’s E xcuse for N ot E ating Well?

If you find yourself saying, “I know I should eat well, but I’m too busy” (or too fond of fast food, or have too little mone , or a
dozen other excuses), take note:

▪▪ No time to cook. Everyone is busy. Convenience packages of ▪▪ Crave fast food and sweets. Occasional fast-food meals and
fresh or frozen vegetables, jars of pasta sauce, and prepared sweets in moderation are acceptable in a nutritious diet.
meats and salads make nutritious meals in little time. ▪▪ Too little money. Eating right often costs no more than eating
▪▪ Not a high priority. Priorities change drastically and instantly poorly. Chips, colas, snack cakes, and premium ice cream cost
when illness strikes—better to spend a little effort now as much or more per serving as nutritious foods.a
nourishing your body’s defenses than to spend enormous ▪▪ Take vitamins instead. Vitamin pills or even advertised “nutritional
resources later fighting illnesses drinks” cannot make up for consistently poor food choices.
a
For a discussion of this topic, see A. Carlson and E. Frazão, Are healthy foods really more expensive? It depends on how you measure the price, Economic Research
Service EIB-96, May 2012, available at www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib96.aspx.

12 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 12 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Cultural and Social Meanings Attached to Food Like
wearing traditional clothing or speaking a native language,
enjoying traditional cuisines and foodways can be a celebra-
tion of your own or a friend’s heritage. Sharing ethnic foods
can be symbolic: people offering foods are expressing a willing-
ness to share cherished values with others. People accepting
those foods are symbolically accepting not only the person doing
the offering but also the person’s culture. Developing cultural

blue jean images/Getty Images

competence is particularly important for professionals who
help others to achieve a nutritious diet.7
Cultural traditions regarding food are not inflexible; they
keep evolving as people move about, learn about new foods,
and teach each other. Today, some people are ceasing to be
omnivorous and are becoming vegetarians. Vegetarians often
choose this lifestyle because they honor the lives of animals or Sharing traditional food is a way of sharing
because they have discovered the health and other advantages associated with eat- culture.
ing patterns rich in beans, whole grains, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. The Chapter 6
Controversy explores the strengths and weaknesses of both the vegetarian’s and the
meat eater’s diets.

Factors That Drive Food Choices Taste prevails as the number-one factor driv-
ing people’s food choices, with price following closely behind.8 Consumers also value
convenience so highly that they are willing to spend almost half of their food bud-
get on meals prepared outside the home. They frequently eat out, bring home ready-
to-eat meals, or have food delivered. In their own kitchens, they want to prepare a
meal in 15 to 20 minutes, using only a few ingredients. Such convenience has a cost
in terms of nutrition, however: eating away from home reduces intakes of fruit, veg-
etables, milk, and whole grains. It also increases intakes of calories, saturated fat,
sodium, and added sugars.9 Convenience doesn’t have to mean that nutrition is out
the window, however. This chapter’s Food Feature (p. 21) explores the trade-offs of
time, money, and nutrition that many busy people face today.
Many other factors—psychological, physical, social, and philosophical—also
influence how people choose which foods to eat. Some factors include:
▪▪ Advertising. The media have persuaded you to consume these foods.
▪▪ Availability. They are present in the environment and accessible to you.
▪▪ Cost. They are within your financial means.
▪▪ Emotional comfort. They can make you feel better for a while.
▪▪ Habit. They are familiar; you always eat them.
▪▪ Personal preference and genetic inheritance. You like the way these foods taste.
▪▪ Positive or negative associations.10 Positive: They are eaten by people you admire, or
they indicate status, or they remind you of fun. Negative: They were forced on you,
or you became ill while eating them. cuisines styles of cooking.
foodways the sum of a culture’s habits, cus-
▪▪ Region of the country. They are foods favored in your area.
toms, beliefs, and preferences concerning food.
▪▪ Social norms. Your companions are eating them, or they are offered and you feel ethnic foods foods associated with particular
you can’t refuse them.11 cultural subgroups within a population.

▪▪ Values or beliefs. They fit your religious tradition, square with your political views, cultural competence having an awareness
and acceptance of one’s own and others’
or honor the environmental ethic.
cultures and abilities, leading to effective inter-
▪▪ Weight. You think they will help to control body weight. actions with all kinds of people.

▪▪ Nutrition and health benefits. You think they are good for you. omnivorous people who eat foods of both
plant and animal origin, including animal flesh
College students often choose to eat at fast-food and other restaurants to socialize, to vegetarians people who exclude from their
get out, to save time, or to date; they are not always conscious of their body’s need for diets animal flesh and possibly other anima
nutritious food. products such as milk, cheese, and eggs.

The Challenge of Choosing Foods 13

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 13 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Nutrition understanding depends upon a firm base of scientific knowledge. The next
section describes the nature of such knowledge and addresses one of the “how” ques-
tions posed earlier in this chapter: How do we know what we know about nutrition?

Ke y Point s
▪▪ Cultural traditions and social values often revolve around foodways.
▪▪ Many factors other than nutrition drive food choices.

The Science of Nutrition

LO 1.5 Describe the science of nutrition.

Nutrition is a science—a field of knowledge composed of organized facts. Unlike sci-

ences such as astronomy and physics, nutrition is a relatively young science. Most
Figure 1–4
T he S cientific Method
Research scientists follow the scientific method. Note that mos
research projects result in new questions, not final answers. Thus
research continues in a somewhat cyclical manner.
OBSERVATION & QUESTION
Identify a problem to be solved or ask
a specific question to be answered.
HYPOTHESIS & PREDICTION
Formulate a hypothesis—a tentative
solution to the problem or answer to
the question—and make a prediction
that can be tested.
EXPERIMENT
Design a study and conduct the
research to collect relevant data.
RESULTS & INTERPRETATIONS
Summarize, analyze, and interpret
the data; draw conclusions.
nutrition research has been conducted since 1900.
The first vitamin was identified in 1897, and the first
protein structure was not fully described until the
mid-1940s. Because nutrition science is an active,
changing, growing body of knowledge, scientific
findings often seem to contradict one another or are
subject to conflicting interpretations. Bewildered
consumers complain in frustration, “Those scien-
tists don’t know anything. If they don’t know what’s
true, how am I supposed to know?”
Yet many facts in nutrition are known with
great certainty. To understand why apparent con-
tradictions sometimes arise in nutrition science,
we need to look first at what scientists do.
The Scientific Approach
In truth, it is a scientist’s business not to know. Sci-
entists obtain facts by systematically asking hon-
est, objective questions—that’s their job. Follow-
ing the scientific method (outlined in Figure 1–4),
they attempt to answer scientific questions. They
design and conduct various experiments to test for
possible answers (see Figure 1–5, and Table 1–7 on
p. 16). When they have ruled out some possibilities
and found evidence for others, they submit their
findings not to the news media but to boards of re-
viewers composed of other scientists who try to pick
the findings apart. Finally, the work is published in
scientific journals where still more scientists can
read it. Then the news reporters read it and write
about it, and the public can read about it, too.

HYPOTHESIS SUPPORTED
Ke y Point s
▪▪ Nutrition is a young and fast-growing science.
▪▪ Scientists ask questions and then design
HYPOTHESIS NOT SUPPORTED research experiments to test possible answers.
▪▪ Researchers follow the scientific method and
apply it to various research study designs.

THEORY NEW OBSERVATIONS Scientific Challenge

Develop a theory that integrates
conclusions with those from
numerous other studies.
& QUESTIONS
An important truth in science is that one ex-
periment does not “prove” or “disprove” any-
thing. Even after publication, other scientists try

14 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 14 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Figure 1–5
E xamples of Research Design

Case Study Epidemiological Study

North
Atlantic
Studies in which researchers
Ocean France
Slovenia actively intervene to alter people’s

Lester V. Bergman solidus/Encyclopedia/Corbis

Croatia
Bosnia Black Sea

Italy
Montenegro eating habits (intervention studies)
Spain Albania
Greece Turkey go a step further. In such a study,

© Cengage Learning
Syria one set of subjects (the experimental
Morocco Mediterranean Sea
Lebanon
Israel
group) receives a treatment, and
another set (the control group) goes
Algeria Jordan
Tunisia

Libya Egypt
untreated or receives a placebo or
“This country’s food supply contains more sham treatment. If the study is a blind
nutrient X, and these people suffer less experiment, the subjects do not know
­illness Y.” who among the members receives the
“This person eats too little of treatment and who receives the sham.
nutrient X and has illness Y.” If the two groups experience different
effects, then the treatment’s effect
Intervention Study Laboratory Study can be pinpointed. For example, an
intervention study might show that

Leslie Newman & Andrew Flowers/Science Source

withholding gumdrops, together with
other candies and confections, reduced
bokan/Shutterstock.com

the incidence of tooth decay in an

experimental population compared to
that in a control population.
Finally, laboratory studies can
“Let’s add foods containing pinpoint the mechanisms by which
nutrient X to some people’s nutrition acts. What is it about
food supply and compare their gumdrops that contributes to tooth
rates of illness Y with the rates decay: their size, shape, temperature,
of others who don’t receive the “Now let’s prove that a nutrient X
deficiency causes illness Y by inducing color, ingredients? Feeding various
nutrient.”
a deficiency in these rats. forms of gumdrops to rats might
yield the information that sugar, in a
gummy carrier, promotes tooth decay.
The type of study chosen for research Studies of whole populations In the laboratory, using animals or
depends upon what sort of information (epidemiological studies) provide plants or cells, scientists can inoculate
the researchers require. Studies another sort of information. Such a with diseases, induce deficiencies
of individuals (case studies) yield study can reveal a correlation. For and experiment with variations on
observations that may lead to possible example, an epidemiological study treatments to obtain in-depth knowledge
avenues of research. A study of a might find no worldwide correlatio of the process under study. Intervention
man who ate gumdrops and became a of gumdrop eating with fancy studies and laboratory experiments
famous dancer might suggest that an footwork but, unexpectedly, might are among the most powerful tools in
experiment be done to see if gumdrops reveal a correlation with tooth nutrition research because they show
contain dance-enhancing power. decay. the effects of treatments.

to duplicate the work of the first researchers to support or refute the original
finding.
Only when a finding has stood up to rigorous, repeated testing in several kinds of
experiments performed by several different researchers is it finally considered con-
firmed. Even then, strictly speaking, science consists not of facts that are set in stone
but of theories that can always be challenged and revised. Some findings, though, like
the theory that the earth revolves about the sun, are so well supported by observations
and experimental findings that they are generally accepted as facts. What we “know”
in nutrition is confirmed in the same way—through years of replicating study find-
ings. This slow path of repeated studies stands in sharp contrast to the media’s desire
for today’s latest news.12
To repeat: the only source of valid nutrition information is slow, painstaking,
authentic scientific research. We believe a nutrition fact to be true because it has

The Science of Nutrition 15

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 15 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 T able 1–7
Research Design T erms
▪▪ blind experiment an experiment in which the subjects do not
know whether they are members of the experimental group or
the control group. In a double-blind experiment, neither the
subjects nor the researchers know to which group the members
belong until the end of the experiment.
▪▪ case studies studies of individuals. In clinical settings,
researchers can observe treatments and their apparent effects.
To prove that a treatment has produced an effect requires
simultaneous observation of an untreated similar subject
(a case control).
▪▪ control group a group of individuals who are similar in all
possible respects to the group being treated in an experiment
but who receive a sham treatment instead of the real one.
Also called control subjects. See also experimental group and
intervention studies.
▪▪ controlled clinical trial a research study design that often
reveals effects of a treatment on human beings. Health
outcomes are observed in a group of people who receive the
treatment and are then compared with outcomes in a control
group of similar people who received a placebo (an inert or
sham treatment). Ideally, neither subjects nor researchers
know who receives the treatment and who gets the placebo
(a double-blind study).
▪▪ correlation the simultaneous change of two factors, such as the
increase of weight with increasing height (a direct or positive
correlation) or the decrease of cancer incidence with increasing
fiber intake (an inverse or negative correlation). A correlation
between two factors suggests that one may cause the other but
does not rule out the possibility that both may be caused by
chance or by a third factor.
▪▪ epidemiological studies studies of populations; often used in
nutrition to search for correlations between dietary habits and
disease incidence; a first step in seeking nutrition-related cause
of diseases.
▪▪ experimental group the people or animals participating in an
experiment who receive the treatment under investigation.
Also called experimental subjects. See also control group and
intervention studies.
▪▪ intervention studies studies of populations in which observation
is accompanied by experimental manipulation of some
population members—for example, a study in which half of the
subjects (the experimental subjects) follow diet advice to reduce
fat intakes, while the other half (the control subjects) do not, and
both groups’ heart health is monitored.
▪▪ laboratory studies studies that are performed under tightly
controlled conditions and are designed to pinpoint causes and
effects. Such studies often use animals as subjects.
▪▪ placebo a sham treatment often used in scientific studies; a
inert, harmless medication. The placebo effect is the healing
effect that the act of treatment, rather than the treatment itself,
often has.

been supported, time and again, in experiments designed to rule out all other
possibilities. For example, we know that eyesight depends partly on vitamin A
because:
▪▪ In case studies, individuals with blindness report having consumed a steady diet
devoid of vitamin A; and
▪▪ In epidemiological studies, populations with diets lacking in vitamin A are
observed to suffer high rates of blindness; and
▪▪ In intervention studies (controlled clinical trials), vitamin A–rich foods
provided to groups of vitamin A–deficient people reduce their blindness rates
dramatically; and
▪▪ In laboratory studies, animals deprived of vitamin A and only that vitamin
begin to go blind; when it is restored soon enough in the diet, their eyesight
returns; and
▪▪ Further laboratory studies elucidated the molecular mechanisms for vitamin A
activity in eye tissues; and
▪▪ Replication of these studies provides the same results.

Now we can say with certainty, “Eyesight depends upon sufficient vitamin A.”

Ke y Point s
▪▪ Single studies must be replicated before their findings can be considered valid.
▪▪ A theory is strengthened when results from follow-up studies with a variety of
research designs support it.

16 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 16 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 Can I Trust the Media to Deliver Nutrition News?
The news media are hungry for new findings, and reporters often latch onto hypothe-
ses from scientific laboratories before they have been fully tested. Also, a reporter who
lacks a strong understanding of science may misunderstand or misreport complex
scientific principles.13 To tell the truth, sometimes scientists get excited about their
findings, too, and leak them to the press before they have been through a rigorous
review by the scientists’ peers. As a result, the public is often exposed to late-breaking
nutrition news stories before the findings are fully confirmed. Then, when the
hypothesis being tested fails to hold up to a later challenge, consumers feel betrayed
by what is simply the normal course of science at work.
The real scientists are trend watchers. They evaluate the methods used in each
study, assess each study in light of the evidence gleaned from other studies, and mod-
ify little by little their picture of what may be true. As evidence accumulates, the
scientists become more and more confident about their ability to make recommen-
dations that apply to people’s health and lives. The Consumer’s Guide section (p. 19)
offers some tips for evaluating news stories about nutrition.
Sometimes media sensationalism overrates the importance of even true, replicated
findings. For example, the media eagerly report that oat products lower blood choles-
terol, a lipid indicative of heart disease risk. Although the reports are true, they often
fail to mention that eating a nutritious diet that is low in certain fats is still the major
step toward lowering blood cholesterol. They also may skip over important questions:
How much oatmeal must a person eat to produce the desired effect? Do little oat bran
pills or powders meet the need? Do oat bran cookies? If so, how many cookies? For oat-
meal, it takes a bowl and a half daily to affect blood lipids. A few pills or cookies do not
provide nearly so much and certainly cannot undo all the damage from a high-fat meal.
Today, the cholesterol-lowering effect of oats is well established. The whole process of
discovery, challenge, and vindication took almost 10 years of research. Some other lines
of research have taken much longer. In science, a single finding almost never makes a
crucial difference to our knowledge, but like each individual frame in a movie, it con-
tributes a little to the big picture. Many such frames are needed to tell the whole story.

Ke y Point
▪▪ News media often sensationalize single-study findings and so may not be
trustworthy sources.

National Nutrition Research

As you study nutrition, you are likely to hear of findings based on ongoing nation-
wide nutrition and health research projects.14 A national food and nutrient intake
survey, called What We Eat in America, reveals what we know about the population’s
food and supplement intakes. It is conducted as part of a larger research effort, the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), that also

watch
My Turn it! Lose Weight While You
Sleep!
See a student talking about how he
learned the truth about nutrition claims
© Cengage Learning

made in advertising.
Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access
Gabriel
MindTap, a complete digital course that
includes this video and other resources.
National Health and Nutrition Examination
Surveys (NHANES) a program of studies
designed to assess the health and nutritional
status of adults and children in the United
States by way of interviews and physical
examinations.

The Science of Nutrition 17

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 17 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 conducts physical examinations and measurements and laboratory tests. Boiled
down to its essence, NHANES involves:
▪▪ Asking people what they have eaten and
▪▪ Recording measures of their health status.

Past NHANES results have provided important data for developing growth charts for
children, guiding food fortification efforts, developing national guidelines for reduc-
ing chronic diseases, and many other beneficial programs. Some agencies involved
with these efforts are listed in Table 1–8.

Ke y Point
▪▪ National nutrition research projects, such as NHANES, provide data on U.S. food
consumption and nutrient status.

T able 1–8
N utrition Research and Policy
Changing Behaviors
Agencies LO 1.6 Explain the significance of behavior change in improving a person’s diet.

Nutrition knowledge is of little value if it only helps people to make A’s on tests. The
These agencies are actively engaged
value comes when people use it to improve their diets. To act on knowledge, people
in nutrition policy development,
must change their behaviors, and while this may sound simple enough, behavior
research, and monitoring:
change often takes substantial effort.
▪▪ Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC)
▪▪ U.S. Department of Agriculture The Process of Change
(USDA) Psychologists often describe the six stages of behavior change, offered in
▪▪ U.S. Department of Health and
Table 1–9. Knowing where you stand in relation to these stages may help you
Human Services (DHHS) move along the path toward achieving your goals. When offering diet help to
▪▪ U.S. Food and Drug Administration
others, keep in mind that their stages of change can influence their reaction to your
(FDA)
message.

T able 1–9
T he S tages of Behavior Change
S tage Characteristics Actions

Precontemplation Not considering a change; have no intention Collect information about health effects of current
of changing; see no problems with current behavior and potential benefits of change
behavior.

Contemplation Admit that change may be needed; weigh pros and Commit to making a change and set a date to start.
cons of changing and not changing.

Preparation Preparing to change a specific behavio , taking initial Write an action plan, spelling out specific parts of th
steps, and setting some goals. change. Set small-step goals; tell others about the
plan.

Action Committing time and energy to making a change; Perform the new behavior. Manage emotional and
following a plan set for a specific behavior change physical reactions to the change.

Maintenance Striving to integrate the new behavior into daily life Persevere through lapses. Teach others and help
and striving to make it permanent. them achieve their own goals. (This stage can last
for years.)

Adoption/Moving On The former behavior is gone, and the new behavior After months or a year of maintenance without lapses,
is routine. move on to other goals.

18 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 18 29/01/16 5:42 PM

 use it! A Consumer’s
Guide To . . .
At a coffee shop, Nick, a health-
conscious consumer, sets his cup down
on the Lifestyle section of the newspaper.
He glances at the headline—“Eating
Fat OK for Heart Health!”—and jumps
to a wrong conclusion: “Do you mean
to say that I could have been eating
burgers and butter all this time? I can’t
keep up! As soon as I change my diet,
the scientists change their story.” Nick’s
frustration is understandable. Like many
others, he feels betrayed when, after
working for years to make diet changes
for his health’s sake, headlines seem
to turn dietary advice upside down. He
shouldn’t blame science, however.
Tricks and Traps
The trouble started when Nick was
“hooked” by a catchy headline. Media
headlines often seem to reverse
current scientific thought because ne
“breakthrough” studies are exciting;
they grab readers’ attention and make
them want to buy a newspaper, book, or
magazine. (By the way, you can read the
true story behind changing lipid intake
guidelines in Controversy 5.) Even if Nick
had read the entire newspaper article,
he could have still been led astray by
phrases like “Now we know” or “The
truth is.” Journalists use such phrases to
imply finalit , the last word.1* In contrast,
scientists use tentative language, such as
“may” or “might,” because they know that
the conclusions from one study will be
challenged, refined, and even refuted b
others that follow.
Markers of Authentic
Reporting
To approach nutrition news with a
trained eye, look for these signs of a
scientific approach
▪▪ When an article describes a scientifi
study, that study should have been
*Reference notes are found in Appendix F.
27994_ch01_rev04.indd 19
Reading Nutrition News
published in a peer-reviewed journal,
such as the American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition. An unpublished study may
or may not be valid; the reader has
no way of knowing because the study
lacks scrutiny by other experts.
© Cengage Learning
▪▪ The news item should describe
the researchers’ methods; in truth,
few popular reports provide these
details. It matters whether the study
participants numbered 8 or 80,000
or whether researchers personally
observed participants’ behaviors or
relied on self-reports given over the
telephone, for example.
▪▪ The report should define the study
subjects—were they single cells, ani-
mals, or human beings? If they were
human beings, the more you have in
common with them (age and gender,
for example), the more applicable the
findings may be for you
▪▪ Valid reports also present new findings
in the context of previous research.
Some reporters in popular media
regularly follow developments in a
research area and thus acquire the
background knowledge needed to
report meaningfully. They strive for
adequacy, balance, and complete-
ness, and they cover such things as
cost of a treatment, potential harms
and benefits, strength of evidence,
and who might stand to gain from
potential sales relating to the finding. *
▪▪ For a helpful scientifi overview of
current topics in nutrition, look for
review articles written by experts. They
regularly appear in scholarly journals
such as Nutrition Reviews. A relative
of the review article, the meta-analy-
sis, uses the power of a computer to
combine and reanalyze the results of
many previously published studies
on a single topic. The results of a
**An organization that promotes valid health-care
reporting is HealthNewsReview.org, available at
www.healthnewsreview.org/.
Changing Behaviors
For the whole story on a nutrition topic,
read articles from peer-reviewed journals
such as these. A review journal examines all
available evidence on major topics. Other
journals report details of the methods,
results, and conclusions of single studies.
meta-analysis study often do not apply
to individuals, however.2
The most credible source of scientific
nutrition information is the scientific
journal. The Controversy section
following this chapter addresses other
sources of nutrition information and
misinformation.
Moving Ahead
Develop a critical eye, and let scientific
principles guide you as you read
nutrition news. When a headline touts
a shocking new “answer” to a nutrition
question, approach it with caution. It
may indeed be a carefully researched
report that respects the gradual nature of
scientific discovery and refinement, bu
more often it is a sensational news flash
intended to grab your attention and your
media dollars.
Review Questions†
1. To keep up with nutrition science, the
consumer should __________.
a. seek out the health and fitness
sections of newspapers and maga-
zines and read them with a
trained eye
(continued)
†
Answers to Consumer’s Guide review questions are
found in Appendix G.
19
29/01/16 5:42 PM
 b. read studies published in a
peer-reviewed journal, such as
the American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition
c. look for review articles published
in peer-reviewed journals, such as
Nutrition Reviews
d. all of the above
2. To answer nutrition questions
__________.
or “The answer is” that put nutri-
tion issues to rest
b. look to science for answers,
with the expectation that scien-
tists will continually revise their
understandings
c. realize that problems in nutrition
are probably too complex for
consumers to understand
d. a and c
3. Scholarly review journals such as
Nutrition Reviews __________.
a. are behind the times when it
comes to nutrition news
b. discuss all available research
findings on a topic in nutritio
c. are filled with medical jargo
d. are intended for use by practi-
tioners only, not students

a. watch for articles that include

phrases such as “Now we know”

Taking Stock and Setting Goals

To make a change, you must first become aware of a problem. Some problems, such as
never consuming a vegetable, are easy to spot. More subtle dietary problems, such as
failing to meet your need for calcium, may be hidden but can have
serious repercussions for health. Tracking food intakes over several
days’ time and then comparing intakes to standards (see Chapter 2)
can reveal all sorts of interesting tidbits about strengths and weak-
nesses of your eating pattern.
Once a weakness is identified, setting small, achievable goals
to correct it becomes the next step to making improvements. The
most successful goals are set for specific behaviors, not overall out-
comes. For example, if losing 10 pounds is the desired outcome,
UpperCut Images/Alamy

goals should be set in terms of food intakes and physical activity

to help achieve weight loss. After goals are set and changes are
under way, a means of tracking progress increases the likelihood
of success.
Many people need to change their daily
routines to include physical activity.
Start Now
You may, as you progress through this text, want to change some of your own
habits. To help you, little reminders entitled “Start Now” close each chapter’s Think
Fitness section (on p. 5 in this chapter) with an invitation to visit this book’s website,
where you can take inventory of your current behaviors, set goals, track progress,
and practice new behaviors until they become as comfortable and familiar as the old
ones were.

Ke y Point s
▪▪ Behavior change follows a predictable pattern.
▪▪ Setting goals and monitoring progress facilitate behavior change.

20 Chapter 1 Food Choices and Human Health

27994_ch01_rev04.indd 20 29/01/16 5:42 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Majatalo
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Majatalo

Author: Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev

Translator: Alexander Halonen

Release date: September 25, 2023 [eBook #71721]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Turku: Sosialistin Kirjapaino-Osakeyhtiö, 1912

Credits: Tuula Temonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAJATALO

***
MAJATALO

Kirj.

I. S. Turgenjeff

Suomentanut

Alexander Halonen

Turussa, Sosialistin Kirjapaino-Osuuskunta, 1912.

Majatalo.

Suuren B…n tien varrella, milt'ei yhtäkaukana kahdesta

piirikaupungista, joitten kautta tie kulki, vielä äskettäin seisoi avara
majatalo, hyvin tunnettu kolmivaljakkoajureille, rahtimiehille,
kauppamatkustajille, porvareille ja yleensä kaikille monilukuisille ja -
laatuisille matkalaisille, jotka kaikkina vuoden aikoina liukuvat
meidän teillämme. Olipa aika, jolloin kaikki poikkesivat tuohon
taloon; ellei ehkä jonkunlainen tilanhaltijan umpivaunu, jota veti kuusi
kotona kasvatettua hevosta, pysähtymättä ajanut ohitse, joka seikka
ei kuitenkaan estänyt ajuria ja palvelijaa vaunun takaistuimella
eräänkaltaisin omituisin tuntein ja hartauksin katsahtamasta heille
liiankin tuttuihin portaisiin; tahi jonkunlainen miesraukka huonoine
rattaineen ja kolmine viiskopekkaisine povitaskussa, saavuttuaan
rikkaan talon kohdalle, nykäissyt ohjista väsynyttä hevoskaakkiaan,
kiirehtien yölevolle suuren asutuksen takalistolle sijaitsevaan
rahvaan yömajaan, talonpoikaisen isännän tykö, jolta heinien ja
leivän ohella et mitään muuta voinut löytää, etkä siitäkään
ylimääräistä kopekkaa tarvinnut maksaa. Sopivan asemansa ohella,
majatalo, josta alotimme kertomuksen, ylpeili paljolla: erinomaisella
vedellä kahdessa syvässä kaivossa kitisevine pyörineen ja rautaisine
sankoineen vitjoissa; tilavalla pihamaalla lautaisine, tiiviine
katoksineen; suurella varastolla hyviä kauroja kellarissa; lämpöisellä
tuvalla, minkä mahtavan venäläisen kiukaan kupeelta ulkoni kaksi
pitkää lavitsaa, ja, lopuksi, kahdella kyllin puhtaalla kamarilla,
punaliljaisine, alhaalta hieman revittyine seinäpapereineen,
maalattuine puusohvineen ja samanlaisine tuoleineen ja
geraniumikukkineen akkunalla, joita, sivumennen sanoen, ei
milloinkaan oltu pesty, ja jotka siis kukoistivat monivuotisessa
tomussa. Muitakin mukavuuksia vielä tarjosi tämä majatalo: — paja
siitä oli likellä, siinä myöskin melkein sijaitsi mylly; lopuksi, syödäkin
siinä oli hyvä, sillä vanha keittäjätär ruoan laittoi maukkaan ja
rasvasen, eikä säälinyt aineita; lähimpään kapakkaan laskettiin
matkaa kaikkiaan puoli virstaa; isäntä piti kaupan nuuskaa, joskin
tuhkalla sekoitettua, kuitenkin hyviin väkevää ja nenään mukavasti
vaikuttavaa — sanalla sanoen, paljon oli syitä minkä tähden tästä
talosta eivät matkustavaiset muihin muuttaneet. Isäntä miellytti
matkalaisia — sehän on pääasia; ilman sitä, tietysti, ei mikään yritys
menesty; hän miellytti sitäkin enemmän sentähden, kuten naapurit
tiesivät kertoa, että hän oli hyvin onnellinen ja kaikissa
edesottamisissan menestyi loistavasti, vaikka vähän hän oli
ansainnut menestystään; mutta nähtävästi, ketä onnestaa, piin sitä
onnestaa.

Isäntä tämä oli porvari, nimeltään Naum Ivanovitsh. Vartaloltaan

hän oli keskimittainen, paksu, kymäräinen ja harteikas; pään hän
omisti suuren, pyöreän, tuuheat hiukset, jotka jo olivat harmaat,
vaikkei hänellä, päältä katsoen, saattanut olla yli neljänkymmenen
ikää; poskensa olivat täyteläiset ja tuoreet, otsa matala, mutta
valkonen ja tasanen, ja pienet, kirkkaat, siniset silmät, joilla hän
hyvin merkillisesti katseli: — karsaasti ja samalla kertaa röyhkeästi,
joka varsin harvoin tapahtuu. Päänsä hän aina piti kumarassa ja
vaivaloisesti sitä käänteli, ehkä siitä syystä, kun kaula hänellä oli
kovin lyhyt; hän käveli kiivaasti mutta jäykästi ja heilutteli tasaisessa
tahdissa käsiään. Kun hän hymyili, ja hän hymyili varsin usein,
äänettömästi, ikäänkuin itsekseen, hänen paksut huulensa
epämiellyttävästi vetäytyivät syrjään ja paljastivat rivin lujia ja
loistavia hampaita. Hän puhui katkonaisesti, ja jonkunlaisella
ynseällä äänensoinnulla. Partansa hän leikkasi, mutta ei silti käynyt
näöltään saksalaiseksi. Hänen pukunsa käsitti pitkän, kauttaaltaan
käytetyn viitan, leveät housut ja kengät paljaissa jaloissa. Hän usein
poistui kotoaan asioilleen, joita hänellä olikin paljon — hän keinotteli
hevosilla, välitti maata, vuokrasi kasvitarhoja, osti puistoja ja yleensä
harjoitti monenlaisia kauppatoimia — mutta hänen poissaolonsa
eivät milloinkaan venyneet pitkiksi; niinkuin myyrä, jota hän erittäin
omituisten silmiensä vuoksi muistutti, palasi hän takaisin omaan
pesäänsä. Hän osasi pitää tämän pesän järjestyksessä; kaikkialle
hän ennätti, kaikki kuunteli ja määräili, antoi, päästi ja tilitti itse, eikä
kenellekään kopeikkaakaan alentanut, samalla ei myöskään liikaa
ottanut.
 Matkustavaiset eivät hänen kerallaan lörpötelleet, eikä hän itse
liioin haaskannut turhanpäiten sanoja. »Minulle teidän rahanne ovat
tarpeen, mutta teille tarjoilu», jutteli hän, hitaasti esittäen joka sanan:
»emmehän lapsia ole kastamassa kerallanne; matkustaja söit, syötit,
älä istuskele! Mutta jos olet väsynyt, niin makaa, älä lörpöttele».
Työläiset piti hän suurikasvuiset ja terveet, mutta säyseät ja
toimeliaat he häntä kovin pelkäsivät. Itse hän ei ottanut
suuhunsakaan miestä väkevämpää, mutta heille jakoi suurina juhlina
kymmenkopekkaisen mieheen viinaa varten; muina päivinä he eivät
tohtineet juoda. Naumin kaltaiset ihmiset pian rikastuvat… mutta
siihen loistoon varallisuuteen, minkä hän omisti, — hänen laskettiin
omistavan nelisen- eli viitisenkymmentätuhatta — Naum Ivanovitsh
ei vaeltanut suoraa tietä…

Vuotta kaksikymmentä ennen sitä aikaa, johon me

kertomuksemme alun sijoitimme, jo toimi samalla paikalla majatalo.
Totta kyllä, sitä ei kattanut tummanpunanen lautakatto, joka antoi
Naum Ivanovitshin talolle ylhäisen leiman; ja rakennukseltaankin se
oli köyhempi, pihan ympäri oli olkikatos, hirsiseinien asemasta —
säleaitaus; eikä se upeillut kolmikulmaisella kreikkalaisella otsikolla;
mutta sittekin se oli majatalo ihan tyydyttävä — tilava, vankka ja
lämmin — joten matkalaiset sitä mielellään käyttivät. Isäntänä siihen
aikaan ei ohut Naum Ivanovitsh, vaan eräs Akim Semenovitsh,
naapuristossa asuvan tilanomistajattaren Lisaveta Prohorovna
Kuntzen, erään esikuntaupseerin lesken, talonpoika. Tuo Akim oli
nerokas ja kauppakykyinen mies, joka jo varsin nuorella ijällään,
lähdettyään matkalle kahdella kurjalla hevosella, palasi vuoden
kuluttua kolmella kunnollisella, siitä lähtien melkein läpi koko
elämänsä vaelteli valtamaanteillä, kävi Kasanissa, Odessassa,
Orenburissa ja Varsovassa jopa ulkomaillakin Leipzigissä, ja viho
viimein hän matkusteli kahdella uljaalla ja voimakkaalla
kolmivaljakolla ja mahtavilla, täydessä lastissa olevilla rattailla.
Kyllästyttikö häntä ehkä koditon kulkurin elämä, haluttiko häntä ehkä
perustaa perhe (häntä oli kohdannut sellainen onnettomuus, että
vaimo kuoli; lapset, joita heille syntyi, olivat myös nuorina kuolleet),
mutta olipa miten oli, loppujen lopuksi hän päätti hyljätä vanhan
ammattinsa ja perustaa majatalon. Tilanhaltijattaren luvalla asettui
hän tähän valtatien varteen, osti hänen nimiinsä puoli desjatinaa
maata ja rakensi sille majatalon. Yritys menestyi hyvin. Rahoja
hänellä laitokseen oli yllin kyllin; kokemus, jonka hän oli saavuttanut
pitkäaikaisella vaelluksellaan Venäjän kaikissa äärissä, oli hänelle
suureksi hyödyksi hän tiesi millä tavalla parhaiten tyydyttää
matkustajia, varsinkin entisiä ammattiveljiään, kolmivaljakkoajureja,
joista monen keralla hän oli persoonallisesti tuttava ja joista
pääasiallisesti majatalon menestys riippui: niin paljon he tarvitsivat
tavaroita itselleen ja voimakkaille hevosilleen. Akimin talo tuli
tunnetuksi sadan virstan piirissä… Hänen tykönsä poikettiin
halukkaammin kuin hänen seuraajansa, Naumin luo, vaikkei hän,
lähestulkoonkaan, piisannut Naumille isännöitsemistaidossa. Akimilla
oli kaikki enemmän vanhan ajan malliin, lämmintä, mutta ei ihan
puhdasta; ja kaurakin saattoi olla köykästä tahi kasteltua, ruoka
myöskin kiehui synnin keralla sekaisin, kuten sanotaan; hänellä
joskus sellaistakin sotkua tuotiin pöytään, että parasta olisi ollut
jättää se kokonaan uuniin, eikä siihen ollut syynä kitsastelu ruoka-
aineissa, mutta — keittäjätär ei ollut pitänyt huolta. Sensijaan oli hän
valmis alentamaan hinnasta, eikä velaksikaan, ehkä, kieltäytynyt
luottamasta, — sanalla sanoen — hyvä oli miehekseen, ja kohtelias
isäntä. Keskusteluihin ja vierasvaraisuuteen hän myös oli taipuisa;
teekeittiön ääressä joskus tunnin niin torisi, että korvat hörössä
kuuntelit, varsinkin kun rupesi kertomaan Pietarista, kirgiisien arosta
tahi ehkäpä meren rannikosta; myöskin ryypiskely, tietysti, hän
hyvän ihmisen keralla saattoi, mutta ei milloinkaan järjettömästi vaan
enemmän niinkuin seuran vuoksi — niin kertoilivat hänestä
matkalaiset. Sangen usein hänen luokseen poikkesivat kauppiaat ja
yleensä ihmiset, joita nimitetään vanhanaikaisiksi, sellaiset ihmiset,
jotka eivät itseään vyöttämättä matkalle lähde eivätkä kamariin astu
tekemättä ristinmerkkiä, eivätkä puhuttele ihmistä ensin
tervehtimättä. Yksin Akimin persoonallisuus jo oli miellyttävä: hän oli
rotevakasvuinen, vaikkakin hieman laiha, niin kuitenkin
sopusuhtainen ja suora, vieläpä vanhoilla päivilläänkin; hänen
kasvonsa olivat jalot ja rehelliset, korkea ja avonainen otsa, nenä
suora ja ohut, huulet pienet. Hänen ruskeat, ulkonevat silmänsä
loistivat vakavan avomielisestä, tuuhea ja pehmyt tukka muodosti
kehyksen hänen niskansa ympärille; otsalla ei sitä paljon ollut.
Akimin äänen sointu oli hyvin miellyttävä, vaikkakin heikko;
nuoruudessaan melkoisen hyvin lauloi, mutta ainaiset matkat
kylmässä ilmassa, talvella, pilasivat hänen rintansa. Sensijaan hän
puhui hyvin sointuvasti ja sattuvasti. Milloin hän nauroi, muodostui
hänen silmiensä ympärille kauniit kurtut, hyvin miellyttävät näöltään:
— ainoastaan hyvillä ihmisillä voi huomata sellaiset kurtut. Akimin
liikkeet olivat suureksi osaksi verkallisia, niiltä ei puuttunut
jonkunlaista varmuutta ja arvokkuutta, kuten ainakin paljon
kokeneella ja eläneellä ihmisellä.

Kaikin puolin hyvä olisi ollut Akim, tahi kuten häntä kutsuttiin
herrastalossa, jossa hän usein käväsi ja varsinkin sunnuntaisin
puolipäivämessun jälkeen, Akim Semenovitsh, — kaikinpuolin olisi
hän ollut hyvä, ellei häntä olisi seurannut eräs heikkous, joka jo
monen ihmisen on maailmassa perikatoon saattanut ja loppujen
lopuksi tuhosi hänenkin elämänsä — nimittäin, heikkous
naissukupuoleen nähden. Akimin rakkaus meni äärimmäisyyksiin,
hänen sydämensä ei mitenkään voinut vastustaa naisen katsetta;
hän suli siitä, niinkuin ensimäinen syksylumi auringonpaisteesta… ja
tavallisesti hän joutui maksamaan ylimääräisen tunteellisuutensa
tähden.

Ensimmäisen vuoden kuluessa sitte valtatien varteen

asettumisensa jälkeen Akim oli niin kiintynyt talon rakennuspuuhiin,
talouden järjestämiseen ja kaikkiin asioihin, jotka rasittavat jokaista
uudisasukasta, ettei hänelle jäänyt aikaa ajatella naisia; mutta jos
sattumalta tulivatkin hänen mieleensä jonkunlaiset syntiset ajatukset,
niin hän ne heti karkoitti lueskelemalla kaikenlaisia hurskaita kirjoja,
joita hän suuresti kunnioitti (lukutaidon hän oli oppinut jo
ensimmäisellä matkallaan), laulamalla psalmeja puoliääneen tahi
muilla sellaisilla jumalallisilla toimenpiteillä. — Sitäpaitsi hänellä oli
menemässä jo 46:s ikävuosi — niissä vuosissa kaikenlaiset
intohimot huomaamatta vaimenevat ja kuoleutuvat; myös
naimisiinkin menon aika oli niinkuin ohikulunut, kuten Akim itse
rupesi ajattelemaan… mutta, nähtävästi, kohtaloasi et voi välttää.

Entinen Akimin herratar, Lisaveta Prohorovna Kunze,

staapiupseerin rouva, joka jäi leskeksi saksalaissyntyisestä
miehestään, oli itse Mitrovin kaupungin lapsia, jossa hän oli viettänyt
ensimäiset lapsuudenaikansa ja mihin heitä isän kuoleman jälkeen
jäi sangen suuri ja köyhä perhe, josta hän, sivumennen sanoen,
hyvin vähän huolehti, varsinkin senjälkeen, kun yksi hänen
veljistään, armeijan jalkaväkiupseeri, sattumalta saapui hänen
luokseen ja jo toisena päivänä riehamastui siinä määrin, että oli
vähällä ettei lyönyt itseään emäntää, nimittäen häntä sen lisäksi:
»du, Lumpenmamsell!» huolimatta siitä että edellisenä päivänä oli
ylistellyt häntä »sisarkullaksi ja hyväntekijättäreksi». Lisaveta
Prohorovna eleli paikallaan ja hiljaisesti miesvainajansa
jälkeenjättämällä omaisuudella, jota hän itse hoiti, ja varsin
älykkäästi hoitikin. Lisaveta Prohorovna ei luopunut
pienimmästäkään etuoikeudestaan, kaikesta valvoi tuloja itselleen;
tuossa kaikessa ja vielä lisäksi siinä, että hän osasi pennin sijasta
tuhlata kopeekan, osottautui hänen saksalainen syntyperänsä;
muissa kaikissa suhteissa hän venäläistyi. Hänen taloutensa oli
laaja, varsinkin piti hän suuren lauman härkiä, jotka eivät turhaan
syöneet ruokaansa: aamusta iltaan niitten vahvat jäntereet olivat
työssä. Hän mielellään ajeli umpivaunuissa, livrepukuiset palvelijat
takaistuimella; hän piti siitä, että hänelle juoruiltiin ja itsekin oli hän
varsin etevä siinä ammatissa, hän tahtoi, että häneltä nöyrästi
anottiin suosiota, jota hän joskus antoi, mutta millä hetkellä tahansa
saattoi hän sen peruuttaa, — sanalla saneen, Lisaveta Prohorovna
käyttäytyi niinkuin herratar ainakin. — Akimista hän piti — vuokran
maksoi tämä aina säntillensä — armollisesti häntä puhutteli, jopa,
leikillä, pyyteli häntä vieraisille luokseen… Mutta siitä huolimatta:
juuri tästä herrastalosta uhkasi Akimia onnettomuus.

Lisaveta Prohorovnan kamaripalvelijattarien joukossa oli eräs

tyttö, noin kahdenkymmenen ikäinen, orpo, nimeltään Dunjasha.
Eikä hän ollut hullumpikaan; kookas ja sukkela; hänen piirteensä,
vaikkakaan eivät sopusuhtaiset, saattoivat miellyttää: tuore ihon väri,
tuuheat, vaaleat hiukset, elävät harmaat silmät, pieni pyöreä nenä,
punaset huulet ja varsinkin huoleton, puolileikillinen ja puolitotinen
kasvojen ilme — kaikki tuo omalla tavallaan vaikutti varsin
herttaisesti. Kaiken lisäksi hän, huolimatta orpoudestaan, käyttäytyi
ankarasti, melkein ynseästi: hän oli syntyisin aatelispalvelijoista;
hänen isävainajansa. Arefij, vuotta kolmekymmentä oli ollut
isännöitsijänä, mutta isoisä, Stepan, palveli kamaripalvelijana eräällä
jo ammoin sitten kuolleella herralla, kaartin kersantilla ja kreivillä.
Hän pukeutui moitteettomasti ja kiemaili käsillänsä, jotka,
kieltämättä, olivat erinomaisen kauniit. Dunjasha osotti suurta
ylenkatsetta kaikkia ihailijoitaan kohtaan, itsetyytyväisesti hymyillen
kuunteli hän heidän rakkaudentunnustuksiaan ja jos hän jotain heille
vastasikin, niin tapahtui se jotakin lyhyesti huudahtaen, kuten: »niin!
kas, sitä! jokos minä rupeisin! vielä mitä!…» Näinä huudahdukset
tietysti usein tulivat kieleltä eikä sydämestä. Dunjasha oli viettänyt
kolmen vuoden paikkeilla Moskovassa opissa ja siellä hän sai nuo
omituiset tavat ja kujeet, jotka huomaa suurkaupungeissa
oleskelleissa kamaripalvelijattarissa. Hän luulotteli suuria itsestään;
mutta, vaikka hän rakentelikin pilvilinnoja, kuten sanotaan, ei hän
milloinkaan luottautunut niitten varaan ja pudonnut alas. Eikä hän
tyhmemmin elänytkään, mutta siitä huolimatta ei Lisaveta
Prohorovna häntä liiaksi suosinut, kiitos vanhimman
kamaripalveljattaren, Kirilovnan, naisen, joka ei enää ollut eilisen
teeren poika, vaan varsin etevä juonittelija ja valehtelija. Kirilovna
käytti edukseen saavuttamaansa vaikutusta emäntäänsä ja osasi
hyvin nerokkaasti vahingoittaa kilpailijoitansa.

Tähän Dunjashaan juuri rakastui Akim! Vieläpä ihan erilailla kuin

ennen. Alussa hän kohtasi tytön kirkossa: hän oli juuri vastikään
palannut Moskovasta… sittemmin kohtasi häntä jonkun kerran
herraskartanossa; vihdoin vietti hänen kanssaan koko illan kartanon
kirjurin luona, mihin häntä, toisten parempien ihmisten keralla, oli
kutsuttu teetä juomaan. Kartanon väki ei häntä ylönkatsonut,
vaikkakaan hän ei kuulunut samaan piiriin ja käytti partaa; olihan hän
valistunut mies, lukutaitoinen, ja, mikä pääasia, rikas; sitäpaitsi ei
hän pukeutunut moukkamaisesti, käytti pitkää mustasta verasta
tehtyä viittaa, mustia saappaita Ja kaulahuivia. Totta kyllä, kartanon
palvelijat keskenään joskus juttelivat etteihän se Akim ole
heikäläisiä, mutta edessäpäin he häntä mairittelivat. Sinä iltana,
kirjurin luona, Dunjasha lopullisesti valloitti Akimin rakastavaisen
sydämen, vaikka hän järkähtämättömästi vaikeni koko illan, eikä
sanaakaan vastannut Akimin viittaileviin ja merkitseviin jaarituksiin,
jopa joskus katsahti häneen, tuollalailla, kuin, syrjäsilmäyksellä,
ikäänkuin ihmetellen minkätähden tuo talonpoika on täällä. Kaikki tuo
vaan lisäsi öljyä tuleen. Akim meni yksinään kotiin, ajatteli, ajatteli ja
vihdoin päätti pyytää hänen kättään… Niin Dunjasha hänet itseensä
»kietoi». Mutta miten voidaankaan kuvailla sitä suuttumusta ja
hämmästystä, joka valtasi Dunjashan, kun noin päivän viiden
perästä, Kirilovna, lempeästi kutsuttuaan hänet luoksensa, ilmoitti
hänelle, että Akim (nähtävästi hän tiesi, miten asiaan on ryhdyttävä),
että tuo partasuu ja talonpoikainen Akim, jonka rinnalla istumisenkin
hän katsoi loukkaukseksi, tavottelee häntä!

Dunjasha aluksi suuttui silmittömästi, sitten purskahti raikuvaan

nauruun ja sitten ratkesi itkemään; mutta Kirilovna niin nerokkaasti
johti hyökkäystä, niin selvästi saattoi hänet käsittämään asemansa
epätoivoisuuden kartanossa, niin sopivasti huomautti Akimin
ulkonäöstä, rikkaudesta ja vakavuudesta, sekä, loppujen lopuksi, niin
painavasti ilmoitti itse herrattarenkln siihen suuntaan käyvästä
toivomuksesta, että Dunjasha jo poistuessaan ajatteli asiaa
vakavalta kannalta, ja, kohdatessaan sittemmin Akimin, katsoi
häneen vakavasti vaan ei kääntynyt pois. Sanomattoman runsaat
rakastavan Akimin lahjat, haihduttivat viimeisetkin epäilykset…
Lisaveta Prohorovna, jolle Akim vei lahjaksi hopeatarjottimella sata
persikkaa, suostui hänen liittoonsa Dunjashan kanssa ja liitto
vahvistettiin. Akim ei säälinyt menoja. Morsian, joka hääpäivän
aattona istui morsiustyttöjen parissa kuin kuollut ja vielä hääpäivän
aamuna itki, kunnes hänet Kirilovna talutti vihkituolille, pian
rauhoittui… Rouva antoi hänelle kirkossa käytettäväksi oman
shaalinsa — mutta Akim heti samana päivänä lahjoitti hänelle
samanlaisen, jopa vielä paremman.
 Ja niin Akim joutui naimisiin; toi oman nuorikkonsa uuteen
taloonsa… Rupesivat he elämään. Dunjasha osottautui heti
huonoksi emännäksi, heikoksi miehensä tueksi. Hän ei juuri
mihinkään ryhtynyt, tuskaili, murehti, paitsi milloin joku
matkustavainen upseeri herätti hänen huomionsa ja liehakoitsi häntä
suuren teekeittiön ääressä istuttaessa; usein tapahtui, että
kaupunkiin ostoksille tahi herraskartanoon, jonne majatalosta oli
nelisen virstaa, vieraisille riensi. Ei koti oikein näyttänyt viihdyttävän.
Herraskartanossa hän lepäili; siellä hän tunsi olevansa omiensa
joukossa; toiset tytöt kadehtivat hänen onneaan; Kirilovna kestitsi
teellä; itse Lisaveta Prohorovna hänen kerallaan keskusteli… Mutta
nämäkään vierailut eivät tapahtuneet tuottamatta katkeruutta
Dunjashalle… Hänen, esimerkiksi, ei sopinut nyt, kuten ennen
kartanon palvelijattarena, käyttää hattua, vaan hänen oli pakko sitoa
huivi päähänsä… ikäänkuin jonkun kauppiaan muijan, kuten hänelle
sukkela suinen Kirilovna sanoi… ikäänkuin jonkunlaisen
porvarittaren, ajatteli Dunjasha itseksensä.

Monasti juolahtivat nyt Akimin mieleen hänen ainokaisen

sukulaisensa, setävanhuksen, perheettömän vanhanpojan kantturan
sanat: »No veli, Akimiseni, sanoi hän hänelle, kohdatessaan kerran
kadulla: minä olen kuullut, että sinä aiot naimisiin?…»

— Niin, kyllä; mitä sitten?

— Ah, Akim, Akim! Sinä et meille talonpoikaisille ole enään

vertainen, kuten sanotaan — eikä morsiamesikaan ole sinun
vertaisesi…

— Missä suhteessa hän ei ole minun vertaiseni?

 — Vaikkapa kaikissa, vastasi ukko ja samalla osotti Akimin partaa,
jota hän, morsiantaan miellyttääkseen oli ruvennut leikkaamaan,
kokonaan ei hän sitä hävittämään suostunut… Akim painoi
katseensa maahan; mutta ukko käännähti ympäri ja vaelsi tiehensä
heiluttaen päätänsä.

Niin, monasti hän noita sanoja muisti, ähki Ja huokaili…

Sentähden ei kuitenkaan hänen rakkautensa hyvään vaimoonsa
vähentynyt; hän ylpeili vaimostaan — varsinkin kun vertaili häntä,
sattumaisin tietysti, toisiin vaimoihin tahi edelliseen vaimoonsa,
johon hänet naittivat kuudentoistavuotiaana. Hänen pieninkin
hyväilynsä oli hänelle suuri nautinto… Niinpä niin, ajatteli hän,
tottuupahan ja taipuupahan aikaa myöten… Sitäpaitsi Dunjasha
käytti itsensä erittäin hyvin, eikä kukaan voinut sanoa hänestä pahaa
sanaa.

Sillä tavalla meni jokunen vuosi. Dunjasha, silminnähtävästi

vihdoinkin tottui osaansa. Mitä enemmän Akim vanheni, sitä
enemmän häneen kiintyi ja luotti häneen. Dunjashan toverittaret,
jotka menivät miehelään, kärsivät hätää ja puutetta tahi joutuivat
huonon kohtelun alaisiksi… Mutta Akim rikastui, aina vaan rikastui.
Kaikessa hän menestyi, onni häntä seurasi; yksi suru ainoastaan
häntä painosti: lapsia hänelle ei Jumala antanut. Dunjashalle jo
karttui ikää, kaksikymmentäviisi vuotta; kaikki rupesivat häntä jo
kunnioittamaan Audotja Arefjevnan nimellä. Täydelliseksi emännäksi
hän ei kuitenkaan kehittynyt, mutta kotiaan hän rakasti, huolehti sen
tarpeista ja piti silmällä palkollisia… Tosin hän kaiken tuon teki miten
sattui, ei kiintynyt, kuten olisi pitänyt, puhtauteen ja järjestykseen;
sensijaan majatalon parhaassa huoneessa, Akimin valokuvan
vieressä, riippui hänen kuvansa, jonka hänen tilauksestaan oli
maalannut oman paikkakunnan maalari, piirikunnan diakonin poika,
öljyväreillä. — Hän oli siihen kuvattu päällään Valkonen puku,
keltanen shaali, kuudet suurhelmiset käädyt kaulalla, pitkät
korvarenkaat korvissa ja sormus kaikissa sormissa. — Tuntea hänet
siitä kyllä voi, vaikkakin maalari oli liiotellen käyttänyt loistavia koruja
ja punamaalla ja silmätkin maalasi harmaitten sijasta mustat ja
vieläpä hieman kierot… Akimin kuva ei häneltä ensinkään
onnistunut: se muodostui jotenkin synkäksi — à la Rembrand — niin,
että, joskus matkalainen menee luokse, katsoo ja poistuu hiljaa
mumisten, yhtä viisaana kuin alussakin. Pukeutumaan rupesi
Audotja hieman huolimattomasti; heitti jonkun ison huivin hartioilleen,
mutta hame sen alla sai miten kuten letkottaa: laiskuus hänet oli
vallannut, kaikki masentava, veltto ja unelias laiskuus, johonka
venäläinen ihminen yleensä on taipuvainen, varsinkin kun hänen
olemassaolonsa on turvattu…

Tuosta kaikesta huolimatta, Akimin ja hänen vaimonsa asiat

luistivat kerrassaan hyvin, he elelivät hiljaisesti ja kävivät
mallikelpoisesta avioparista. Mutta niin kuin orava, joka puhdistaa
naamaansa samalla hetkellä kun metsästäjä häntä tähtää, ei
ihminenkään aavista tulevaa kohtaloaan — vaan yhtäkkiä vajoaa
siihen, niinkuin heikkoon jäähän.

Eräänä syksyinä iltana Akimin majataloon pysähtyi sekalaisen

tavaran kauppias. Useita sivuteitä hän matkusteli kahdella
kuormavaljakolla, Moskovasta Harkovaan; hän oli yksi niitä välittäjiä,
joita paikkakuntalaiset ja varsinkin heidän vaimonsa ja tyttärensä
joskus odottavat suuresti kärsimättöminä. Tämän jo hieman
elähtäneen kauppiaan seurassa oli kaksi kumppalia tahi, paremmin
sanoen, kaksi palvelijaa — toinen laiha, kalpea ja kyttyräselkä,
toinen nuori, hyvännäköinen kaunis nuorukainen tuossa
kahdenkymmenen ijässä. He pyysivät itselleen illallista, sen jälkeen
istahtivat teelle; kauppias pyysi isäntäväenkin kerallaan nauttimaan
kupposen — isäntäväki ei kieltäytynyt. Kahden ukon (Akimin ikä
läheni jo viittäkymmentä kuutta vuotta) välillä syntyi pian vilkas
keskustelu; kauppias uteli paikallisasioita — eikä kukaan Akimia
paremmin olisi niitä voinut valaista; kyttyräselkänen palvelija
tuontuostakin käväsi katsomassa rattaita ja vihdoin paneutui
makaamaan. Audotja näin muodoin joutui seurustelemaan toisen
palvelijan kanssa… Hän istui tämän vieressä vaiteliaana,
pääasiallisesti kuunnellen, mitä hän puhui; nähtävästi hänen juttunsa
häntä miellyttivät: hänen kasvonsa tulivat eloisammiksi, puna leikitteli
poskilla ja nauroikin hän usein ja kernaasti. Nuori mies istui melkein
liikkumattomana; kiharainen päänsä käden varaan kumarrettuna,
hän puhui hiljaa, korottamatta ääntään ja kiirehtimättä; sensijaan
hänen silmänsä, ei tosin suuret, mutta sensijaan terävän kirkkaat ja
siniset, ihan imeytyivät Audotjaan; tämä ensin väisti niitten katsetta,
mutta sittemmin itse rupesi katsomaan nuorta miestä kasvoihin.
Nuoren miehen kasvot olivat tuoreet Ja tasaiset, niinkuin Krimin
omenan; hän usein hymyili ja leikitteli valkoisitta sormillaan
untuvaisten viiksenaluillaan. Hän esiintyi kauppiasmaisesti, mutta
hyvin vapaasti ja ilmaisten jonkunlaista itseluottamusta — ja aina
katsoi häneen herkeämättömästi, ujostelematta… Yht'äkkiä nuori
mies siirtyi hieman lähemmäksi Audotjaa ja muuttamatta vähääkään
kasvojensa ilmettä, sanoi hänelle: »Audotja Arefjevna, teitä
armaampaa ei maailmassa ole ketään olemassa; olisin valmis
kuolemaan teidän tähtenne!»

Audotja hyrskähti raikuvaan nauruun.

— Mille sinä? — uteli häneltä Akim.

 — Niin kun — he niin huvittavaa kertoivat, — vastasi Audotja
ilman suurempia vaikeuksia.

Vanha kauppias sekaantui puheeseen.

— Kyllähän se niin on; tuo Naum on aikamoinen lavertelija. Älkää

te häntä kuunnelko.

— Vielä mitä! käskisipä tässä heitä kuunnella, — vastasi Audotja

ja heilautti päätään.

— Niinpä niin, tietysti, — huomautti vanhus. — Mutta, kuitenkin, —

lisäsi hän laulavalla äänellä, — anteeksi pyydämme, kovin olemme
tyytyväiset, vaan onpa aika jo levolle… — Ja hän nousi.

— Hyvin tyytyväisiä olemme mekin, — virkkoi Akim ja myöskin

nousi, — teidän vierasvaraisuuteenne; siispä, hyvää yötä teille
toivotamme. Audotjuska nouseppas!

Audotja nousi, nähtävästi vastenmielisesti; hänen perässään nousi

myös
Naum… ja kaikki erkanivat omille yöteloilleen.

Isäntäväki vetäytyi erikoiseen kammioon. Joka teki heille

makuuhuoneen virkaa. Heti vuoteelle käytyään, Akim vaipui uneen.
Audotja sensijaan ei saanut unta… Ensin hän lojui hiljaa,
seinäänpäin kääntyneenä, sitten rupesi heittelehtimään kuumalla
höyhenpatjalla, väliin heittäen pois, väliin vetäen ylleen peittoa…
sitten vaipui keveään horrokseen. Yhtäkkiä kajahti pihalta sointuva
miehen ääni: mies lauloi jotain venyvää, mutta ei surullista laulua,
jonka sanoja ei voinut erottaa. Audotja avasi silmänsä, kohosi
kyynärpäillensä ja kuunteli… Laulu yhä vaan jatkui… Sointuvasti
kajahteli se syksyisessä ilmassa.

Akim myöskin kohotti päätään.

— Kuka siellä laulaa? — kysyi hän.

— En tiedä, — vastasi Audotja.

— Hyvin laulaa, — lisäsi Akim oltuaan hetkisen ääneti. — Hyvin.

Kuulehan, millainen voimakas ääni! Kyllä minäkin, aikoinani, lauloin,
— jatkoi hän, — ja hyvin lauloinkin, mutta sitte pilaantui ääneni.
Mutta tuolla on hyvä. Tiettävästi, nuorukainen laulaa. Naumiksi, eli
kuinka, häntä nimittävät, — Ja hän käännähti toiselle kylelle —
huoahti ja nukkui jälleen.

Pitkään aikaan ei vielä vaiennut ääni… Audotja yhä vaan kuunteli

ja kuunteli; vihdoin ääni yhtäkkiä omituisesti särkyi, sitten vielä
kerran soinnahti pitkään ja senjälkeen hiljaa häipyi. Audotja risti
itsensä ja painoi päänsä päänaluselle… Kului puoli tuntia… Hän
kohosi ylös ja rupesi hiljalleen nousemaan vuoteelta…

Mihin sinä vaimo? tiedusteli häneltä unenpöpperössä Akim,

Audotja pysähtyi.

— Pyhimyksen lamppua korjaamaan, — tokasi hän, — ei saa

unta, mikähän lienee…

— Rukoile sinä, — sopersi Akim, uudelleen nukahtaen.

Audotja meni pyhimyskuvan luokse ja ryhtyi korjaamaan lamppua,

jolloin sen vahingossa ihan kokonaan sammutti, palasi takaisin
vuoteelle ja heittäytyi makuulle. Kaikki hiljeni.