Evaluation of Radiant cooling as an Energy Efficient option for Hyderabad, Pakistan

Introduction:

Pakistan is a country with very limited energy resources and it depends heavily on
imported oil. This invites the efficient use of energy and the promotion of energy saving.
The building sector consumes a large proportion of the total energy and therefore offers
the possibility for significant savings.

Air-conditioning is commonly used to achieve thermal comfort in commercial and

residential buildings in Pakistan. When air-conditioning is used, it contributes 70% of
electricity consumption in a household. The phenomenon of penetration of air-
conditioning occurs amidst rising urbanization and decreasing size of family that leads
to increasing number of households in urban areas.

The present air-conditioning system is based on circulation of cooled dry air throughout
the (enclosed) air-conditioned zone or space to remove sensible (and some latent) heat
from human body and from other bodies in the space

Scientists and engineers are always interested in exploring more economic means of
providing thermal comfort to the occupants of buildings as air-conditioning has proved
to be very energy intensive. Radiant cooling is believed to be an energy efficient method
of providing thermal comfort.

In radiant cooling system, the cool panels receive thermal radiation load and some heat
convected to it from ventilation air. This configuration has been suggested to offer quiet,
comfort and a level of energy efficiency superior to those of conventional air-
conditioning system.
Literature Review

Energy consumption in buildings

Final energy consumption is usually shown split into three main sectors: industry,
transport and ‘other’, including in the last-named, agriculture, service sector and
residential. This makes it considerably difficult to gather information about building
energy consumption. For example, energy consumption in buildings other than
dwellings constitutes a fraction of the services shared within the ‘other’ key sector.
Considering its overall significance in developed countries (buildings account for a
20–40% of the total final energy consumption), we believe it should be accounted for
independently and become the third main sector, broken down, at least, for domestic
and non-domestic buildings.

Growth in population, enhancement of building services and comfort levels, together

with the rise in time spent inside buildings, have raised building energy consumption to
the levels of transport and industry (Table 1). Especially significant is the reduction of
the ratio of industry (nine points) and the expansion of ‘other’ (six points) due to
buildings.

Table 01. World final energy consumption by sector

Final energy consumption by sector (%) 1973 2004 Ratio

Industry 39 30 0.76

Transport 25 28 1.14

Other sectors 36 42 1.16

Source: IEA.

The term “other sectors” is ambiguous and produces great confusion. Many
international, national and regional sources include different end users within this
concept, which makes any sort of comparison difficult. Looking to the evolution (Fig. 1)
and importance (Table 2) of building energy consumption, we conclude:

(1) In the UK building energy consumption has increased at a rate of 0.5% per annum,
which is slightly below the European figure of 1.5%. In contrast building energy
consumption in Spain is increasing at a rate of 4.2% per annum, well above both the
European and the North American (1.9%) rate. Reasons can be found in the economic
growth, expansion of the building sector and the spread of building services, especially
heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

(2) In 2004, building consumption in the EU was 37% of final energy, bigger than
industry (28%) and transport (32%). In the UK, the proportion of energy use in building
(39%) is slightly above the European figure. This is in part due to the shift away from
heavy industry towards service sector activities. In contrast the figure for Spanish
buildings is only 23%, 14 points below Europe, and expected to rise strongly as
economic growth lead to convergence with the European average.

Fig: 01. Energy consumption of buildings. Reference year 1994.

Source: Eurostat and EIA.

The service sector, which covers all commercial and public buildings, includes many
types of buildings (schools, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, museums, etc.) with a wide
variety of uses and energy services (HVAC, domestic hot water (DHW), lighting,
refrigeration, food preparation, etc.). Growth both economical and in population,
increases the demand of services (health, education, culture, leisure, etc.) and the
energy consumption. In USA, energy consumption in the service sector has expanded
from 11% to 18% from the 1950s. In the UK, service energy use in 2004 accounted for
around 11% of all final energy use, equal to the EU average. By contrast the Spanish
figure was only 8% but it is reporting massive increases and has been multiplied by 2.5
between 1980 and 2000.

In the residential sector, size and location are key factors for energy consumption.
Small flats need less energy as there is less conditioned and transfer area, and also less
occupation. The amount and type of energy used in dwellings are mainly related to
weather, architectural design, energy systems and economic level of the occupants. By
and large, dwellings in developed countries use more energy than those in emerging
economies and it is expected to continue growing due to the installation of new
appliances (air conditioners, computers, etc.). In USA, dwellings consume 22% of the
total final energy use, compared with 26% in the EU. The UK figure is 28%, well above
the Spanish 15% mainly due to a more severe climate and building type (predominance
of independent houses over blocks).

Table 02. Weight of buildings energy consumption

Area Final energy consumption (%) Total

 Commercial Residential

USA 18 22 40

UK 11 28 39

EU 11 26 37

Spain 8 15 23

World 7 16 23

Year 2004. Sources: EIA, Eurostat, and BRE.

The EIA, in its International Energy Outlook [01], analyses and forecasts future trends in
building energy consumption (Fig. 02).
 Fig: 02 Buildings energy consumption outlook. Source: EIA.

Energy use in the built environment will grow by 34% in the next 20 years, at an average
rate of 1.5%. In 2030, consumption attributed to dwellings and the non-domestic
sectors will be 67% and 33% respectively (approximately). Spread in Southeast Asian,
and therefore, the growth of construction will boost energy demand on the residential
sector. Forecasts predict that both developed and non-developed economies will be
balanced in the use of energy in dwellings by 2010. Economic, trading and population
growth in emerging economies will intensify needs for education, health and other
services, together with the consequential energy consumption. It is expected that
energy consumption in the service sector in non-developed countries will be doubled in
the next 25 years, with an annual average growth rate of 2.8%.

Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction

with the thermal environment”. It is the result of the combination or adaptation of
parameters of both the environment and the human body itself. An expression for
optimal thermal comfort can be deduced from the metabolic rate, clothing insulation
and environmental conditions. The sensation experienced by a person is a function of
the physiological strain imposed on him by the environment. The thermal environment
is taken into account by the air temperature, the mean radiant temperature, the partial
pressure of water vapor in the ambient air and the air velocity.

Comfort Standards

Two types of approaches have been used for assessing comfortable indoor conditions.
One type of work uses the physics of heat exchange between the human body and the
environment together with thermal physiology to predict people's response to the
environment. The work is carried out in controlled environment where air velocity,
temperature, humidity and other variables are controlled; the laboratories where such
experiments are carried out are called climate chambers. Such chambers have been
widely used in controlled experiments investigating the effect of physical parameters on
comfort. The approach is called Heat Exchange Method (Nicol, 1992; Comfort, 2005).
The other type of work was done as field study in the actual environment of the subjects
with actual physical and environmental variables. The approach is usually called as
Empirical field Surveys

Heat Exchange Method

One of the basic climate chamber study conducted by ASHRAE is widely used for
modeling thermal comfort. The study has been adopted as standard 55-1992 that
specifies the conditions in which 80% or more people find the environment acceptable
with 10% dissatisfaction criterion. With the assumed value of clothing level, type of
activity, and air speed, the summer and winter zones for acceptable thermal
environment are defined(Table03).

Table03: ASHRAE Acceptable Zones for winter and for summer.

Optimum
Description of typical operative Operative Temperature range(10%
Season Icl,(clo)
clothing Temperatu dissatisfaction criterion)
re

Heavy slacks, long

Winter sleeve shirt, and 0.9 22oC (71oF) 20-23.5oC (68-75oF)
sweater.

Light slacks and short 24.5oC

Summer 0.5 o
23-26oC (73-79oF)
sleeve shirt (76 F)

Empirical field Surveys

The adaptive approach to thermal comfort is based on the findings of surveys of
thermal comfort conducted in the field. In the field survey researchers gather data about
the thermal environment and the simultaneous thermal response of subjects going
about their everyday lives. The thermal response of subjects is usually measured by
asking them for a ‘comfort vote’ on a descriptive scale such as the ASHRAE scale
(Table 04).The researcher uses statistical methods to analyze the data using the natural
variability of thermal conditions. The aim is to find the temperature or combination of
thermal variables (temperature, humidity, and air velocity) which subjects consider
‘neutral’ or ‘comfortable’. This analysis is then used to predict the ‘comfort
temperatures’ or ‘comfort conditions’ which will be found acceptable in similar
circumstances elsewhere.

Table04. Descriptors for the ASHRAE scales

ASHRAE descriptor Numerical equivalent

Hot 3

Warm 2

Slightly warm 1

Neutral 0

Slightly cool −1

Cool −2

Cold −3

Adaptive models:

Researchers conducting field study of thermal comfort have proposed simple models
that relate neutral temperature to prevailing air temperature.

Humphreys [2] developed two models for neutral temperature. The models are based
on prevalent mean outdoor and mean indoor temperatures as given below

Tn,i = 2.56 + 0.831 Ti,

Tn,o= 11.9 + 0.534 To,

Where Tn,i is neutral temperature based on mean indoor air temperature Ti, and Tn,o is
neutral temperature based on mean outdoor air temperature To.

Auliciems and deDear [3] developed the following relations for predicting group
neutralities based on mean indoor and outdoor temperatures:

Tn, i = 5.41 + 0.73 Ti,

Tn, o= 17.6 + 0.31 To,

Nicol and Roaf [4] recommended the following model based on the mean outdoor
temperature for determining the comfort temperature for the occupants of NV buildings
from a study they conducted in Pakistan

Tc = 17 + 0.38 To,

Where Tc is the comfort temperature and To is the outdoor air temperature.

Radiant Cooling

Radiant cooling system has been employed in northern Europe for more than 20
years, [5]. The system comprises panels installed on the ceiling of a room, or in some
cases hung from a high ceiling. Cooling water is supplied to the panels at temperature
above dew-point temperature of air in the room to avoid condensation of moisture in
the air on the panels. Heat is transferred between the space and the cooling panels
through a temperature differential. The cool ceiling panels absorb heat through a
combination of radiation and convection. Radiative heat transfer occurs through a net
emission of electromagnetic waves from the warm occupants and their surroundings to
the cool ceiling. On the other hand, the room air convects heat to the cool panels and
creates convection currents within the space.
Radiant cooling panels are normally used with displacement ventilation where
ventilation air is introduced into a room at low level and flows by natural means to
replace existing air. In a typical radiantly cooled office building, two to three air
exchanges per hour is required. The ventilation air drawn from outdoor should be
dehumidified in order to reduce latent load since the cooling panels remove sensible
load only.

Performance of a radiant cooling system depends on its ability to receive heat

convected to the panels by air and to receive heat radiated to the panels by surfaces in
the room. The quantity of radiant energy transfer involves mainly the continuous
exchanges of radiation between all bodies in a built environment. The rate at which
radiant energy is transferred depends on the following factors: temperature (of the
emitting surfaces and the receivers), emittance (of the radiating surfaces), reflectance,
absorptance and transmittance (of the receivers) and view factors between the emitting
surfaces and the receivers (viewing angle of the occupant to the radiant sources). Any
hindrance in the panel to heat transfer tp or from its surface (and eventually the cooling
water) will reduce the performance of the system. Also, lower the panel's inlet
temperature, the higher the potential heat-transfer of the cooling system. Therefore, the
inlet temperature should be controlled to be as close as possible to the room's dew
point temperature. Consequently, the cooling capacity of a radiant cooling system is
generally limited by the minimum allowable temperature of the inlet water relative to the
dew point temperature of the room air and the size (area) of the panel.
There are many advantages of radiant cooling system, [6]. Comfort levels can be better
than those of other conditioning systems because radiant loads are treated directly and
air motion in the space is at normal ventilation levels. Supply air quantities do not
exceed those required for ventilation and dehumidification. This provides a draft-free
environment. Noise associated with fan coil or induction units is eliminated. Draperies
and curtains can be installed at the inside wall without interfering with the heating and
cooling system. Operational costs are reduced for the mechanical chilling system since
cooled ceilings operate at relatively high temperatures (average surface temperature of
15 °C or above). Chillers can operate at higher temperatures resulting in an increase in
efficiency and reduction in energy costs.

Field studies of Radiant Cooling

In terms of thermal comfort,

Imanari et al. [7] reported that the radiant ceiling panel system was capable of creating
smaller vertical variation of air temperature and a more comfortable environment than
conventional systems.

Nagano and Mochida [8], reportedly used a rectangular box to represent a reclining
person in the calculation of mean radiant temperature sensed by the subjects and found
that the resulting temperature was about 1 °C lower than the mean radiant temperature
obtained from globe thermometer method. The reclining position is common for human
subjects in hospitals and in bedrooms.

Miriel et al. [9], reportedly used materials of good thermal conductivity and fast thermal
response for radiant cooling panels to achieve thermal comfort. They also developed a
mathematical model of the operation of the panel and used the model with the TRNSYS
simulation program.
Kitagawa et al. [10], reported a study on thermal sensation for subjects under
temperature asymmetry and different levels of relative air humidity in climate chamber.
−1
They reported that small air movement at 0.1–0.3 ms under radiant cooling system
could improve thermal comfort for occupants.

Carli and Olesen [11], reported a field assessment of thermal comfort under a radiant
cooling system where pipes were embedded in the building structure. Measurements
taken for one office in Austria and two offices in Germany led to the conclusion that
acceptable indoor thermal environments were attained during summer.

Kulpmann [12], reported an investigation of thermal comfort in a test room equipped

with a smooth and cooled ceiling surface and supplied with upward displacement
ventilation air. The results showed that high-level thermal comfort was attained and that
the temperature of the room surfaces (not only the cool ceiling) was lower or at least
equal to the air temperature in the room, which was different from the situation in an air-
conditioned room.

Simmonds [13] reported that the traditional design criteria such as dry-bulb temperature
and operative temperature were not always sufficient. Mean radiant temperature had a
large influence on the comfort results. Radiant cooling was a superior means to bring
condition in a space to comfort limits (PMV ± 0.5).

Meierhans [14], reported the use of a water-carrying pipe system installed in the core of
the concrete ceilings to actively control the thermal mass of an office building in Horgen,
Switzerland successfully over three summers. Comfort measurements under actual and
simulated conditions confirmed the suitability of the system for small and medium
loads.

In terms of energy consumption, radiant cooling system has an advantage over

conventional system. A significant amount of the electrical energy used to cool
buildings by conventional systems is consumed by fans, which are used to transport
cool air through the ducts. Part of this electricity used to move the air also heats the
conditioned air and, therefore, is part of the internal thermal cooling load. If the tasks of
ventilation and thermal conditioning of buildings are separated, the amount of air
transported through buildings can be significantly reduced. In this case the cooling is
provided by radiation using water as the transport medium and the ventilation by
outside air systems without the need for recirculation and cooling of air. Although the
supply air necessary for ventilation purposes is still distributed through ducts, the
electrical energy for fans and pumps can be reduced to approximately 25% of that of
conventional air-conditioning system.

Brunk [15], reported using cooling ceiling with ceiling-mounted air outlets and
mechanical as well as free cooling and additional ice storage plant, the total energy
costs can be reduced by 50% compared with a variable-volume system.

Niu et al. [16] reported a study based on TRNSYS simulation compared energy costs of
operation of radiant cooling system with a number of configurations of conventional air-
conditioning system concludes that radiant cooling system saves much fan energy.
Energy consumed by chillers is also lower for radiant cooling system because chilled
water is produced at higher temperature,.

Carli and Olesen [11] reported that in 2001 more than 60 buildings equipped with active
thermal slab for radiant cooling were in operation in Germany. These were mainly office
buildings but museums, hospitals and schools were also included.

Simmonds [13] reported that radiant cooling system was installed in the three floors of
the podium section of a 49-floor office building in Shanghai, China.

Meierhans [14] reported the operation of radiant cooling system in an office building in
Horgen, Switzerland.
Objectives

The objectives of this research are

1. To determine the energy consumption by an Air conditioned modeled room.

2. To determine the energy consumption by Radiant cooled modeled room.

3. To determine the annual thermal comfort time in the Radiant cooled modeled
room.

4. To compare the difference in energy consumption and thermal comfort time for
the case of Air conditioned modeled room and the modeled room with radiant
cooling.
Methodology

Following steps will be taken to accomplish above objectives.

1. Data will be collected through survey and/or reviewing literature for working on
the Modeled room in the area of Hyderabad.
2. Using building simulation software (e.g. Energy Plus) the Modeled room is
simulated to determine the total hours for which the room is comfortable
throughout the year.
3. Changes will be made in the design Modeled room to provide radiant cooling.
4. The total numbers of hours for which the building will be comfortable are
determined when room is with Radiant cooling.
5. The difference in comfort hours and energy savings is determined.

References

[1] Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2006, U.S.

Department of Energy, June 2006.

[2] M.A. Humphreys (1978), Outdoor temperatures and comfort indoors, Building
Research and Practice (journal of CIB) 6(2) 92-105.

[3] A. Auliciems, R. deDear (1986), Air-conditioning in a tropical climate: impacts

upon European residents in Darwin, Australia International Journal of
Biometeorology, 30 (3) pp. 259–282

[4] F. Nicol, S. Roaf (1996) Pioneering new indoor temperature standards: the
Pakistan project Energy and Buildings, 23, pp. 169–174

[5] S.A. Mumma, (2001) Ceiling panel cooling systems ASHRAE Journal, pp. 28–32.
[6] ASHRAE, ASHRAE Handbook of HVAC Systems and Equipment, Ch.6, American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc., Atlanta,
1996

[7] T. Imanari, T. Omori, K. Bogaki. 1999 Thermal comfort and energy consumption
of the radiant ceiling panel system: comparison with the conventional all-air
system. Energy and Buildings, pp. 167–175.

[8] K. Nagano, T. Mochida, (2004) Experiments on thermal environmental design of

ceiling radiant cooling for supine human subjects Building and Environment, pp.
267–275

[9] J. Miriel, L. Serres, A. Trombe (2002) Radiant ceiling panel heating-

cooling systems: experimental and simulated study of the performances, thermal
comfort and energy consumptions Applied Thermal Engineering, 22 (2002), pp.
1861–1873

[10] K. Kitagawa, N. Komoda, H. Hayano, S.I. Tanabe, (1999) Effect of humidity and
small air movement on thermal comfort under a radiant cooling ceiling by
subjective experiments. Energy and Buildings, pp. 185–193

[11] M.D. Carli, B.W. Olesen, (2001). Field measurements of thermal comfort
conditions in buildings with radiant surface cooling systems, Clim 2000/Napoli
2001 World Congress—Napoli(I), 15–18

[12] R.W. Kulpmann (1993), Thermal comfort and air quality in rooms with cooled
ceilings—results of scientificinvestigations ASHRAE Transactions, 99 (2) pp.
488–501

[13] P. Simmonds (1996), Practical applications of radiant heating and cooling to

maintain comfort conditions ASHRAE Transactions, 102, pp. 659–666

[14] R.A. Meierhans (1996), Room air conditioning by means of overnight cooling of
 the concrete ceiling ASHRAE Transactions, 102 (1) , pp. 693–697

[15] M.F. Brunk Cooling ceilings(1993), An opportunity to reduce energy costs by way
of radiant cooling ASHRAE Transactions pp. 479–487

[16] J.L. Niu, J.V.D. Kooi, H.V.D. Ree (1995), Energy saving possibilities with
cooled—ceiling systems Energy and Buildings, 23 pp. 147–158