International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and

Environment

ISSN: 1748-0930 (Print) 1748-0949 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nsme20

Recycling of dimension limestone industry waste

in concrete

Aditya Rana, Pawan Kalla & Laszlo J. Csetenyi

To cite this article: Aditya Rana, Pawan Kalla & Laszlo J. Csetenyi (2016): Recycling of dimension
limestone industry waste in concrete, International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and
Environment, DOI: 10.1080/17480930.2016.1138571

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2016.1138571

Published online: 22 Jan 2016.

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 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2016.1138571

Recycling of dimension limestone industry waste in concrete

Aditya Ranaa, Pawan Kallaa and Laszlo J. Csetenyib
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India; bConcrete Technology Unit,
University of Dundee, Dundee, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

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Extractive and mining operations are one of the largest waste producing Received 28 July 2015
streams in the world. In general, mining operation is accompanied with the Accepted 1 January 2016
production of stone and slurry wastes. Such wastes occupy large land near KEYWORDS
the mining area and the fine slurry particles cause bronchial, vision and skin Recycling; dimension stone
disorders in the nearby inhabitants. Present study examines the suitability waste; limestone; strength;
of using dimension limestone waste as fine aggregate in concrete. Twenty- permeability; mining waste;
six concrete mixes were examined by replacing river sand fine aggregate slurry waste
with crushed sand, slurry and manufactured sand (MS). Test results indicated
that MS formulated by blending crushed solid stone waste (85%) and slurry
(15%) can be used as fine aggregate in concrete. Concrete cast with MS
demonstrated superior strength and reduced bleeding, permeability and
void formation within the concrete. The use of MS will contribute to bulk
utilisation of waste as it can completely replace river sand in concrete, hence,
promoting sustainable development in the region by consuming both types
of stone waste in significant quantities.

1. Introduction
1.1. Preliminary remarks
Mankind has always exploited the natural resources to satisfy its basic needs. The human consumption
rate of natural resources, in the main, exceeds earth replenishment rate by 30% [1]. The construction
sector is a major consumer of natural resources. Concrete is the second most consumed material after
water. All raw materials used for concreting are directly or indirectly obtained by mining the earth’s
crust. Extensive use of concrete has increased the global consumption of its ingredients. The rising
demand for river sand to cater the infrastructural growth has also led to its scarcity in some countries.
The enormous and uncontrolled mining of sand from river beds, to fulfil the demand of construction
sand has caused a great threat to environment and society. This sort of abusive mining has resulted
in loss of water retaining sand strata, deepened river courses, resulted in bank sliding and vegetation
loss, exposed intake wells of water supply schemes, disturbed aquatic lives and lowered water table.
Due to the adverse environmental impacts, ban on river sand mining has been reported in various
states of the country. The reduced availability and increased cost of river sand has proportionally
increased the cost of construction. In such a situation, researchers are working to find an affordable
alternative to river sand.

CONTACT Aditya Rana 2013RCE9020@mnit.ac.in

© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 2 A. Rana et al.
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Figure 1. Mountains of dimension limestone waste on a fertile land along a highway in India.

1.2. Dimension limestone: production and waste

Dimension stone is another popular construction material. It is widely used in flooring, cladding and
paving of buildings, monuments, temples and hotels. It remains a main base for the construction sec-
tor. Marble, Granite, Limestone and Travertine are popular dimension stones found across the globe.
Dimension stone production has been reported in 28 countries, with China, Turkey, India, Indonesia
and Italy being the major producers. A wide range of dimension stones such as Sandstone, Quartzite,
Granite, Slate, Marble and Limestone are spread all over India. The occurrence of dimension limestone
has been reported in many countries including the USA, England, France and India. According to USGS
2015 [2], 45% of dimension stone sold in the USA was limestone. Dimension limestone can take similar
polish as that of marble; also, it is cheaper than marble. These two reasons have increased the demand of
dimension limestone in the world market. It is often marketed by its place of occurrence such as Belgian
marble, Galala marble, Indiana limestone, Wisconsin limestone, Kansas limestone, Kasota limestone,
Tura limestone, Kota Stone, Buxy Limestone, Chassagne limestone, Clipsham Stone, Kettone stone,
etc. After mining, a dimension limestone undergoes finishing operations such as cutting, sawing and
polishing. Each operation is accompanied with the generation of non-biodegradable stone waste. About
58% of the dimension limestone mined ends up as waste [3]. The generated stone waste can be broadly
classified as (a) Solid waste generated during mining and cutting operations and (b) Slurry waste gen-
erated during polishing of the stone. During mining, indiscriminate blasting of unsplittable layers and
extracting only the splittable quality material generates solid stone waste. As per needs, the raw stone is
then cut and sawn into tiles or slabs of varying thickness (usually 20–40 mm), using diamond blades.
The unsuitable fractures which do not fit into the required sizes of dimension stone are discarded. Stones
are further polished using abrasives to give them a glazy appearance. While polishing and cutting, blades
are showered with cold water to soak up the dust. A large amount of wastewater is produced during this
operation. The water carries suspended particles through drains to the sedimentation tank. Water is then
recycled and reused in cutting and polishing operations while the settled slurry and solid stone waste
are disposed off on landfills along roadside on fertile lands. Slurry largely consists of suspended stone
dust particles. The dumped waste occupies huge areas of valuable land near the mines, hinders the flow
of storm water and adversely affects the region’s landscape. After dumping, slurry water evaporates or
permeates through the ground surface. Along with water, fine slurry particles also penetrate the earth’s
surface and choke the pores present in soil strata. Choked pores reduce the water permeability of soil,
thereby reducing the underground water table level and soil fertility. Fine slurry particles also get air
borne with the wind and cause bronchial, vision and skin disorders in nearby inhabitants. The dumping
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  3

process extensively degrades land. In the mining area of Ramganj mandi (India), an estimated waste of
100 Mt is dumped on fertile land over a length of 35 km along the highway (Figure 1). In 2013–2014,
5.95 Mt of dimension limestone was mined in the region. From this quantity, 3.45 Mt ended up as waste
[3]. As all the available dumping yards in and around the mining region have been stacked with waste,
the government introduced a new policy, granting mining lease to stone industry only if it first procures
land to dump the waste. The new allotted dumping yards are at a distance of 20–30 km. The increased
cost of waste transportation and management has questioned the economic feasibility of dimension
limestone mining in the region.

1.3. Research significance

Due to excessive consumption and associated adverse impacts, the availability of river sand in the
state and country is diminishing. Similar conditions have previously been reported in other African
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and European countries. The economic development of any region depends upon judicious use of
its natural resources. Thus, it is a need of hour to develop concrete technology capable of absorbing
dimension stone waste. The use of dimension limestone waste in concrete may prove advantageous to
both the mining and construction sectors. It may provide a sustainable bulk outlet to this waste and
will reinstate the economic value of mining and processing waste. Thus, an investigation was conducted
at Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur in association with the Centre for Development
of Stones, Rajasthan to develop a concrete technology capable of utilising dimension limestone waste
as fine aggregate in concrete.

2. Literature review
In the recent decade, many researchers have attempted to incorporate dimension stone waste in con-
crete. Some studies suggest that a part or whole of river sand or coarse aggregate can be substituted
by the waste. Few investigations claim that a part of cement can also be replaced by it.

2.1. Dimension stone waste as coarse aggregate in concrete

Binici et al. (2008) recycled solid waste from marble and granite industries as coarse aggregate. They
observed that the use of recycled aggregates enhanced the workability, strength and resistance against
aggressive chemicals (chlorides and sulphates) [4]. On the contrary, Hebhoub et al. (2011) observed
that incorporation of marble aggregates slightly reduced the workability and strength of concrete [5].
In a similar investigation, Andre et al. (2014) reported that the use of recycled marble aggregates in
concrete slightly reduced strength. However, no significant effect on water absorption and chloride
migration of concrete was noticed [6]. Elçi et al. (2015) found that normal strength concrete (less than
42 MPa) can be designed using aggregate containing dimension limestone waste [7].

2.2. Dimension stone waste as fine aggregate in concrete

Almeida et al. (2007) reported that the use of 5–10% marble and limestone dust in place of sand
reduced the water demand and enhanced the rheology of fresh concrete. They further concluded that
using 5% marble dust imparts higher strength to concrete. Furthermore, using 15% marble dust can
reduce water absorption in concrete [8]. Similarly, Gameiro et al. (2014) found that the use of 20%
fine marble aggregate can reduce water absorption [9]. Silva et al. (2013) used marble quarry waste as
a replacement of fine aggregate and found that as the water/cement ratio was increased to achieve the
target slump, the resulting concrete demonstrated poor strength [10]. However, Hebhoub et al. (2011)
concluded that as much as 75% river sand can be replaced by recycled marble sand with improvement
in strength [5]. Aliabdo et al. (2014) showed that substitution of 15% river sand by waste marble dust
reduces concrete porosity and improves concrete strength [11]. Vijaylakshmi et al. (2013) found that
 4 A. Rana et al.

when 15% granite waste replaces fine aggregate, no significant effect on strength, water permeability,
carbonation and chloride ion migration occurs. However, the granite waste concrete showed poorer
resistance to sulphate attack due to the presence of undesirable organic materials within the granite
powder [12].

2.3. Dimension stone waste as cement in concrete

Ergün (2011) suggested that 7.5% cement can be replaced by marble dust with an increase in concrete
strength [13]. In a similar study, Aliabdo et al. (2014) reported that substitution of 10% cement by
marble dust enhanced the strength at 0.40 water/cement ratio. They concluded that using 10–15%
marble dust as an additive in concrete imparts superior strength [11]. Similarly, Rana et al. (2015)
concluded that using 10% marble slurry in concrete does not affect concrete strength and reduces
water permeation within the concrete [14]. Correspondingly, Rodrigues et al. (2015) found that using
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10% marble dust as cement replacement does not affect the mechanical and rheological behaviour of
concrete [15]. Abukersh and Fairfield (2011) investigated the use of granite dust in superplasticized
concrete. They concluded that 30% granite dust can effectively replace cement and still attain the
desired strength [16]. However, Bacarji et al. (2013) found that the use of granite dust in cement can
reduce concrete strength [17].
The use of dimension stone waste as a construction material has been widely studied in the
last decade. Among available stones, marble and granite wastes were primarily focused on by the
researchers. Only a single study by Elçi et al. (2015) reported the utilisation of dimension limestone
waste as aggregate in concrete [7]. However, their study was limited to evaluation of slump, compres-
sive strength and alkali–silica reaction. Present study not only reports these parameters but addi-
tionally investigates bleeding, compacting factor, permeability and porosity of concrete. Moreover,
their study was constrained up to utilising quarry waste of dimension limestone in concrete. The
present study also investigates the possibility of utilising polishing or slurry waste in concrete.

3. Experimental programme
3.1. General procedures
Dimension limestone waste was procured from the Kudayala mining area in Kota, Rajasthan. Locally,
this stone is also known as Kota stone. Solid stone waste was obtained from debris containing discarded
solid waste. Solid waste was then crushed to fine aggregate with the help of a mechanical crusher.
Waste slurry was obtained from another dumpsite near the stone polishing plant. The different in
situ samples of slurry displayed water contents in the range of 1–2%. At the time of procurement, the
slurry composed of lumps with water entrapped between the particles. After procurement, the slurry
was dried at room temperature for 48 h then the dried lumps were easily ground to a fine powder.

3.2. Materials
Portland cement standardised as OPC 43, satisfying BIS 8112-1989 [18] was used to cast all concrete
mixes. Crushed quartzite stone with a maximum nominal size of 16 mm was used as coarse aggregate.
Four series of concrete mixes with different types of fine aggregates were used to study the behaviour
of dimension stone waste in concrete. Performance of crushed sand (CS), slurry and manufactured
sand (MS) with respect to river sand in concrete was analysed in the study. MS was formulated on
the basis of maximum bulk density and minimum air voids concept. Bulk density and voids were
evaluated using a cylindrical metallic container of 3 l capacity, with its internal diameter and height
being 15 and 17 cm, respectively. The container was filled in three equal layers, by tamping each layer
25 times. The net weight of the samples was then measured and its bulk density (γ) calculated in kg/l.
Percentage voids were further calculated using Equation (1) shown; where G represents specific gravity
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  5

Table 1. Bulk density and %voids of different fine aggregates.

Fine aggregate Bulk density %voids

Natural sand 1587.94 0.41
CS 1550.25 0.42
CS + 5% slurry 1565.42 0.42
CS + 10% slurry 1589.19 0.41
CS + 15% slurry 1611.8 0.4
CS + 20% slurry 1576.19 0.42

of sample. Bulk density and %voids present in different fine aggregate samples are shown in Table 1.
The voids present in CS progressively reduced by the addition of up to 15% slurry. Any further sub-
stitution increased the void content. It was observed that the combination of 85% crushed stone sand
and 15% slurry was the densest and contained the least number of voids. The dense aggregate matrix
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with lower void content will require comparatively less cement paste to fill up the voids and is likely
to produce strong and economical concrete. Thus, this combination was chosen and termed as MS.
(G−𝛾∕G) × 100 = %voids (1)
The grain sizes of CS, MS and river sand used in the study are shown in Figure 2. Particle size
analysis of the slurry is shown in Figure 3. The mean size (D50) of slurry particles was observed to
be 34.87 μm. The majority of slurry particles (D90) were finer than 181.67 μm. Physical properties of
the different concrete constituents used for the study are as shown in Table 2. It was observed that
inclusion of slurry fines in CS increased the water absorption and reduced the fineness modulus of the
resulting MS. River Sand, MS, CS and Slurry used in the study are shown in Figure 4. The chemical
composition of stone waste and river sand is shown in Table 3. The high loss on ignition from stone
waste can be attributed to escapement of CO2 from CaCO3.

3.3. Mixes
In all, 26 concrete mixes were cast at two w/c ratios, 0.45 and 0.55. Series I was cast with Banas River
sand as fine aggregate. In series II and III, CS obtained by crushing solid stone waste and slurry were
used as fine aggregates, respectively. Series IV was cast with MS. Mix designations and their proportions
for different replacements are shown in Table 4. The mixes are designated using a letter which refers
to the type of fine aggregate and a number in subscript indicating the replacement level. The letter
was followed by the apostrophe (‘) symbol for mixes cast at 0.55 w/c. For example, C80 represents a
mix cast with replacing 80% river sand by CS at 0.45 w/c. Similarly, C’80 represents the same mix cast
at 0.55 w/c. Mixes were cast using a laboratory pan mixer of 100 l capacity. Firstly, dry materials in
the order of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement were fed inside the pan. The materials were
mixed in dry state for 3 min. Finally, water was added and the material was mixed for 5 min. The mix
was then poured inside cast iron concrete moulds in three equal layers, vibrating each layer for 30 s.
The cast cubes were then demoulded after 24 h and subsequently cured under water.

3.4. Experimental methods

The experimental programme was designed in such a manner that important parameters associated
with concrete construction could be studied. Workability, strength and resistance to water penetration
are the most desirable properties of a concrete. Concrete must be workable during plastic state for easy
placeability, strong enough to resist various live and dead loads applied on it during its service period.
Additionally, a concrete must have a compact pore structure to restrict the movement of water within.
The ingress of water, carrying various ions such as chlorides, sulphates or acids, is the main cause for
reducing service life of any concrete structure, corroding the reinforcement present in the concrete
and greatly affecting its durability. The compacting factor, slump and bleeding were assessed alongside
 6 A. Rana et al.

MS River Sand CS
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
4.75mm2.36mm1.18mm 600µ 300µ 150µ 75µ 0

Figure 2. Gradations of crushed (CS), manufactured (MS) and river sand.

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Figure 3. Particle size analysis of stone slurry.

Table 2. Physical properties of slurry, CS, MS, river sand and coarse aggregates.

Property Slurry CS MS River sand Coarse aggregates

Specific gravity 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.68 2.70
Water absorption (%) 7.30 1.53 2.98 2.80 0.40%
Fineness modulus – 2.99 2.62 2.95 –
Total evaporable moisture content (%) 0.68 0.32 0.39 0.35 0.08%
Crushing value – – – – 27.93%
Impact value – – – – 23.62%
10% fines value – – – – 26.42 t
Hardness (Mohs Scale) – – – – 7
Elongation and flakiness index – – – – 29.15%
Angularity number – – – – 5

the rheology and workability of concrete mixes. Strength, permeability and porosity of concrete were
evaluated as per BS EN 12390-1:2000 [19], DIN 1048 [20] and ASTM D 4404-10 [21], respectively. The
morphology and microstructure of selected mixes were further studied with the help of SEM imaging.

3.4.1. Compacting factor

This test was performed in accordance with IS 1199-1959 [22]. The upper hopper of the apparatus was
filled with concrete up to its brim with the trap door closed (Figure 5). The door was then opened and
concrete was allowed to fall in the lower hopper with that trap door closed. In cases of a dry sticky
mix which stuck to the sides of the hopper, the concrete did not fall when the door was opened. Such
mixes were slightly poked with a rod to move through the hopper. The concrete from the lower hopper
was allowed to fall into the bottom cylinder. The surplus concrete above the cylinder was trimmed
off with a trowel. The outer surface of the cylinder was wiped clean before measuring its weight. The
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  7

Figure 4. River sand, MS, CS and slurry used in the study.

Table 3. Chemical composition of stone waste and river sand.

Material SiO2 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Na2O K2O LOI

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Stone waste 23.50 37.85 3.10 1.94 – – – 31.20

River sand 84.73 – 8.46 – 1.33 – 3.28 2.20

Table 4. Mix proportion of different concrete ingredients (kg/m3).

Series Mix Water Cement River sand Slurry CS MS Coarse aggregate Superplasticizer
I R00 176.38 391.96 627.14 0 0 0 1254.27 5.95
II C20 176.38 391.96 501.71 0 125.43 0 1254.27 5.95
II C40 176.38 391.96 376.28 0 250.86 0 1254.27 5.95
II C60 176.38 391.96 250.86 0 376.28 0 1254.27 5.95
II C80 176.38 391.96 125.43 0 501.71 0 1254.27 5.95
II C100 176.38 391.96 0 0 627.14 0 1254.27 5.95
III S10 176.38 391.96 595.78 31.36 0 0 1254.27 5.95
III S20 176.38 391.96 564.43 62.71 0 0 1254.27 5.95
IV M20 176.38 391.96 501.71 0 0 125.43 1254.27 5.95
IV M40 176.38 391.96 376.28 0 0 250.86 1254.27 5.95
IV M60 176.38 391.96 250.86 0 0 376.28 1254.27 5.95
IV M80 176.38 391.96 125.43 0 0 501.71 1254.27 5.95
IV M100 176.38 391.96 0 0 0 627.14 1254.27 5.95
I R’00 215.58 391.96 627.14 0 0 0 1254.27 3.90
II C’20 215.58 391.96 501.71 0 125.43 0 1254.27 3.90
II C’40 215.58 391.96 376.28 0 250.86 0 1254.27 3.90
II C’60 215.58 391.96 250.86 0 376.28 0 1254.27 3.90
II C’80 215.58 391.96 125.43 0 501.71 0 1254.27 3.90
II C’100 215.58 391.96 0 0 627.14 0 1254.27 3.90
III S’10 215.58 391.96 595.78 31.36 0 0 1254.27 3.90
III S’20 215.58 391.96 564.43 62.71 0 0 1254.27 3.90
IV M’20 215.58 391.96 501.71 0 0 125.43 1254.27 3.90
IV M’40 215.58 391.96 376.28 0 0 250.86 1254.27 3.90
IV M’60 215.58 391.96 250.86 0 0 376.28 1254.27 3.90
IV M’80 215.58 391.96 125.43 0 0 501.71 1254.27 3.90
IV M’100 215.58 391.96 0 0 0 627.14 1254.27 3.90

weight of this partially compacted concrete was measured to the nearest 10 g. The concrete inside
the cylinder was then discharged and refilled with 5-cm deep layers of concrete up to the brim of the
cylinder. The concrete surface was levelled to be flush with the top of the cylinder. The corresponding
weight was termed as ‘weight of fully compacted concrete’.

3.4.2. Slump
The inner face of the apparatus was cleaned off to remove any adhering dust particle. The mould was
positioned on a smooth, rigid, flat and non-absorbing surface. The mould was then filled in with four
equal layers of concrete of about 7.50-cm height, tamping each layer 25 times. The topmost layer was
 8 A. Rana et al.
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Figure 5. Compacting factor apparatus.

levelled to be flush with the brim. The mould was carefully removed in vertical direction resulting in
subsidence of the concrete. The difference between the height of moulded and subsided concrete is
termed as ‘slump’.

3.4.3. Bleeding
The test was performed in accordance with ASTM C232-09 [23]. A metallic cylinder of 255-mm
inner diameter and 280-mm inner height with a metal thickness of 3 mm was used as an apparatus.
The inner surface of the cylinder was free from any rust, coating or lubricant. The container was filled
in three equal layers, tamping each 25 times. The top surface of the concrete was levelled to be flush
with the brim of the container by a trowel. Just after trowelling, the mass of the container filled with
concrete was determined. The container was then placed on a flat platform and was covered with a
plastic sheet, to prevent evaporation of any bleed water. The cover was removed and the accumulated
water was drawn off by pipette at an interval of 40 min. While collecting the bleed water, the specimen
was tilted by placing a 5-cm thick block on one side beneath the container 5 min prior to collecting
water into a metallic beaker, whose weight with its contents was recorded as initial weight. The beaker
was dried to a constant weight and the final weight was then recorded. The weight of bleed water
was taken as the difference of its initial and final weights. Bleeding was expressed in % of total water
present in the test specimen.

3.4.4. Compressive strength

The bearing plates of the compressive strength testing machine were cleaned prior to placing specimen
on them. After placing the specimen, its axis was carefully aligned to the centre of the compression
platens. A load of constant rate (140 kg/cm2/min) was applied on 100-mm cubes at test periods of 7
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  9
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Figure 6. DIN 1048 permeability test.

and 28 days. Compressive strength was evaluated by dividing the failure load of specimen by its area
of cross section.

3.4.5. Water permeability

After 28 days underwater curing, cubical concrete specimens of 150-mm dimensions were oven dried
for 14 days at 60 °C to remove any moisture present within them. A constant water pressure of 0.50 MPa
was applied from top on each specimen for 3 days. The specimen was then split into two halves and
the maximum depth of water intrusion measured in mm. The mean of three observations was noted
as the depth of water permeation. The steps followed while performing this test are shown in Figure 6.

3.4.6. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)

The parameters related to porosity such as pore size distribution and their volume in the range of
100–0.01 μm radii of 28-day-old concrete samples were evaluated by MIP testing. Mercury (Hg) does
not wet most materials in nature as cohesive forces between its molecules are greater than adhesive
forces. Hence, it does not permeate through material by capillary action. An outside pressure is required
to permeate it into the pores of materials. The magnitude of pressure applied is inversely related to
pores volume and sizes. The size and volume of pores are evaluated by mercury intrusion porosimeter
with the help of pressure against permeation data according to the Washburn equation. The quantity
of Hg permeated at the highest pressure applied was taken as total porosity. The contact angle between
Hg and sample was taken as 140°.
 10 A. Rana et al.

3.4.7. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

The microstructure and morphology of concrete mixes were examined using a JSM 7400-F FE-SEM.
The equipment was used in secondary electron mode. Thin polished sections of concrete specimen
were placed inside the FE-SEM. The equipment then focused a beam of primary electrons on the spec-
imens. The collision between the primary electron beam and the specimen resulted in the formation
of secondary electrons. The SEM generated a topographic view of the specimen by collecting these
reflected secondary electrons.

3.4.8. Alkali–silica reaction

The presence of alkali–silica reaction in the concrete samples was determined in accordance with the
WA 621.1-2012 [24]. The test procedure provides conclusive and rapid testing of alkali–silica reaction
within the concrete. The test was performed on three concrete specimens for each mix. The 100-mm
concrete cube was split from mid. The newly exposed surface was then rinsed with tap water. The
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uranyl acetate solution (5-g uranyl acetate + 5 ml glacial acetic acid + 195 ml distilled water) was uni-
formly applied on the newly exposed surface by a paint brush. The sample was then left undisturbed
for 5 min. The sample was then again rinsed with water. The washed sample was then dried with paper
towel. The dried sample was then placed inside UV trans-illuminator, generating 254-nm UV light.
The peak intensity of the trans-illuminator was 1200 μW/cm² at 150 mm. The sample was observed
for any yellowish-green fluorescence under the trans-illumination. The sample was then photographed
with 35-mm camera. The presence of fluorescence indicates the presence of alkali–silica gel. The UV
rays and uranyl acetate solution are hazardous in nature. Thus, the complete test was carried out by
wearing protective eyewear, nitrile rubber gloves and AS Class (M) P2 respirator.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Compacting factor
This laboratory test is considered more sensitive and precise for measuring workability. This test is
deployed when concrete is compacted by vibration. This test measures the degree of compaction
achieved when concrete is allowed to fall through a defined height. The degree of compaction or
compacting factor is the ratio of density of concrete achieved during the fall to the density of fully
compacted concrete. It can be clearly inferred from the results (Table 5) that substitution of river sand
by any of the substitute sand (CS, MS and Slurry) reduced the workability and compacting factor
progressively. Water acts as a lubricating agent within fresh concrete mix. At a fixed water content,
the higher frictional resistance offered by angular CS particles reduced the workability of these mixes.
Bederina et al. (2013) also observed loss in workability when crushed limestone sand substituted river
sand in mortar. The workability loss in their study was attributed to high water absorption, angular
shape and rough texture of CS [25]. In slurry mixes, incorporation of fine slurry as sand increased
the effective surface area of sand in the concrete. The increased surface area of sand offered higher
internal friction within the concrete mixes and reduced the compacting factor. At 20% replacement
level, the compacting factors of S20 and S’20 were 0.78 and 0.77 indicating very poor workability of these
mixes. The loss in workability with the substitution of river sand by fine stone dust was also reported
by Bonavetti and Irassar (1994) [26]; Celik and Marar (1996) [27]. MS which was a mixture of CS
and slurry displayed relatively lower workability than river sand concrete due to the aforementioned
reasons. Similarly, the workability loss with the incorporation of marble sand in concrete was noted
by Hebhoub et al. (2011) [5] and Silva et al. (2014) [10]. However, even after complete replacement,
CS and MS concretes achieved a compacting factor of 0.92. According to Neville [28], concrete of 0.92
compacting factor is considered to be highly workable. Thus, the workability of CS and MS concretes
was relatively lower than that of river sand concrete but they still attained the desired parameters of
highly workable concrete.
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  11

Table 5. Compacting factor, slump and bleeding values of concrete mixes.

Concrete mix Compacting factor Slump (mm) Bleeding (%)

R00 (control) 0.96 140 4.28
C20 0.95 135 4.75
C40 0.95 130 4.93
C60 0.94 120 5.36
C80 0.93 115 5.65
C100 0.92 110 5.89
S10 0.92 110 2.75
S20 0.78 40 1.45
M20 0.94 130 3.75
M40 0.93 125 3.14
M60 0.93 115 2.93
M80 0.92 105 2.15
M100 0.92 100 1.98
R’00 (control) 0.97 155 4.73
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C’20 0.96 150 4.95

C’40 0.94 140 5.35
C’60 0.94 135 5.97
C’80 0.93 125 6.20
C’100 0.92 120 6.35
S’10 0.91 120 2.95
S’20 0.77 45 1.83
M’20 0.95 140 4.15
M’40 0.94 135 3.80
M’60 0.93 120 3.25
M’80 0.92 110 2.90
M’100 0.92 105 2.15

4.2. Slump
This is the most common method applied to determine the consistency of concrete. However, this
method is not considered suitable for determining placeability of too wet or too dry concrete. The
standard conical frustum of 30-cm height with top and bottom diameters of 10 and 20 cm with a metal
thickness of 1.60 mm was used as an apparatus. The results of slump test were analogous to those of
the compacting factor test (Table 5). Slump values progressively decreased with the substitution of
river sand. However, the slump values of CS and MS concrete mixes even after complete replacement
were above 100 mm. Concrete mixes with slump in fresh state above 100 mm are considered highly
workable [28]. In a similar study, Silva et al. (2014) used marble sand having relatively low water
absorption than river sand. Thus, they expected an increase in workability on substitution. However,
marble sand mixes demanded high water during the investigation in order to achieve the target slump
(125 ± 10 mm). The increased water demand in their study was accredited to shape, gradation and
inherent characteristics of marble sand [10]. When 20% slurry replaced river sand, the slump value
reduced to 40 and 45 mm indicating very poor workability of these mixes. Loss in slump and worka-
bility with the incorporation of granite powder waste was observed by Vijaylakshmi et al. (2013) [12].
On the contrary, Almeida et al. (2007) found that 15% dried marble–limestone slurry can effectively
substitute river sand without affecting the slump values [8]. Maximum and minimum slumps for all
types of mixes in present study were observed at 0% and highest substitution ratio, respectively.

4.3. Bleeding
Water is the lightest of all ingredients used for concreting. Under gravitational pull, solid dense ingredi-
ents move downward and some amount of water bleeds out on the top surface of concrete. Bleeding is
the inability of a concrete mix to seize the whole mixing water within the concrete matrix. Past studies
suggest that only a small quantity of bleed water reaches the surface, much of it remains trapped within
the interfaces between aggregates and the concrete matrix. This internal bleed water is responsible
 12 A. Rana et al.

Table 6. Seven and 28 days compressive strength of concrete mixes.

Compressive strength (MPa)

Concrete mix 7 days 28 days
R00 (control) 28.7 41.5
C20 26.5 39.67
C40 25.4 38.43
C60 24.35 36.54
C80 24 36.10
C100 22.67 35.30
S10 29.50 42.33
S20 25.40 38.30
M20 29.33 42.30
M40 30.90 42.67
M60 31.50 43.40
M80 32.24 44.84
M100 32.90 45.67
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R’00 (control) 22.64 32.33

C’20 20.57 29.67
C’40 19.85 28.84
C’60 19.05 27.50
C’80 18.60 25.43
C’100 17.75 23.50
S’10 24.36 34.50
S’20 20.22 28.40
M’20 23.45 33.67
M’40 23.90 35.40
M’60 24.33 36.33
M’80 25.00 37.90
M’100 26.33 39.00

for weakening concrete at interfaces. The substitution of river sand by CS progressively increased the
volume of bleed water (Table 5). The volume of bleed water increased by 1.61 and 1.62% for C100 and
C’100 in comparison to respective control mixes. The same mass of angular aggregate produces more
voids than rounded aggregate [29]. During fresh state, the increased number of interlinked channel
of voids in CS mixes increased bleeding of these mixes. When slurry substituted the river sand in
concrete, bleeding gradually reduced. The inclusion of fine particles reduces bleeding as water has to
traverse a longer path during upward movement [29]. Minimum bleeding was observed for the mix
containing 20% slurry as replacement of river sand. The increasing replacements of river sand by MS
progressively reduced the quantity of bleed water. Complete replacement of river sand by MS reduced
bleeding by 2.3 and 2.58% at 0.45 and 0.55 w/c. The presence of an appropriate amount of very fine
aggregate (less than 150 μm) can appreciably reduce bleeding [28]. Very fine particles like slurry block
the capillary passages and reduce the rate of sedimentation.

4.4. Compressive strength

Compressive strength is considered as the most significant property of hardened concrete. The primary
function of concrete is to resist compressive stresses applied on it during its life cycle. As the amount
of CS in concrete mixes increased, strength reduced at both w/c. A similar mass of angular aggregate
produces more voids than rounded aggregate [29]. Voids in concrete greatly influence its strength
[30]. Thus, an increase in volume of voids due to CS substitution might have resulted in the gradual
strength loss observed. The compressive strength of concrete containing 100% CS was about 21% less
than for river sand concrete at both the w/c (Table 6). Contrarily, Bederina et al. (2013) found that
complete substitution of river sand by crushed limestone sand enhanced the compressive strength
of mortar mixes. The CS used by them was very well graded than that used in the present study. The
enhanced strength in their study was attributed to high water absorption of crushed limestone sand
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  13

Table 7. Permeability and porosity of concrete mixes.

Concrete mix Permeability (mm) Porosity (%)

R00 (control) 65 4.34
C20 68 5.44
C40 74 5.68
C60 76 5.95
C80 82 6.02
C100 85 6.34
S10 60 4.06
S20 72 5.52
M20 62 3.77
M40 58 3.21
M60 54 2.57
M80 52 2.30
M100 50 2.06
R’00 (control) 80 5.32
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C’20 84 5.81
C’40 86 6.16
C’60 90 6.49
C’80 92 7.63
C’100 95 7.95
S’10 74 3.22
S’20 82 5.88
M’20 76 4.25
M’40 74 4.09
M’60 70 3.85
M’80 68 3.45
M’100 65 3.18

which led to reduction in mortar’s pore volume [25]. However, when MS substituted river sand, an
opposite trend was witnessed; strength gradually increased with substitution level. Fine slurry present
in the MS might have filled the voids present in the concrete matrix. The dense concrete so formed
exhibited higher strength. The strengths of M100 and M’100 were 14.6 and 16.3% greater than R00 and
R’00, respectively. In a similar study, Hebhoub et al. (2011) observed an increment in strength when
25, 50 and 75% recycled marble sand replaced river sand. However, complete substitution of river
sand by marble sand led to reduced compressive strength [5]. When 10% slurry substituted river sand,
an increment in strength was noted at both w/c. However, substitution of 20% river sand by slurry
reduced the strength. Ten per cent slurry was the optimum amount required to fill up the voids in
concrete. Reduced porosity at this substitution level resulted in increased strength. The reduction in
strength at 20% substitution ratio can be accredited to the higher quantity of slurry. Once the optimal
replacement level was achieved, the excess amount of slurry might have increased the specific surface
area of aggregates instead of filling the voids. The increased surface area of aggregate phase within
the concrete matrix required an excess of cement to bind them. As the cement quantity was constant,
strength at 20% replacement level reduced. Similar results were reported by Celik and Marar (1996)
[27] and Aliabdo et al. (2014) [11]. They found that substitution of 10% fine aggregate by stone dust
resulted in increased strength. Any further substitution led to poor compressive strengths in their
investigation. However, Almeida et al. (2007) showed that enhanced compressive strengths can be
obtained by substituting only 5% river sand by marble–limestone dust [8].

4.5. Permeability
Durability of a reinforced concrete structure is greatly influenced by its permeability. A permeable
concrete will allow the passage of water and other aggressive chemicals through it, which will eventually
reduce the service life of reinforcements and of the concrete structure as a whole. The substitution
of river sand by CS increased the water permeation within the concrete (Table 7). The movement of
water within concrete generally depends upon pores and their interconnectivity [14]. The increased
 14 A. Rana et al.

20% Slurry River Sand 100% MS 100% CS

0.05

0.04

-dV/dlogd, ml/g
0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Pore size, µm
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Figure 7. Pore size and volume analysis of S20, R00, M100 and C100.

20% Slurry River Sand 100% MS

0.05

0.04
-dV/dlogd, ml/g

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Pore size, µm

Figure 8. Pore size and volume analysis of S’20, R’00 and M’100.

amount of pores within the concrete and their interconnectivity due to substitution of river sand by
angular CS might have increased the water permeation within the concrete. The permeabilities of C100
and C’100 were 20 and 15 mm more than that of R00 and R’00, respectively. Nevertheless, substitution
of river sand by MS gradually reduced the water permeability. Fine slurry present in MS might have
filled the voids and reduced their connectivity. The relatively dense microstructure of MS concrete
effectively safeguarded the concrete against water permeation. The concrete formulated with 100%
MS was the least permeable at both w/c. Incorporation of 10% slurry also reduced the permeability
of concrete. However, substitution of 20% river sand by slurry increased the water movement within
concrete. Interconnected bleed passages are responsible for this increased permeability of concrete
structures [29]. Contrarily, Celik and Marar (1996) [27]; Eren and Marar (2009) [31] reported signifi-
cant reduction in water permeation with the incorporation of 30 and 20% stone dust as fine aggregate
in concrete due to the filler effect. Thus, the use of MS in concrete may increase the resistance to water
penetration and durability of concrete structures.

4.6. Porosity
Strength and durability of concrete largely depends upon its porosity. A porous concrete will be weak
due to the increased presence of voids. Also, a porous concrete will permit an easy transit of water and
other aggressive chemicals such as chlorides, sulphates and acids through it, eventually deteriorating
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  15
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Figure 9. SEM image of R00 showing poorly crystalline portlandite crystals and occasional cracks.

the reinforcement present in it. The results of porosity tests are shown in Table 7. Also, the peaks
depicting differential rate of mercury intrusion against various pores sizes for selected specimens are
shown in Figures 7 and 8. The results of porosity tests suggested that substitution of river sand by CS
gradually increased the porosity. The higher angularity of CS in comparison to river sand produced
higher volume of voids in these concrete mixes. The mixes C100 and C’100 contained 46 and 49.3%
greater volumes of pores than the respective controls. On the contrary, replacing river sand with MS
gradually reduced the pore formation within the concrete. The presence of fine slurry waste in the
MS densified the concrete mixes, thereby reducing their porosity. The fine slurry present in MS might
have blocked the capillary network of concrete, thereby reducing its porosity. M100 and M’100 concrete
mixes were 50.5 and 40% less porous than corresponding river sand mixes. The incorporation of 10%
slurry in place of river sand also reduced the porosity values at both w/c. However, a replacement of
20% river sand by fine slurry increased the porosity values. Reduced porosity at 10% slurry content
can be attributed to the pore filling effect of fine slurry. Similarly, Aliabdo et al. 2014 found that the
substitution of 15% river sand by marble dust resulted in relatively non-porous concrete mix than
reference [11]. The increase in pore volume at 20% slurry content can be attributed to poor compaction
of these mixes as discussed previously. It can be clearly seen from Figures 7 and 8 that less volume of
mercury has permeated through pores for concrete cast with MS in comparison to the control. The
images clearly indicate that concrete cast with MS contained less pores than its counterparts. Thus,
it can be concluded that the use of MS in place of river sand greatly reduced porosity. The reduced
porosity of concrete formulated with MS enhanced its strength and resistance to water permeation.

4.7. Scanning electron microscopy

Images of similar magnification obtained from SEM imaging of different samples were compared to
distinguish between their morphologies. At 500 times magnification, the microstructure of concrete
formulated with river sand (Figure 9) displayed some cracks along with poorly crystalline portlan-
dite crystals (encircled in the image) spread throughout the mortar matrix. Past studies suggest that
the presence of portlandite in concrete can reduce bonding. Similarly, large portlandite crystals with
 16 A. Rana et al.
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Figure 10. SEM image of C100 showing relatively large portlandite crystals, cracks and gaps at interfaces.

Figure 11. SEM image showing relatively dense interfaces of M100 with rare occurrence of portlandite crystal.

numerous interfacial cracks were detected in concrete cast with CS (Figure 10). However, the micro-
structure of concrete cast with 100% MS was relatively dense with no observable crack at interfaces.
No portlandite crystal was detected in and around interfaces (Figure 11). Morphology of concrete cast
with 10% slurry content also displayed a dense microstructure in comparison to river sand (Figure 12).
The reduced micro bleeding at aggregate interface due to the presence of fine slurry in MS reduced
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  17
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Figure 12. SEM image showing relatively dense interfaces of S10 with rare occurrence of portlandite crystal.

Figure 13. UV trans-illumination of R00.

the crack and portlandite formation in these mixes. The dense microstructure of concrete cast with
100% MS enhanced its strength, resistance to water permeation and non-porosity.

4.8. Alkali–silica reaction

The alkalis (Na2O and K2O) present in cement react with active siliceous minerals of aggregates to form
expansive alkali–silica gel. The gel pressurises and destroys the interfacial bond between aggregate
 18 A. Rana et al.
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Figure 14. UV trans-illumination of M100.

and mortar matrix. The concrete structures eventually succumb to this interfacial bond failure. This
deleterious reaction is often marked with the presence of pattern cracking. The deleterious gel can be
easily detected in accordance with WA 621.1-2012. No sign of deleterious alkali–silica gel was observed
for all studied concrete mixes. The images of UV trans-illumination for control (R00) and 100% MS
concrete (M100) samples are shown in Figures 13 and 14. No yellowish-green fluorescence was observed
under UV trans-illumination for any concrete mix. All the investigated samples transmitted bluish
UV light through them indicating no deleterious alkali–silica gel.

5. Conclusions
Test results suggest that MS (15% slurry + 85% CS) can completely replace river sand in concrete.
The use of MS in place of river sand densified the concrete microstructure by reducing its porosity.
Reduced porosity of the concrete enhanced strength and effectively restricted water penetration.
Thus, the use of dimension limestone waste as fine aggregate in concrete will also result in strong and
durable concrete structures.
Similarly, MS can also be prepared for other stone wastes such as Marble, Granite, Andresite, Sand
Stone and Travertine found across the globe; using minimum voids and maximum density concept.
The use of MS as fine aggregate in concrete will promote a sustainable development in the stone mining
regions as it will utilise stone waste in bulk quantities. This will help reclaiming invaluable land and
provide economic value to otherwise dumped waste. The production and waste of dimension stones
have been reported in 28 countries. The use of such MSs formulated with the stone waste may shift
dependence from river beds to dumping yards; for fulfilling the need of construction sand in these
countries. The concept can be further extended to other industrial wastes such as slags, plastics and
tyres. The use of such locally available wastes as well graded fine aggregate in concrete will help local
authorities to manage them at their source of generation. It is a well-known fact that the excessive
mining of river sand for construction purposes has adversely affected the river beds and surrounding
flora–fauna. Use of MS formulated with such locally available wastes may greatly contribute in con-
serving river beds and associated flora–fauna.
 International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment  19

Abbreviations:

CS Crushed sand
MS Manufactured sand
USGS United States Geological Survey
w/c Water/cement ratio

Acknowledgements
We offer special thanks to Mr S. C. Agrawal, Associated Stone Industries, Ramganj Mandi for providing valuable insights
pertaining to dimension limestone mining. We also thank Prof. Ravindra Nagar, Mr R. K. Gupta and Mr Aaditya Sharma
for providing their invaluable support in carrying out the study.
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Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was supported by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India; the Centre of Development of
Stones, Rajasthan.

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