Solutions Chemistry (NM) (Theory+LDA)

SOLUTIONS 1
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya SOLUTIONS

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

INTRODUCTION For example, common salt in water.
In normal life we rarely come across pure substances. Most 1.2 Classification
of these Lakshya
Lakshya are mixtures Lakshya
containing two or more pure
substances. Their utility or importance in life depends on Solutions which contain two components in it are called
Lakshya Lakshya The airLakshya
their composition. around us is aLakshya Lakshya
mixture of gases Lakshya
Binary Solutions. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
primarily oxygen and nitrogen; the water we drink contains
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Substances
Lakshyawhich are used to prepare
Lakshya a solution are
Lakshya called
Lakshya
very small amounts of various salts dissolved in it. Our blood
is a mixture of different components. Alloys such as brass, as Components.
bronze, stainless steel, etc. are also mixtures. In this Unit, The component that is present in the largest quantity is
Lakshya Lakshya
we will consider Lakshya
mostly liquid Lakshya
solutions and Lakshya
their properties. Lakshya
known as Solvent. Lakshya Lakshya
Solvent determines Lakshya
the physical state in
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
which solution
Lakshya
exists.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1. SOLUTIONS
The other component present in lesser quantity in the
solution Lakshya
is termed as Solute. Lakshya Lakshya
1.1 Definition
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Each component may
Lakshya be solid, liquid
Lakshya or in gaseous
Lakshya state.
Lakshya
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than
Lakshya Lakshya
two components. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

1.3 Strength of Solutions
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Mass of component
Lakshyain the sol.
Mass % of a componentLakshya
 Lakshya
 100
The amount of solute dissolved per unit solution or Total Mass of sol.
Lakshya
solvent is Lakshya
called StrengthLakshya Lakshya
of solution. There are variousLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2. Volume percentage (%v/v):
methods of measuring strength of a solution. :
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya volume
“It represents Lakshya Lakshya
of a component Lakshya
in 100 mL of solution”
1. Mass Percentage (%w/w):
Lakshya Lakshya
“It represents mass of a Lakshya Lakshya
component present in 100 g Lakshya
of Lakshya LakshyaVol. ofLakshya
component Lakshya
Vol. % of a component = ×100
solution” Total vol. of solution
Lakshya Educare
2 SOLUTIONS
3. Mass by volume percentage (%w/v): 8. Normality, N
“It represents
Lakshya mass of solute
Lakshya in grams present
Lakshya in 100 mLLakshya
Lakshya of It Lakshya
represents no. of equivalents ofLakshya
Lakshya solute presentLakshya
in 1 L of
solution” solution.
Mass of solute in g No. of Equivalents of solute
Mass by vol.
Lakshya percent = Lakshya
Lakshya 100
Lakshya Lakshya Normality,Lakshya
Lakshya N
Vol. of sol. in mL Vol.Lakshya
of sol. in L Lakshya
Lakshya
4. Parts perLakshya
Million (ppm)Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Weight
No. of equivalents, eq 
Lakshya Lakshya
No. of Lakshya Lakshya
parts of the component Lakshya Lakshya LakshyaEquivalent
Lakshya
weight (W Lakshya
/ E)
Parts per Million  106
Lakshya Total no. ofLakshya
Lakshya all the componens of sol. Lakshya
M
E (z is the valency factor)
Concentration
Lakshya
in parts perLakshya
Lakshya
million can be expressed
Lakshya
as mass
Lakshya z
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
to mass, volume to volume and mass to volume.
SOME IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS
Lakshya
5. Lakshya
Mole Fraction (x) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Dilution Law
“It represents
Lakshya the moles of
Lakshya a solute present
Lakshya in one mole Lakshya
Lakshya of Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
solution” If a solution is diluted by adding solvent to it, then the
amount of solute Lakshya Lakshya
remains constant Lakshya
and we can write:
No. of moles of the component
Mole fraction  MLakshya
V = M2V2 andLakshya
N1V1 = N2V2 Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Total no.Lakshya
of moles all theLakshya
components Lakshya 1 1 Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Molarity

Lakshyaand Normality
For example, in a binary Lakshya Lakshyaof moles
mixture, if the number Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole fraction Normality = z × Molarity
of A will be
IMPORTANT :
nA Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent
xA 
Lakshya n A  nB
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya of temperature,
Lakshya whereas
Lakshyamolarity & normalityLakshya
Lakshya are a
function of temperature. This is because volume depends
6. Molarity,Lakshya
Lakshya M Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
on temperature andLakshya
the mass doesLakshya
not. Lakshya
“It represents moles of solute present in 1 L of solution”
2. Lakshya
VAPOUR Lakshya
PRESSURE Lakshya Lakshya
Moles of solute
Lakshya Molarity,
Lakshya M Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Vol. of sol. in L 2.1 Definition
Units of Molarity are mol/L also represented by ‘M’ or Vapour pressure of a liquid/solution is the pressure exerted
‘Molar’. Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya by the vapours in equilibrium
Lakshya Lakshya withLakshya
the liquid/solution at a
Lakshya
“Density of a solution is mass of the solution per unit particular temperature.
volume” Vapour pressure  escaping tendency
Mass of sol. 2.2 Vapour pressure of liquid solutions and
Density, d   m/V
Lakshya Lakshya Vol.Lakshya
of sol. Lakshya Lakshya Raoult’s Law Lakshya
Lakshya : Lakshya Lakshya
7. Molality, Lakshya
Lakshya m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(Raoult’s law for volatile solutes)
“It represents moles of solute present per kg of solvent”
Raoult’s law statesLakshya Lakshya
that for a solution of volatileLakshya
liquids,
Moles of solute the partial vapour pressure of each component in the
Lakshya Molality,
Lakshya m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Mass of solvent in kg solution is directlyLakshya
proportionalLakshya Lakshya
to its mole fraction.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Consider
Lakshyaa solution containing two
Lakshya volatile components
Lakshya Lakshya
Units of molality are mol/kg which is also represented by
1and 2 with mole fractions x1 and x2 respectively. Suppose
‘m’ or ‘molal’.
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 3
at a particular
Lakshya temperature,Lakshya
Lakshya their partial vapour pressures are
Lakshya Lakshya In general
0 0
p and p2 and the vapour pressure in pure state are p and p .
Lakshya pi = yi Lakshya
ptotal
1 1 2
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Thus, according to Raoult’s Law, for component 1
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2.3 Lakshya
Vapour pressures of solutions
Lakshya of solids in liquids
Lakshya Lakshya
p1  x1 and Raoult’s Law
and p1 = p10 x1 (Raoult’s law for non volatile solutes)
Similarly, for component 2 If a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent to give a
Lakshya
solution, the number of solvent molecules escaping from
p 2 Lakshya
 p 02 x 2 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
the surface is correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour
AccordingLakshya
Lakshya to Dalton’s law
Lakshya Lakshya the total
of partial pressure, Lakshya pressure is also reduced.
pressure (ptotal) over the solution phase in the container will
The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on
be the sum
Lakshya of the partialLakshya
Lakshya pressures of the components Lakshya
Lakshya of Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
the quantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution,
the solution and is given as :
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya irrespective
Lakshya of its nature.
ptotal = p1 + p2
Raoult’s law in its general form can be stated as, for any
Lakshya Lakshya
Substituting the values ofLakshya Lakshya
p1 and p2, we get Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
solution the partial vapour pressure of each volatile
Lakshya = x1 p10  x 2 pLakshya
ptotalLakshya 0
2 Lakshya Lakshya component
Lakshya in the solution
Lakshya is directly proportional
Lakshya to its
Lakshya
mole fraction.
Lakshya  (1  x 2 ) p10  x 2 pLakshya
Lakshya
0
2 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and solute
Lakshya 0
 pLakshya 0 0
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya by Lakshya
2. When the solute
Lakshya is non-volatile,
Lakshyaonly theLakshya
solvent
1  (p 2  p1 ) x 2
molecules are present in vapour phase and contribute to
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya vapour pressure. Let
Lakshya p1 be the vapour
Lakshya Lakshyapressure of the
Lakshya
solvent, x1 be its mole fraction, p10 be its vapour pressure
in the pure state. Then according to Raoult’s law
p 1  x1
and p1 = x1 p10 = ptotal

The plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an
ideal solution at constant temperature. The dashed
line I and II represent the partial pressure of the
components.
Lakshya It can be seen
Lakshya from the plot
Lakshya that p1 andLakshya
p2 are directly proportional to x1 and x2, respectively.
The total Lakshya
Lakshya vapour pressure is given by Lakshya
Lakshya line marked IIILakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
in the figure.
Mole fraction in vapour phase
If y1 and yLakshya
Lakshya 2
are the mole fractions
Lakshyaof the components
Lakshya 1 and
2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton’s law If a solution obeys Raoult’s law for all concentrations,
Lakshya Lakshya
of partial pressures: Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya itsLakshya Lakshya
vapour pressure would varyLakshya
linearly fromLakshya
zero to
p1 = y1 ptotal Lakshya the vapour pressure of the pure solvent.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
p = y ptotal
Lakshya Lakshya
2 2 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Educare
4 SOLUTIONS
Solutions showing negative deviations from Raoult’s law :
2.4 Ideal and Non-ideal solutions
 Solvent-Solute(A-B) type of force is stronger than the other
Ideal solutions : two.Lakshya
An ideal solution is the solution in which each component  The vapour pressure is lower than predicted by the law
Lakshya Lakshya
obeys Raoult’s Lakshya
law under all conditionsLakshya Lakshya
of temperatures Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
and concentrations.  HMIXING < 0
Properties of Ideal solutions :  VMIXING< 0
 HMIXING = 0 For example,phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya etc Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
 VMIXING = 0
Lakshya Lakshya
Intermolecular attractive Lakshya
forces betweenLakshya Lakshya
the A-A and B-B Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
are nearly equal to those between A-B.
Eg. solution of benzene and toluene, Pressure composition curves for solution showing
solution of n-hexane and n-heptane negative deviation
Non – ideal solutions :
When a solution does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire
range of concentration,
Lakshya Lakshya
then it is called non-ideal
Lakshya Lakshya
solution.
Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s Law :
 Solvent-Solute(A-B) type of force is weaker than Solute-
Lakshya Lakshya
Solute(B-B) Lakshya
& Solvent-Solvent(A-A) Lakshya
forces. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
The vapour pressure is higher
Lakshya than predicted
Lakshya by the law.Lakshya
Lakshya
HMIXING >Lakshya
0 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
 V >0
LakshyaMIXING Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Eg. ethanol and acetone, carbon disulphide and acetone
Pressure composition curve for solution showing
positive deviation
Azeotropes Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya are Lakshya

Azeotropes Lakshya
binary mixtures Lakshya
having the same
composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a
constant temperature.
Minimum Lakshya
boiling azeotrope Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TheLakshya

solutions which show a large Lakshya
Lakshya positive deviation from
Lakshya
Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific
composition. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ForLakshya

example, ethanol-water
Lakshya mixture containing
Lakshya Lakshya
approximately 95% of ethanol forms an azeotrope with
boiling Lakshya
point 351.15 K. Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 5

3. SOLUBILITY

Solubility of a Lakshya
solid in liquidLakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Solubility

Lakshya of a substance
Lakshyais its maximum
LakshyaamountLakshya
that can
be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent.
Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in liquid :
1. Lakshya
Nature Lakshya
of solute and solvent : Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya LikeLakshya

dissolves like.Lakshya
For example, Lakshya
While sodium Lakshya
chloride
and sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshyado not.Lakshya
anthracene On the other Lakshya Lakshya
hand, naphthalene and
anthracene dissolve readily in benzene but sodium chloride
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya andLakshya
sugar do not. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2.

Lakshya Temperature
Lakshya : Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
In a nearly saturated solution,
Boiling temperature - composition Diagram for solutions If ( solH > 0), the solubility increases with rise in
showing large Lakshya
positive deviations. Lakshya Lakshya and Lakshya
temperature Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(Minimum boiling
Lakshya
azeotrope)
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya If Lakshya Lakshya
( solH < 0) the Lakshya withLakshya
solubility decreases rise in
Maximum boiling azeotrope : temperature.
The solutions that show large negative deviation from Effect of pressure :
Lakshya Lakshya
Raoult’s law Lakshya
form maximum Lakshya
boiling azeotrope Lakshya
at a specific Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Does not have any significant effect as solids and liquids
composition. Nitric acid and water mixture containing 68% are highly incompressible.
nitric acid forms an azeotrope with a boiling point of 393.5
K.
3.2 Lakshya
Henry’s law Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Henry’s law states that at a constant temperature, the

solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya the Lakshya
pressure of theLakshya
gas. Lakshya Lakshya
The most commonly used form of Henry’s law states that
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya “theLakshya Lakshya
partial pressure of the gas Lakshya Lakshya
in vapour phase (p) is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the
solution”. This is expressed as: Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p = Lakshya

KH x Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Here KH is the Henry’s

Lakshya law constant.
Characteristics of KH :
 KH is a function of the nature of the gas.
 Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the
solubility of the gasLakshya
in the liquid. Lakshya Lakshya
Boiling temperature - composition Diagram for solutions
Lakshya showing largeLakshya
Lakshya negative deviations.
Lakshya 
Lakshya KH Lakshya
values increaseLakshya
with increase ofLakshya
temperature indicating
Lakshya
(Maximum boiling azeotrope) that the solubility of gases increases with decrease of
temperature. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Educare
6 SOLUTIONS
Applications of Henry’s law Knowing that x2 = 1 – x1, equation reduces to
Lakshya
1. Lakshyaof carbonated
In the production Lakshya Lakshya
beverages. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
p1  x 2 p10
2. In the deep
Lakshya sea diving. Lakshya
Equation can be wirtten as
3. For climbers or people at high altitudes.
Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law p1 p10  p1
  x2
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p10
Lakshya p10 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
According to Raoult’s law,
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TheLakshya
expression onLakshya
the left hand Lakshya Lakshya
side of the equation as
pi = xi p i0 mentioned earlier is called relative lowring of vapour
pressure Lakshya
and is equal Lakshya
to the mole fraction Lakshya
of the solute. The
In the solution of a gas in a liquid, one of the components
above equation can be written as :
is so volatile
Lakshya that it existsLakshya
Lakshya as a gas. Its solubility
Lakshyaaccording
to Henry’s law, 0
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p1 -p1
Lakshya 2

n Lakshya n2 
Lakshya Lakshya
=  since x 2 = 
p = KH x. p 0
n1 +n 2  n1 +n 2 
1
Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law
Here n1 and n2 are the number of moles of solvent and solute
Lakshya
in which KLakshya
becomes equal to p i0 .
H respectively present in the solution. For dilute solutions
n2 << n1, hence neglecting n in the denominator Lakshya
we have
4. COLLIGATIVE
Lakshya PROPERTIES
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2 Lakshya
0
The properties
Lakshya that dependLakshya
Lakshya on the numberLakshya
of solute particles
Lakshya p1  p1
Lakshya n 2Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

irrespective of their nature relative to the total number of 0
p
1 n1
particles Lakshya
Lakshya present in the Lakshya
solution are called
Lakshyacolligative
properties. 0
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p1  p1
Lakshya wLakshya
2  M1 Lakshya Lakshya
There are four colligative properties: or 0

p
1 M 2  w1
1. Relative Lowering of vapour Pressure
Here w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar
Lakshya
2. Elevation Lakshya Lakshya
in Boiling Point Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
masses of the solvent and solute respectively.
3. Depression
Lakshya in freezing point
4.2 Elevation in Boiling Point
4. Osmotic pressure
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the
4.1 Relative
Lakshya
Lowering of
Lakshya
vapour Pressure
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya vapour pressure Lakshya
Lakshya of the liquid Lakshya
becomes equal to the
Lakshya
atmospheric pressure.
When a non-volatile
Lakshya Lakshya
solute is added to a solvent,
Lakshya Lakshya
the vapour
pressure decreases. On addition of non-volatile solute the vapour pressure of
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya the Lakshya
solvent decreases and therefore,
Lakshya to boil the solution
Lakshya the
Lakshya
The lowering of vapour pressure w.r.t. the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent is called “Relative lowering required temperature will be higher. So, there will be a rise
Lakshya
in vapourLakshya
pressure”. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
in the boiling pointLakshya
of the solution.Lakshya Lakshya
According
Lakshya to Raoult’s
Lakshya Law : Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TheLakshya Lakshya
increase in boiling = Tb – Tb0 where
point TbLakshya Tb0 is
Lakshya
Lakshya  x1 p10
p1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya the Lakshya
boiling point ofLakshya
pure solvent and Tb is the boiling
Lakshya point
Lakshya
of solution is known as elevation of boiling point.
The reduction
Lakshya in the vapour
Lakshya pressure ofLakshya
Lakshya solvent (p1)Lakshya
is Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Expression :
given as:
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TbLakshya
= Kb m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
0 0 0
p1  p  p1  p  p x1
1 1 1
Kb is called BoilingLakshya Lakshya
Point Elevation Lakshya
Constant or Molal
0
 p (1  x1 )
1 Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic Constant).
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 7

Calculation of molar mass of solute :
4.3 Depression in freezing point
w 2 / M2 1000  w 2
m  The freezing point of a substance may be defined as the
Lakshya w1 /1000
Lakshya M 2  w1
temperature at which the vapour pressure of the substance
Substituting the value of Lakshya
molality in equation we get in its liquid phase is equal to its vapour pressure in the
solid phase.
Lakshya K b 1000 Lakshya
Lakshya w2 Lakshya Lakshya WhenLakshya
a non-volatileLakshya
solid is addedLakshya Lakshya
to the solvent its vapour
Tb 
M 2  w1 pressure decreases and now it would become equal to that
of solid solvent at Lakshya Lakshya
lower temperature. Thus, the Lakshya
freezing
1000  w 2  Lakshya
Kb point of the solvent decreases.
Lakshya M 2Lakshya
 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Tb  w1
Tf = Tf0 – Tf where Tf0 is the freezing point of pure solvent
Kb : and Tf is its freezing point when non-volatile solute is
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya dissolved
Lakshya
is knownLakshya
as depressionLakshya Lakshya
in freezing point.
It is defined as the elevation in boiling point when the
molality of
Lakshya the solution Lakshya
Lakshya is unity. Lakshya Expression
Lakshya :
–1
The unit of Kb is K kg mol Tf = Kf m
Determination of Kb : Kf is known as Freezing Point Depression Constant or
Molal DepressionLakshya Lakshya
Constant or Cryoscopic Lakshya
Constant.
R  M1  Tb2
Kb 
Calculation Lakshya
of molar mass of solute : Lakshya Lakshya
1000   vap H
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya w / MLakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2 2
where: R = gas constant (8.314 JK/mol), m
w1 /1000
Tf = freezing temperature in K,
Lakshya Lakshya
M = Molar Lakshya
mass of solvent in Kg/mol, Lakshya Lakshya Substituting
Lakshya this value of molalityLakshya
Lakshya in equation weLakshya
get :
1
vapH = enthalpy
Lakshya Lakshyaof vapourisation
Lakshya of solvent in J/mol. Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya K f  w
Lakshya
2 / M2
Lakshya Lakshya
Tf 
w1 /1000
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K f  w 2  1000

Tf 
M 2  w1
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K  w 2  1000

M  f Lakshya
2
Lakshya Lakshya
Tf  w1
Kf :
It is defined as the depression in freezing point when the
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya molality of the solution
Lakshya is unity. TheLakshya
Lakshya kg mol-1.
unit of Kf is K Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Determination

Lakshya Lakshyaof Kf : Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2
Lakshya Lakshya
The vapour Lakshya
pressure curve Lakshya
for solution Lakshya
lies below the Lakshya R  MLakshya
1  Tf Lakshya Lakshya
Kf 
curve for pure water. The diagram shows that Tb 1000   fus H
denotes the elevation of boiling point of a solvent in
solution. Lakshya where : R = gas constant (8.314 JK/mol),
Tf = freezing temperature in K,
Lakshya Educare
8 SOLUTIONS
M1 = Molar mass of solvent in Kg/mol,
fusH = enthalpy of fusion of solvent in J/kg

The excess pressure equal to osmotic pressure must
be applied onLakshya
Lakshya
the solution toLakshya
prevent osmosis.
Lakshya
Diagram showing Tf, depression of the freezing Expression :
point of a solvent in a solution.
For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is proportional to
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya the Lakshya Lakshya
molarity, C of the solution at Lakshya Lakshya
a given temperature T.
4.4 Osmosis
Thus:
When a pure solvent and solution are kept with a semi- =CRT
permeableLakshya
Lakshya membrane between
Lakshya them Lakshya
then the solvent Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
particles pass through the membrane from the solvent side Here  is the osmotic pressure and R is the gas constant.
Lakshya Lakshya
to the solution Lakshya
side. This phenomenon Lakshya
is called “Osmosis”.Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Calculation of molar mass :
The semi-permeable
Lakshya Lakshya membraneLakshyais a membrane
Lakshya that allows
only small molecules to pass through and blocks the larger   (n 2 / V) RT
Lakshya Lakshya
solute molecules. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Here V is volume of a solution in litres containing n2 moles
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya of solute. If w2 grams
Lakshya of solute, of molar
Lakshya mass, M2 is
Lakshya present
Lakshya
in the solution, then n2 = w2 / M2 and we can write,
w 2 RT
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya V 
M2
w RT
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya M 2  2 Lakshya
or Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
V
Isotonic solutions :
TwoLakshya Lakshya
solutions having Lakshya
same osmotic pressure atLakshya
a given
temperature are called isotonic solutions.
The solution with lower concentration or lower osmotic
Osmotic
Lakshya pressure :
pressure is known Lakshya Lakshya
as “Hypotonic” with respectLakshya
to more
The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure concentrated solution.
that must be applied to a solution to prevent osmosis, i.e.,
The solution with higher concentration or higher osmotic
to stop the
Lakshya passage ofLakshya
Lakshya solvent molecules
LakshyathroughLakshya
a Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
pressure is known as “Hypertonic” with respectLakshya
to dilute
semipermeable membrane into the solution.
solution.
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 9

Reverse osmosis : Dissociation :
Lakshya Lakshya
If a pressure Lakshya
larger than the Lakshya
osmotic pressure is applied Lakshya
to TheLakshya Lakshya will always
number of particles Lakshya
increaseLakshya
due to
the solution side, the solvent will flow from the solution dissociation and hence i > 1.
into the pure solvent through the semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis. An  nA
Application : Initial particle = 1
Desalination of sea water : Final particles = 1 –  + n
When pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied, pure i = 1Lakshya
–  + n Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
water is Lakshya
Lakshya squeezed out Lakshya
of the sea water through the
Lakshya Lakshya
ModifiedLakshya
Expressions :Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
membrane.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Relative lowering of
Lakshya vapour pressure
Lakshya of solvent, Lakshya
Lakshya
4.5 Abnormal Molar Masses
p10  p1 Lakshya
n2 Lakshya Lakshya
When the molecular mass of a substance determined by 0
 i.
p1 n1
Lakshya Lakshya
studying any Lakshya
of the colligative propertiesLakshya
comes out to Lakshya
be Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
different than the theoretically expected value, the substance
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Elevation
Lakshyaof Boiling point Tb = Lakshya
Lakshya i Kb m Lakshya
is said to show abnormal molar mass.
Lakshya Molar
Abnormal Lakshya
Masses areLakshya
observed: Lakshya Lakshya Depression
Lakshyaof Freezing point, TfLakshya
Lakshya = i Kf m Lakshya
Osmotic pressure of solution,  = i n2 RT/V
1. When the Lakshya
Lakshya solute undergoes association in
Lakshya the solution. Lakshya
2. When the Lakshya

Lakshya solute undergoes in the solution.Lakshya5.
dissociation Lakshya
Lakshya VAPOUR
LakshyaPRESSURE
van’t Hoff Factor : OnLakshya
increasing theLakshya
temperature ofLakshya
the liquid the Lakshya
escaping
To calculate extent of association or dissociation, van’t Hoff tendency of the molecules increases and the vapour
Lakshya
introducedLakshya Lakshya
a factor i, known as the van’tLakshya
Hoff Factor. Lakshya Lakshya
pressure Lakshya
increases. Lakshya Lakshya

Lower Only the faster-moving
Lakshya molecules have
Lakshya Lakshya
Number of molecules
Normal molar mass temperature

sufficient kinetic energy to escape from
i the liquid and enter the vapour.
Lakshya Abnormal molar
Lakshya mass
The higher the temperature,
the larger the number of
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Energy needed Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya
molecules that have enough
Observed colligative property Higher
to escape liquid energy to escape.
i temperature
Lakshya Lakshya colligative
Calculated LakshyapropertyLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Kinetic energy
The Lakshya
distribution Lakshya
of molecular kineticLakshya
Total no. of moles of particles after association (dissociation)

No. of moles of particles before association (dissociation) energies in a liquid
Claussius-Clapeyron Equation
Association
Lakshya : Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
In p2/p1 = (HVAP/R) (1/T1 – 1/T2)
Number of particles will always decrease due to association
where Lakshyathe enthalpy
HVAP represents Lakshya Lakshya
of vaporisation of
therefore i < 1.
the liquid.
nA  An
6. THERMODYNAMICS OF DISSOLUTION
Lakshya
Let initialLakshya
particles (n ) =Lakshya
i
If the interactions grow stronger the process is exothermic
Lakshya Lakshya
Final number( nf) = 1 – Lakshya
+ /n Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
and Lakshya
if they go weaker Lakshya
during the formation ofLakshya
solution
the process becomes endothermic. In general S is
van’t HoffLakshya
Lakshya factor, i = nf/nLakshya
i
= 1 –  + /n Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
positive Lakshya
in dissolution Lakshya
process. If Lakshya
the mixing process is
spontaneous/natural then G has to be negative.
Lakshya Educare
10 SOLUTIONS

6.1 Boiling Point Elevation
GVAP = 0
Tb = HVAP/SVAP
The non-volatile solute increases the randomness of the
The lower freezing point of a solution relative to that of a
solution phase and the entropy of the vapours remains
pure Lakshya
solvent is due Lakshya
to a difference Lakshya
in their entropies
the same. Due to this, SVAP decreases thus giving rise to
the boiling point. of fusion, S fusion
.

7. OSTWALD WALKER METHOD

The higher boiling point of a solution relative to that of a
This Lakshya
is a typical method Lakshya
to measure the relative Lakshya
lowering
pure solvent is due to a difference in their entropies
in vapour pressure of a solution. Dry air is passed
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Svap
of vapourization, .
successively through three systems: solution, pure solvent
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya and then a dryingLakshya
Lakshya agent. Lakshya Lakshya
6.2 Freezing Point Depression
w1 and w2 represent the decrease in weight of the vessels
GFUS = 0 and w3 represents the increase in weight of the third vessel
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya due to absorption.Lakshya
Tf = HFUS/SFUS
The entropy differenceLakshya
will increase inLakshya
this case due Lakshya
to w1  PSOLUTION w2  PSOLVENT – PSOLUTION
the increase in the entropy of solution. This increase in (as the air was already saturated)
entropy Lakshya
Lakshya will result in Lakshya
decrease of the freezing point
Lakshya Lakshya wLakshya
3
 PSOLVENT Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
according to the above relation.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Using the above relations
Lakshya Lakshyathe relative lowering in
Lakshya vapour
Lakshya
pressure can be calculated.

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 11

IMPORTANT
Lakshya
FORMULAE
In the formulae
Lakshya
given below
Lakshya
A representsLakshya
Lakshya
solvent and BLakshya
represents solute, also
MA = Molar mass of solvent MB = Molar mass of solute
WA = Mass of solvent VB = volume of solute
V = Volume of solution d = density of solution.
WB
1. Mass of percentage (w/w) = W  W  100
Lakshya Lakshya LakshyaA B Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

VB
Volume percentage (v/v) = V  V  100
A B Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

 w  WB  100
Mass by volume percentage  v   V (mL)
Lakshya Lakshya  

WB 6
Parts per million (ppm) = W  W  10

nA
2. Mole fraction of A, xA = n  n

nB Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
mole fraction of B, xB = n  n
A B
Lakshya xA + xB = 1 Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Moles of solute Lakshya

Lakshya nB WB
3. Molarity (M) = Volume of solution in litre  V  M  V
(L) B (L)
Lakshya Lakshya MolesLakshya

of solute nB
Lakshya WLakshya
B  1000 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
4. Molality (m) = Mass of solvent in kg  W 1000  M  W
A B A
Lakshya LakshyaGram Equivalents

Lakshya of solute
Lakshya WB
5. Normality (N) = Volume of solution in litre  GEM of solute  V
(L)
GEM = Gram Equivalent Mass
6. Relationship between Molarity and Normality
The normality (N) and molarity (M) of aLakshya Lakshya
solution are related as followsLakshya
: Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Normality
Lakshya× Equivalent.
Lakshya mass (solute) = Molarity
Lakshya × Molar massLakshya
Lakshya (solute) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Educare
12 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya
7. Lakshya
Relationship Lakshya and Mass
between Molarity Lakshya
percentageLakshya
(p) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
If p is the mass percentage and d is the density of the solution then
p  d  10
Molarity 
Lakshya Lakshya Mol. mass
Lakshya
(solute) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya pLakshya

 d  10 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Normality 
Eq. mass (solute)
8. Dilution formula : If the solution of some substance is diluted by adding solvent from volume V1 to volume V2, then
M1V1 = M2V2 Similarly, N1V1 = N2V2
9. Molarity of a mixture : If V1 mL of a solution of molarity M1 is mixed with another solution of same substance with volume
Lakshya Lakshya
V2 and molarity M2, thenLakshya
molarity of theLakshya Lakshya
resulting mixture of solution Lakshya Lakshya
(M) can be obtained as : Lakshya Lakshya

M V  M 2 V2
M 1 1
Lakshya Lakshya V1 Lakshya
V2 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

10. Raoult’s law for volatile solute. pA = p 0A x A and pB = p 0B x B
0 0
where pA and pB are partial vapour pressures of component ‘A’ and component ‘B’ in the solution. p A
and p are vapour
B
pressures of pure components ‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively.
Total vapour pressure = p = pA + pB = p 0A x A  p 0B x B .
11. Raoult’s law for non-volatile solute.
p 0A  p nB n WB M A
Lakshya 0
 xB 
Lakshya  B  Lakshya
Lakshya  Lakshya Lakshyan << nLakshya
(For a dilute solution ) Lakshya Lakshya
pA n A  n B n A M B WA B A

0
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya pA  pA
where xB is mole-fraction of solute and is relative lowering of vapour pressure.
p 0A
12. Elevation in boiling point. Tb = Kb × m
Lakshya Lakshya K  WB  1000

M  b Lakshya
B
Tb  WA
0
where,
Lakshya
T  Tb  TLakshya
Lakshya
b b Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
13. Depression
Lakshya in freezing point.
Lakshya LakshyaTf = Kf Lakshya
×m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya K f  WB  1000

MB 
Tf  WA
0
where,
Lakshya Tf  Tf  TLakshya
Lakshya f Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 13
Lakshya
14. Lakshya (). Lakshya
Osmotic pressure Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
= cRT where ‘c’ is molarity.

15. Van’t Hoff factor.
Normal molecular mass
Lakshya i
Lakshya
ObservedLakshya Lakshya
molecular mass Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Observed colligative property
or i
Calculated Lakshya
colligative property Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Total number of moles of particles after association / dissociation
or, i
Lakshya LakshyaNumber of moles of particles
Lakshya Lakshyabefore association
Lakshya / dissociation
ModifiedLakshya
Lakshya forms of colligative
Lakshyaproperties :
Lakshya p 0ALakshya
 pA Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(a)  ix B (b) Tb = i Kbm
p 0A
(c) Tf = iKfm (d) V = inBRT

Lakshya
i  1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshyaof ions produced
Lakshya per formula
Lakshya Lakshya
16.  wher  is degree of dissociation, ‘i’ is van’t Hoff factor, ‘n’ is number of the compound.
n 1
1 i
17.
Lakshya  Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1
1
n
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1

Lakshya
where  is degree of association, , n is the number of molecules of solute associate to form an associated molecule,  1.
n n
18. If i > 1, solute undergoes dissociation.
i < 1, solute undergoes association.
i = 1, neither
Lakshya association Lakshya
Lakshya nor dissociation.
Lakshya 1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

i  , solute is dimer..
2
Lakshya Educare
14 SOLUTIONS

SOLVEDLakshya
Lakshya
EXAMPLES

Example - 1
Give an example of a solution containing a liquid Mass of H 2 O 100
solute in Lakshya
a solid solvent.Lakshya = Molar mass of H O  18  5.56 mol
2 Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya So,Lakshya

the mole fraction of methanol,Lakshya
Sol. An example of a solution containing a Lakshya
liquid solute inLakshya
a Lakshya Lakshya
solid solvent is amalgam of mercury (Hg) with sodium 1.56 1.56 Lakshya
x  Lakshya
 Lakshya
(Na). In this solution, sodium is solid solvent and mercury CH3OH = 0.219
1.56  5.56 7.12
is liquid solute.
Example - 2 Example - 4
Differentiate between molality and molarity of Consider 18 g of glucose (molar mass 180 g mol–1) to be
3
solution.Lakshya
Lakshya What is the effect of change in
Lakshya temperatureLakshya
Lakshya present in 500 cmLakshya
Lakshya of its aqueousLakshya
solution. WhatLakshya
is the
of a solution on its molality and molarity ? molarity of the solution ?
Sol. Molarity Lakshya

Lakshya is defined as number of moles of
Lakshya solute dissolved
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Number Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
of moles of solute
in 1 L of the solution. Molality is defined as number of Sol. Molarity   1000
Volume in mL
moles of Lakshya
Lakshya solute dissolved per kg of the Lakshya
Lakshya solvent. Molarity
is a function of temperature as volume depends on
Here, solute is glucose whose mass = 18 g and molar mass
Lakshya Lakshya
temperature. Lakshya
With increase Lakshya
in temperature, volume Lakshya
of Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
= 180 g mol–1. Therefore,
solution increases, hence molarity decreases. Molality is
not dependent on temperature because mass does not Number of moles of glucose =
change with temperature.
Given mass  18 
Example - 3   moles
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Molar mass Lakshya
Lakshya  180  Lakshya
Calculate the mole fraction of methanol in a solution
containing
Lakshya 100 g of water
Lakshya and 50 g ofLakshya
Lakshya methanol. Lakshya Lakshya
Also, the volume ofLakshya cm3. Therefore,
Lakshya
solution = 500 Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya18 Lakshya Lakshya

Sol. Mole fraction of solute, Molarity   1000 = 0.2 M
180  500
Lakshya Lakshya MolesLakshya
of solute Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
xB  Example - 5
Lakshya Moles of soluteLakshya
Lakshya  Moles of solvent
A solution is 25% water, 25% ethanol and 50% acetic
Mole fraction of methanol,
acid Lakshya the mole
by mass. Calculate Lakshya
fraction ofLakshya
each
Moles of CH 3OH Lakshya component.
Lakshya x Lakshya
 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
CH3OH
Moles of CH 3OH  Moles of H 2 O
Sol. Let the total mass of solution = 100 g
Mass of CH 3OH Mass of water = 25 g
Lakshya
Moles of Lakshya
CH OH = Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
3 Molar mass of CH 3OH Mass of ethanol = 25 g
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Mass of acetic acidLakshya
Lakshya = 50 g Lakshya Lakshya
Molar mass of CH3OH = 12 + 1 × 3 + 16 + 1 = 32 g mol–1
25 Lakshya Lakshya
50 Moles of water =  1.388
Moles of CH3OH   1.56 mol 18
Lakshya Lakshya 32 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Now, moles of H2O
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 15
Lakshya
( MolarLakshya
mass of H2O = Lakshya
18) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Example - 7
Lakshya Lakshya 25 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya What is the mole fraction

Lakshya Lakshyaof the solute in 2.5 m aqueous
Lakshya Lakshya
Moles of ethanol =  0.543 solution ?
46
( Molar mass of C2H2OH = 46) Sol. 2.5 m aqueous solution means that 2.5 moles of solute are
present Lakshya
in 1000 g of water. Thus, Lakshya Lakshya
50 Moles of soluteLakshya
= 2.5
Lakshya
Moles of Lakshya
acetic acid =  0.833
60
1000
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Moles of water Lakshya
Lakshya =  55.6 Lakshya Lakshya
( Molar mass of CH3COOH = 60) 18
Lakshya Lakshya
Total number Lakshya
of moles = 1.388 Lakshya
+ 0.543 + 0.833 = 2.764 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2.5 Lakshya Lakshya
Mole fraction of solute = = 0.043.
2.5  55.6
1.388 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Mole fraction of water = = 0.502 Example - 8
2.764
A 6.90 M solution of KOH in water contains 30% by
0.543 mass of KOH. Calculate the density of the KOH solution.
Mole fraction of ethanol = = 0.196 (Molar mass of KOH = 56 g mol–1Lakshya
). Lakshya
2.764
Sol. 6.90 M solution of KOH contains 6.90 moles of KOH in
0.833
Mole fraction
Lakshya of acetic acid
Lakshya =
Lakshya = Lakshya
0.302 Lakshya 1000 mL of solution.
2.764
Wt. of KOH in solution = 6.90 × 56 = 386.4 g
Example - 6 Wt. of KOH in 1000 mL solution = 386.4 g
Lakshya Lakshya Since the solution Lakshya
is 30% by weight, it means thatLakshya
30 g of
A sugar syrup of weight Lakshya
214.2 g containsLakshya
34.2 g of sugarLakshya Lakshya Lakshya
KOH are present in 100 g of solution.
(C H22O11). Calculate :
Lakshya12 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
100 Lakshya
(i) molal concentration, and  386.4 g of KOH is present in =  386.4
30
(ii) mole fraction of sugar in the syrup. = 1288 g of solution
Weight
Sol. (i) Weight of sugar syrup = 214.2 g Density 
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Volume
Lakshya Lakshya
Weight of sugar in syrup = 34.2 g
1288
Lakshya Weight of water in syrup
Lakshya = 214.2 – 34.2
Lakshya = 180.0 g Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya 
Lakshya g mL–1
Lakshya
= 1.288 Lakshya
1000
Lakshya Lakshya 34.2
Lakshya Lakshya ExampleLakshya
Lakshya - 9 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Moles of sugar =  0.1 (Molar mass = 342)
342
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Calculate
Lakshyathe moles of methanolLakshya
Lakshya in 5 litres of its 2m
Lakshya
solution, if the density of the solution is 0.981 kg L–1
0.1
Lakshya Molality =
Lakshya 1000 = 0.56 m. Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya (Molar mass of methanol
Lakshya mol–1).
Lakshya= 32.0 gLakshya Lakshya
180
Sol. Lakshya
Mass of 5L solutionLakshya
= 5L × 0.981 Lakshya Lakshya
kg L–1 = 4.905 kg
34.2
(ii) Moles of sugar =  0.1 = 4905 g
Lakshya Lakshya 342
Mass of 2 m solution = 1000 g + 2 moles of methanol
Lakshya Lakshya 180
= 1000 + 2 × 32 Lakshya
Moles of water =  10
18 = 1000 + 64 = 1064 g
0.1 Now 1064 g of solution contains methanol = 2 mol
Lakshya Moles fraction of sugar
Lakshya =
Lakshya = 0.0099.
10  0.1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2
Lakshya
4905 g of solution contains methanol =  4905
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1064 Lakshya
Lakshya
= 9.22 mol.
Lakshya Educare
16 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya
Example - 10Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Example - 13
State Raoult’s
Lakshya law for solutions
Lakshya Lakshyaof volatileLakshya
liquids. TakingLakshya Lakshya
Heptane Lakshya
and octane form an idealLakshya
solution at 373 Lakshya
K, The
suitable examples explain the meaning of positive and vapour pressures of the pure liquids at this temperature
Lakshya Lakshya fromLakshya
negative deviations Raoult’s law. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
are 105.2 kPa and 46.8 kPa respectively. If the solution
Sol. law : It states that
Raoult’s Lakshya
Lakshya for a solutionLakshya
Lakshya of volatile liquids
Lakshya contains
Lakshya25g of heptane
Lakshyaand 28.5g of octane, calculate
Lakshya Lakshya
the partial pressure of each component is directly (i) vapour pressure exerted by heptane
Lakshya Lakshya
proportional to its mole Lakshya
fraction. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(ii) vapour pressure exerted by solution
Mathematically,
(iii) mole fraction of octane in the vapour phase.
pA  x A pB  x B
o
p A  pLakshya
AxA  p oB x B
p B Lakshya Sol. p oC7 H16  105.2 kPa, p Co 8H18  46.8 Kpa
Positive deviation from Raoults law : In this type of 1
deviation the partial pressure of each component of solution M CLakshya
7 H16
 100g molLakshya g mol1
, M C8 H18  114Lakshya Lakshya
is greaterLakshya
Lakshya
than that calculated
Lakshya
from Raoults’s
Lakshya
law, i.e.,
25
p A  p oA x A & p B  p Bo x B . n C7H16   0.25
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 100
Example : A solution of water and ethanol.
Lakshya
Negative Lakshya
deviation fromLakshya Lakshya
Raoult’s : In this Lakshya
type of deviation Lakshya Lakshya
28.5 Lakshya Lakshya
n C8H18   0.25
the partial pressure of each component of solution is less 114
o
than that expected from Raoult’s law, i.e., p A  p x A &
A
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya n C7Lakshya
H16 0.25
Lakshya Lakshya
p B  p oB x B . x C7 H16    0.5
n C7 H16  n C8H18 0.25  0.25
Example : A solution of acetone and chloroform.
Lakshya x C8H18  1  x C7H16Lakshya
 1  0.5  0.5Lakshya
Example - 11Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Why doesLakshya
Lakshya a solution of ethanol
Lakshyaand cyclohexane
Lakshya showLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(i) p C7 H16  pCo 7 H16 x C7 H16 = 105.2 × 0.5 = 52.60 kPa
positive deviation from Raoult’s law ?
(ii) p C8 H18  pCo 8H18 x C8H18  46.8  0.5
Sol. On adding
Lakshya
cyclohexane,Lakshya
Lakshya
its molecules get in between the
molecules of ethanol thus breaking the hydrogen bonds
and reducing ethanol-ethanol p C8H18 = 23.4 kPa
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya interactions.
LakshyaThis will
increase the vapour pressure of the solution and result in
Lakshya Lakshya from Raoult’s
positive deviation Lakshyalaw. Lakshya Lakshya p  p C7 H16  p C8HLakshya
Lakshya 18
= 52.6 + 23.4Lakshya
= 76.0 kPa Lakshya
Example - 12Lakshya
(iii) Mole fraction of octane (y C8H18 ) Lakshya Lakshya
in the vapour phase.
Why is an increase in temperature observed on mixing
chloroform with acetone ? p C8H18  yC8H18 p total
Sol. The bonds between chloroform molecules and molecules 23.4  yC8H18  76.0
of acetone are dipole-dipole interactions but on mixing,
the chloroform and acetone molecules start forming 23.4
y  Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
hydrogen bonds which are stronger bonds resulting in the C8H18 = 0.308
76.0
release of
Lakshya energy. This
Lakshya gives rise toLakshya
Lakshya an increase Lakshya
in Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
temperature.

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 17
Lakshya
Example 10Lakshya
Example-- -14
Example 14 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
ExampleLakshya
- 17 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Define the
Lakshya following terms
Lakshya :-
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya State Henry’s Law.
Lakshya What is the significance
Lakshya Lakshya of K ?
Lakshya
H
(i) Dissolution
Lakshya Lakshya
(ii) Crystallisation
Sol. Henry’s law : It state that “the partial pressure of the gas
(iii) Saturated solution in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as
Sol. (i) WhenLakshya
Lakshya a solid soluteLakshya
is added to the solvent, some
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p = K Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
H
x
solute dissolves and its concentration increases in
Lakshya solution.
Lakshya Lakshya
This process Lakshya
is known as dissolution. Lakshya where, kH is the Henry’s
Lakshya Lakshyalaw constant.
Lakshya Lakshya
(ii) SomeLakshya
solute particlesLakshya
in solution collide with the solid Significance of KH. As pA = KHxA. Thus at constant
solute particles and get separated out of solution. This temperature for the same partial pressure of different gases,
Lakshya process Lakshya
is known asLakshya
crystallisation.Lakshya Lakshya x A Lakshya
 1/K H. In other
Lakshyawords solubility
Lakshya is inversely
Lakshya
proportional to Henry’s constant of the gas. Higher the
(iii) A solution
Lakshya Lakshyain whichLakshya
no more soluteLakshya
can be dissolved
Lakshya Lakshya
value of kH, lowerLakshya Lakshya
is the solubility Lakshya
of the gas. As H2 is
at the same temperature and pressure is called a more soluble than helium, H2 will have lower value KH
Lakshya saturated
Lakshya
solution. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
than that of helium.
Lakshya
Example - 15 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
ExampleLakshya
What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of a What is the effect of pressureLakshya
on the solubility of
solid solute in a liquid solvent ? (a) gases in liquids and (b) solids in liquids ?
Sol. Solubility of solid in liquid is significantly affected by Sol. (a) Solubility of gases in liquid increases with the increase
Lakshya Lakshya
temperature changes. Lakshya Lakshya
This is because of dynamic Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
of pressure at a particular temperature. If the system
equilibrium which follow Le Chatelier’s principle. For is in dynamic equilibrium, then the rate of dissolution
saturated solution such as NaNO3,KNO3, etc. the solubility is equal to the rate of evaporation. If the pressure
increases Lakshya
Lakshya with increase Lakshya
of temperature Lakshya
because in theseLakshya increases overLakshya
Lakshya the system, the number of Lakshya
Lakshya gaseous
substances, the process of dissolution is endothermic. particles per unit volume increases. As a result, more
particles strikeLakshya
the surface of Lakshya
the solution andLakshya
enter it.
Solute + Solvent + Heat  Solution
Thus, a new equilibrium is established. Hence, on
There areLakshya
Lakshya few substancesLakshya
such as ceriumLakshya
sulphate, lithium
increasing the pressure, the solubility of gases in liquid
carbonate, etc. whose solubility decreases with increase
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya also increases.Lakshya
of temperature. This is because the process of dissolution
is exothermic (sol. H < 0). (b) Pressure has very little effect on the solubility of a
solid in a liquid because solids have definite shape
Example - 16 and volume; whereas liquids have definite volume but
CCl4 and water are immiscible whereas ethanol and not shape. Hence, solids and liquids cannot be
compressed much by increase in pressure.
water areLakshya
Lakshya miscible in all proportions.Lakshya
Lakshya Correlate thisLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
behaviour with molecular structure of these
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ExampleLakshya
compounds.
Why are the aquatic species more comfortable in cold
Sol. CCl is non-polar covalent compound, whereas water is a water rather than warm water ?
4
Lakshya LakshyaCCl can
polar compound. Lakshya Lakshya
neither form H-bonds Lakshya
with water Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
4
molecules nor can it break H-bonds between water Sol. The aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water
Lakshya
molecule,Lakshya
therefore, it isLakshya Lakshya
insoluble in water. Lakshya Lakshya
rather than warm Lakshya
water because Lakshya Lakshya
the solubility of gas in
Ethanol isLakshya
Lakshya a polar compound and can form
Lakshya H-bonds with
Lakshya Lakshya
liquid decreases
Lakshya
with increase
Lakshya
in temperature,
Lakshya
and increases
Lakshya
water, which is a polar solvent, therefore it is miscible with with decrease in temperature. Therefore, the percentage of
Lakshya Lakshya
water in all proportions. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya oxygen present in cold
Lakshya water will Lakshya
Lakshya be more because in cold
Lakshya
water, solubility of oxygen gas in water will be more than in
Lakshya Educare
18 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya
hot water.Lakshya Lakshya
Now, we know that oxygenLakshya Lakshya
is essential for ExampleLakshya
respiration or breathing. Hence, the aquatic species are
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya What is meant Lakshya
Lakshya by colligativeLakshya
properties ?Lakshya
Give
comfortable in cold water; whereas in hot water, the
expressions for any two.
concentration
Lakshya of oxygen Lakshya
Lakshya is less which makes the breathing
process difficult for the aquatic species.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Sol. Colligative
Lakshya Lakshyaproperties are the properties
Lakshya Lakshyaof solutions which
Lakshya
Example - 20 depend only on the relative numbers of solute and solvent
particles, but not Lakshya
on the nature Lakshya Lakshya
of the solute. The four
Why oxygen mixed with helium is used by deep sea
divers ? important colligative properties are as follows :
(a) Relative lowering of vapor pressure.
Lakshya
Sol. Deep seaLakshya Lakshya
divers must cope with high Lakshya
concentration Lakshya
of (b) Lakshya Lakshya
Elevation in boiling point.
Lakshya Lakshya
dissolved gases while breathing air at high pressure under

(c) Lakshya in freezing
Depression Lakshya
point. Lakshya Lakshya
water as according to Henry’s law, solubility of gases
increasesLakshya
Lakshya with pressure. Lakshya
However, whenLakshya
the divers come (d)
Lakshya Osmotic pressure. Lakshya
towards the surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This Relative lowering of vapor pressure : In the presence of a
Lakshya Lakshya
releases the Lakshya
dissolved gases and leads toLakshya
the formation Lakshya
non-volatile solute, the vapor pressure of the solution
bubbles
Lakshya of nitrogen
Lakshya in the blood.
Lakshya This blocks
Lakshya capillaries
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshyaof pureLakshya
becomes lower than the vapor pressure solvent.
and creates a medical condition known as bends. To avoid
The relative lowering of vapor pressure is
bends andLakshya
Lakshya also the toxicLakshya
effect of highLakshya
concentration Lakshya
o o
nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by divers are filled p  (p  p A ) / p
A A
with air diluted with helium. Value of KH for He is 144.97
kbar and NLakshya
Lakshya is 76.08 kbar,Lakshya
therefore He hasLakshya
a lower solubility.
Lakshya
where p oA is the vapor
Lakshya
pressure of pure
Lakshya
solvent. TheLakshya
Lakshya
relative
2
lowering depends only on the concentration of the solute
Example - 21Lakshya
and not in nature of solute
The solubility of Ba (OH)2.8H2O in water at 288 K is
5.6 g per 100 g of water. What is the molality of hydroxide p  p oA x B
Lakshya Lakshya
ion in saturated solutionLakshya
of Ba (OH)2.8HLakshya
O at 288 K. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2 where xB is the mole fraction of the solute.
Osmotic pressure Lakshya
: When twoLakshya Lakshya
solutions of different
Sol. The molar mass of Ba (OH)2.8H2O is
concentration are separated by a semiperimeable membrane,
= 137 + 2 × 17 + 8 × 18 the solvent shows a tendency to move from dilute to
Lakshya = 137 + 34 + 144
Lakshya = 315
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya concentrated
Lakshya solution. This property
Lakshya is known as Lakshya
Lakshya osmosis.
This uneven passage of the solvent creates pressure called
LakshyaBa (OH) 2
 Ba2+ + 2OH
Lakshya
–
osmotic pressure. It can be measured by determining the
2+ –
Suppose x is molality of Ba ions, molality of (OH) is 2x. amount of counterLakshya
pressure needed to prevent osmosis. It
100 g water has 5.6 g of Ba (OH)2.8H2O is proportional to concentration and temperature of the
solution Lakshya
and is given by Lakshya Lakshya
5.6
 1000 gLakshya
Lakshya 1000  56
water will haveLakshya Lakshya Lakshya   CRT
100
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Expressing
Lakshya concentration
Lakshyain terms of moles per Lakshya
Lakshya liter, we
56 have
Moles of Ba (OH)2.8H2O =  0.178 mol
Lakshya Lakshya 315
n
 Molality
Lakshya of hydroxyl ion
Lakshya = 0.178 × 2 =Lakshya
Lakshya 0.356 m Lakshya
  B RT
V

where Lakshya
nB is the number Lakshya
of moles of the solute. Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 19
Lakshya
Example - 23
3.64  2.8 30 18
 
Why doesLakshya
Lakshya vapour pressure of a liquid decrease
Lakshya Lakshyawhen aLakshya 3.64
Lakshya M Lakshya
B 90 Lakshya Lakshya
non-volatile solute is added into it ?
0.84 6 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Sol. It is because some liquid molecules at the surface are 3.64 MB
replaced by the molecules of the solute which are non-
volatile. Lakshya
6  3.64 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
MB 
Example - 24 0.84
Derive an equation to express that relative lowering of MB = 26 g mol–1
vapour pressure for a solution is equal to the mole Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
fraction of the solute in it when the solvent alone is Example - 26
volatile. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya temperature
Lakshya is Lakshya
0.850 bar. A Lakshya
non-volatile,Lakshya
non-
Sol. For a solution of volatile liquids Raoult’s law, is given as electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0 g
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya of Lakshya
benzene (molar Lakshya
mass 78 g Lakshya Lakshya
mol–1), then vapour
p = pA + p B
pressure of the solution is 0.845 bar. What is the molar
Lakshya Lakshya
If solute (component B) Lakshya Lakshya
is nonvolatile then Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
mass of the solid substance ?
Lakshya p  p A  p oA xLakshya
Lakshya A
Sol. The various quantities known to us are as follows :
Lakshya Lakshya
p  p oA (1  xLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
B)
PAo  0.850 bar; p = 0.845 bar; MA = 78 g mol–1;
Lakshya Lakshya
p  p oA  p oA xLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
B
wB 0.5 g; wA = 39 g
p A x B  p oA  p
o
Substituting these values in equation
o Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
p oA  p pA  p w B  M A
 xB  , we have
Lakshya p oA
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p1o
Lakshya M B  Lakshya
wA Lakshya Lakshya
Thus, relative
Lakshya lowering of
Lakshya vapour pressure
Lakshya is equal to the
0.850 bar  0.845 bar 0.5 g Lakshya
78 g mol1 Lakshya
mole fraction of non-volatile solute. 
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 0.850 barLakshya
Lakshya MLakshya
B  39 g Lakshya
Example - 25 Thus, mol–1.
MB = 170 g Lakshya
A solution is made by dissolving 30 g of a non-volatile
Example - 27
Lakshya
solute in Lakshya
90 g of water.Lakshya Lakshya
It has a vapour pressure ofLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2.8 kPa at 298 K. At 298 K, the vapour pressure of What weight of the non-volatile urea (NH2
– CO – NH2)
pure water is 3.64 kPa. Calculate the molar mass of Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
needs to be dissolved in 100 g of water in order to
solute. decrease the vapour pressure of water by 25% ? What
will be molality of the solution ?
Lakshya
Sol. Lakshya
Let the molar Lakshya solute
mass of non-volatile Lakshya
be MB Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
o o
30 Lakshya p  ps
Lakshya 25Lakshya p  Lakshya
p s 25 Lakshya
90 Sol. Here,  or 
Moles of water   5, Moles of solute =
M po 100 ps 75
Lakshya Lakshya
18 Lakshya LakshyaB Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
wA = 100 g, WB = ?
Applying Raoult’s law,
For urea, MB = 60 g mol–1
Lakshya
p0  pLakshya
w M
s
 B  A Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ForLakshya
water, MA = 18Lakshya
g mol–1 Lakshya Lakshya
p MB wA
Lakshya Educare
20 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya Lakshya
o
Cause of elevationLakshya Lakshya
in boiling point Lakshya
: Vapor pressure of the
p  ps n B w B / M B
  solution is lower than that of pure solvent. Hence, when
Lakshya ps
Lakshya n ALakshya
w A / MA Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
the non-volatile solute is added to pure solvent, the
Lakshya Lakshya
25 w B / 60Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya solution has to beLakshya
Lakshya heated more to make vapor Lakshya
Lakshya pressure
  equal to the atmosphric pressure.
75 100 /18
Cause of depression in freezing point : Vapor pressure of
or wB = 111 g
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya theLakshya
solution is less than that of Lakshya
Lakshya pure solvent. Lakshya
Freezing
111g 1 1 point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid
Molality of
Lakshya the solution =Lakshya 1  Lakshya
Lakshya  1000g kgLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
60 g mol 100 g and the liquid forms of the substance are in equilibrium,
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya thatLakshya
is, the solid and the liquid forms
Lakshya of substance
Lakshya have
Lakshya
= 18.5 mol kg–1 or 18.5 m
the same vapor pressure. Therefore, for the solution, this
Lakshya
Example - 28Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya willLakshya Lakshya
occur at a lower temperature. Lakshya Lakshya
Explain why
Lakshya the freezing
Lakshya point of a solution
Lakshya Lakshya is lowerLakshya Lakshya
Example - 30
than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Ethylene
Lakshyaglycol (molar
Lakshya g mol–1) is a common
mass = 62Lakshya Lakshya
FreezingLakshya
point of a substance automobile antifreeze. Calculate the freezing point of a
Sol.
Lakshya Lakshya may be defined as the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of the substance solution containing 12.4 g of this substance in 100 g of
in its liquid
Lakshya phase is equalLakshya
Lakshya to its vapor pressure
Lakshyain the solid
Lakshya water. Would it beLakshya
Lakshya advisable to keep this substance
Lakshya in
Lakshya
phase. the freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the car radiator during summer ?
Lakshya Lakshya
the pure solvent becauseLakshya Lakshya
the vapor pressure of solutionLakshya
is Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Given : Kf for water = 1.86K kg/mol
less than that of pure solvent. So according to Raoult’s
Lakshya
law, whenLakshya
a non-volatileLakshya
solid is added Lakshya
to the solvent, Lakshya
its Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Kb for water = 0.512K kg/mol
vapor pressure decreases and it becomes equal to that of
solid solvent at a lower temperature. The decrease in the
freezing point
Lakshya is knownLakshya
Lakshya as depression of freezing point,
Lakshya Lakshya w B 1000
Sol. TLakshya
f  Kf   Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
and it is denoted by Tf. mB w A
Example - 29
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 12.4 1000
Define molal boiling point elevation constant and molalLakshya Lakshya
 1.86   Lakshya
 3.76 K Lakshya Lakshya
62 100
freezing point depression constant. Explain the cause
for elevation in boiling point and depression in freezing since water freezes at 0ºC, so freezing point of the solution
point when
Lakshya non-volatile Lakshya
Lakshya solute is added to a solvent. Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshyaethylene Lakshya
containing glycol will beLakshya
– 3.76º C. Lakshya
Lakshya
Sol. Lakshya
Molal boiling Lakshya
point elevation constant :Lakshya Lakshya
It may be defined Lakshya w B Lakshya
1000 Lakshya Lakshya
Tb  K b  
as the elevation in boiling point when the molality of MB w A
solution is unity, that is, 1 mol of solute is dissolved in
1 kg (1000
Lakshya g) of the solvent.
Lakshya The units of
Lakshya molal elevation
12.4 1000 Lakshya Lakshya
constant is degree molality , that is, K molal–1 or ºC molal–1
–1
 0.512    1.024 K
–1 62 100
or K kg mol
Lakshya Lakshya. It is denoted by Kb.
Molal freezing
Lakshya Lakshya
point elevation
Lakshya
constant : It may Lakshya
Lakshya
be Tb  Tbo  Tb Lakshya
Lakshya 100  1.024 = Lakshya
101.024 ºC Lakshya
defined as the depression in freezing point when the
molality of
Lakshya the solutions is
Lakshya unity, that is, 1Lakshya
Lakshya mol of the solute
Lakshya since water boils atLakshya
Lakshya 100ºC, so a solution containingLakshya
Lakshya ethylene
is dissolved in 1000 g (1 kg) of the solvent. It is denoted glycol will boil at 101.024ºC, so it is advisable to keep this
Lakshya
by Kf. TheLakshya Lakshya
unit of Kf is degree molality–1,Lakshya
that is, K molalLakshya
–1 Lakshya
substance Lakshya
in car radiator Lakshya
during summer. Lakshya
or K kg mol–1.

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 21
Lakshya
Example - 31Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Tf
kg mol–1 ×
Lakshya
= Kf × m = 13.97K Lakshya Lakshya
(0.2926) = 4.08 K
Lakshya Therefore,
LakshyafreezingLakshya
point of glucose solution
Ethylene Lakshya
glycol (C2H6O2Lakshya Lakshya WhatLakshya
) is used as an antifreeze. Lakshya Lakshya
mass of ethylene glycol should be added to 5.00 kg of = 273.15 – 4.08 = 269.07K.
water to lower the freezing point to –5.0 ºC ? Given that Example - 33
Lakshya ºC molal–1. Consider
Kf = 1.86Lakshya Lakshyaethylene glycol to be aLakshya
Calculte the temperature at which a solution containing
non-electrolyte.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 54 Lakshya
g glucose, (C6HLakshya
O ) in 250 gLakshya
12 6
of water will freeze.
Lakshya
–1
–1 (K f
for water = 1.86 K molal )
Sol. Given thatLakshya
Lakshya Tf = 5.0 ºC and Kf = 1.86 ºC molal
Lakshya Lakshya . Therefore,
molality is
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Sol. Molar
Lakshya mass of glucose
Lakshya MB = 12 × 6Lakshya
Lakshya + 12 × 1 + 6 × Lakshya
16 = 180
T 5.0 –1
Molality    2.7 molal g mol . According to depression in freezing point,
Lakshya Lakshya KLakshya
f 1.86 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Therefore,Lakshya
the number ofLakshya
moles of ethylene glycol is found f K  w  1000
B
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Tf  Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
from the relation MB  w A
Number of moles of solute where Kf is the molal depression constant, wB is the given
Molality 
Lakshya Lakshya Mass of solvent
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya mass of solute, MBLakshya
Lakshya is the molar mass of solute, w
Lakshya is the
Lakshya
A
given mass of solvent (water). Substituting given values,
Lakshya n
Lakshya
 2.7 Lakshya
n  13.5 mol Lakshya Lakshya weLakshya
get Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
5.00
1.86  54 1000Lakshya
100440 Lakshya
Molar mass of ethylene glycol is = 2 × 12 + 4 × 1 + 2 × 16 = Tf    2.23K
62 g mol–1Lakshya
. Hence, the mass of ethylene glycol to be added 180  250 45000
to water is
Therefore, the freezing point of the solution
62 g = 0 – 2.23 = – 2.23 K.
13.5 mol  = 837 g
Lakshya Lakshya mol
Example - 34
Example - 32
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshyaprepared
A solution Lakshya
by dissolvingLakshya
1.25 g of oil of Lakshya
winter
A 0.1539 molal aqeuous solution of cane sugar (molar green (methyl salicylate) in 99.0 g of benzene has a
Lakshya Lakshya –1 Lakshya Lakshya
mass = 342 g mol ) has a freezing point of 271 K,Lakshya Lakshya
boiling Lakshya
point of 80.31ºC. Lakshya
Determine the molar massLakshya
of
whereas Lakshya
Lakshya
the freezing point of pure water
Lakshya
is 273.15 K.Lakshya
Lakshya
thisLakshya
compound. Lakshya
(Boiling point of
Lakshya
pure benzene
Lakshya
What will be the freezing point of an aqueous solution = 80.10 ºC and Kb for benzne = 2.53 ºC molal–1.)
containing
Lakshya 5 g of glucose
Lakshya Lakshya = 180 g mol–1)Lakshya
(molar massLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
per 100 g of solution ? Sol. The molar mass MB of solute can be calculated from the
relation,
Sol. Molality Lakshya
Lakshya
of cane sugar solution
Lakshya
= 0.1539 molal and the
depression of freezing point, Tf = 273.15 – 271 = 2.15 K b  w B  1000
MB 
Lakshya Lakshya
K. from T Lakshya
= Kfm, we have Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Tb  w A Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya
f
Lakshya LakshyaT Lakshya

2.15K Lakshya Lakshya Mass of solute, wBLakshya
Lakshya = 1.25 g, massLakshya
of solvent, wALakshya
= 99 g,
f
Kf   1 = 13.97 molal–1 elevation in boiling point, (Tb) = 80.31 – 80.10 = 0.21 ºC.
m 0.1539 mol kg
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Kb Lakshya Lakshya
for benzene = 2.53 ºC molal–1.Lakshya Lakshya
Amount of
Lakshya
glucose in 100
Lakshya
g of solution Lakshya
Lakshya
= 5 g and amount
2.53 1.25  1000
of water in 100 g of solution = 100 g – 5 g = 0.095 kg. MB  = 152.11 g mol–1
0.21 99
Lakshya
Number ofLakshya Lakshya
moles of glucose = 5/180 molLakshya Lakshya
= 0.0278 mol Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
and the molality of solution m = 0.0278 mol/0.095 kg =
0.2926 mol kg–1. So,
Lakshya Educare
22 SOLUTIONS
Example - 35 = 0.0821 L atm mol–1K–1; T = 25 ºC = (273 + 25) K = 298 K;
Lakshya
CalculateLakshya Lakshya
the molal elevation constant ofLakshya
water, it beingLakshya wBLakshya
= 100 mg = 100/1000
Lakshya g = 0.1 g. Substituting
Lakshya all the
Lakshya
given that 0.1 molal aqueous solution of a substance values in Eq. (1), we get
Lakshya
boiling atLakshya
100.052 ºC. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
0.1 0.0821 298 –1
M 
Lakshya B Lakshya = 13980 g mol
0.0175  0.01Lakshya Lakshya
Sol. Molality of solution, m = 0.1 molal; the boiling point of
solution Tb = 100.052 ºC. Therefore, Tb  Tb  Tbo is the Example - 38
Lakshya
elevationLakshya
in the boiling Lakshya Lakshya – 100Lakshya
point, Tb  100.052 = Lakshya
State Lakshya
the condition Lakshya
resulting in reverse osmosis.Lakshya
0.052 ºC.Lakshya
Lakshya relationship Lakshya
By applying theLakshya Tb  K b m we get
Sol. Reverse osmosis will occur if a pressure higher than the
Lakshya LakshyaTb Lakshya
0.052 º C Lakshya Lakshya osmotic pressure isLakshya
Lakshya applied on theLakshya
solution. Lakshya
Kb   –1
m 0.1 molal = 0.52 ºC molal
ExampleLakshya
–1
Molal elevation constant Kb = 0.52 ºC molal . How is it that measurement of osmotic pressures is more
Example - 36
widely used for determining molar masses of
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya macromolecules
Lakshya than the rise inLakshya
Lakshya boiling pointLakshya
or fall
Define osmotic pressure and explain its origin. What in freezing point of their solutions ?
is the effect
Lakshya of temperature
Lakshya on osmotic
Lakshya pressure ? Lakshya
Sol. The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over rise
Sol. Osmosis is the phenomenon of the flow of solvent through in boiling point or fall in freezing point for determining
a semipermeable membrane from pure solvent to the molar masses of macromolecules because
solution. Osmotic pressure is the pressure applied on the
(i) Pressure measurement around the temperature and the
solution side
Lakshya to just stopLakshya
Lakshya the flow of theLakshya
solvent from Lakshya
its Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
molarity of solution is used instead of molality. Lakshya
side to the solution side across a semipermeable membrane.
The increase
Lakshya in temperature
Lakshya Lakshya will increase the osmotic
Lakshya (ii)
Lakshya Compared
Lakshyato otherLakshya
colligative properties,
Lakshyaits magnitude
Lakshyais
pressure as   T. large even for very dilute solutions.
Example - 37 Example - 40
Consider 100 mg of a protein to be dissolved in just What is van’t Hoff factor and how is it related to the
enough water
Lakshya Lakshya to makeLakshya
10.0 mL of solution.
Lakshya If thisLakshya molar mass of theLakshya
Lakshya solute. Lakshya Lakshya
solution hs an osmotic pressure of 13.3 mm Hg at
Lakshya Lakshya
25 ºC, what is the molarLakshya Lakshya
mass of the protein ? (GivenLakshya
Sol. Lakshya
van’t Lakshya
Hoff factor is Lakshya
defined as the Lakshya
ratio of the observed
–1 –1
that R = 0.0821 L atm mol K and 760 mm value of colligative property to the calculated value
Hg = 1 atm.) colligative property. It is denoted by i.
Observed value of the colligative property
Sol. We know that osmotic pressure (  ) is given by i
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Calculated
Lakshya value of the colligative
Lakshya LakshyapropertyLakshya
nRT van’t Hoff factor isLakshya
inversely proportional to the molecular
Lakshya 
V mass of the solute. Therefore,
and
Normal molecular mass M
i  Calculated
Lakshya Lakshya
w BRTLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Abnormal molecular
Lakshya Lakshya mass Lakshya
M Observed Lakshya
MB  (1)
Lakshya Lakshya V Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
where MB is the molar mass of protein;  = 13.3 mm

Hg = 13.3/760 = 0.0175 atm; V = 10 mL = 10/1000 = 0.01 L; R
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 23
Lakshya
(125.775  65)
and for 65g of water, it is  8.175g
Expalin why
Lakshya in case of sodium
Lakshya Lakshyachloride, the observedLakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1000 Lakshya Lakshya
values of colligative properties are greater than the
calculatedLakshya
Lakshya values. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Hence, mass of NaCl
Lakshya to be added =Lakshya
Lakshya 8.175 g in 65 gLakshya
of water.
Example - 44
Sol. In case of NaCl, the observed values of colligative
(a) Urea forms an ideal solution in water. Determine
propertiesLakshya
Lakshya are greater than the calculated
Lakshya values because
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya of an
the vapour pressure Lakshya Lakshya
aqueous solution
in a dilute solution NaCl is expected to dissociate containing 10% by mass of urea at 40ºC.
Lakshya Lakshya
completely. Lakshya
Therefore, NaCl Lakshya
has observed Lakshya
values twice Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(Vapour pressure of water at 40ºC = 55.3 mm
the calculated values of colligative properties.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya of Hg)
+ –
NaCl  Na + Cl (b) Why is freezing point depression of 0.1 M sodium
chloride solution nearly twice that of 0.1 M
Example - 42
glucose solution
Lakshya
?
A 0.118 molal solution of LiCl has a freezing point of
–0.415 ºC.
Lakshya What is the van’t
Lakshya Hoff factorLakshya
Lakshya for this soluteLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
po  p
at this concentration ? Sol. (a)  x urea
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya po
Sol. Molality of solution m = 0.118 molal. ForLakshya

LiCl, Kf = 1.86ºC Let the mass of solution be 100 g
molal–1 and Tf (measured) = 0.415ºC. Now, the depression  Mass of Urea = 10 g
Lakshya Lakshya
in freezing point is foundLakshya
as Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
10 1
Lakshya Lakshya
n urea  
LakshyaTf (not ionized) = KLakshya
Lakshya ×m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 60 6
f
ºC molal–1) × Lakshya 90
Lakshya= (1.86Lakshya 0.118 molal = 0.219 ºC
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya n H2O Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
18
The van’t Hoff factor can be calculated using relation
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya n Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
H 2O  5.
Tf (measured) 0.415 º C
Lakshya i
Lakshya Lakshya  Lakshya= 1.89 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Tf (not ionized) 0.219 º C n urea 1/ 6 1/ 6
x urea   
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya n urea  n HLakshya
Lakshya 2O
1/ 6  5 Lakshya
31/ 6 Lakshya
Example - 43
What mass of NaCl (molar mass = 58.5 mol–1) must be x urea 
31
dissolvedLakshya
Lakshya in 65 g of waterLakshya
to lower the freezing
Lakshyapoint byLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
7.5 ºC ? The freezing point depression constant Kf for 55.3  p 1

Lakshya Lakshya
water is 1.86 ºC molal–1.Lakshya
Assume van’t Lakshya
Hoff factor forLakshya Lakshya 55.3Lakshya
31 Lakshya Lakshya
NaCl to be 1.87. 55.3
55.3 Lakshya
p Lakshya Lakshya
31
Lakshya
Sol. Given thatLakshya = 58.5 g mol–1;Lakshya
molar mass, MLakshya Lakshya
van’t Hoff factor Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
for NaCl, i = 1.87; freezing point depression constant, Kf 55.3
 55.3  p
Lakshya
for water Lakshya
= 1.86 ºC molalLakshya
–1
and Tf = 0 Lakshya Lakshya
– (–7.5) = 7.5 ºC. Lakshya 31
Now, applying
Lakshya
the relation
Lakshya
and substituting
Lakshya
values, we get
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1
 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
 55.3 1    p
T = i × Kf × m 7.5 = 1.87 × 1.86 × m m = 2.15 molal  31 
Grams of NaCl = 2.15 × 58.5 = 125.775 g per kg.
30
Lakshya
If 125.775Lakshya Lakshya
g of NaCl is added to 1000 g Lakshya Lakshya
of water, then for Lakshya p  55.3 
31
Lakshya Lakshya 125.775
1g of water, the amount Lakshya Lakshya
of NaCl to be added is Lakshya Lakshya p = 53.52
Lakshya
mm Hg. Lakshya Lakshya
1000
Lakshya Educare
24 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya
(b) NaCl beingLakshya Lakshya
an electrolyte, Lakshya
dissociates almost Lakshya
completely Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(iii) From Raoult’s law, p A  x A poA and
to give Na+ and Cl– ions in solution whereas glucose being
non-electrolyte, does not dissociate. Therefore, the number p B  x B p Bo
of particles
Lakshya in 0.1 M NaCl
Lakshya solution is nearly
Lakshya double than
where, xA = mole fraction of liquid A
that in 0.1 M glucose solution. Freezing point depression,
o
being a colligative
Lakshya Lakshya property, is therefore,Lakshya
Lakshya nearly twice for
Lakshya pA  x A pA
NaCl solution than for glucose solution of same molarity.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya xB = moleLakshya
Lakshya fraction of liquid B
Lakshya Lakshya
Example - 45 p B  x B p oB
(i) Benzoic acid completely dimerises in benzene. yA = Mole fraction of component – 1 in vapour phase.
Lakshya What Lakshya Lakshyapressure
will be the vapour Lakshya
of a solutionLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
yB = Mole fraction of component – 2 in vapour phase.
containing 61g of benzoic acid per 500g benzene
Lakshya whenLakshya Lakshyaof pureLakshya
the vapour pressure benzene at theLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
pA pA
yA  
temperature of experiment is 66.6 torr ? p total pLakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya A  pB Lakshya Lakshya
(ii) What would have been the vapour pressure in the
Lakshya absence
Lakshya Lakshya
of dimerisation ? Lakshya Lakshya Lakshyap B pB
yB  
(iii) Derive a relationship between mole fraction andLakshya p total pA  pB
vapour pressure of a component of an ideal
Lakshya solution in the liquid
Lakshya phase and vapour
Lakshya phase. Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya x A p oLakshya
A
o
xLakshya
A pA Lakshya
y 
A 
x A p Ao  x B p oB x A p oA  (1  x A ) p oB
p
Sol. (i) o
 iX B x Bp o
Lakshya p Lakshya
B
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya yB 
x A p oA  x B p oB
1
Lakshya i  Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2 Example - 46
nB 61/122 In an aqueous solution, KCl undergoes complete
XB  
Lakshya n 
Lakshya n 500
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya dissociation K+ and Cl– ions.
Lakshya into Lakshya What is theLakshya
Lakshya value
A B 61/122 
78 of osmotic pressure of a 0.525M solution of KCl at 300
Lakshya Lakshya
0.5 0.5
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K ?Lakshya L atm K–1)Lakshya
Lakshya
(Use R = 0.0821 Lakshya
 
Lakshya 0.5Lakshya
 6.41 6.91 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Sol. As KCl dissociates K+ and Cl– ions,
p 1 50
Lakshya  
66.6 2 691  iLakshya
= 2. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya
50  66.6 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Osmotic pressure (Lakshya Lakshya
 ) can be determined using theLakshya
formula
p   2.41
691 2
Lakshya
o
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya  = iCRT = 2 ×Lakshya
Lakshya 0.525 × 0.0821 × 300 = 25.86
Lakshya atm
Lakshya
p – p = 2.41
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ExampleLakshya
p = 66.6 – 2.40
= 64.20 torr When 0.5 g KCl was dissolved in 100 g water, the solution
(ii) In the absence of dimerisation. originally at 20 ºC, froze at – 0.24 ºC. Calculate the
Lakshya i = 1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya percentage
Lakshya ionization of salt. Kf Lakshya
Lakshya per 1000 g of water =
Lakshya
–1
1.86 ºC molal .
Lakshya p Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
 XB
po
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Sol.
Lakshya Mass of solute KCl,
Lakshya w2 = 0.5 g; mass
Lakshya of solute HLakshya
Lakshya 2
O, w1 =
50 100g. Molar mass of H2O, M1 = 1 × 2 + 16 = 18 g mol–1 and
p   66.6  4.82
Lakshya 691
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TLakshya
= 0 – (–0.24) =Lakshya Lakshya
0.24 ºC. According Lakshya
to the equation,
f
P = 66.6 – 4.82 = 61.78 torr
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 25
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2C6H5OH 

Lakshya Lakshya
(C6H5OH)2Lakshya
1000  K f  w 2 1000  1.86 º C molal 1  0.5g
M2  
Lakshya Tf  w 1 Lakshya 0.24 º C
Lakshya  100g
Lakshya Initial moles
Lakshya Lakshya 1 mol
Moles after dissociation 1– /2
Lakshya Lakshya
930 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
  38.75g mol1
24  
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Total
Lakshya Lakshya = 1  Lakshya
moles after dissociation   1  . Therefore,
2 2 Lakshya
Molar mass of KCl = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 g mol–1.
Therefore, van’t Hoff factor is 1  ( / 2)
i
Calculate molecular mass 74.5 or  = 2 (1 – i) = 2 (1 – 0.633) = 0.734
i
Lakshya Lakshya 
Lakshya Lakshya
1.92 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Observed molecular mass 38.75
Example - 49
Lakshya
Now, KClLakshya
dissociates asLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Calculate normality and molarity of the following :
Lakshya Lakshya  K+ + Cl
KClLakshya –
Lakshya Lakshya (a)Lakshya
0.74g of Ca (OH) in 5 mL Lakshya
Lakshya
2
of solution. Lakshya
Initial moles 1 mol 0 0 (b) 3.65g of HCl in 200 mL of solution.
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya (c) Lakshya
1/10 mole of Lakshya
H2SO4 in 500 Lakshya
mL of solution.Lakshya
Moles after dissolution 1– 
Lakshya Lakshya
Total number Lakshya
of moles after dissociationLakshya
= 1 –  +  + Lakshya
= Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
0.74  w
1 + . Therefore, Sol. (a)  Eq. of Ca(OH)2   Eq. 
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 74 / 2 Lakshya
 E Lakshya
1  Volume of solution = 5 / 1000 litre
Lakshya i
Lakshya  Lakshya
 i  1  1.92 Lakshya
1  0.92 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1 0.74  1000  2
N
Therefore,
Lakshya percentage ionization
Lakshya Lakshya = 0.92Lakshya
× 100 = 92%.Lakshya Lakshya 74 5
Example - 48 N 4 Lakshya
N=4  M   2
Phenol associates in benzene to a certain extent to Valency 2
form dimers. A solution containing 2.0 × 10–2 kg of
phenol inLakshya
Lakshya 1.0 kg of benzene
Lakshyahas its Lakshya
freezing pointLakshya Lakshya 3.65
decreased by 0.69 K. Calculate the degree of (b)  Eq. of HCl 
36.5
association
Lakshya of phenol (KLakshya
Lakshya f
5.12 K molal–1)Lakshya
for benzene = Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
and Volume of solution = 200/1000 litre
Sol. Mass of phenol, w2 = 2.0 × 10–2 kg; Kf = 5.12 K molal–1;
mass of benzene,
Lakshya Lakshya w1 = 1.0 kg; Tf = 0.69
Lakshya K. Therefore,
3.65 Lakshya
1000 Lakshya Lakshya
 N  0 .5
according to the equation 36.5  200
1000 K f w 2
M2 (observed) = w TLakshya N 0 .5
and M  Lakshya
  0.Lakshya
5 Lakshya
1 f
Valency 1
1000g  5.12K kg mol 1  2.0  102 kg 10.240  10 2
  1
Lakshya 1.0 kg  0.69
Lakshya K
Lakshya 0.69 Lakshya
Lakshya (c) Lakshya
Eq. of H2SO4 Lakshya
  2 ( Eq.Lakshya Lakshya
= mole × valency)
10
Lakshya Lakshya 10–2 = 148.4 g mol
= 14840.58 ×Lakshya –1
Volume of solution = 500/1000 litre
Also, M2 Lakshya
Lakshya
(calculated) forLakshya
C6H5OH Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
–1
= 12 × 6 + 1 × 5 + 16 + 1 = 94 g mol . Therefore, 2  1000 0.4
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya N
 Lakshya  0.4 and
Lakshya MLakshya
  0.2 Lakshya
10  500 2
M (calculated) 4
i  2 Lakshya  Lakshya
Lakshya  0.633 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
M 2 (observed) 148.4
Lakshya Educare
26 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya
CalculateLakshya
Lakshya the normalityLakshya
of the resultingLakshya
solution madeLakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1 4 Lakshya Lakshya
by adding 2 drops (0.1 mL) of 0.1N H2SO4 in 1 litre of PM  160   60  ;
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1 4
Lakshya 1  4 Lakshya Lakshya
distilled water.
= 32 + 48 = 80 mm
Sol.  Meq. of
Lakshya solute does not
Lakshya change on dilution
Lakshya
Meq. of HLakshya
SO4 (conc.) =Lakshya
Meq. of H2SO4Lakshya
(dil.) Lakshya Lakshya w / 78 w / 92
2
B: P  160  Lakshya 60  Lakshya
M
Lakshya
0.1 × 0.1 = N × 1000 ( Meq. = N × V in mL) w w w w
 
78 92 Lakshya
78 92 Lakshya
N = 10–5
(Given, equalLakshya Lakshya
weights are mixed) Lakshya
Example - 51
Lakshya Lakshya
At 300 K, the vapour Lakshya
pressure of anLakshya
ideal solutionLakshya Lakshya 92 Lakshya
78 Lakshya Lakshya
 160   60 
containing one mole of A and 3 mole of B, is 550 mm of Hg. 170 170
Lakshya Lakshya
At the same temperature,Lakshya
if one mole of BLakshya
is added to thisLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
solution, the vapour pressure of solution increases by 10 = 86.588 + 27.529 = 114.117 mm
Lakshya
mm of Hg.Lakshya Lakshya
Calculate the V.P. of A and B inLakshya
their pure state.Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Example - 53
Lakshya
Sol. Lakshya
Initially, P 0 Lakshya
M  PA . X A  PB . X B The vapour pressure of water at 293 K is 2338 Pa and
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya theLakshya
vapour pressure of an aqueous
Lakshya solution is Lakshya
Lakshya 2295.8
1 3
550  PA0 .
 PB0 . Pa. If density of solution is 1010 Kg/m3 at 313 K,
Lakshya 1 3
Lakshya 1 3
calculate Lakshya
the osmotic pressure Lakshya Lakshya
at 313 K. Molecular
weight of solute = 60.
or
Lakshya PA0 Lakshya
3PB0  2200 ..........(1)
When, one
Lakshya mole of B is further
Lakshya Lakshya added toLakshya
it Lakshya P 0  PsLakshya
n n  18 Lakshya
Sol. At Lakshya
293 K ;   Lakshya
Ps N W
Lakshya  PA0 . X A  PB0Lakshya
PM Lakshya . XB Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya1 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

2338  2295.8 Lakshya
n  18
560  PA0 .  PB0 .
4  Lakshya
2295.8

W
Lakshya Lakshya
1 4 1 4
 0 0 n 42.2 1
PB  2800 .........
Lakshya PA  4Lakshya
(2)
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 
 Lakshya  Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
W 2295.8 18
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
or W = 979.25 × ngLakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
PA0 Lakshya
400 mm, PB0Lakshya
 600 mm. Lakshya Lakshya Weight of solution = 979.25n +Lakshya
wt. of solute Lakshya
 Lakshya Lakshya
Example - 52 = 979.25n
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya+ 60n = Lakshya
1039.25 ng = 1.0393n kg
Lakshya Lakshya
Benzene and toluene form two ideal solutions A and B at
Lakshya Lakshya
313K. Solution Lakshya
A contains Lakshyaand oneLakshya
4 mole of the toluene Lakshya LakshyaWeightLakshya
1.0393n Lakshya
 Volume of solution   m3
mole of C6H6. Solution B contains equal masses of toluene ( at 313 K ) density 1010
Lakshya Lakshya
and benzene. Lakshya
Calculate total pressure inLakshya
each case. TheLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
vapour pressure of C6H6 and toluene are 160 and 60 mm Now, PV = nST
Lakshya Lakshya
respectively at 313 K. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1.0393n
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 0 Lakshya Lakshya P Lakshya  n  8Lakshya
.314  313 Lakshya Lakshya
Sol. A : PM  PB  PT  PB0 . X B  PT . X T 1010
1 4 P = 2.53 × 106 Pa
Lakshya
XB 
 Lakshya and XT 
Lakshya
1 4 1  4 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 27

Example - 54 100
= 39ºC × kg mol 
Lakshya
At 298 K,Lakshya Lakshyaof pure Lakshya
the vapour pressure ethyl alcohol isLakshya 1000
44 torr and that of pure benzene is 100 torr. Assuming
ideal behaviour, calculate the vapour pressure at 298 K = 3.9ºC kg mol– ; mol. wt. of anthracene, M2 = ?
Lakshya Lakshya
of a solution Lakshya
which contains Lakshya
10.0g of each substanceLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(At. wt., C = 12, H = 1, O = 16) K  W2 in g
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya We
Lakshya Tb  b
know that Lakshya ;
Lakshya Lakshya
M 2  W1 in kg
Sol. Wt. of benzene, C6H6 = 10.0g; g. mol. wt. of C6H6
= (6 × 12) (6 × 1) = 78 g; wt. of ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K b  W2 inLakshya
g
= 10.0g; g. mol. wt. of C2H5OH = (2 × 12) + (5 × 1) + 16 + 1 M 2Lakshya
 Lakshya Lakshya
Tb  W1 in kg
= 46.0g. Lakshya

10 3.9º C kg mol 1
 0.5141g Lakshya Lakshya
Thus : No. of moles of C6H6 = = 0.128; Or M 2   176.26g mol 1
Lakshya Lakshya 78
0.325º CLakshya
Lakshya
 0.035 kg Lakshya Lakshya

10 Example - 56
No. of moles of C2H5OH = = 0.217
Lakshya Lakshya 46
A sample Lakshya has freezing
of naphthalene Lakshya Lakshya
point, 80.6ºC.
When 0.512g of a solute is dissolved in 7.03g of
0.128 naphthalene, the solution has a freezing point of
X   0.371;
LakshyaC 6 H 6 Lakshya
0.128  0.217 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 75.2ºC. CalculateLakshya
Lakshya the molecular mass of the solute.
Lakshya Lakshya
(K f for naphthalene = 6.8ºC kg/mol)
X C2 H5OH  1  0.371  0.629
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Sol.
Lakshya TLakshya
f
= (80.6 – 75.2)ºC = 5.4ºC ; wt. Lakshya
Lakshya of solute, Lakshya
0
PC 6 H 6  PLakshya
Lakshya C 6 H 6 X C 6 H 6  Lakshya
(0.371) (100) = 37.1 torr.;
Lakshya Lakshya W2Lakshya Lakshya
= 0.512 g; wt. of solvent, Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
P Lakshya
 P0 X C 2Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya W1Lakshya
= 7.03 g ; mol. Lakshya
wt. of solute, Lakshya Lakshya
C 2 H 5OH C 2 H 5OH H 5OH  (0.629) (44) = 28 torr..

Total pressure = 37.1 + 28 = 65.1 torr. M2 = ?, Kf = 6.8ºC kg mol–1. We know that:
Example - 55
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K f (in º C kg mol 1 )  W2 Lakshya
(in g )
TLakshya
f 
Lakshya ; Lakshya
The boiling point of chloroform was raised by 0.325ºC  W in g 
M 2 (in g mol 1 )   1  kg
when 0.5141
Lakshya g of anthracene
Lakshya Lakshyawas dissolved
Lakshya in 35gLakshya Lakshya Lakshya 1000Lakshya
 Lakshya
of chloroform. Calculate the molecular weight of
anthracene. (K b = 39.0 per 100 g of chloroform)
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya mol 1  0.512gLakshya
6.8º C kg Lakshya Lakshya
Sol. wt. of solute, W2 = 0.5141g ; wt. of solvent, 5.4º C 
7.03
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya M2 
LakshyaKg Lakshya Lakshya
1000
35
Lakshya
W1 = Lakshya Lakshya
kg = 0.035 kg; Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1000
1
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 6.8º C kgLakshya
Lakshya mol  0.512gLakshya Lakshya
 M2   91.7 g mol 1
Tb = 0.325ºC ; Kb = 39ºC (100 g mol–) 5.4º C  00703 kg
Lakshya Educare
28 SOLUTIONS
Example - 57
1.85º C kg mol 1  4g
M2 
Lakshya  311.6 mol 1
The osmotic
Lakshya pressure of Lakshya
Lakshya a non-volatile solute in C6H6 atLakshya
Lakshya 0.25º CLakshya
 0.095 kg Lakshya Lakshya
25ºC is 20.66 Nm–2. If the solution had a concentration
of 2g/dm3, what is mol. wt. of solute ? Theoretical molar mass (MTh) of CdI2
Sol. Given that, = 112 + (2 × 127) = 366 g mol–1
 = 20.66 Nm–2, For CdI2    Cd2+ + 2I–
3
Initial conc. 1 0 0
w 2 10
dm 3 
Lakshya  2g /Lakshya kg / m 3
V 10 3 At equilibrium 1 – 2
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya iLakshya
= 1 – + 2Lakshya Lakshya
= 1 + 2 ...... (1) Lakshya
S = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1, T = 273 + 25 = 298 K
M Th 366g mol 1
w w ST ButLakshya
i= M  .......(2)
V 
Lakshya ST
Lakshya Lakshya
m Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
311.6g mol 1 Lakshya Lakshya
m obs
V 
Substituting the value of i from (2) in (1), we get
2 10 3  8.314  298 –1
m
= 239.84 kg mol Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
10 3  20.66 366 1  366 
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya  1  2 or
Lakshya
   Lakshya
Lakshya
 1 Lakshya
311.6 2  311.6 
Example - 58
The freezing point of a solution of 4.0g CdI2 in 95g of or = 0.087 or 0.087 × 100 = 8.7 % dissociated
Lakshya Lakshya
water was – 0.25ºC.Lakshya
Calculate theLakshya
degree ofLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
dissociation of salt. (K f for water = 1.85ºC kg/mol
(At. wt. Cd = 112; I = 127).
Sol. Wt. of solute, W2 = 4.0g ; wt. of solvent,
W1 = 0.095 kg;
K f  W2 in g
Lakshya ºC; M 2 
Tf = 0.25Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Tf  W1 in g

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 29

LDA -1

Strength of Solutions
1. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution containing 20% of C2H6O2 by mass.
2. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g of NaOH in 450 mL solution
3. Calculate molality of 2.5g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75g of benzene.
4. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in carbon tetrachloride.
5. A solution is obtained by mixing 300g of 25% solution and 400g of 40% solution by mass. Calculate the mass percentage of
Lakshya Lakshya
the resulting solution. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
6. Lakshya
A sample Lakshya
of drinking water was foundLakshya
to be severely Lakshya Lakshya
contaminated with chloroformLakshya Lakshya
(CHCl3) supposed Lakshya
to be a carcinogen.
The level of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass) :
(i) express this in percent by mass
(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
7. Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when 6.5g of C9H8O4 is dissolved in 450g of
Lakshya
CH3CN.Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
8. Lakshya
Calculate the amount ofLakshya Lakshya
benzoic acid (C Lakshya
H COOH) required Lakshya
for preparing 250 mL ofLakshya
0.15 M solutionLakshya
in methanol. Lakshya
6 5
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ANSWER

LakshyaKEY Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
1. 0.0676Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2. 0.278 mol dm–3 Lakshya
3. 0.556 mol Kg–1 Lakshya
4. 0.952 Lakshya Lakshya
5. 33.5% Lakshya
Lakshya
6. 1.5 × Lakshya Lakshya
10–3%, 1.25 × 10–4
m Lakshya 7. 1.424%
Lakshya Lakshya
8. 4.575 g Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Educare
30 SOLUTIONS
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya LDA -2

Raoult’s
Lakshya lawLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
1. At 40°CLakshya
Lakshya the vapor pressure, in torr, of methyl
Lakshya Lakshyaalcohol–ethyl
Lakshyaalcohol solutions
Lakshyais represented
Lakshyaby Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya P =Lakshya

119x + 135 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
where x is the mole fraction of methyl alcohol. What are the vapor pressures of the pure components at this temperature ?
2. Ethylene bromide, C2H4Br2, and 1, 2-dibromopropane, C3H6Br2, form a series of ideal solutions over the whole range of
composition. At 85°C the vapor pressures of these two pure liquids are 173 and 127 torr, respectively.
(a) If 10.0 g of ethylene bromide is dissolved in 80.0 g of 1, 2-dibromopropane, calculate the partial pressure of each component
and the total pressure of the solution at 85°C.
3. The vapor pressure of pure water at 26°C is 25.21 torr. What is the vapor pressure of a solution which contains 20.0 g glucose,
C6H12O6, in 70 g water ?
0 Lakshya
4. Calculate the composition of the vapor in equilibrium with an ideal solution of ethylbenzene (P e = 10.0 torr) and
0
methylbenzene
Lakshya Lakshya(P m = 37.0 torr) in which
Lakshya the mole fraction
Lakshya Lakshyaof ethylbenzene
Lakshyain the liquid is 0.35. Calculate
Lakshya Lakshya the total vapor
Lakshya
pressure of the solution.
5. Cyclohexane and ethanol at a particular temperature have vapour pressures of 280 mm and 168 mm respectively. If these two
solutionsLakshya
Lakshya having the mole fraction valueLakshya
Lakshya of cyclohexane equal to 0.32Lakshya
Lakshya are mixed and Lakshya
the mixture hasLakshya
a total vapour Lakshya
pressure
of 376 mm, will the mixture be an ideal solution ?
6. The vapour pressures of benzene and toluene at 20°C are 75 mmHg and 22 mmHg respectively. 23.4 g of benzene and 64.4 g of
toluene are
Lakshya mixed. If theLakshya
Lakshya two form an ideal solution, calculate
Lakshya Lakshya the moleLakshya
fraction of benzene in the vapour
Lakshya phase if theLakshya
Lakshya vapours
are in equilibrium with the liquid mixture at the same temperature.
7. Two liquids A and B form an ideal solution. At 300 K, the vapour pressure of a solution containing 1 mole of A and 3 moles of
Lakshya
B is 550Lakshya
mm of Hg. At Lakshya Lakshyaif one mole
the same temperature, Lakshya Lakshya
of B is added Lakshya
to this solution, the vapour Lakshya
pressure of theLakshya
solution
increases by 10 mm of Hg. Determine the vapour pressure of A and B in their pure states.
0 0
8. Benzene and toluene form nearly ideal solutions. If at 300 K, p toluene = 32.06 mm and p benzene = 103.01 mm
(a) calculate the vapour pressure of a solution containing 0.6 mole fraction of toluene.
(b) calculate the mole fraction of toluene in the vapour for this composition of liquid.
9. Calculate the mole fraction of toluene in the vapor phase which is in equilibrium with a solution of benzene and toluene
having aLakshya
Lakshya mole fraction of toluene 0.500.Lakshya
Lakshya The vapor pressure of pure benzene
Lakshya is 119 torr;
Lakshya that of toluene
Lakshya is 37.0 torr at Lakshya
Lakshya the same
temperature.
10. What is the composition of the vapor which is in equilibrium at 30 ºC with a benzene-toluene solution with a mole fraction of
benzene of 0.400 ? with a mole fraction of benzene of 0.6000 ? Pbo = 119 torr and Pto = 37.0 torr..

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 31

ANSWER
Lakshya
KEY Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
 254 torr ; PCLakshya

1. PCH3OHLakshya
Lakshya  135 torrLakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2H5OH
Lakshya
2. (a) PC2Lakshya P
Lakshya
H4Br2 = 20.4 torr , C3H6Br2
 112 torr
Lakshya
P = 132.4Lakshya
torr Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
total
3. 24.5 torr
4. ym = 0.873; pT = 27.55 torr 5. not ideal 6. 0.59 7. PA0 = 400 mm, PB0 = 600 mm
Lakshya
9. (a) 60.44 mm ; (b) 0.3182
9. x = 0.237
t
Lakshya
LDA - Lakshya
Lakshya
310. . y = 0.682
b
; y = 0.829
Lakshya bLakshya
Lakshya Educare
32 SOLUTIONS

Non-Ideal
Lakshya Solutions
1. The diagram
Lakshya
given below
Lakshya
is a vapour pressure-composition
diagram for a binary solution
Lakshya
of A and B.
Lakshya
In the solution,
Lakshya
A—B
Lakshya
interactions are

C B
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya A Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya D Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

XB
Lakshya
(a) similarLakshya
than A—A and Lakshya
B—B interactionsLakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(b) greater to A—A and B—BLakshya
interactions Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(c) smaller than A—A andLakshya
Lakshya
B—B interactions
Lakshya
(d) unpredictable.
2. Which pair from the following will not form an ideal solution ?
(a) CCl4 + SiCl4 (b) H2O + C4H9OH
(c) C2H5Br
Lakshya + C2H5I
Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya (d) CLakshya
H + C7H16
6 14
3. Water and
Lakshya
ethanol formLakshya
Lakshya
non-ideal solution with positive
Lakshya
deviation from
Lakshya
Raoult’s law. Lakshya
Lakshya
This solution will have vapourLakshya
Lakshya
pressure
(a) equal to vapour pressure of pure water (b) less than vapour pressure of pure water
(c) more than vapour pressure of pure water (d) less than vapour pressure of pure ethanol.
Lakshya
4. A binaryLakshya Lakshya
solution of ethanol Lakshya
and n-heptane Lakshya
is an example of Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(a) Ideal solution (b) Non-ideal solution with + ve deviation

(c) Non-ideal solution with – ve deviation (d) uppredictable
5. 5 ml of acetone is mixed with 100 ml of H2O. The vapour pressure of water above the solution is
(a) equalLakshya
Lakshya to the vapour Lakshya
pressure of pureLakshya
water Lakshya (b) equal to the vapour
Lakshya pressure ofLakshya
Lakshya the solution Lakshya
(c) less than the vapour pressure of pure water (d) more than the vapour pressure of pure water
Relative lowering in V.P.
Lakshya Lakshya
6. The vapour pressure of Lakshya
pure benzene atLakshya Lakshya
a certain temperature is 0.850 Lakshya Lakshya
bar. A non-volatile. Lakshya
non-electrolyte Lakshya
solid weighing 0.5g
–1
when added
Lakshya to 39.0g of Lakshya
Lakshya benzene (molarLakshya
mass 78g mol Lakshya
). Vapour pressure of the solution,
Lakshya then, is 0.845
Lakshya bar. What is the
Lakshya molar
Lakshya
mass of the solid substance ?
7. Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg. 50 g of urea (NH2CONH2) is dissolved in 850 g of water. Calculate the
vapour pressure
Lakshya Lakshya
of water for this solution
Lakshya
and its relative
Lakshya
lowering. Lakshya
8. Ten grams of a solute was dissolved in 80 g of acetone at 303 K. The vapour pressure of the solution was found to be 271 Torr.
Calculate the molar mass of the solute. Given: Vapour pressure of pureLakshya
acetone at 303 Lakshya
K is 283 Torr. Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 33

9. An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the normal boiling point of the solvent. What
Lakshya Lakshya
is the molar solute ? (p owater Lakshya
mass of theLakshya  1.013 bar) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
10. Lakshya
The lowering of vapourLakshya
pressure of theLakshya Lakshya
solvent takes place Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(a) only when the solute is non-volatile (b) only when the solute is volatile
(c) only when the solute is a non-electrolyte (d) in all the above three cases.
11. The lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent takes place on dissolving a non-volatile solute because
(a) the density
Lakshya Lakshyaof the solution
LakshyaincreasesLakshya Lakshya (b) the surface tension
Lakshya of the solution
Lakshya decreases Lakshya
Lakshya
(c) the viscosity of the solution increases
(d) the molecules of the solvent on the surface are replaced by the molecules of the solute.


1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. 165.67 g/mol
7. 23.38 mm Hg ; 0.0176 8. 172.6 g/mol 9. 40.97 g mol–1 10. (d) 11. (d)
Lakshya Educare
34 SOLUTIONS

LDA -4

Henry’s Law
1. If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many millimoles of N2 gas would dissolve in l litre of water. Assume that N2
Lakshyaexerts aLakshya
partial pressureLakshya Lakshya
of 0.987 bar. Given Lakshya
that Henry’s law constantLakshya
for N2 at 293 KLakshya
is 76.48 kbar. Lakshya Lakshya
LakshyaHenry’sLakshya
3. Lakshya
law constant for the molality ofLakshya Lakshya
methane in benzene 4.27 × 105 mmLakshya
at 298 K isLakshya Lakshya
Hg. Calculate the solubility of Lakshya
methane
in benzene at 298 K under 760 mm Hg.
5. Find the mole fraction of O2 in a saturated solution of oxygen in water at 25ºC when the partial pressure of O2 above the water
is 0.21 atm. Given that Henry’s constant for O2 in water at 25ºC is 2.3 × 10–5 atm–1.
6. The mole fraction of helium in a saturated solution at 0ºC is 1.2 × 10–6. Find the pressure of helium above the solution. Given
LakshyaHenry’sLakshya × 10–6 atm–1. Lakshya
constant = 6.8Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
LakshyaThe value
7. of Henry’s law
Lakshya constant for Lakshya
Lakshya some gases at 293 K is given below.
Lakshya Arrange the
Lakshya gases in the increasing
Lakshya Lakshya orderLakshya
of their
solubility.
He : 144.97 kbar, H2 : 69.16 kbar, N2 : 76.48 kbar, O2 : 34.86 kbar
(a) He < N2 < H2 < O2 (b) O2 < H2 < N2 < He (c) H2 < N2 < O2 < He (d) He < O2 < N2 < H2
8. Henry’s law constant for molality of methane in benzene at 298K is 4.27 × 105 mm Hg. The mole fraction of methane in
LakshyabenzeneLakshya
at 298 K underLakshya
760 mm Hg is Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya(a) 1.78Lakshya
× 10–3 Lakshya
(b) 17.43Lakshya Lakshya
(c) 0.114 Lakshya Lakshya
(d) 2.814 Lakshya Lakshya
LakshyaWhen aLakshya
9. gas is bubbledLakshya Lakshya
through water at 298 K, a veryLakshya
dilute solutionLakshya Lakshya
of gas is obtained. Henry’s law Lakshya Lakshya
constant for the gas is
100 kbar. If gas exerts a pressure of 1 bar, the number of moles of gas dissolved in 1 litre of water is
–5 –3 –5
(a) 0.0555 (b) 55.55 × 10 (c) 55.55 × 10 (d) 5.55 × 10
–3
10. How much oxygen is dissolved in 100 mL water at 298 K if partial pressure of oxygen is 0.5 atm and KH = 1.4 × 10 mol/L/atm?
(a) 22.4 mg (b) 22.4 g (b) 2.24g (d) 2.24 mg
11. H2S is a toxic gas used in qualitative analysis. If solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0.195m, what is the value of KH ?
Lakshya(p H 2S  Lakshya
0.987 bar) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya(a) 0.0263
Lakshya
bar Lakshya
(b) 69.16Lakshya
bar Lakshya Lakshya
(c) 192 bar Lakshya Lakshya
(d) 282 bar Lakshya
LakshyaAt highLakshya
12. altitude the partial
Lakshyapressure of oxygen is lessLakshya
Lakshya than that at the ground level.Lakshya
Lakshya This leads to Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya(a) lowLakshya
concentration of oxygen in theLakshya
Lakshya blood and tissues (b) high Lakshya
Lakshya concentration of oxygen in theLakshya
Lakshya blood and tissues
Lakshya
Lakshya(c) release of dissolvedLakshya

Lakshya gases and formation
Lakshyaof bubbles of nitrogen Lakshya
Lakshya in the blood Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya(d) thickening
Lakshyaof bloodLakshya
and tissues. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 35

13. According to Henry’s law ‘the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
(x) in the
Lakshya
solution’. ForLakshya
Lakshya
different gasesLakshya
the correct statement
Lakshya
about Henry’s
Lakshya
constantLakshya
is Lakshya Lakshya
(a) higher
Lakshya the value of Lakshya
Lakshya KH at a given pressure,
Lakshya higherLakshya
is the solubilityLakshya
of the gas Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(b) higher the value of Lakshya
Lakshya
KH at a given pressure,
Lakshya
lower Lakshya
is the solubilityLakshya
of the gas Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(c) KH isLakshya
Lakshya not a functionLakshya
of nature of gas
(d) KH value
Lakshya for all gases
Lakshya is same at a Lakshya
Lakshya given pressure.Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
–5
14. KH valueLakshya
Lakshya for Ar(g), CO2Lakshya
(g), HCHO (g) CH (g) are 40.39,
Lakshya
4
1.67, 1.83 × 10
Lakshya and 0.413 respectively.
ArrangeLakshya
Lakshya these gases inLakshya
the order of their increasing solubiulity.
(a) HCHO
Lakshya < CH4 < CO2Lakshya
Lakshya < Ar Lakshya (b) HCHO
Lakshya < CO2 < CH4 Lakshya
Lakshya < Ar Lakshya Lakshya
(c) Ar < Lakshya

Lakshya CO2 < CH4 < HCHO
Lakshya Lakshya (d) Ar < CH
Lakshya < CO2 < HCHO
Lakshya
4 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya
1. 0.716Lakshya
mmol Lakshya
2. 1.78 × 10–3 Lakshya Lakshya
3. 4.8 × 10–6 Lakshya Lakshya
4. 0.176 atm Lakshya
5. (a) 6. (a)Lakshya

7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (c)
Lakshya Educare
36 SOLUTIONS

Colligative Properties
Elevation in Boiling
Lakshya Point
1.
Lakshya18g of glucose,
LakshyaC6H12O , is dissolved in
Lakshya
6
1kg of water Lakshya
Lakshya in a saucepan. At what temperature
Lakshya will water boil
Lakshya at 1.013 barLakshya
Lakshya ? Kb for
water is 0.52K kg mol–1.
2. What is the molality of an aqueous glucose solution if the boiling point of the solution at 1 atm pressure is 101.27 ºC? The
molal boiling-point-elevation constant for water is 0.51ºC kg/mol.
3. (a) A solution containing 10g of non-volatile solute in 100g of water boils at 373.15K. Find the molecular mass of the solute
(Kb for H2O is 0.52 K/m). (Pure water boils at 373K)
(b) What is the boiling point of a solution containing 18g of glucose in 100g of H2O ? Molal elevation constant of H2O is
0.52 kg mol–1.
4. On dissolving 3.24g of sulphur in 40g of benzene, boiling point of solution was higher than that of benzene by 0.81 K. Kb
value for benzene is 2.53 K Kg mol–1. What is the molecular formula of sulphur ? (Atomic mass of sulphur = 32g mol–1)
5. (a) A solution contains 3.5g of a non volatile solute in 125g of water and it boils at 373.52 K. Calculate the molecular mass
Lakshya ofLakshya
solute (Kb for water = 0.52 K/m).
(b) Calculate the molar mass of a substance 1.3g of which when dissolved in 169 g of water gave a solution boiling at
100.025ºC at a pressure of one atmosphere (Kb for water = 0.52 K m–1)
(c) What elevation in boiling point of alcohol is to be expected when 5g of urea (mol. mass = 60) are dissolved in 75g of it
? The molal elevation constant for alcohol is 1.15 K-kg/mol.
Depression in Freezing Point
6. (a) 45g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600g of water. Calculate (i) the freezing point depression and (ii) the
Lakshya Lakshya
freezing point of Lakshya
the solution Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya(b) Lakshya
1.00g Lakshyasolute dissolved
of non-electrolyte Lakshya in 50g Lakshya Lakshyathe freezing
of benzene lowered Lakshya Lakshyaby 0.40Lakshya
point of benzene K. The
freezing point depression constant of benzene is 5.12 K kg mol–1. Find the molar mass of the solute.
7. If the radiator of an automobile contains 12 L of water, how much would the freezing point be lowered by the addition of 5 kg
Lakshya Lakshya
of Prestone Lakshya
(glycol, C2H (OH)2) ? HowLakshya Lakshya
many kg of Zerone Lakshya
(methyl alcohol, CH3OH)Lakshya Lakshya
would be required to produce Lakshya
the same
4
result ? Assume 100% purity. (kf = 1.86 K-kg/mol)
8. C H6 freezes at 5.5°C. At what temperature will a solution of 10.0 g of C4H10 in 200 g of C6H6 freeze ? The molal freezing point
Lakshya 6 Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
depression constant of C6H6 is 5.12°C/m.
Lakshya
9. Lakshya
An aqueous Lakshya
solution boils Lakshya
at 100.50°C. Lakshyapoint ofLakshya
What is the freezing the solution ? Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Osmotic
Lakshya Pressure
3
10.
Lakshya200 cmLakshya
of an aqueousLakshya
solution of a protein
Lakshyacontains 1.26 g of the protein.
Lakshya LakshyaThe osmotic pressure of Lakshya
Lakshya such a solutionLakshya
at 300 K
is found to be 2.57 × 10–3 bar. Calculate the molar mass of the protein.
Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 37

11. The osmotic pressure of a solution of a synthetic polyisobutylene in benzene was determined at 25°C. A sample containing
0.20 g of solute/100 cm3 of solution developed a rise of 2.4 mm at osmotic equilibrium. The density of the solution was
0.88 g/cm3. What is the molecular weight of the polyisobutylene ?
Lakshya
12. Lakshya
Calculate Lakshyaof a 0.100
the osmotic pressure Lakshya Lakshya
M solution of Lakshya
a nonelectrolyte at 0°C. Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
13. Calculate
Lakshya the osmotic pressure
Lakshya Lakshyaof a solution
LakshyacontainingLakshya
17.1g of cane-sugar (molecular
Lakshya mass 342) inLakshya
Lakshya 500 g of water Lakshya
at 300 K
(R = 0.082 lit. atm deg–1 mol–1). Density of the solution is 1.034g cm–3.
14. The osmotic pressure of blood is 8.21 atm at 37ºC. How much glucose would be used for an injection that is at the same
osmoticLakshya
Lakshya
pressure as blood ?

ANSWER KEY

1. 373.202 K 2. 2.5m 3. (a) 346.7u, (b) 100.52ºC 4. S8
–1
5. (a) 28u,
Lakshya (b) 160g molLakshya
Lakshya , (c) 1.28 Lakshya 6. (a) (i) 2.2K, (ii)Lakshya
Lakshya 270.95K, (b) 256 g/mol
Lakshya Lakshya
7. +12°C, 2.6 kg Lakshya
8. 1.09°C Lakshya Lakshya
9. –1.82°C Lakshya Lakshya
10. 61,022g mol–1 Lakshya Lakshya

11. 2 × 105 g/mol 12. 2.24 atm 13. 2.46 atm 14. 58.14g L–1
Lakshya Educare
38 SOLUTIONS

Deviation
Lakshya inLakshya
Colligative Lakshya
Properties Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya19.5 g of
1. CH2FCOOH is
Lakshya dissolved in 500g
Lakshya of water. The
Lakshya depression inLakshya
Lakshya the freezing point of water observed
Lakshya is 1.0ºC. Calculate
Lakshya Lakshya
the van’t Hoff factor and dissociation constant of fluoroacetic acid. (Kf = 1.86 K–kg/mol)
2. Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its osmotic pressure is 0.75 atm at 27ºC.
3. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K2SO4 in 2 litre of water at 25ºC, assuming that
it is completely dissociated.
4. 2g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point equal to 1.62 K. Molal
Lakshya Lakshya
depression constant forLakshya
benzene is 4.9Lakshya Lakshya
K kg mol–1. What Lakshya
is the percentage Lakshya
association Lakshya
of acid if it forms Lakshya
dimer in solution ?
Lakshya0.6 mL of
5. Lakshya Lakshya
acetic acid (CH 3
Lakshya
COOH). having density 1.06g mL–1, is dissolved
Lakshya Lakshya
in 1 litre ofLakshya Lakshyain freezing
water. The depression Lakshya
point
observed for this strength of acid was 0.0205ºC. Calculate the van’t Hoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid.
6. Which of the following solutions will have the highest boiling point at 1 atm pressure ?
(a) 0.1 M FeCl3 (b) 0.1M BaCl2
(c) 0.1 M NaCl (d) 0.1M urea (NH2CONH2)
7. The van’t Hoff’s factor (i) for a 0.2 molal aqueous solution of urea is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.1 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.0
8. The freezing point of equimolal aqueous solutions will be highest for
(a) C6H5NH 3
Cl (anilinium chloride) (b) Ca(NOLakshya
)
3 2
Lakshya Lakshya
(c) La (NO ) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(d) C6H12O (glucose) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
3 3 6
Lakshya
9. Lakshya
Which of the followingLakshya Lakshya
aqueous solution Lakshya
do you expect Lakshya
to have the lowest Lakshya
freezing point ? Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(a) 0.1 mLakshya
glucose (C6H12Lakshya
O6) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(b) 0.1 m NaCl Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(c) 0.1 mLakshya
sucrose (C12H22Lakshya
O11) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
(d) 0.1 m BaCl . Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
2
10. Solutions
Lakshya A, B, C and DLakshya
Lakshya are respectivelyLakshya
0.1M glucose,Lakshya
0.05 M NaCl, 0.05 M BaCl2 and
Lakshya 0.1 M AlCl3. Which
one of the
Lakshya following pairs
Lakshya is isotonic ? Lakshya
(a) A andLakshya
Lakshya B (b) B andLakshya
Lakshya C (c) A and Lakshya
Lakshya D (d) A and C
11. The depression

Lakshya Lakshya in freezing point of 0.1 MLakshya
Lakshya aqueous solutions of HCl, CuSO
Lakshya and K2SO4 Lakshya
Lakshya
4
are in the ratio Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya
(a) 1 : 1 :Lakshya
1 Lakshya
(b) 1 : 2 : Lakshya
3 (c) 1 : 1 : 1.5
Lakshya Lakshya
(d) 2 : 4 : 3Lakshya
Lakshya Lakshya
12. Benzoic acid undergoes dimerisation in benzene solution, the van’t Hoff factor ‘i’ is related to the degree of association ‘x’ of
the acid as
Lakshya
(a) i = (1Lakshya
– x) Lakshya Lakshya
(b) i = (1 + x) Lakshya
(c) i = (1 –Lakshya
x/2) Lakshya
(d) i = (1 +Lakshya
x/2) Lakshya

Lakshya Educare
SOLUTIONS 39

ANSWER KEY

–3 –3
1. i = 1.075, Ka = 3.04 × 10 2. 0.03 mol 3. 5.27 × 10 atm 4. 99.2%
5. 1.041 ; 1.86×10–5 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)

11. (c) Lakshya

Lakshya 12. (c) Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya
Lakshya Educare

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SOLUTIONS 1

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya SOLUTIONS

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Molarity

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya are Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya TheLakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya ForLakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 3.1 Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Solubility

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya LikeLakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya 2.

Henry’s law states that at a constant temperature, the

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya p = Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Here KH is the Henry’s

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K f  w 2  1000

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya K  w 2  1000

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Determination

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

2. When the Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Normal molar mass temperature

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya

Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya Lakshya