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Intercultural
Experience and
Identity
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Palgrave Studies on Chinese Education
in a Global Perspective
Series Editors
Fred Dervin
Department of Teacher Education
University of Helsinki
Helsinki, Finland
Xiangyun Du
Confucius Institute
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
“The burgeoning literature on Chinese international students is dominated

by writers and researchers from host institutions who inevitably present issues
through the prism of their own experience. Lily Ye, in contrast is one of a
small but growing generation of Chinese writers who have received their post-
graduate education in the English-speaking world and are thus able to draw
both on the perspectives of fellow students and on their own lived experience.
Dr Ye’s use of Giddens’ project of the reflective self to interpret the narratives
of Chinese PhD students is original, exciting, challenging and illuminating.
Participants emerge not as passive victims of a system where they often face
multiple disadvantages, but as active agents who mould their international
experiences in ways which mirror their aspirations.”
—Professor Viv Edwards, University of Reading, UK
The transformation of China into a global super-power is often attrib-
uted to the country’s robust education system and this series seeks to
provide a comprehensive, in-depth understanding of the development
of Chinese education on a global scale. The books in this series will
analyze and problematize the revolutions, reforms, innovations and
transformations of Chinese education that are often misunderstood or
misrepresented beyond its own borders and will examine the changes in
Chinese education over the past 30 years and the issues as well as chal-
lenges that the future of Chinese education faces. For more information
or to submit a proposal please contact Eleanor Christie (eleanor.chris-
tie@palgrave.com)
More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14568
Lily Lei Ye
Intercultural
Experience and
Identity
Narratives of Chinese Doctoral
Students in the UK
Lily Lei Ye
Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology
Beijing, China
Palgrave Studies on Chinese Education in a Global Perspective

ISBN 978-3-319-91372-8 ISBN 978-3-319-91373-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91373-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018940763
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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Acknowledgements
I am indebted to everyone who has helped me and supported this book

project. In particular, I would like to thank all of my participants.
Without your help, this study is impossible to complete. My deepest
and heartfelt gratitude goes to Professor Viv Edwards for being such
a wonderful mentor and role model who provides me guidance and
advice, generosity and consistent support throughout this book project.
Without her support, this research could have never evolved into book
form. My sincere thanks go to Professor Fred Dervin and Professor
Xiangyun Du, the series editors, for their support of this project. My
thanks also go to Eleanor Christie and Rebecca Wyde at Palgrave
Macmillan for their expertise and professionalism that makes the pub-
lication process flow smoothly. A special thanks to my family for their
unconditional support, reminding me of what really matters. Words
cannot express how grateful I am.
v
Contents
1 Setting the Scene for the Narratives to Follow 1

Background 2
Internationalisation of Higher Education 2
Studying Abroad 6
International Doctoral Students 12
The Importance of Researching on Chinese International
Doctoral Students 15
Significance of the Study 16
Overview of the Book 18
References 21
2 The Story of Researching Chinese International Doctoral

Students’ Identity 39
Research Participants 39
An Interpretive Epistemology 42
A Narrative Approach 43
Narrative Analysis and Thematic Analysis 49
Reflexivity 51
References 52
vii
viii Contents
3 Engaging with the Existing Stories 57

Culture, Intercultural Adaptation and Intercultural
Competence 58
Understanding Culture 58
Understanding Intercultural Adaptation 59
Understanding Intercultural Competence 62
The Intercultural Experience of Chinese International
Students 67
The Intercultural Experience of Chinese International
Doctoral Students 71
Critical Voices on Cultural Essentialist View of Chinese
International Students 73
The Cultural Essentialist Approach to Understanding
Chinese International Students 73
Challenging the Cultural Essentialist View of Chinese
International Students 74
Beyond Essentialist Dichotomies 78
Concluding Remarks 80
References 80
4 Exploring the Self Through Giddens and Bourdieu 95

Preface 95
The Development of Modern Concept of Identity 98
Giddens’ Reflexive Project of the Self 102
The Reflexivity of Late Modernity 103
The Reflexive Project of the Self 104
Critical Voices on Giddens’ Theory of Self-Identity 108
Bourdieu’s Concepts of Habitus, Field and Capital 109
Field and Habitus 110
Capital 111
Critique of Bourdieu’s Concepts 113
References 115
Contents ix
5 A Dialogue with the Past: Thinking Through Lifestyle

Choices 123
Introduction 123
Stories of Lifestyle Choices and Life Planning 124
Anyone Who Has the Courage to Do This Is Remarkable 125
I Felt That I Should Give My Career a Boost 128
Doing a Ph.D. Is a Kind of Investment 130
I Wanted to See What the World Was Like 131
This Experience Would Be Admired by Other People 133
The Education System in Western Countries Is Better 135
I Wanted to Challenge Myself 136
I Wanted to Change My Career Path 137
Constraints and Dilemmas 138
References 143
6 Surviving and Thriving in the New Field: Keeping the

Narrative Going 147
Introduction 147
Maintaining a Sense of Ontological Security 148
I Feel Myself a Bit Like a “Ghost” 148
Fish in Water 150
It Is Because of Who You Are 151
I Always Reminded Myself That Two Educational Systems
Are Different 154
It Is Normal for This to Happen 155
Being Confident 157
Self-Reflexivity as a Resource 159
Creativity 162
The Perceived Language Problem 162
Perceived Discrimination 165
Ontological Identity 166
Autonomy 169
Coping with Language Challenges 170
Coping with Doctoral Study 171
Supervisor’s Help 176
x Contents
Authenticity 177
References 181
7 Growing and Becoming: The Expanded Self 187

Introduction 187
Stories of Personal Growth and Transformation 188
Cultural Awareness and Heightened Reflexivity 188
Independence 194
Authenticity 196
Perceived Self-Expansion and Transformation 197
References 204
8 Bringing the Future into the Present: Thinking Through

Imagined Future Trajectories 209
Introduction 209
Imagined Future Trajectories 210
The “haigui ” Identity Is Double-Edged 210
I Will Run a Charity to Help Children with Serious
Illnesses 212
I Will Continue My Research Work 213
I Have Been Worried… 214
I Hope That I Can Set Up My Own Business 216
It Is Unlikely That I Will Continue to Teach High School
ESL in China 219
I Am Not Sure About Future 220
References 222
9 Learning from the Narratives 223

Introduction 223
Summary of the Students’ Narratives 224
The Study 224
Self-Identity and Motivation for Study Abroad 225
Surviving and Thriving in the New Field 226
Contents xi
Self-Expansion and Personal Development 227

Summary 228
Contribution and Implications 228
Contribution to the Body of Knowledge 229
Implications for Theory 231
Implications for Practices 232
Study Limitations and Future Directions 234
References 237
Bibliography 239
Index 279
1
Setting the Scene for the Narratives
to Follow
This book explores a topic which has received very little attention to
date, namely the identity formation and negotiation of Chinese doc-
toral students in relation to studying abroad. The study offers a novel
way of addressing this research agenda by applying Giddens’ (1991)
theoretical framework on self-identity and Bourdieu’s (1977) concepts
of habitus, capital and field, privileging students’ agency and reflexivity.
The study draws on the narratives told by 11 Chinese doctoral students
at two British universities, which is balanced with extensive theoretical
reflections and critically reflexive analysis of situational and sociocul-
tural contexts. Significantly, this book moves away from the focus on
student adaption to an exploration of agency and identity, challenging
the culturalist and essentialised view of Chinese students as a homoge-
neous and sometimes problematic group, and pointing to implications
for theory and practice.
The book project is driven by my own intercultural experience of
studying, living and working in the UK, and originated from my per-
sonal interests in the field of culture, communication, language and
identity. In building a picture of the ways in which students’ self-
identity is shaped by and shapes their experience of study abroad, the
© The Author(s) 2018 1

L. L. Ye, Intercultural Experience and Identity, Palgrave Studies on Chinese
Education in a Global Perspective, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91373-5_1
2 L. L. Ye
narratives illustrate individual agency, motivation, self-determination

and reflexivity. Hopefully the findings of this study will inform the
future development of the internationalisation of higher education.
Furthermore, this book adds to the limited body of research in intercul-
tural education coming from a sociological perspective and opens possi-
bilities for theoretical triangulation.
In this chapter, I begin by providing the background information
against which this book project is conducted. I look at what is meant
by globalisation and internationalisation of higher education. I then
examine the phenomenon of studying abroad, which is followed by a
review of literature on international doctoral students. I point out the
importance of researching on Chinese doctoral students, which forms
a key part of the contextualisation of the current study. I also outline
the specific research questions that guide the study, and then explain the
significance of the book project.
Background
In this section, I situate the book project in the broad context of
globalisation and internationalisation of higher education. I then give
further background information, including current literature on study-
ing abroad and international doctoral students as well as the significance
of researching Chinese international doctoral students.
Internationalisation of Higher Education
Higher education in the era of globalisation has become more inter-

national and internationalisation continues to be an important issue
on the agenda of higher education (e.g. Egron-Polak and Hudson
2014; Maringe and Foskett 2010; Spencer-Oatey and Dauber 2017).
A great deal of literature focusing on globalisation and interna-
tionalisation of higher education has emerged over the years (e.g.
de Wit et al. 2015; Deardorff 2012; Egron-Polak and Hudson 2014;
Killick 2013, 2015; Knight 2015; Leask 2015; Marginson and Sawir
1 Setting the Scene for the Narratives to Follow
3
2005; Maringe and Foskett 2010; Taylor 2010). There are several
dynamically linked themes of internationalisation of higher education
in the current literature, which include student and staff mobility, rec-
ognition across borders of study achievements, transfer of knowledge
across borders, intercultural competence, internationalisation at home,
similarity or heterogeneity of national systems of higher education,
national and institutional policies on the international dimension of
higher education or internationalisation strategies, funding interna-
tionalisation and quality review of internationality (Kehm and Teichler
2007; Teichler 2009, 2010, 2017).
The terms globalisation and internationalisation are sometimes inter-
changeable, but they are different concepts. Globalisation is “the cata-
lyst” while internationalisation is the response in a proactive way (e.g.
Knight 1999). In other words, internationalisation can be understood
as the strategic response of higher education institutions to the driv-
ing forces of globalisation, which includes a variety of policies and
programmes covering three primary functions of Higher Education
Institution, namely, teaching, research and service to society (Altbach
et al. 2009; Marginson and Sawir 2005).
Globalisation is “the economic, political, and societal forces push-
ing 21st century higher education toward greater international involve-
ment” (Altbach and Knight 2007: 290), which is “the intensification
of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a
way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles
away and vice versa” (Giddens 1990: 64). On the other hand, inter-
nationalisation is the process of integrating an international, intercul-
tural or global dimension into teaching, research and service functions
of higher education (Knight 2015; Maringe and Foskett 2010), which
“is a commitment, confirmed through action, to infuse international
and comparative perspectives through the teaching, research and ser-
vice missions of higher education” (Hudzik 2011: 6). de Wit (2002)
identifies four different institutional approaches of internationalisa-
tion: activity, rationale, competency and process. The activity approach
defines internationalisation in terms of categories or types of activity,
such as student and scholar exchanges. The rationale approach explains
internationalisation in terms of its purposes or intended outcomes.
4 L. L. Ye
The competency approach focuses on students and staff’s knowledge

and skills development. The process approach regards internationalisa-
tion as a dynamic and evolving process of integrating an international
dimension into the major functions of the institution.
The internationalisation of higher education is a changing and evolv-
ing process of integration, continuously influenced by globalisation, and
shaped by the international context in which it occurs (Knight 2004;
Smeby and Trondal 2005). The process of internationalisation of higher
education consists of two key components: abroad and at home (e.g.
de Wit et al. 2015). International abroad refers to any border crossing
activities such as study abroad, education abroad, students and staff
mobility; international at home concerns curriculum development and
activities that nurture international and intercultural understanding
and competences (Knight 2008). The concept of Internationalisation
at Home (IaH) can be veiwed as “any internationally related activity
with the exception of outbound student mobility” (Nilsson 2003: 31),
focusing on both international learning and intercultural competence
(Wachter 2003).
Higher education institutions adopt various internationalisation
strategies to cope with the changing cultural, economic, educational,
political and social environment caused by globalisation (Rienties and
Nolan 2014; Spencer-Oatey and Dauber 2017). These approaches
include: student and staff mobility (Bhandari and Chow 2008; Maddux
and Galinsky 2009; OECD 2012; see also Cantu 2013); international-
ising the faculty (Childress 2009; Green and Olson 2003); international
students’ recruitment (Cantu 2013; Knight 2004); internationalisation
of curricula and quality assurance (OECD 2012); internationalisation
through dual and joint programmes; and launching offshore campus
(OECD 2012).
Internationalisation of higher education can generate both bene-
fits and risks for higher education institutions in terms of administra-
tion, curriculum, pedagogy and learning outcomes (e.g. Stone 2006;
Kerklaan et al. 2008; Knight 2010). International students and staff
mobility, together with improved quality of education, are identified
among the most important benefits (Knight 2007). More recently,
Jibeen and Khan (2015) identify that the benefits brought about by
5
internationalisation of higher education include building, growing

and sustaining academic, social and economic capacity in developing
countries and brain gain for developed countries. Moreover, interna-
tionalisation enables higher education institutions to equip the skills
and qualities that students need for living and working in a globalising
world (HEA 2016; Spencer-Oatey and Dauber 2017), such as empa-
thy and intercultural maturity (King et al. 2005). Furthermore, interna-
tionalisation makes financial contribution to both the higher education
institutions and the economics of host countries. For instance, a recent
research conducted for Universities UK by Oxford Economics high-
lights the fact that international students in the UK generate invalua-
ble economic, societal and cultural benefits, and jobs in communities in
every region of the UK. This study finds that international students and
their visitors made significant contribution to the UK economy, which
includes about £25.8 billion on and off-campus spending for 2014–
2015. The spending by international students also supported 206,600
jobs all over the UK (Universities UK, 2017).
Though the process of internationalisation holds many benefits, it
brings challenges, controversies and risks to the development of higher
education (Jibeen and Khan 2015; Knight 2007). For instance, Knight
(2007) points out that commercialisation and commodification of edu-
cation programmes, low-quality providers and brain drain are the top
three risks of internationalisation. In addition, critical voices on the
income and profit-seeking motives of internationalisation have been
raised (e.g. Stein 2016). In the literature review, Jibeen and Khan
(2015) identify that the loss of cultural or national identity, homoge-
nisation of international curriculum and quality assurance are potential
problems associated with the process of internationalisation.
As mentioned earlier, internationalisation of higher education can
take different forms, ranging from international students and staff
mobility, partnerships and collaboration in research and teaching, the
internationalisation of curricula, international or comparative education
programmes and offshore campuses (Anderson 2005; Naidoo 2006;
Olson et al. 2006; Sawir 2013; Wamboye et al. 2015). Among these
options, international students and staff mobility are particularly impor-
tant to the process of internationalisation of higher education (e.g. Scott
6 L. L. Ye
2006; Teichler 2017). It is not surprising that much of the research

undertaken on internationalisation of higher education has focused on
studying abroad.
Studying Abroad
Every year a large number of students choose to study abroad and this
number is growing steadily. Studying abroad has become a global trend
(e.g. Andrade 2006; Alghamdi and Otte 2016) and an essential part
of internationalisation, which is believed to offer opportunities for stu-
dents to build global competence and become “global citizens” (e.g.
Hser 2005; Spencer-Oatey and Dauber 2017). In the past two decades,
English-speaking countries, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
the USA and the UK, have been receiving increasing number of inter-
national students mainly from Asian countries, particularly mainland
China (Marginson and McBurnie 2004). The UK is currently the sec-
ond most popular destination for international students after the USA
and attracts a substantial number of overseas students each year. For
instance, in 2014–2015, there were 437,000 international students
studying in the UK (EU and non-EU), accounting for 19% of all stu-
dents registered at UK universities (Universities UK, 2017). Due to the
important roles played by international students, the phenomenon of
studying abroad has received attention in fields such as intercultural
communication (e.g. Byram and Feng 2006; Jackson 2010; Murphy-
Lejeune 2002; Messelink et al. 2015; Zhou 2014), international edu-
cation (e.g. Andrade 2006; Durkin 2011; Gu et al. 2010; Jackson
et al. 2013; Kim 2011, 2012; Marginson et al. 2010; McClure 2005;
McDonald 2014; Menzies and Baron 2014; Robinson-Pant 2009;
Yoon and Portman 2004), psychology (e.g. Ward et al. 2004) and soci-
ology (e.g. Goode 2007). Previous research has explored various aspects
of the lived experience of international students, including counsel-
ling international students (Kambouropoulos 2015; Yi et al. 2003);
developing social support systems for international students (Paltridge
et al. 2012); international students’ language proficiency develop-
ment (MacIntyre et al. 1998; MacIntyre 2007); international students’
7
sociocultural adjustment (Li and Gasser 2005); international students’

personality development (Ward et al. 2004); and intercultural relation-
ship and students’ well-being (Marginson et al. 2010; Rosenthal et al.
2006).
Factors Influencing International Students’ Decision on Studying

Abroad
There is a considerable body of research on international students’

motives for studying abroad (e.g. Cantwell et al. 2009; Chen 2017;
Lesjak et al. 2015; Nilsson and Ripmeester 2016; Swain and Hammond
2011; Zhang et al. 2013). The “push-pull” model is a much used tool
to analyse and interpret why students choose to study abroad (e.g.
Bodycott 2009; Fang and Wang 2014; Griner and Sobol 2014; Li and
Bray 2007; Mazzarol and Soutar 2002; Wilkins et al. 2013). More
recently, Chen (2017) uses a hybrid of three levels of push-pull dynam-
ics (micro-individual decision making, meso-academic marketing and
macro-national marketing) as the theoretical framework to analyse why
Chinese international students choose to study in Canada.
Pull factors often “operate within a host country to make that coun-
try relatively attractive to international students” (Mazzarol and Soutar
2002, p. 82). Mazzarol et al. (1997) identify six pull factors to influence
students’ selection of a host country: the overall level of knowledge and
awareness of the host country in the students’ home country; personal
recommendations received from the students’ family and friends on the
study destination; the cost related to studying abroad such as fees, living
expenses, travel costs and social costs; the environment of the destina-
tion country (study climate, physical climate and lifestyle); geographic
and time proximity of the potential destination country to the student’s
country; social links referring to whether the student has any links
through family or friends living in the destination country or previously
studying there. Besides, Wu (2014) asserts that the quality of academic
programme, the native English environment and the short duration
of a Master’s programme are important factors influencing mainland
Chinese students’ decision on studying abroad in the UK. Similarly,
8 L. L. Ye
Bridgestock (2014) argues that students choose to study abroad because

they want to study at an internationally reputable university; experience
a new culture and develop intercultural skills; gain benefits from schol-
arships or lower tuition fees. Wei (2013) also argues that university pres-
tige is an important factor influencing international students’ decision
making. Moreover, Cebolla-Boado et al. (2018) find that Chinese stu-
dents are motivated by non-career factors such as university reputation
and a university’s social and cultural offerings in their university choice
in Britain. Furthermore, new life experiences, immigration possibility,
working opportunities and geographic proximity are also identified as
key factors influencing students’ decision making (Bodycott 2009;
Chen 2017; Mazzarol and Soutar 2002).
Push factors are the economic, political and social forces operating
within the source country that initiate a student’s decision to study
abroad (Bodycott and Lai 2012), including factors such as the availabil-
ity of higher education in home country and the fierce domestic com-
petition to get into prestigious higher education institutions in home
country (e.g. Findlay et al. 2012) and enhanced career prospects (e.g.
Chen 2017; Franklin 2010). In addition, Macready and Tucker (2011)
claim that students are motivated to study abroad by factors such as
exploring new culture, gaining experience of living abroad and will-
ingness to travel. In the literature review, Wilkins et al. (2013) discover
that the most common push factors mentioned in publications are
lack of capacity and opportunities in students’ home countries, lower
educational quality, employer preference for overseas education, the
unavailability of particular subjects and political and economic prob-
lems in students’ home countries. Moreover, Chen (2017) argues that
high competition level among students in China and the pressure of
college entrance exam are push factors influencing Chinese students’
decision on study abroad. Furthermore, Martin’s (2017) research on
Chinese female tertiary students’ motivations for choosing to study
in Australia demonstrates that the participants chose to study abroad
to manage gendered risk and fashion a cosmopolitan self. Besides,
push forces also comprise factors such as the improved language skills,
searching for liberty/pleasure and improving one’s social situation
9
(Bodycott 2009; Bridgestock 2014; Edwards and An 2006; Kelo et al.

2006; Macready and Tucker 2011; Sanchez et al. 2006; Wu 2014).
The Benefits of Studying Abroad
International students not only make tangible economic contributions

to hosting countries and institutions (Harryba et al. 2011; Alghamdi
and Otte 2016), but can enrich the campus culture diversity, and
enhance mutual understanding between students and staff from differ-
ent cultural and ethnic backgrounds (e.g. Lebcir et al. 2008). Alghamdi
and Otte (2016) assert that the increasing number of study abroad stu-
dents has created benefits such as financial gains on the part of hosting
institution, the opportunity for cross-cultural understanding and global
awareness for host institutions and for domestic and international stu-
dents. Moreover, studying abroad is beneficial to students’ language
skills and intercultural learning (Amuzie and Winke 2009; Dewey 2004;
Jackson 2010; Kinginger 2009), personal growth, and intercultural com-
petence development (e.g. Anderson and Lawton 2012; Anderson et al.
2015; Gill 2007; Gu et al. 2010; Jackson 2008, 2011; Mechtenberg
and Strausz 2008; Perry and Southwell 2011). In their review of stud-
ies of the long-term impact of study abroad, Murphy et al. (2014: 3)
identify several benefits, including academic achievement (e.g. Akande
and Slawson 2000), career boost (e.g. Norris and Gillespie 2005, 2009)
and the development of intercultural competence (e.g. Alred and Byram
2005; Chieffo and Griffiths 2004). Moreover, it is established that
study abroad can enhance students’ creativity (Maddux and Galinsky
2009). Paige et al. (2009: 41) research on the long-term effect of stud-
ying abroad finds the positive impact of study abroad on the global
engagement of alumni, who “become civically involved, produce new
knowledge and practice new and environmentally aware lifestyles, make
philanthropic commitments and create or participate in social entre-
preneurship”. In the same vein, Chieffo and Griffiths (2004) study
demonstrates the positive outcome of study abroad in terms of students’
engagement in internationally-oriented leisure activities, and the devel-
opment of intercultural awareness and functional knowledge.
10 L. L. Ye
The Challenges of Studying Abroad
Despite the positive aspects of international education, for many inter-

national students, studying abroad is a challenging experience (e.g.
Devos 2003; Leder and Forgasz 2004; Lee and Carrasquillo 2006;
Skyrme 2007; Tian and Lowe 2009; Yu 2016). Apart from sharing
similar adjustment problems with university peer students in general,
international students also experience unique stressors such as lan-
guage barriers, differences in academic systems, racial discrimination
and culture shock (Bonazzo and Wong 2007; Kim 2011; Kuo 2011;
Sherry et al. 2010; Lin and Scherz 2014; Ward et al. 2001; Yoon and
Portman 2004; Yu 2016; Campbell 2015). The most common prob-
lems of international students pertain to language difficulties and finan-
cial issues (e.g. Church 1982) as well as academic challenges. Similarly,
Mori (2000) reports that linguistic, financial and interpersonal issues
are among the five most cited sources of problems for international
students. Sawir (2005) also claims that international students have
difficulties in coping with a second language. Lack of English fluency
could obviously impact students’ academic performance and successful
social interactions with the local communities (Andrade 2006; Sato and
Hodge 2009). Moreover, some of the international students feel chal-
lenged by academic writing, oral presentations and classroom group
discussions (e.g. Durkin 2008; Holmes 2005; Kim 2011; Sue and
Rawlings 2013; Wu et al. 2015; see also Campbell 2015).
Apart from academic and linguistic challenges, international stu-
dents often face social-cultural difficulties (Kim 2011; Kinginger 2013;
Wu and Hammond 2011), which can cause severe stress when adjust-
ing to a different culture (Rahman and Rollock 2004). For instance,
international students have difficulties in developing friendship with
local people (Paltridge et al. 2012; Ward 2001). Moreover, depres-
sion is one of the most common problems among international stu-
dents who seek advice and support from university counselling services
(Yi et al. 2003; Nilsson et al. 2004). Other problems include lone-
liness (Erichsen and Bollinger 2011; Li and Collins 2014), home-
sickness (Kegel 2009) and low self-esteem as possible causes for poor
11
academic achievement (Lane et al. 2004). Furthermore, a small num-

ber of studies on Chinese international students focused on other neg-
ative experiences related to studying abroad, such as marginalisation,
social exclusion, perceived discrimination, prejudice, stereotypes and
racism (see, for instance, Brown 2009; Ding 2009; Hseih 2006, 2007;
Paltridge et al. 2012; Sato and Hodge 2009; Tian and Lowe 2009; Yeh
and Inose 2003).
Supporting International Students
Researchers have explored how host institutions can facilitate and

support international students’ intercultural learning and transition.
For example, McDonald (2014) recommends providing enhanced
support for staff who teach and support international students in
UK higher education institutions as well as the expansion of ori-
entation programmes for international students to include topics
such as current educational culture in the UK. In addition, Luo
(2013) highlights how career services offices can help international
students in the USA better integrate academically and culturally.
He also points out that career services have positive impacts on the
retention of international students and improving institutional rep-
utation. In the Australian context, Owens and Loomes (2010) high-
light the importance of international students’ social integration in
terms of the mental and emotional health, and their academic per-
formance. They propose various activities to facilitate international
students’ social integration, including sporting events, cultural par-
ties and events, community service activities, stress management
and meditation. Without these effective institutional supports,
international students are “more likely to be vulnerable to exploita-
tion or social exclusion” (Sherry et al. 2010: 35). Furthermore,
Blasco (2015) proposes to facilitate international student academic
adaptation by making explicit tacit aspects of host institution’s
learning culture to them, rather than adapting them to accommo-
date the diverse learning styles that international students bring to
the classroom. Although Blasco’s study is based on the experiences
12 L. L. Ye
of international students in Denmark, its findings have clear impli-

cations for host institutions both there and in a range of other
destinations.
Finally, it is worth to note that most of the existing literature on stud-
ying abroad usually adopts a sociocultural analytical framework and falls
within the adjustment paradigm (Marginson 2014), prioritising social
structure and oversighting students’ agency. However, there have been
few studies which look beyond this tradition paradigm of investigating
international education and position international students as change
agents in the new academic and sociocultural context (e.g. Ellwood
2009; Heng 2016; Kettle 2005; Ryan 2011; Wu 2015).
International Doctoral Students
Doctoral education is meant to nurture future educators and the next

generation of disciplinary leaders (e.g. Millett and Nettles 2006; Park
2005). The doctoral degree is regarded by most academic institutions
as the highest of educational achievement (e.g. Park 2005). Doctoral
students learn to create new knowledge and become an independ-
ent researcher (e.g. Davis et al. 2006; Mohrman et al. 2008). Doctoral
supervisors play important roles in doctoral education and the academic
life of doctoral students (Barnes et al. 2010; Craft et al. 2016; Doyle
et al. 2017; Golde 2005; Heppner and Heppner 2003; Maher et al.
2004). The landscape of doctoral education worldwide, however, has
changed dramatically in the last decade, driven by globalisation (Knight
2008; Nerad and Heggelund 2008). International student mobility is
now an important feature of doctoral education (Knight and Madden
2010) and the number of international doctoral students in English-
speaking universities such as Australia and the UK has been increasing
rapidly during the last decade (Ryan 2012), which presents both oppor-
tunities and challenges to doctoral education as a whole.
In the era of social change and globalisation, more and more stu-
dents choose to study for their doctoral degree abroad, and the
increasing presence of international doctoral students brings global
perspective to the host institution and doctoral programme, and offers
13
opportunities for students involved to explore different cultures and

worldviews, gain cultural awareness and develop intercultural compe-
tences (e.g. Campbell 2015; Knox et al. 2013; Marginson and van der
Wende 2007; Phelps 2016; Sato and Hodge 2009). Furthermore, Ryan
(2012) asserts that working with international doctoral students from
Confucian cultures such as Chinese students can bring new insights
to doctoral education, advocating genuine intercultural dialogue and
mutual learning in doctoral education. Besides, international doctoral
students make contributions to host country’s economy. For instance,
Chellaraj and colleagues’ (2008) research on the contribution of inter-
national graduate students to US innovation suggests that 10% increase
in the number of international graduate students would raise patent
applications by 4.5%, university patent grants by 6.8% and non-univer-
sity patent grants by 5.0%. Finally, Bilecen and Faist (2015) highlight
the crucial role of international doctoral students in the global circula-
tion of knowledge and its transnational networks.
Though international doctoral students bring benefits and oppor-
tunities to doctoral programmes, host institutions and host countries,
prior research indicates that they often face difficulties and challenges
in adjusting to the new academic and sociocultural environment that
affects their academic performance, social integration and well-being.
Linguistic challenges (e.g. Sato and Hodge 2009; Son and Park 2014),
unfamiliarity with the new academic and sociocultural environment
(e.g. Lin and Scherz 2014) and issues affecting supervisory relationship
(Campbell 2015; Le and Gardner 2010; Sato and Hodge 2009) are the
major challenges faced by international doctoral students.
There are various institutional supports and training programmes
that can be provided to international doctoral students to help them
improve their academic achievement and overall intercultural transi-
tional experience. Indeed, “institutions cannot simply admit foreign
students and expect them to adjust to life in a new country and educa-
tional system without appropriate support and programming” (Andrade
2006: 133). For instance, Ding’s (2016) literature review identifies that
innovative course designs, such as culturally inclusive pedagogy (Blasco
2015) and the expansion of orientation programmes (McDonald 2014)
as well as social integration initiatives (Owens and Loomes 2010;
14 L. L. Ye
Menzies and Baron 2014), can help international students meet their
academic, practical and social needs and further facilitate their academic
adaptation and psychological well-being. In addition, Ding’s (2016)
review highlights how campus student support services, such as pre-
paratory and orientation programmes, the Campus Coach programme,
and student learning support services facilitate the successful intercul-
tural transition of a Malaysian doctoral student in New Zealand (Zahidi
2014).
Moreover, Burton and Kirshbaum (2013) explore academic, personal
and professional challenges associated with the increasing recruitment
of international students to university programmes, particularly pro-
fessional doctorate programmes. They believe that appropriate pre-pro-
gramme information, pedagogies, academic supervision and pastoral
support will help improve the experience of all doctoral students regard-
less of their country of origin. Jindal-Snape and Ingram (2013) pro-
pose two original conceptual models to help us understand and support
transitions of international doctoral students: the Educational and Life
Transitions (ELT) and Supervision Remit Compatibility (SuReCom)
models, which are significant in ensuring successful transition and
well-being of international doctoral students. Other researchers such as
Campbell (2015), Yu and Wright (2016) and Zhang (2016) call for all
stakeholders including faculty members and supervising professors to be
culturally responsive and understand students’ cultural differences. They
suggest that appropriate mentoring programmes should be established
to facilitate international students’ transition experience.
Furthermore, a small number of recent research has started offer-
ing insight into international doctoral students’ identity formation
and negotiation in the context of studying abroad, highlighting the
heterogeneity of international doctoral student experience and agency
(Bilecen 2013; Fotovatian 2012; Fotovatian and Miller 2014). For
instance, Bilecen (2016) explores how international doctoral students in
Germany make sense of their sojourning experience and develop cos-
mopolitan identifications during their study abroad. In the same vein,
Phelps (2016) investigates international doctoral students’ navigations
of identity in the transnational space of a globalised Canadian uni-
versity, which illustrates how the processes of globalisation influence
15
international doctoral students’ experience. Moreover, Fotovatian and

Miller’s (2014) case study explores how eight international doctoral
students construct and negotiate their social and institutional iden-
tities in an Australian university. The findings indicate that the role of
social membership, staffroom interactions and language are essential
in the construction of institutional identities. This study not only pro-
vides insight into the transitional experience of international doctoral
students, but offers a critique of treating “international student” as a
homogenous group at universities. Furthermore, Tsouroufli’s (2015)
qualitative interview study investigates how international doctoral stu-
dents make sense of their experience of studying in a Russell group uni-
versity and living in England. The study focuses on how the students
negotiate hybrid identities and accumulate social capital within unequal
relations of power. The findings highlight students’ agency, intentional-
ity and heterogeneity.
Finally, it is identified that doctoral students, both domestic and
international, remain a relatively understudied group (e.g. Campbell
2015; Leonard and Metcalfe 2006; Phelps 2016). More in-depth
empirical studies on different aspects of international doctoral students’
experience are in need, which could be used to help us understand
the complex influences of globalisation on doctoral education (Phelps
2016) and inform practice (Leonard and Becker 2009; Park 2007) and
the development of internationalisation of higher education.
The Importance of Researching on Chinese International

Doctoral Students
The number of Chinese students studying abroad has been growing

rapidly. Chinese students now make up the largest portion of inter-
national students in the UK and New Zealand (e.g. Ding & Devine
2017). According to UKCISA (2015), there were over 80,000
mainland Chinese students studying in the UK in academic year
2013/2014—the largest group of international students in this mar-
ket. In the context of USA, for instance, Zhang (2016) points out
that 235,597 Chinese students enrolled in US higher education in
16 L. L. Ye
academic year 2012/2013, which constitutes more than one-fourth

of the total international student population in the USA (Institute of
International Education, 2013). Approximately 40% of foreign sci-
ence and engineering doctorate recipients in the USA in 2011 were
from mainland China (National Science Board, 2012). International
doctoral students not only make important contribution towards
academic research (Le and Gardner 2010; Zhang 2016), but bring
benefits to the economy of host country (e.g. Li and Collins 2014).
Though Chinese international students’ intercultural experience con-
tinues to be a popular field of research, existing literature has paid
very limited attention on various aspects of Chinese international
doctoral students’ intercultural experience (Ding 2016; Ding and
Devine 2017; Zhang 2016). An understanding of this issue is, nev-
ertheless, fundamental to ensuring a quality educational experience
for this important group of students. A detailed discussion on prior
research on Chinese international doctoral students will be presented
in Chapter 2.
Significance of the Study

As discussed above, previous studies have explored the intercultural
experiences of undergraduates (e.g. Koehne 2006; Salisbury 2011) and
postgraduate students at the Master’s level (e.g. Ding 2009; Wu 2014).
However, literature focusing on international doctoral students includ-
ing Chinese doctoral students’ experience of studying abroad is sparse
and deserves more attention (e.g. Campbell 2015; Ding 2016; Phelps
2016; Zhang 2016; Zhou 2014). This study attempts to broaden the
focus on Chinese international students and fill the research lacuna in
existing literature by focusing on mainland Chinese doctoral students
whose longer period of more independent study raises issues around the
negotiation of identity very different from those on taught courses who
have been the main subjects in previous research.
Whilst studying abroad is a topic which is attracting considerable
interest among researchers (see, for instance, Byram and Feng 2006;
Ding 2009; Durkin 2011; Gill 2007; Messelink et al. 2015; Tian and
17
Lowe 2009; Wu 2014), most of the studies in this area focus on the
need for international students to adjust to local conditions or norms
(Marginson 2014). In contrast, this study aims to produce more
nuanced understandings of the situation by foregrounding Chinese
doctoral students’ narratives of their experience, highlighting student’
agency and reflexivity.
Furthermore, much of the previous literature has looked at the
impact of study abroad on students’ linguistic and intercultural skills
development (e.g. Alred et al. 2003; Murphy-Lejeune 2002; Beaven
and Borghetti 2016; Dewey et al. 2013; Jackson 2008; Kinginger 2009,
2011, 2013), and focused on short-term language learning abroad (e.g.
Jackson 2008, 2010; Kinginger 2009; Tang and Choi 2004). Many
other aspects of students’ experience, however, have received little or no
attention, including issues of identity formation in an intercultural set-
ting (e.g. Ding 2009; Gargano 2009; Phelps 2016). Scholars, such as
Tsouroufli (2015) and Dervin (2009, 2011), argue that more research
should be conducted to problematise the essentialisation and homoge-
nisation of international students.
In moving away from the essentialism and ‘othering’ of much earlier
work, this study aims to address the complexities and nuances of the
identity formation and negotiation of Mainland Chinese doctoral stu-
dents in the UK, and to examine the extent to which individual expe-
riences within an intercultural setting can influence the understanding
of the self, with specific reference to the role of reflexivity and agency
in the process of identity formation/negotiation and capital formation.
This study addresses the following questions:
• How does Chinese Ph.D. students’ decision to study abroad shape

their self-identity?
• How do Chinese students adapt and adjust to a different academic,
social and cultural environment?
• What kind of impact does studying abroad have on their
self-identity?
This study is mainly informed by Giddens’ concept of “the reflex-

ive project of the self ” (1991), complemented by Bourdieu’s concepts
18 L. L. Ye
of habitus and capital, both of which are discussed in greater detail in

chapter Three. Identity is, according to Giddens (1991), the self that is
not given or fixed, but the biographical narrative reflexively understood
by the person. It requires individuals to take the ownership of their own
identity formation. In other words, students need to “manage their lives
reflexively, fashioning their own changing identities, albeit under social
circumstances largely beyond their control” (Marginson 2014: 6). In
building a picture of the ways in which students’ self-identity is shaped
by and shapes their experience of study abroad, this study illustrates
individual agency, motivation, self-determination and reflexivity. In
doing so, I challenge the essentialised view of international Chinese stu-
dents as a homogeneous and sometimes problematic group and point
to implications for action by the host institutions. It is argued that the
usefulness of this approach can add to the limited body of research in
intercultural education coming from a sociological perspective and
opens possibilities for theoretical triangulation. This study also contrib-
utes to the growing field of empirical investigation of Giddens’ notion
of reflexive self (e.g. Skrbiš et al. 2011). The findings are potentially use-
ful for international Chinese doctoral students themselves, with lessons
possibly extending to other international students, especially from CHC
countries. In addition, the findings can inform the practice of academic
institutions, including doctoral supervisors as well as other staff mem-
bers whose remit is to support international students and deal with
them on a regular basis.
Overview of the Book

This book is composed of eight chapters. The first chapter has covered
the background of the study, reviewing literature on internationalisation
of higher education, studying abroad and doctoral education against the
backdrop of globalisation. It also articulates the justification for under-
taking this research. It has provided the rationale for researching the
identity formation of international Chinese doctoral students and high-
lighted the complementary contributions made by this study in address-
ing the research questions inspiring this book.
19
Chapter 2 gives a detailed discussion of the research landscape,

including an outline of the philosophy that underpins the approach,
research paradigm, research participants, research methodology and data
analysis procedure as well as issues of reflexivity.
Chapter 3 provides insights into Chinese international students’ lived
experience by examining some of the key factors and concepts includ-
ing culture, intercultural adaptation and the development of intercul-
tural competences. First, I present an overview of current literature on
Chinese international students, and then provide an overview of the
lived experience of international Chinese doctoral students studying
abroad. This chapter also analyses various critical voices in relation to
the essentialist and culturalist view of Chinese students that is generated
by most of the existing literature and calls for breaking the dichotomies
(e.g. East and West) associated with traditional understandings of learn-
er’s identity.
Chapter 4 recounts the literature that pertains to the notion of iden-
tity, in particular, the modern development of this concept. It then rei-
fies the theoretical framework underpinning the book by examining the
relationships between Giddens’ self-identity theory and Bourdieu’s the-
ory of habitus, field and capital so as to explain how these two theories
working together can provide a more effective framework to theorise the
concept of identity, allowing us to move away from culturalism towards
a non-essentialist approach to the study of the identity formation of
Chinese international doctoral students. In the meanwhile, it is critical,
however, to acknowledge that the development of this “self-identity”
is also influenced by the home culture with which students have been
brought up, before deciding to study in a foreign context.
Chapter 5 unfolds an aspect of the construction of the reflexive pro-
ject of the self, where students explain how their decisions to study
abroad in the UK shape their self-identity. Here we see students’ oral
accounts construct and maintain a robust “choice biography” of self-
actualisation. In this chapter, I conclude that students’ decisions to
study abroad are lifestyle choices, guided by their different goals of
self-actualisation and personal development.
Chapter 6 reports the findings describing students’ struggles, chal-
lenges and coping strategies as they negotiate and renegotiate the
20 L. L. Ye
meanings of the new field they have entered through the lens of
Giddens’ reflexive project of the self, addressing the research question
of how Chinese students adapt and adjust to a different academic and
sociocultural environment. This chapter will concentrate on students’
“small stories” that challenge the essentialist view of Chinese students as
passive learners and, once again, demonstrate that Chinese doctoral stu-
dents are not a homogenous group who are “intrinsically ‘problematic’”
(Goode 2007).
Chapter 7 examines the impact of study abroad on the self-identity
of Chinese doctoral students in the UK, with an emphasis on students’
agency and identity using Giddens’ theory of self-identity as a theoret-
ical framework, complemented by Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and
capital. It analyses student perceptions and experiences of personal
changes and development during their study abroad. This chapter is
guided by the following research question: What kind of impact does
studying abroad have on their self-identity?
Chapter 8 presents students’ aspirations, dreams, expectations and
hopes that have shaped students’ imagined futures, assumed a variety of
forms in student narratives. This chapter answers the research question
of how students’ future plans shape their self-identity. The focus of this
chapter is students’ future outlook and career orientation, which forms
the substantial content of the reflexively organised trajectory of the self.
Chapter 9, the final chapter, concludes the book by providing a sum-
mary of the research agenda and the findings in relation to the research
questions set out in the introductory chapter. It also highlights contri-
butions to the body of knowledge, and addresses both practical and the-
oretical implications of the study as well as the potential areas for future
inquiry.
In the next chapter, I will introduce the research participants and
provide a justification of the philosophical assumptions and research
methodology for this study. I discuss narrative as a means to inves-
tigate students’ self-identity, which offers the participants a chance to
“speak” to us and show the depths, nuances and complexities of their
experiences. I then describe how both narrative analysis (Clandinin and
Connelly 2000) and thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006) were
carried out for data processing, followed by a discussion on reflexivity.
21
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Intercultural Experience and Identity 1st

ed. Edition Lily Lei Ye

“The burgeoning literature on Chinese international students is dominated

More information about this series at

Palgrave Studies on Chinese Education in a Global Perspective

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018940763

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

I am indebted to everyone who has helped me and supported this book

1 Setting the Scene for the Narratives to Follow 1

2 The Story of Researching Chinese International Doctoral

3 Engaging with the Existing Stories 57

4 Exploring the Self Through Giddens and Bourdieu 95

5 A Dialogue with the Past: Thinking Through Lifestyle

6 Surviving and Thriving in the New Field: Keeping the

7 Growing and Becoming: The Expanded Self 187

8 Bringing the Future into the Present: Thinking Through

9 Learning from the Narratives 223

Self-Expansion and Personal Development 227

© The Author(s) 2018 1

narratives illustrate individual agency, motivation, self-determination

Internationalisation of Higher Education

Higher education in the era of globalisation has become more inter-

The competency approach focuses on students and staff’s knowledge

internationalisation of higher education include building, growing

2006; Teichler 2017). It is not surprising that much of the research

sociocultural adjustment (Li and Gasser 2005); international students’

Factors Influencing International Students’ Decision on Studying

There is a considerable body of research on international students’

Bridgestock (2014) argues that students choose to study abroad because

(Bodycott 2009; Bridgestock 2014; Edwards and An 2006; Kelo et al.

The Benefits of Studying Abroad

International students not only make tangible economic contributions

The Challenges of Studying Abroad

Despite the positive aspects of international education, for many inter-

academic achievement (Lane et al. 2004). Furthermore, a small num-

Supporting International Students

Researchers have explored how host institutions can facilitate and

of international students in Denmark, its findings have clear impli-

International Doctoral Students

Doctoral education is meant to nurture future educators and the next

opportunities for students involved to explore different cultures and

international doctoral students’ experience. Moreover, Fotovatian and

The Importance of Researching on Chinese International

The number of Chinese students studying abroad has been growing

academic year 2012/2013, which constitutes more than one-fourth

Significance of the Study

• How does Chinese Ph.D. students’ decision to study abroad shape

This study is mainly informed by Giddens’ concept of “the reflex-

of habitus and capital, both of which are discussed in greater detail in

Overview of the Book

Chapter 2 gives a detailed discussion of the research landscape,

Bilecen, B. (2016). International students and Cosmopolitanisms: Educational

Dervin, F. (2011). A plea for change in research on intercultural discourses:

International Association of Universities. Retrieved from http://www.iau-

Goode, J. (2007). Empowering or disempowering the international Ph.D.

Jackson, J. (2008). Language, identity, and study abroad: Sociocultural perspec-

Kim, H. Y. (2011). International graduate students’ difficulties: Graduate

Koehne, N. (2006). (Be)Coming, (Be)Longing: Ways in which international

Mazzarol, T., & Soutar, G. N. (2002). Push-pull factors influencing student

Rahman, O., & Rollock, D. (2004). Acculturation, competence, and men-

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Section 4. Information about Donations to