The Protection of Foreign Investment in

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 The Protection of Foreign Investment
in Times of Armed Conflict

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
The Protection of Foreign
Investment in Times
of Armed Conflict
J U R E Z R I L IČ

1
 3
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 Preface

The idea to examine investment treaties in the context of armed conflict took root
against the background of a revolutionary wave that caught the Arab world at the
end of 2010 and adversely affected foreign investment in the region. While invest-
ment treaties provide foreign investors with an avenue to pursue financial repar-
ations for conflict-​related losses from a host state, the practice and scholarship
following ‘Arab Spring’ revolutions and the ongoing armed conflicts in the Middle
East and Ukraine have revealed that there is lack of clarity about how effective and
appropriate investment protections actually are in a conflict and post-​conflict set-
ting. This book sets out to address these questions by combining the insights from
different areas of international law, including international investment law, inter-
national humanitarian law, international human rights law, the law of state respon-
sibility, and the law of treaties. This is the first full and thorough treatment of the
subject matter.
A key theme that runs throughout the book is the question of balancing com-
peting objectives: on the one hand are investors’ interests, certainty, and stability;
and on the other hand, a state’s sovereign right to protect its security interests and
enable a smooth transition to peace. The book examines how these conflicting
interests are balanced on four different levels: on the level of the application of in-
vestment treaties, on the level of the invocation of relevant treaty protections and
host state defences against them, on the level of post-​conflict compensation, and
lastly, on the level of the resolution of conflict-​related disputes. The analysis of this
balancing dynamic informs the design of an analytical framework that purports to
explain and evaluate how effective and appropriate is the application of the invest-
ment treaty regime in times of armed conflict.
The book offers insightful conclusions that could be of interest to practitioners,
policy makers, and international law scholars. Over the past few years, inter-
national investment law has come under the severe scrutiny and ever stronger calls
for its dismantlement. In my research, I show that despite the system’s flaws and
the need for a long-​overdue reform, there is also a potential for its contribution to
a better and safer world. In particular in periods of turmoil and armed conflict, the
system’s protections could become an important tool for inhibiting violence and
arbitrariness. In view of the ongoing rise of nationalism, xenophobia, geopolitical
tensions, and conflicts around the globe, this is something we ought not to forget.

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
 Acknowledgements

The book is based on my doctoral thesis, completed in 2016 and defended in

January 2017. Many people and institutions contributed to the completion of the
book. My doctoral supervisor was Markus Gehring, whose aid and kindness I re-
call with much gratitude. I am much indebted to my examiners, Michael Waibel
and Christoph Schreuer, who provided constructive and detailed comments in the
viva, and kind encouragement later. Their support was invaluable in turning the
thesis into this book. I have benefitted greatly from the stimulating intellectual en-
vironment at various institutions where parts of the book were written and revised,
in particular the Hughes Hall College and the University of Cambridge, Harvard
Law School, and the University of Liverpool School of Law and Social Justice. I am
grateful to many colleagues who provided me with comments and advice that in-
formed my work. I am especially thankful to Carsten Stahn, Mark Wu, Amandine
Garde, Pádraig McAuliffe, Vassilis Tzevelekos, Mavluda Sattorova and Gregory
Messenger. The book has benefitted from feedback received at various conferences,
including the American Society of International Law Midyear Research Forum,
Just Post Bellum Conference organized by Leiden University, and the Colloquium
on International Investment Law & the Law of Armed Conflict organized by the
European Society of International Law in Athens. Funding support, which made
this project possible, came from the Arts and Humanities Research Council,
and Slovene Human Resources Development and Scholarship Fund. Their aid is
gratefully acknowledged. I thank the Oxford University Press, particularly, Jack
McNichol, Natasha Flemming and Alison Thomas for their patience and help in
the revision process, as well as the three anonymous reviewers for their insightful
comments. Finally, I am immensely grateful to my friends, my partner, and my
family, in particular my parents Irena and Bore. This book would not have been
possible without their moral encouragement and continued support.

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
 Table of Cases

INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS

Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

Brazilian Loans (France v Brazil) [1929] PCIJ Ser A No 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211n89
Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzów (Germany v Poland) (Merits) [1928] PCIJ
Rep Series A No 17 (Chorzów Factory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209n74
Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex (France v Switzerland) (Order)
[1929] PCIJ Rep Series C No 17/​1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80–​81n136
Oscar Chinn (UK v Belgium) [1934] PCIJ Rep Series A/​B No 63, Separate Opinion of
Judge Anzilotti, 114. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–​52n121
Serbian Loans (France v Serb—​Croat—​Slovene) [1929] PCIJ Ser A No 20 . . . . . . . . . . 211n89

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v UK) (Preliminary Objections) [1998]
ICJ Rep 115. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n132
Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights (Iran v US) (Provisional Measures Order) (3 October 2018) (Sanctions
against Iran) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–​36n14, 142n56, 142–​43n62
Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v Pakistan) (Judgment)
[1972] ICJ Rep 46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–​74n104
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v
Uganda) (Judgment) [2005] ICJ Rep 168 . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n66, 48–​49n203, 97–​98n61,
162–​63n3, 163–​64n9, 187n153
Barcelona Traction (Belgium v Spain) (Merits) [1970] ICJ Rep 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–​4n50
Case Concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of
the Congo) (Judgment on Compensation) [2012] ICJ Rep 324, 324, Declaration
of Judge Greenwood 391. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192n178
Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia-​Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro)
(Judgment) [2007] ICJ Rep 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n66, 183–​84n132
Case Concerning the Gabčíkovo-​Nagymaros Project (Hungary/​Slovakia) (Merits)
[1997] ICJ Rep 1. . . . . . . . 72n90, 75–​76n112, 77n123, 79–​80n136, 82n151, 82–​83n154,
150n109, 150–​51n112, 151–​52n121, 154–​55n142
Certain Activities Carried Out By Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v
Nicaragua) [2015] ICJ Rep 665. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n63
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v France)
(Judgment) [2008] ICJ Rep 177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143–​44n68, 143–​44n72, 144n74
Construction of a Road in Costa Rica Along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v
Costa Rica) (Judgment) [2015] ICJ Rep 665. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n63
Corfu Channel (UK v Albania) (Merits) [1949] ICJ Rep 4. . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n66, 78–​79n129
Corfu Channel (UK v Albania) (Assessment of the Amount of Compensation)
[1949] ICJ Rep 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211n88
Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v Nicaragua)
(Judgment) [2009] ICJ Rep 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n40
Elettronica Sicula SPA US v Italy (Merits) [1989] ICJ Rep 15. . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n66, 102n95

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
xiv Table of Cases

Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (Federal Republic of Germany v Ireland) (Jurisdiction)

[1973] ICJ Rep 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72n90, 79–​80n136, 82–​83n152, 82–​83n154
Frontier Dispute Case (Burkina Faso v Mali) (Judgment) [1986] ICJ Rep 554. . . . . . . . 211n87
Jan Mayen (Denmark v Norway) (Separate Opinion) [1993] ICJ Rep 38. . . . . . . . . . . . 211n86
LaGrand (Germany v US) (Judgment) [2001] ICJ Rep 466. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160–​61n177
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion) [1996]
ICJ Rep 226. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39n134, 162–​63n3, 185–​86
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua case (Nicaragua v US)
(Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14 . . . . . . . . . . 48–​49n203, 65n54, 135–​36n13, 141n49, 143n67
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Belgium)
(Federal Republic of Germany v Netherlands) (Judgment) [1969]
ICJ Rep 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189–​90n163, 211n87
Nuclear Tests (Australia v France) (Judgment) [1974] ICJ Rep 253. . . . . . . . . . . . . 190–​91n167
Oil Platforms (Iran v US) (Judgment) [2003] ICJ Rep 161. . . . . . . 65n54, 135–​36n13, 143n67
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay) (Judgment) [2010]
ICJ Rep 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n63
The Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep 136 (Israeli Wall). . . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n224,
162–​63n3, 186–​87, 186–​87n145
US Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Teheran (US v Iran) (Judgment) [1980] ICJ Rep
3 (Hostages in Iran Case) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n62, 28–​29n66, 95–​96n53, 155–​56n150

International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)

Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with
Respect to Activities in the Area, ITLOS Case no 17 (Advisory Opinion,
1 February 2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n63

World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Body

WTO United States: Measures Affecting the Cross-​Border Supply of Gambling and
Betting Services, Panel Report (10 November 2004) WT/​DS285/​R. . . . . . . . 139–​40n42
Indonesia –​Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile Industry Panel Report
(23 July 1998) WT/​DS54/​R, WT/​DS59/​R, WT/​DS64/​R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164n12
Turkey –​Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products Panel Report
(31 May 1999) WT/​DS34/​R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164n12, 185–​86n142
United States –​Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline Appellate
Body Report (29 April 1996) WT/​DS2/​AB/​R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–​79n129
Russia –​Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit Panel Report (5 April 2019)
WT/​DS512/​R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n32, 143–​44n68, 144n74

Iran–​United States Claims Tribunal

Phelps Dodge v Iran (1986) 10 Iran–​USCTR 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n223
Questech Inc. v Iran (1985) 9 Iran–​USCTR 107. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80–​81n141, 80–​81n142
Sea-​Land Service Inc v Iran (1984) 6 Iran–​USCTR 149. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n222, 212n90
Starrett Housing Corp v Iran (Case No 24) (1983) 4 Iran–​USCTR 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . 129n245
Sylvania Technical Systems v Iran (1985) 8 Iran–​USCTR 309. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–​55n145
Tippetts, Abbett, McCarthym Stratton v TAMS-​-A ​ FFA (1984)
6 Iran–​USCTR 219. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n223
Too v Greater Modesto Insurance Associates Award, 29 December 1989,
23 IUSCT Rep 378. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102n92
 Table of Cases xv

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Prosecutor v Galić (Judgment and Opinion) IT-​98-​29-​T (5 December 2003). . . . . 47–​48n195
Prosecutor v Galić (Appeal Judgment) IT-​98-​29-​A (30 November 2006) . . . . . . . 47–​48n195,
48–​49n202
Prosecutor v Hadžihasanović and Kubura (Decision on Motions for Acquittal)
IT-​01-​42-​T (27 September 2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–​48n192
Prosecutor v Kupreškić (Trial Judgment) IT-​95-​16 (14 January 2000) . . . . . . . . . . 43–​44n160,
47–​48n192, 47–​48n195, 48–​49n202, 158n165, 180–​81n118
Prosecutor v Martić (Review of the Indictment Pursuant to Rule 61) IT-​95-​11
(8 March 1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n165
Prosecutor v Strugar (Judgment) IT-​01-​42-​T (31 January 2005). . . . . . . . . . . 47–​48n192–​193
Prosecutor v Tadić (Appeal Judgment) IT-​94-​1-​A (15 July 1999). . . . . . . . 7–​8, 39n132, 60–​61
Prosecutor v Tadić (Decision on Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on
Jurisdiction) IT-​94-​1-​T (2 October 1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–​8n18, 47–​48n188

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Prosecutor v Akayesu (Appeal Judgment) ICTR-​96-​4-​T (1 June 2001) . . . . . . . . . . 48–​49n202

Eritrea–​Ethiopia Claims Commission (EECC)

Central Front—​Eritrea’s Claims, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 22 (Partial Award of 28 April 2004)
26 RIAA 115. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39n136
Central Front—​Ethiopia’s Claim 2 (Partial Award of 28 April 2004)
26 RIAA 155. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39n136, 171n59
Civilian Claims: Eritrea’s Claims 15, 16, 23, 27–​23 (Partial Award of 17 December
2004) 26 RIAA 195. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40nn137–​138, 40–​41n140–​141, 57–​58n3, 114n166
Civilian Claims: Ethiopia’s Claim 5 (Partial Award of 17 December 2004)
26 RIAA 249. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39n136, 40n139
Eritrea’s Non-​Residents’ Claim 24 (Partial Award, 19 December 2005) 26 RIAA 429. . . . . 40n138
Ethiopia’s Port Claim 6 (Final Award, 19 December 2005) 26 RIAA 489. . . . . . . . . . . 40n138,
219–​20n128
Pensions: Eritrea’s Claims 15, 19 & 23 (Final Award of 19 December 2005)
26 RIAA 471. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–​58n3
Western Front, Aerial Bombardment and Related Claims, Eritrea’s
Claims 1, 3, 5, 9 –​13, 14, 21, 25 & 26 (Partial Award of 19 December 2005)
26 RIAA 291. . . . . . . . . . . . 44n161, 44–​45n167, 45nn169, 45n171, 45–​46n173, 170n49
Ethiopia’s Damages Claims (Final Award of 17 August 2009)
26 RIAA 631. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212n92, 213n104

European Court of Justice (ECJ)/​Court of Justice of the

European Union (CJEU)
Case 162/​96, Racke v Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR I-​-​3655. . . . . . . 73–​74n103, 73–​74n104,
79n132, 81nn.144–​149, 82, 84n160
Case T-​306/​01, Yusuf and Al Barakaat v Council and Commission [2005]
ECR II-​-​3533. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n49
Case T-​315/​01, Kadi v Council and Commission Case [2005] ECR II-​-​3649. . . . . . . . . 141n49
Case C-​495/​ 07 Elgafaji v Staatssecretaris van Justitie [2009] ECR-​I 921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8n19
Case C-​285/​12 Aboubacar Diakité v Commissaire Général aux réfugiés et aux
apatrides ILEC 033 (CJEU 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8n19
xvi Table of Cases

European Commission and European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

AGOSI v United Kingdom (1986) 9 EHRR 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n216
Ahmet Özkan and Others v Turkey App no 21689/​93, Judgment (ECtHR,
6 April 2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117n182, 188–​89n156
Akdivar and Others v Turkey App no 21893/​93, Judgment (ECtHR,
16 September 1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53n233
Albekov and Others v Russia App no 68216/​01, Judgment (ECtHR,
9 October 2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–​55n248, 177–​78n102
Al-​Jedda v United Kingdom App no 27021/​08, Judgment (ECtHR, 7 July 2011). . . . . . 8–​9n20
Beyeler v Italy (2000) 33 EHRR 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n216
Bosphorus Hava Tollari v Ireland App no 45036/​98, Judgment (ECtHR,
30 June 2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n51
Cyprus v Turkey App nos 6780/​74 and 6950/​75, EComHR (1976) 4 EHRR 482. . . . . . 53n231
Cyprus v Turkey App no 8007/​77, EComHR (1983) EHRR 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53n232
Ergi v Turkey App no 23818/​94, Judgment (ECtHR, 28 July 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . 53–​54n234,
54–​55n245, 54–​55n251, 55–​56n255, 117n182, 177–​78n102
Former King of Greece and Others v Greece App no 25701/​94, Judgment (ECtHR,
23 November 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207–​8n70
Gasus Dosier v the Netherlands (1995) 20 EHRR 403. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n216
Gogitidze and Others v Georgia App no 36862/​05, Judgment (ECtHR,
12 May 2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–​28n233
Gül v Turkey App no 22676/​93, Judgment (ECtHR, 14 December 2000) . . . . . . . 188–​89n157
Güleç v Turkey App no 21593/​93 (ECtHR, 27 July 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . 53–​54n235, 117n182,
120n193
Hamiyet Kaplan and Others v Turkey App no 36749/​97 (ECtHR, Judgment,
13 September 2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120n192
Hassan v the UK App no 29750/​09, Judgment (ECtHR, 16 September
2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–​9n20, 52n227
Isayeva v Russia App no 57950/​00, Judgment (ECtHR, 24 February 2005)
(Isayeva II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–​9n21, 53–​54n236, 54–​55n247, 55n252, 55–​56n255,
117n182, 120n194, 171–​72n65, 177–​78n99, 188–​89n156
Isayeva, Yusupova and Bazayeva v Russia App nos 57947/​00, 57948/​00, and
57949/​00, Judgment (ECtHR, 24 February 2005) (Isayeva I). . . . . 8–​9n21, 53–​54n236,
55–​56n255, 177–​78n99
Khatsiyeva and Others v Russia App no 5108/​02, Judgment (ECtHR,
17 January 2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188–​89n158
Loizidou v Turkey (1995) 23 EHRR 513. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n216
Mansuroğlu v Turkey App no 43443/​98, Judgment (ECtHR,
26 February 2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188–​89n158
McCann and Others v The United Kingdom App no 18984/​91
(ECtHR, 27 September 1995). . . . . . . 53–​54n238, 55–​56n255, 177–​78n99, 177–​78n101
Mentes and Others v Turkey (1997) 26 EHRR 595. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53n233
Neumeister v Austria App no 1936/​63, Judgment (ECtHR, 7 May 1974). . . . . . . . 185–​86n142
Oğur v Turkey App no 21594/​93, Judgment (ECtHR, 20 May 1999) . . . . . . . . . . 188–​89n157
Osman v The United Kingdom (2000) 29 EHRR 245. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55n252
Papachelas v Greece App no 31423/​96, Judgment (ECtHR, 25 March 1999 . . . . . . . 207–​8n70
Paulet v The United Kingdom App no 6219/​08, Judgment (ECtHR,
13 May 2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–​28n233
Plattform ‘Ärzte für das Leben’ v Austria (1988) 13 EHRR 204. . . . . . . . . 54–​55n250, 55n252
Selcuk and Asker v Turkey (1998) 26 EHRR 477. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52n228, 53n233
Tre Traktörer AB v Sweden (1991) 13 EHRR 309. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n217
 Table of Cases xvii

Yarrow et al v United Kingdom App no 9266/​81, Decision (EComHR,

28 January 1983). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n217

Inter-​American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)

Barrios Family v Venezuela Judgment of the IACtHR of 24 November 2011 . . . . . . . . 54n241
Chaparro Álvarez and Lapo Iñiguez v Ecuador Judgment of the IACtHR of
21 November 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–​28n233
Ituango Massacres v Colombia Judgment of the IACtHR of 1 July 2006. . . . . . . . . 54–​55n249,
54–​55n251, 55–​56n255–​256
Ivcher-​Bronstein v Peru Judgment of the IACtHR of 6 February 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50n217
Massacres of El Mozote v El Salvador Judgment of the IACtHR of
25 October 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54n242, 55–​56n255–​256
Memoli v Argentina Judgment of the IACtHR of 22 August 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127–​28n233
Santo Domingo Massacre v Colombia Judgment of the IACtHR of
30 November 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54n242–​243, 55–​56n255, 176–​77n96
Velásquez Rodríguez v Honduras Judgment of the IACtHR of
29 July 1988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55n252, 55n253, 122n205

Inter-​State Arbitration
France–​U S Claims Commission 1880
Joseph Chourreau v US (French–​US Claims Commission 1880) Moore,
Digest 921;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36n110

US–​C hile Claims Commission 1901

Andrew Moss v Chile, No 25 (US–​Chilean Claims Commission 1901) Moore,
Digest 921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36n110
Edward Du Bois v Chile No 2 (US–​Chilean Claims Commission 1901) Moore,
Digest 921. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36n110
Peter Bacigalupi v Chile No 42 (US–​Chilean Claims Commission 1901) Moore,
Digest 894. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n111

France–​V enezuela Mixed Claims Commission

French Company of Venezuelan Railroads (France v Venezuela) (1904)
10 RIAA 285. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32n82, 154–​55n145

Germany–​V enezuela Mixed Claims Commission

Bischoff Case (1903) 10 RIAA 420. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100–​1n83
Wenzel Case (Germany v Venezuela) (1903) 10 RIAA 428. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27n53
Kummerow, Otto Redler and Co, Fulda, Fischbach, and Friedericy Cases
(Germany v Venezuela) (1903) 10 RIAA 369. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26n48, 31n79

Italy–​V enezuela Mixed Claims Commission

Sambiaggio Case (Italy v Venezuela) (1903) 10 RIAA 499. . . . . . . . . 25n41, 25–​26, 25–​26n44,
28–​29n61, 48–​49n200, 89–​90n6
Poggioli Case (Italy v Venezuela) (1903) 10 RIAA 669 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n221

Spain–Venezuela Mixed Claims Commission

Mena Case (Spain v Venezuela) (1903) 10 RIAA 748. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155n147

UK–​V enezuela Mixed Claims Commission

Aroa Mines Case (Great Britain v Venezuela) (1903) 9 RIAA 402. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111–​12n155
xviii Table of Cases

Puerto Cabello and Valencia Railway Company (Great Britain v Venezuela)

(1903) 9 RIAA 510. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32n82
Santa Clara Estates Case (Supplementary Claim) (1903) 9 RIAA 455. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27n53

US–​V enezuela Mixed Claims Commission

Dix Case (US v Venezuela) (1903) 9 RIAA 113. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n118
Heny Case (US v Venezuela) (1903) 9 RIAA 113. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n119
Upton Case (US v Venezuela) (1903–​1905) 9 RIAA 235. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n165

NAFTA Arbitral Panel

Cross-​Border Trucking Services (Mexico v US) Case No USA-​MEX-​98-​2008-​01
(NAFTA Ch 20 Arb Trib Panel Decision, 6 February 2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–​21n136

UK–​U S Arbitral Tribunal

Parsons Case (Great Britain v US) (1925) 6 RIAA 165. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n221

US–​M exico General Claims Commission

Chapman (US v Mexico) (1930) 4 RIAA 632. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n63, 55–​56n254
Chase Case (US v Mexico) (1928) 4 RIAA 337. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Dickson Car Wheel Co (US v Mexico) (1931) 4 RIAA 669. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100–​1n83
GL Solis (US v Mexico) (1928) 4 RIAA 358 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n60, 155–​56n151
Janes (US v Mexico) (1926) 4 RIAA 82. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n64
Kennedy Case (US v Mexico) (1927) 4 RIAA 194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Lillie Kling v Mexico (1930) 4 RIAA 575. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160–​61n178
Mallen (US v Mexico) (1927) 4 RIAA 175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n63
Massey (US v Mexico) (1927) 4 RIAA 155. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n64, 95–​96n52
Minnie East Case (US v Mexico) (1930) 4 RIAA 646. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Morton Case (US v Mexico) (1929) 4 RIAA 428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Sewell Case (US v Mexico) (1930) 4 RIAA 626. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Way Case (US v Mexico) (1928) 4 RIAA 391. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52
Youmans (US v Mexico) (1926) 4 RIAA 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n64

Other Inter-​S tate Arbitrations

Adams Case, Moore Digest 893. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n115
Alexander Barrington v Mexico, No 365 (1868) Moore, History and
Digest 3674. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36n110
Arbitration Regarding the Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary between
Guyana and Suriname (17 September 2007) 30 RIAA 113. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n132
Buckingham Case (1933) Hackworth, Digest 480. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n61
Claire Case (France v Mexico) (1929) 5 RIAA 516. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122n205
Case of Bain (Great Britain v US) Moore, Digest 850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25–​26n43
Case of Maza and Larrache (Spain v US) (1884) Moore, Digest 895. . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n113
Case of the Montijo (US v Colombia) (1875) Moore, History and Digest 1421. . . . . . . . 27n52
Claims by the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company et al against the US,
Moore Digest 893. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n113
De Brissot Case, Moore, History and Digest 3040. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n61
Don Pacifico Case (Great Britain v Greece) Moore, History and Digest 1421 . . . . . . 25–​26n43
Ecuador v United States UNCITRAL, Request for Arbitration, 28 June 2011 . . . . 220–​21n135
Hardman Case (Great Britain v US) (1910) 7 AJIL 897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n114
Mox Plant Case (Ireland v UK) PCA Case no 2002-​01, Procedural Order No 3,
24 June 2003, 126 ILR 310. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n129
Pinson (France v United Mexican States) (1928) 5 RIAA 327. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32n82
 Table of Cases xix

Rainbow Warrior Affair Case (New Zealand v France) (1990) 20 RIAA 217. . . . . . 154–​55n140
Republic of Italy v Republic of Cuba Ad hoc Arbitration, Final Award,
15 January 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–​21n134
Republic of Italy v Republic of Cuba Ad hoc Arbitration, Interim Award,
15 March 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–​21n134
Spanish Zone of Morocco (Great Britain v Spain) (1924) 2 RIAA 615. . . . . . 28n55, 28–​29n60,
28–​29n61, 30n73, 36–​37n116, 42–​43, 42–​43n155, 48–​49n200,
111–​12n156, 114n165, 155n147, 155–​56n152
Venezuelan Steam Transportation Company Case (US v Venezuela) (1892) Moore,
History and Digest 1693 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27n52
William Moore Case (US v Nicaragua) (1900) Moore, Digest 914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n118
Wilson’s Case (Spanish Claims Commission 1881) Moore, Digest 894. . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n111
Wipperman Case, Moore, History and Digest 3040. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n61

Conciliation Commission
In re Rizzo (1955) 22 ILR 317. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n59
Ousset (1945) 22 ILR 312. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n59

Mixed Arbitrations
Ad hoc arbitration
Eureko BV v Poland Ad hoc Arbitration, Partial Award, 19 August 2005. . . . . . . . . 90–​91n20
Libyan American Oil Company (LIAMCO) v Libyan Arab Republic (1981)
62 ILR 140. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211n88
Mohamed Al-​Kharafi & Sons Co v Libya Ad hoc Arbitration, Award, 22 March
2013, 380. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–​5n14, 208n72, 209

International Centre for the Settlement of Investment

Disputes (ICSID)
AES Summit Generation Ltd v Republic of Hungary ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​22,
Award, 2 September 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n27
Aguas del Tunari SA v Republic of Bolivia ICSID Case no ARB/​02/​3. . . . . . . . . . . . 198–​99n20
Al Jazeera Media Network v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​16/​1
(pending). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n6, 198–​99n23
Amco Asia Corp and Others v The Republic of Indonesia Award, 20 November 1984, 1
ICSID Rep 413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n17
American Manufacturing & Trading, Inc (AMT) v Republic of Zaire ICSID
Case no ARB/​93/​1, Award, 21 February 1997. . . . . . . . . 90–​91n21, 103n98, 106–​7n123,
108n133, 111n147, 121n197, 122n203, 123n209,
210–​11n82, 212–​13n95, 212–​13n98, 222–​23n140
Ampal-​America Israel Corp v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​12/​11,
Decision on Liability, 21 February 2017 . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n6, 90–​91n22, 105nn.111–​113,
106, 155–​56n150, 155–​56n152, 156–​57n154, 156–​57n155, 235n10
Archer Daniels Midland Company v Mexico ICSID AF Case no ARB/​(AF)/​04/​5,
Award, 21 November 2007,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–​60n172
Asian Agricultural Products Ltd (AAPL) v Republic of Sri Lanka ICSID Case no
ARB/​87/​3, Award, 27 June 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1n2, 90–​91n23, 96–​97n58, 98–​99n72,
102n93, 103n102, 106–​7n123,111n147, 111n148, 115–​16n174, 119n187,
119–​20, 121, 122n202, 123n208, 163n8, 166, 166–​67n27, 167n21, 168–​69n42,
170–​71n57, 173n69, 175n84, 176–​77n90, 176–​77n97, 180–​81, 182n122, 188,
191–​92, 192–​93n179, 194, 198–​99n23, 210n81, 216n114, 222–​23n140, 236n12, 238
xx Table of Cases

Autopista Concesionada de Venezuela v Venezuela ICSID Case no ARB/​00/​5,

Award, 23 September 2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–​57n155, 198–​99n20
Azurix Corp v the Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​01/​12, Award,
14 July 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n27, 94n47, 101–​2n89, 126–​27n224
Bayindir Insaat Turizm Ticaret Ve Sanayi AS v Islamic Republic of Pakistan ICSID
Case no ARB/​03/​29, Award, 27 August 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–​31n249, 131–​32n256
Bear Creek Mining Corp v Peru ICSID Case no ARB/​14/​21, Award,
30 November 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–​2n89, 147n92, 148n98, 183–​84n133
Bernardus Funnekotter and Others v Republic of Zimbabwe ICSID Case no ARB/​05/​
6, Award, 22 April 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n124, 108n132
Bernhard von Pezold and Others v Zimbabwe ICSID Case no ARB/​10/​15, Award,
28 July 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n17, 102n93, 106–​7n124, 183–​84n132
Biwater Gauff Ltd v United Republic of Tanzania ICSID Case no ARB/​05/​22, Award,
24 July 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n27, 96n54, 98–​99n69, 99, 122–​23n207, 130–​31n249
Burlington Resources Inc v Ecuador ICSID Case no ARB/​08/​5, Decision on Liability,
14 December 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–​2n89
Cargill v Mexico ICSID Case no ARB(AF)/​05/​2, Award, 18 September 2009. . . . 159–​60n173
CMS Gas Transmission Company v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​01/​8,
Award, 12 May 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 110, 110n144, 137n24, 137n25,
137n26, 138n30, 147n92, 150n109, 150–​51n112, 151–​52n118, 151–​52n119,
151–​52n121, 152n123, 152–​53n125, 152–​53n127, 210n80, 230n5
CMS, Decision on Annulment, 25 September 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . 137n24, 147n91, 149n107,
152–​53n126
Compañía de Aguas del Aconquija SA and Vivendi Universal SA v Argentine Republic
ICSID Case no ARB/​97/​3, Award, 20 August 2007. . . . . . 91–​92n27, 94n47, 125–​26n216
Compañia del Desarrollo de Santa Elena, SA v Costa Rica ICSID Case no ARB/​96/​1,
Final Award, 17 February 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n216
Consortium RFCC v Morocco v Kingdom of Morocco ICSID Case no ARB/​00/​6,
Award, 22 December 2003 . . . . . . . . 106–​7n126, 107–​8n131, 110–​11n146, 110–​11n150
Continental Casualty Company v The Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​9A,
Award, 5 September 2008 . . . . . . . . . 137n24, 137n26, 140n44, 140–​41n47, 144–​45n76,
145–​46n85, 147n91, 148n100, 151–​52n119, 152–​53n126
Corn Products Int’l Inc v Mexico ICSID AF Case no ARB/​(AF)/​04/​1, Decision on
Responsibility, 15 January 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–​60n173
David Minnotte and Robert Lewis v Republic of Poland ICSID Case no
ARB(AF)/​10/​1, Award, 16 May 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Duke Energy Electroquil Partners v Republic of Ecuador ICSID Case no ARB/​04/​19,
Award, 18 August 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–​31n249, 131n251
EDF International SA and Others v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​23,
Award, 11 June 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 150n109, 151–​52n119
El Paso Energy v Argentina ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​15, Award,
31 October 2011 . . . . . . 102n93, 103–​4n103, 106–​7n125, 111n151, 122–​23n206, 152n123
Enron Corp v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​01/​3, Award,
22 May 2007,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41, 106–​7n125, 111n151, 137n24, 137n25, 139n35,
143n67, 147n92, 150–​51n112, 151–​52n118, 151–​52n119,
151–​52n120, 151–​52n121, 152n123
Gustav F W Hamester GmbH & Co KG v Ghana ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​24,
Award, 18 June 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Hussain Sajwani and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​11/​16 . . . . . . 3–​4n6
Iberdola Energia v Guatemala ICSID Case no ARB/​09/​5, Award,
17 August 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n127
 Table of Cases xxi

Impregilo SpA v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​17, Award,

21 June 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 111n151
Inceysa Vallisoletana v Republic of El Salvador ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​26, Award,
2 August 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Joseph Houben v Republic of Burundi ICSID Case no ARB/​13/​17, Award,
20 May 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n17, 102n93, 105n110
LESI SpA and ASTALDI SpA v People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria ICSID Case no
ARB/​05/​3, Award, 12 November 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n22, 104n107, 106–​7n123,
111n147, 121–​22n198, 191n171
LG&E Energy Corp v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​02/​1, Decision on
Liability, 3 October 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 137n24, 138n30, 143n67,
144n73, 147n92, 150n109, 151–​52n116, 151–​52n118, 151–​52n119
Liman Caspian Oil BV and NCL Dutch Investment BV v Republic of Kazakhstan
ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​14, Award, 22 June 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Maffezini v The Kingdom of Spain ICSID Case no ARB/​97/​7, Award,
13 November 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129n244
Marvin Feldman v Mexico ICSID Case no ARB(AF)/​99/​1, Award,
16 December 2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n76, 125–​26n220
Metal-​-​Tech v Uzbekistan ICSID Case no ARB/​10/​3, Award, 4 October 2014 . . . . . 182–​83n128
Metalclad Corp v Mexico ICSID Case no ARB(AF)/​97/​1, Award,
30 August 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n216
Metalpar SA and Buen Aire SA v Argentine Republic ICISD Case no ARB/​03/​5,
Award, 6 June 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128–​29n23
MTD Equity Sdn Bhd and MTD Chile SA v Republic of Chile ICSID Case no
ARB/​01/​7, Award, 25 May 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129n244
MTD Equity v Republic of Chile ICSID Case no ARB/​01/​7, Decision on
Annulment, 21 March 2007,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n131
Niko Resources Ltd v Republic of Bangladesh and Others ICSID Case no ARB/​10/​18,
Decision on Jurisdiction, 19 August 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Noble Ventures Inc v Romania ICSID Case no ARB/​01/​11, Award,
12 October 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n19
Pantechniki SA Contractors & Engineers v The Republic of Albania ICSID
Case no ARB/​07/​21, Award, 30 July 2009. . . . . . . . 90–​91n21, 103–​4n105, 130–​31n249,
131n251, 155–​56n151, 191n171
Parkerings-​-​Compagniet AS v Republic of Lithuania ICSID Case no ARB/​05/​8,
Award, 11 September 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52, 96n54, 122–​23n207,
130–​31n249, 131–​32n256
Patrick Mitchell v Democratic Republic of Congo ICSID Case no ARB/​99/​7,
Award, 9 February 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n216, 126–​27n226, 127n229–​231,
127–​28n234, 128–​29n238, 182n122, 198–​99n23, 211n83
Patrick Mitchell v Democratic Republic of Congo ICSID Case no ARB/​99/​7,
Annulment Decision, 1 November 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n214, 127n229–​230,
145–​46n82, 145–​46n84, 147n92, 148n101, 152–​53n125, 211n84
Philip Morris et al v Uruguay ICSID Case no ARB/​10/​7, Award, 8 July 2016. . . . . 99–​100n76,
99–​100n79, 101–​2n89, 102n92, 125–​26n220
Phoenix Action, Ltd v Czech Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​06/​5, Award,
15 April 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Plama Consortium Ltd v Republic of Bulgaria ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​24,
Decision on Jurisdiction, 8 February 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63n39, 160n174
PSEG Global v Turkey ICSID Case no ARB/​02/​5, Award,
19 January 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n31, 93–​94n42
xxii Table of Cases

Quiborax SA and Non Metallic Minerals v Bolivia ICSID Case no ARB/​06/​2, Award,
16 September 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n76, 125–​26n220
Renée Rose Levy de Levi v Peru ICSID Case no ARB/​10/​17, Award,
26 February 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n76, 125–​26n220
RSM Production Corp v Central African Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​02,
Decision on Jurisdiction and Liability, 7 December 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–​57n155
Rumeli Telekom v Kazakhstan ICSID Case no ARB/​05/​16, Award, 29 July 2008. . . . . 91–​92n26
Rusoro Mining Ltd v Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ICSID Case no ARB(AF)/​12/​5,
Award, 22 August 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n31
SAUR International SA v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​04/​4, Decision on
Jurisdiction and Liability, 6 June 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174
Sempra Energy International v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​02/​16,
Award, 28 September 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 130–​31n249, 137n24, 137n25,
137n26, 138n30, 139n35, 143n67, 147n92, 151–​52n118,
151–​52n119, 151–​52n121, 152n123, 154–​55n136, 230n5
SGS v Paraguay ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​29, Decision on Jurisdiction,
12 February 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n128
Siag and Vecchi v Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​05/​15, Award, 11 May 2009. . . . . . . . . . . 209n75
Siemens AG v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​02/​8, Award,
17 January 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94n45
Southern Pacific Properties Ltd v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​84/​3,
Award, 20 May 1992. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n216
Suez v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​03/​17, Decision on Liability,
30 July 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n26, 91–​92n30, 93–​94n42, 106–​7n125, 163–​64n9
Tecnicas Medioambientales Tecmed SA v The United Mexican States ICSID Case no
ARB(AF)/​00/​2, Award, 29 May 2003. . . . . . . 90–​91n18, 99–​100n76, 101–​2n89, 102n93,
103n99, 125–​26n220, 126–​27n224, 130–​31n249, 130–​31n250, 191n170
The Loewen Group, Inc and Raymond Loewen v United States of America ICSID Case
no ARB(AF)/​98/​3, Award, 26 June 2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165n17
The Rompetrol Group BV v Romania ICSID Case no ARB/​06/​3, Award,
6 May 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n127
Total SA v Argentine Republic ICSID Case no ARB/​04/​1, Decision on Liability,
27 December 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 111n151
Toto Costruzioni Generali SpA v Lebanon ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​12, Award,
7 June 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131–​32n254
Tulip Real Estate and Development Netherlands BV v Republic of Turkey ICSID Case
no ARB/​11/​28. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n134
Urbaser v Argentina ICSID Case no ARB/​07/​26, Award, 8 December 2016. . . . 183–​84n133,
183–​84n134
Utsch and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​13/​37. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n6
Vivendi v Argentina ICSID Case no ARB/​97/​3, Decision on Annulment,
3 July 2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n128
Waste Management Inc v United Mexican States ICSID Case no ARB(AF)/​00/​3,
Award, 30 April 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129n244
Wena Hotels Ltd v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​98/​4, Award,
8 December 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n16, 95–​96n52, 102n93, 126–​27n225
World Duty Free Company Ltd v Republic of Kenya ICSID Case no ARB/​00/​7,
Award, 4 October 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n174

International Chamber Of Commerce (ICC)

Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation Ltd v the Republic of Yemen and the Yemen
Ministry of Oil and Minerals ICC Arbitration no 19299/​MCP, Award,
10 July 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–​57n155
 Table of Cases xxiii

National Oil Corporation v Sun Oil ICC Case no 4462/​1985 and 1987, XVI Yearbook
Commercial Arbitration 54–​78 (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–​57n155

Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)

Achmea BV v Slovakia UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2008-​13, Final Award, 7
December 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n227
Active Partners Group Ltd v The Republic of South Sudan PCA Case no 2013/​4,
Award, 27 January 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210n79
Aeroport Belbek LLC and Kolomoisky v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case
no 2015-​07. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
Copper Mesa Mining v Republic of Ecuador PCA Case no 2012-​2, Award,
15 March 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n18, 91–​92n31, 160–​61n180, 198–​99n22
Devas et al v India PCA Case no 2013-​09, Award on Jurisdiction and Merits,
25 July 2016. . . . . . . . . . 143n67, 144–​45n75, 144–​45n76, 145n78, 147n91, 152–​53n126
Everest Estate LLC et al v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​36,
Award, 2 May 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
JSC CB PrivatBank and Finilon LLC v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA
Case no 2015-​21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
Les Laboratoires Servier, SAS Biofarma, SAS, Arts et Techniques du Progrès
SAS v Poland PCA, UNCITRAL, Final Award, 14 February 2012. . . . . . . . . 125–​26n220
Lugzor and Others v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​29 . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
NJSC Naftogaz of Ukraine et al v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no
2017-​16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
Peter Allard v Barbados PCA Case no 2012-​06, Award, 27 June 2016 . . . . 91–​92n31, 102n93
PJSC Ukrnafta v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​34. . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n8
Stabil LLC and Others v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​35. . . . . . . 3–​4n8
Yukos Universal Ltd v The Russian Federation UNCITRAL, Final Award,
18 July 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160n175, 160n176

UNCITRAL
AWG Group Ltd v Argentine Republic UNCITRAL, Decision on Liability,
30 July 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 151–​52n119
BG Group plc v Republic of Argentina UNCITRAL, Final Award,
24 December 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n26, 93n41, 106–​7n125, 111n151, 230n5
Chemtura Corp v Canada UNCITRAL, Award, 2 August 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n76,
125–​26n217, 125–​26n220
CME Czech Republic BV v Czech Republic UNCITRAL, Partial Award,
13 September 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n27, 103–​4n103, 214n106
Frontier Petroleum Services v Czech Republic UNCITRAL, Award,
12 November 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–​96n52, 96n54, 102n93, 122–​23n207
Lauder v Czech Republic UNCITRAL, Final Award, 3 September 2001. . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n27,
99–​100n76, 102n93, 103–​4n103, 125–​26n220
Methanex Corp v United States of America UNCITRAL, Award, 3 August 2005,
Part IV, Chapter D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n217
National Grid plc v Argentine Republic UNCITRAL, Award,
3 November 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–​7n125, 130–​31n249
Oxus Gold v Uzbekistan UNCITRAL, Award, 17 December 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n26
Petroleum v Czech Republic UNCITRAL, Final Award, 12 November 2010. . . . . 130–​31n250
Saluka Invs BV v Czech Republic UNCITRAL, Partial Award,
17 March 2006. . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n26, 93n41, 93–​94n42, 93–​94n43, 94n48, 98–​99n68,
99, 99–​100n76, 99–​100n79, 102n92, 102n93, 125–​26n217, 125–​26n220
SD Myers v Canada UNCITRAL Arbitration, First Partial Award,
13 November 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–​27n224
xxiv Table of Cases

Tatneft v Ukraine UNCITRAL, Award, 29 July 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–​91n17, 91–​92n31

Ulysseas v Ecuador UNCITRAL, Final Award, 12 June 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–​23n206
Yosef Maiman and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt, UNCITRAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–​4n6

Other Mixed Arbitration

Eastern Sugar v Czech Republic SCC Case no 088/​2004, Partial Award,
27 March 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93–​94n42, 93–​94n44, 122–​23n206
Occidental Exploration and Production Company v Ecuador (I) LCIA Case no UN3 4
67, Final Award, 1 July 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230n5

United States Military Tribunal at Nuremberg

Hostage case (US v List et al) (American Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 1948)
11 NMT 1253, 1295–​96. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42–​43n154, 128–​29n240

DOMESTIC COURTS

Canada
In re Francis v The Queen 1955 ILR 591, 603, 4 DLR 760 (1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n64

Israel
The Public Committee against Torture in Israel et al v The Government
of Israel et al Supreme Court of Israel (Judgment, 11 December 2006)
(Targeted Killing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174–​75n77, 178n103, 178n106, 188–​89n159

Italy
Lanificio Branditex v Soceita Azais e Vidal (1971) Court of Cassation, Joint Session,
No 3147, reported in 1 Italian Ybk of Intl L (1975) 232. . . . . . . . 73–​74n103, 76–​77n118

Netherlands
Contra Prince Salm-​Salm v The State of the Netherlands and the Nederlands
Beheers-​Instituut District Court of The Hague, 28 June 1954. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n169
Utermöhlen, Re (1948) AD 1949, No 129. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71–​72n88, 76–​77n119

United Kingdom
Adams v Naylor [1946] 2 All ER 241, [1946] AC 543. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–​18n183
Masinimport v Scottish Mechanical Light Industries Ltd, 30 January 1976,
ILR, vol 74, 559. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69–​70n76
Sutton v Sutton, Court of Chancery, 29 July 1830, BILC, vol 4, 367–​68. . . . . . . . . . . 65–​66n56

United States of America

Arakawa v Clark (1947) 79 F Supp 468. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68n70, 69
Brown v Maryland, 25 U.S. (12 Wheat) 419, 442–​43 (1827) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n74
Brownell v San Francisco, 271 F.2d 974 (1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59–​60n23
Clark v Allen, 331 US 503 (1947) 513. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59–​60n23, 66n60
Doe I v Unocal Corp, 395 F.3d 932 (9th Cir. 2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198–​99n24
Jaragua Iron Co v US, 212 US 297. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37n114
Johnson v United States, 170 F.2d (9th Cir, 1948) 767, 770. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–​18n184
Karnuth v US (1929) 279 US 231. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n62, 67–​68
Meier v Schmidt (1948) 150 Neb 383, 34 N.W.2d 400. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70–​71n82, 71–​72
 Table of Cases xxv

Skeels v US, 72 F Supp (W D La, 1947) 372 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–​18n184

Society for Propagation of the Gospel v Town of New Haven (1823)
21 US 8, 464. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65–​66n55
Techt v Hughes, 229 NY 222 (1920). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58n9, 62, 62n38, 66n57
US v Marks, 187 F.2nd (9th Cir, 1951) 724. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–​18n184
 Table of Instruments and Legislation

INTERNATIONAL Protocol to the Convention for the

INSTRUMENTS Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms
Treaties (adopted 20 March 1952,
African (Banjul) Charter on Human entered into force 18 May 1954)
and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 213 UNTS 262
27 June 1981, entered into force Art 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51n222, 53
21 October 1986) (1982) Convention on the Recognition and
21 ILM 58 . . . . . . . . . 49–​50, 49–​50n214 Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Art 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51n222 Awards of 1958 (adopted on 10
Art 27(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n225 June 1958, entered into force on
Agreement between India and USSR 7 June 1959) 330 UNTS 3 (New
(28 September 1959) York Convention). . . . . . . . . . . . . 70n77
Art 9 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63n42 Convention on the Settlement of
Agreement between Eritrea and Investment Disputes between
Ethiopia (12 December 2000) States and Nationals of Other
2138 UNTS 94. . . . . . . . . . . 219–​20n127 States (ICSID Convention)
American Convention on Human (adopted on 18 March 1965,
Rights (adopted 22 November entered into force on 14 October
1969, entered into force 18 July 1966) 575 UNTS 159. . . . . . . 70, 70n78
1978) 1144 UNTS 123. . . . . . . . . 49–​50, Art 42. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n131
49–​50n213 Convention Relative to the Rights
Art 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51n222 of Aliens Signed at the Second
Art 27(1). . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n225, 52n227 International Conference
Association Agreement between the of American States (Mexico
EU and Egypt (2001). . . . . . . . . 138–​39 City, 1902) in Yearbook of the
Art 83. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n34 International Law Commission,
Association Agreement between the 1956, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​
EU and Tunisia (1995) SER.A/​1956/​Add.1. . . . . . . . . 24–​25n37
Art 87. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n34 Cooperation Agreement between the
Convention for the Protection of European Economic Community
Human Rights and Fundamental and the Socialist Federal Republic
Freedoms (adopted 4 November of Yugoslavia (signed on 2 April
1950, entered into force 1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–​82, 84
3 September 1953) 213 Preamble. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–​82n146
UNTS 222. . . . . . 49–​50, 49–​50n212, 51 Art 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–​82n146
Art 2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53–​54n237 Declaration Renouncing the Use,
Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188–​89 in Time of War, of Explosive
Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52n228 Projectiles Under 400 Grammes
Art 8 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Weight, Saint Petersburg (entered
Art 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52n229, 53n232 into force 11 December
Art 15(1). . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n225, 52n227 1868) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35n105, 41n144

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
xxviii Table of Instruments and Legislation

Economic Cooperation Agreement 1977, entered into force

between India and Singapore 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS
(2005) 3 (AP I) . . . . . . . . . . 38–​39, 38–​39n129,
Article 6.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138, 138n29 39n133, 39n134, 41–​42, 46n181,
Geneva Conventions 1949 (Generally). . 57 47–​48, 47–​48n190, 158n166,
Common Art 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–​47, 170n54, 170–​71, 170–​71n55,
46–​47n183, 48–​49n201 173n74, 178–​79, 178–​79n110
Common Art 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–​8n17 Art 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–​44n160
Common Art 3. . . . . . . . . 7–​8n17, 38–​39, Art 44(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17n177
47, 48–​49 Art 48. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–​44
Geneva Convention (I) for the Art 49. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17
Amelioration of the Condition of Art 49(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17n178
the Wounded and Sick in Armed Art 51. . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–​44, 116–​17n181,
Forces in the Field (signed 22 176–​77n95, 188n154
August 1864, entered into force Art 51(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17n179
22 June 1865). . . . . . . . . . . . . 35n105, 39, Art 51(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188n155
41–​42, 47–​48, 97–​98n61, Art 51(5)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45n170
113–​14, 134–​35, 178–​79 Art 51(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n164
Geneva Convention (II) for the Art 51(7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–​77n93
Amelioration of the Condition of Art 51(8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–​77n94
Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Art 52. . . . . . . . . 43–​44, 44n162, 188n154
Members of Armed Forces at Sea Art 52(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n164
(signed 12 August 1949, entered Art 52(2). . . . . . 44n161, 44n163, 171n61
into force 21 October 1950) 75 Art 52(2)(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173n70
UNTS 85. . . . . . . . . . 39, 41–​42, 47–​48, Art 52(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170–​71n56
97–​98n61, 113–​14, Art 53. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42–​43n150
134–​35, 178–​79 Art 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 45–​46n172, 46,
Geneva Convention (III) relative to 48–​49n197, 97–​98n61, 166n25,
the Treatment of Prisoners of War 172–​73n67, 173, 180–​81n118
(signed 12 August 1949, entered Art 57(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17n179,
into force 21 October 1950) 75 116–​17n180, 170
UNTS 135. . . . . . . . . 39, 41–​42, 47–​48, Art 57(1)(a)(iii) . . . . 174–​75, 174–​75n79
113–​14, 134–​35, 178–​79 Art 57(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–​17n181
Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to Art 57(2)(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45n170
the Protection of Civilian Art 57(2)(a)(i). . . . . . . . . . 46n177, 170n51
Persons in Time of War (signed Art 57(2)(a)(ii). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171n58
12 August 1949 entered into Art 57(2)(c). . . . . . . . 171–​72, 171–​72n63
force 21 October 1950) 75 Art 58. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45–​46, 45–​46n172,
UNTS 287. . . . . . . . . . . 7–​8n17, 38–​39, 48–​49n197, 166n25, 170n50,
38–​39n129, 41–​42, 47–​48, 113–​14, 172–​73n66, 180–​81n118
134–​35, 134–​35n8, 178–​79 Art 58(a), (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45–​46n173
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva
Art 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–​41, 158n164 Conventions of 12 August 1949,
Art 35–​46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–​41 and relating to the Protection of
Art 53. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–​41, 41–​42n146 Victims of Non-​International
Art 147. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41–​42n146 Armed Conflicts (signed 12
Protocol (I) Additional to the Geneva December 1977, entered into
Conventions of 12 August 1949, force 7 December 1978) 1125
and relating to the Protection of UNTS 609 (AP II). . . . . . . . . . . . . 38–​39,
Victims of International Armed 38–​39n129, 41–​42, 47,
Conflicts (signed 12 December 47–​48n190, 48–​49, 114–​15
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxix

Art 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–​8n17 Treaty between Great Britain and

Art 1(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38–​39n131 Tunis (5 October 1662). . . . . . 58–​59n3
Art 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47n185 Treaty of Amity and Commerce
Art 14, 15. . . . . . . . . . 47n186, 55–​56n257 between the United States and
Hague Convention IV Respecting the France (6 February 1778)
Laws and Customs of War on Art 22. . . . . . . . . . . . 37n122, 112–​13n159
Land (signed 18 October 1907, Treaty of Amity and Commerce,
entered into force 26 January US–​Prussia (1785)
1910) 187 Consol T S 227 Art XVIII. . . . . . . . . . . 18–​19n2, 89–​90n4
(Hague Regulations) . . . . . 35–​36n107, Treaty of Amity, US–​Prussia (1799)
38–​39, 47–​48, 113–​14 Art XXIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–​13n159
Art 23(g) . . . . . . . 41–​42, 41–​42n147, 165 Treaty of Amity and Friendship, and
Art 46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 of a Free Intercourse of Trade and
Art 52, 53. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 165–​66n23 Merchandizes between Henry
Havana Charter for an International VII King of England, and Philip
Trade Organization (adopted on Archduke of Austria, Duke of
24 March 1948, not in force) UN Burgundy (1495) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34n98
Doc E/​Conf.2/​78 . . . . . . . . . . . . 134–​36 Treaty of Amity, Commerce and
Art 99. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134–​35n10 Navigation, US–​Great Britain
International Covenant on Civil and (1794)
Political Rights (adopted 16 Art II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18–​19n2, 89–​90n4
December 1966, entered into Art XIV. . . . . . . . . . . . 18–​19n2, 89–​90n4
force 23 March 1976) 999 Treaty of Amity, Commerce and
UNTS 171. . . . . . 49–​50, 49–​50n210, 51 Navigation, US–​Mexico (1931)
Art 1(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207–​8 Art III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n5
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n225, 52n227 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
Art 6(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185–​86n140 between the US and Austria–​
International Covenant on Economic, Hungary (1848) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Social and Cultural Rights Treaty of Commerce and Navigation,
(adopted 16 December 1966, US–​Japan (1894)
entered into force 3 January 1976) Art 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 89–​90n5
993 UNTS 3. . . . . 49–​50, 49–​50n211, 51 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
Paris Reparation Agreement Navigation, Colombia–​US (1824)
(15 March 1946) 555 UNTS 69 Art 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–​13n158
Part I Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
Art 6(A). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n168 Navigation, Italy–​Venezuela
Protocol of the Proceedings of the (1903). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n6
Potsdam Conference (1 August 1945) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
para 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200n30 Navigation, Mexico–​United
Rome Statute of the International Kingdom (1826)
Criminal Court (adopted Art XII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–​13n158
17 July1998, entered into force Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and
1 July 2002) 2187 UNTS 90 Navigation, US–​Argentine (1853)
Art 8 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–​8n18 Art II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n5
San Francisco Treaty between the Art VIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n5
Allied Powers and Japan Treaty of Neuilly (27 November 1919)
(8 September 1951) 136 s IV. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n39
UNTS 45 Treaty of Peace and Commerce
Art 14(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220n129 between Francis I King of France,
Statute of the International Court of and Henry VIII King of England
Justice (26 June 1945) 33 UNTS 993 (5 April 1515)
Art 38(b), (c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189–​90n162 Art V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34n98
xxx Table of Instruments and Legislation

Treaty of Peace between France and Art 17(1), (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51n221

Great Britain (13 November 1655) US–​Greece Treaty of Friendship,
Art I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n3 Commerce and Navigation (1948)
Treaty of Peace and Friendship Art XXIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134n5
between Great Britain and Spain US–​Iran Treaty of Amity, Economic
(13 May 1667) Relations and Consular Rights
Art XXXVI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37n122 (1955)
Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Art XX(1)(d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–​36n13
Associated Powers and Germany US–​Italy Treaty of Friendship,
(28 June 1919) 225 Consol TS, Commerce and Navigation (1948)
1888 (Treaty of Versailles). . . . . 38n127, Art XXIV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134n5
114, 202–​3 US–​Nicaragua Treaty of Friendship,
Art 297. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n39 Commerce and Navigation
Art 297(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n167 (1956)
Art 297(e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n167 Art XXI(1)(d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–​36n13
Art 298. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n39 Vienna Convention on the Law of
Art 304, 305. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n38 Treaties (signed on 23 May 1969,
Treaty of Peace between the Kingdom entered into force 27 January
of France and the United 1980) 1155 UNTS 331. . . . . . 13, 13n31,
Provinces of the Netherlands 15, 57–​58, 71–​72, 73–​74n99, 74,
(19 August 1678) 79–​80, 83, 86, 92–​93, 141n49,
Art XV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37n122 230, 231–​32
Treaty of Peace with Bulgaria (1947) Art 26. . . . . . . . . . 72, 143–​44, 143–​44n68
Art 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38n127 Art 31. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 92–​93n34
Treaty of Peace with Italy (1947) Art 31(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n40
Art 79. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38n127 Art 31(3)(c). . . . . . . 183–​84, 185–​86n141,
Treaty of St Germain-​en-​Laye 189–​90, 192, 192n173,
(10 September 1919) 192–​93n174, 192–​93n180
s IV. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n39 Art 32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–​93n34
Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) Art 44(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–​79
s IV. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–​3n39 Art 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–​79
United Nations Charter for the Art 54. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Maintenance of International Art 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Peace or Security (UN Charter) Art 58. . . . . . 75n108, 75–​76n111, 77n123
(signed 26 June 1945, entered into Art 59. . . . . . . . . . . . . 79n133, 79–​80n136
force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS Art 61. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 73–​74, 75n105,
xvi. . . . . 49–​50, 52, 140–​43, 142–​43n59 75n107, 75n108, 75–​76, 75–​76n111,
Art 1(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49–​50n208 75–​76n112, 75–​76n114, 76n117,
Art 2(4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58–​59, 94–​95n50, 77n123, 78, 78–​79n128, 80,
157–​58n159 83–​84, 154–​55
Art 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 141–​42n53 Art 61(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 78–​79
Art 41. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141–​42n53 Art 61(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75n106
Art 55(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49–​50n208 Art 62. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 73–​74, 79n131,
Art 103. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 141n49 79n133, 79–​80n136, 80, 80n139,
United Nations Convention on the 80–​81, 82, 82n150
Law of the Sea (10 December Art 62(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1982) 1833 UNTS 397 Art 62(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–​76n113
Art 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155–​56n149 Art 65. . . . . . . . . . . 58n10, 64n47, 84n160,
Universal Declaration of Human 84–​85, 86n172
Rights (adopted 10 December Art 65(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1948) 217 A (III). . . . . . . 49–​50n209, 50 Art 66, 67. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Art 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 51n220 Art 69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 73n97
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxxi

Art 73. . . . . . . . . . . . 73n95, 73n97, 73–​74, Art 8.10(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41

73–​74n99, 73–​74n104 Canada–​Peru BIT (2006)
WTO General Agreement on Trade in Annex B.13(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129n243
Services (15 April 1994). . . . . 139–​40n42, Canada–​Republic of Guinea BIT (2015)
164n11 Art 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Art XIV(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139–​40n42 China–​Germany BIT (2003)
Protocol 4(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87
International Investment Treaties China–​Syria BIT (1996)
and Free Trade Agreements Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n15
Colombia–​Japan BIT (2011)
Albania–​Netherlands BIT (1995) Art 15(1)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139–​40n41
Art 3(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n28 Colombia–​Switzerland BIT (2006)
Algeria–​Italy BIT (1991) Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139–​40n41
Art 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . 121–​22, 121–​22n200 COMESA Common Investment Area
Argentina–​Mexico BIT Agreement (2007)
(1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–​10n142 Art 20(08). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n78
Argentina–​US BIT (1991) Croatia–​Libya BIT (2002)
Art XI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–​52n116 Art 2(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n29
Armenia–​Austria BIT (2001) Croatia–​Ukraine BIT (1998)
Art 6(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114n171, 115n172 Art 6(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–​10n76
Armenia–​Italy BIT (2003) Energy Charter Treaty (1994). . . . . . . . . 113
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n146 Art 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n12
ASEAN–​Hong Kong, China SAR Art 12(2). . . . . . . . . 115n172, 146–​47n89
Investment Agreement (2017) Art 24(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n88
Art 5 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41 Art 24(3). . . . . . . . 63–​64n44, 138–​39n31
Australia–​Egypt BIT (2001) Ethiopia–​Sweden BIT (2004)
Art 3(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98n67 Art 2(4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98n67
Australia–​India BIT (1999) Finland–​Ukraine BIT (2004)
Art 5 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n66 Art 6(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215n112
Australia–​Korea BIT (2014) France–​Mexico BIT (1998)
Art 11.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115n172 Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n65
Austria–​Libya BIT (2002) Free Trade Agreement between the
Art 5(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215n112 EFTA States and Egypt (2007)
Austria–​Yemen BIT (2003) Art 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n34
Art 11(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n31 Germany–​Mali BIT (1977)
Bangladesh–​Italy BIT (1994)
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 90n11
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n146 Germany–​Mexico BIT (1998)
Benin–​Germany BIT (1978) Art 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–​22n139
Protocol 2(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87 Germany–​Pakistan BIT (1959)
BLEU–​Botswana BIT (2006) Art 3(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–​10n140
Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87 Germany–​Papua New Guinea BIT
BLEU–​Ethiopia BIT (2006) (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87 Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63n41
BLEU–​Sudan BIT (2005) Germany–​Syria BIT (1980)
Art 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87 Art 4(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n145
Bolivia–​Republic of Korea BIT (1996) Germany–​Zimbabwe BIT (1995)
Art 2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n65 Art 8(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n125
Canada–​Benin BIT (2013) Art 10(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n130
Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–​25n212 Greece–​Syria BIT (2003)
Canada–​EU Comprehensive Art 6(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n145
Economic and Trade Hungary–​India BIT (2003)
Agreement (2016) Art 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145n78
xxxii Table of Instruments and Legislation
Hungary–​Russia BIT (2005)
Art 2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138n29
Iceland–​Mexico BIT (2005)
Art 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–​22n139
Indonesia–​Algeria BIT (2000)
Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n14
Indonesia–​Yemen BIT (1998)
Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n14
Israel–​Japan BIT (2017). . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Art 15(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n33
Israel–​Ukraine BIT (1994)
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215n111
Japan–​Korea BIT (2002)
Art 8 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n66
Art 8(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67–​68n67
Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106n121
Art 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . 139–​40n41, 140n43
Art 16(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n31
Art 16(1)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n48
Japan–​Turkey BIT (1992)
Art 5 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n12
Japan–​Vietnam BIT (2003)
Art 15(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139–​40n41
Art 15(1)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n48
Libya–​Portugal BIT (2003). . . . . . . . . 107–​8
Art 7 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n127
Macedonia–​Ukraine BIT (1998)
Art 3(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n29
Mauritius–​Singapore BIT (2000)
Art 7(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–​10n78
Mexico–​the Netherlands BIT (1998)
Art 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–​22n139
Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–​22n139
Morocco–​Italy BIT (2000)
Art 4(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n146
Morocco–​Turkey BIT (1997)
Art 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–​47n87
Netherlands–​Vietnam BIT (1995)
Art 3(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–​92n28
Nicaragua–​US BIT (1995)
Art VII(1)(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67n66
Art VII(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67–​68n67
North American Free Trade
Agreement (1994)
Art 1105. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Art 1105(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n129
Pakistan–​Philippines BIT (1999). . . . . 9–​10
Art V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–​10n23, 106n121
Paraguay–​Venezuela BIT (1996)
Art 9(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n125
Art 9(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n130
Peru–​Singapore BIT (2003)
Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145n78
Philippines–​Myanmar BIT (1998)
Art V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106n121
Republic of Korea–​Republics of
Central America FTA (2018)
Art 9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Russia–​Ukraine BIT (1998)
Art 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77n122
Rwanda–​Morocco BIT (2016)
Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Rwanda–​United Arab Emirates BIT (2017)
Art 4(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
Singapore–​Ukraine BIT (2006)
Art 6(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–​10n78
Sweden–​Kazakhstan BIT (2004)
Art 5(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115n172
Switzerland–​Paraguay BIT (1992)
Art 9(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n126
Art 9(6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–​84n130
Switzerland–​Turkey BIT (1988)
Art 8(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n125
Syria–​Italy BIT (2003)
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​11n146
Thailand–​Vietnam BIT (1991)
Art 2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n13
Art 3(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n12
UK–​Argentine Republic BIT (1990)
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215n111
UK–​Bolivia BIT (1988)
Art 4(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113n163
UK–​China BIT (1986)
Art 4(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113n163
UK–​Egypt BIT (1975)
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113n161
UK–​Hong Kong BIT (1998)
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–​10n76
UK–​Jamaica BIT (1987)
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214n107
UK–​Papua New Guinea BIT (1981). . . . 214
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214n107
UK–​Sri Lanka BIT (1980)
Art 2(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Art 4(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111n150, 167
Art 4(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113n163, 167
Art 8 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182–​83n126
UK–​Ukraine BIT (1993)
Art 5(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
US–​Albania BIT (1995). . . . . . . . 142–​43n59
US–​Bangladesh BIT (1989)
Art IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–​9n137
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxxiii

US–​Cameroon BIT (1989) Annex B

Art IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–​9n137 para 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n215
US–​Congo BIT (1990) 2016 India Model BIT
Art X(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–​46n83 Art 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143n65
US–​Croatia BIT (1996) 2018 Draft Netherlands Model BIT
Art XV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138n29 Art 20(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–​22n140
US–​Jamaica BIT (1994). . . . . . . . 100–​1n86, Abs-​Shawcross Draft Convention on
142–​43n59 Investments Abroad (1960) 9 J
US–​Lithuania BIT (1998) . . . . . . 100–​1n86, Public L 116. . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–​10n141
142–​43n59 Art I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n9
US–​Mongolia BIT (1994) . . . . . . . 100–​1n86 Art V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n19
US–​Mozambique BIT (1998) Draft Code of International Law,
Art 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143n65 adopted by the Japanese Branch
US–​Panama BIT (1991) of the International Law
Art V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–​9n137 Association and the Kokusaiho
US–​Peru FTA (2006) Gakkwai (1926) in ILC, Yearbook
Art 22.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143n65 of the International Law
US–​Rwanda BIT (2008) Commission, 1969, Vol II,
Art 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143n65 UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​
US–​Senegal BIT (1983) 1969/​Add.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–​31
Art IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–​9n137 Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–​31n77
Art X(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138n29 Draft Convention on the
US–​Ukraine BIT (1994). . . . . . . . 108–​9, 111 Responsibility of States for
Art 3(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Injuries Caused in their Territory
Art IX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 140n46 to the Person or Property of
Art IX(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142–​43n58 Aliens, prepared by the Deutsche
US–​Uruguay BIT (2005) Gesellschaft für Volkerrecht
Art 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143n65 (1930) in ILC, Yearbook of the
US–​Zaire BIT (1984) International Law Commission,
Art II(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90n15 1969, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​
Art IV(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 SER.A/​1969/​Add.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 30–​31,
32–​33, 32–​33n85
Model and Draft Treaties Art 6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–​31n77
Draft Convention on the International
2004 Canada Model BIT . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8
Responsibility of States for
Art 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n48
Injuries to Aliens, reprinted
Art 12(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n131
(1961) in 55 AJIL 545
Annex B.13(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–​26n215
Art 9 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n19
2008 UK Model BIT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8
Draft on International Responsibility
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n128
of States for Injuries in their
Art 7(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138n28, 139n36
Territory to the Person or
2009 Germany Model BIT
Property of Foreigners,
Art 3(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139n36
Prepared by the Institute of
2010 Austria Model BIT. . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8
International Law (1927)
Art 8(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n130
Art VII. . . . . . . . . . . . 32–​33n85, 109n139
2012 US Model BIT . . . . . . . . . . . 107–​9, 113
Harvard Draft Convention on the
Art 5(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n41
International Responsibility
Art 5(4) . . . . . . . . . . 107–​8n129, 108n134
of States for Injuries to Aliens
Art 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–​25n212
(1961) in ILC, Yearbook of the
Art 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140n46
International Law Commission,
Art 18(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138n27
1969, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​
Art 37(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–​21n132
SER.A/​1969/​Add.1. . . . . . . 101, 214–​15
xxxiv Table of Instruments and Legislation

Art 10(5). . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n75, 101n88 Yearbook of the International Law

Art 10(14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–​15n109 Commission, 1956, Vol II, UN
Art 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n65 Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1956/​Add.1
Art 35. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59n18 (Bases of Discussion) . . . . . . . . . 31n78,
Harvard Draft on the Law of 109n139, 112–​13n160
Responsibility of States for European Commission of Human
Damage Done in their Territory Rights, Travaux Préparatoires
to the Person or Property of to the Convention, Preparatory
Foreigners (1929) in ILC, Work on Article 15 of the
Yearbook of the International European Convention on Human
Law Commission, 1956, Vol II, Rights (22 May 1956). . . . . . . . . 52n227
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1956/​ Statements of Chile in the Official
Add.1. . . . . . . 32n81, 32–​33, 32–​33n85 Records of the General Assembly,
Art 7 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 61st Session, Sixth Committee,
Art 10–​12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n65 19th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​61/​
Art 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–​32 SR.19, para 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64n49
OECD Draft Convention on the Statements of the Greece in Official
Protection of Foreign Property Records of the General Assembly,
(1963) 2 ILM 241 ‘Summary Record of the 24th
Art 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n19 meeting’ 65th Session, 2010, UN
OECD Draft Convention on the Doc A/​C.6/​65/​SR.24, para 40. . . 85n166
Protection of Foreign Property Statements of India in the Official
(1967). . . . . . 89–​90, 97–​98, 142–​43n59 Records of the General Assembly,
Art 1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–​98n60 60th Session, Sixth Committee,
Art 1(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89–​90n9 18th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​60/​
Art 6 .. . . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n19, 141–​42n54 SR.18, para 64. . . . . . . . . . . . . 61–​62n33
OECD, Multilateral Investment Statements of Jordan in the Official
Agreement Draft (1998) Records of the General Assembly,
DAFFE/​MAI(98)7/​REV1, 76, 61st Session, Sixth Committee,
(OECD MAI) . . . . . . . . . . . 138–​39n31, 18th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​61/​
139–​40, 139–​40n40, 141–​42n52, SR.18, para 89. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64n49
142–​43n59 Statements of Malaysia in the Official
Records of the General Assembly,
OTHER DOCUMENTS 61st Session, Sixth Committee,
19th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​61/​
United Nations Resolutions SR.19, para 54. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64n49
UNGA Res 66/​99 (2011). . . . . . . . 60, 60n26 Statements of the Netherlands in Official
UNSC Res 1970 (26 February 2011) Records of the General Assembly,
S/​RES/​1970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n50 ‘Summary Record of the 24th
UNSC Res 1973 (17 March 2011) meeting’ 65th Session, 2010, UN
S/​RES/​1973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n50 Doc A/​C.6/​65/​SR.23, para 43. . . . 85n166
UNSC Res 1803, Annex I, II, II UN Statements of Poland in the Official
Doc S/​RES/​1803 (3 March Records of the General Assembly,
2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141n50 60th Session, Sixth Committee,
19th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​60/​
SR.19, para 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . 61–​62n33
Preparatory Work
Statements of the Republic of Korea
Bases of Discussion Drawn up in 1929 in the Official Records of the
by the Preparatory Committee General Assembly, 60th Session,
of the Conference for the Sixth Committee, 18th meeting,
Codification of International UN Doc A/​C.6/​60/​SR.18,
Law (The Hague, 1930) in ILC, para 36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64n49
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxxv

Statements of the Sri Lanka in Official UNCTAD, World Investment Report

Records of the General Assembly, 2017: Investment and the Digital
‘Summary Record of the 26th Economy (2017) UNCTAD/​
meeting’ 65th Session, 2010, UN WIR/​2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n22
Doc A/​C.6/​65/​SR.26, para 41. . . 85n166
Statements of UK in the Official United Nations International Law
Records of the General Assembly, Commission
60th Session, Sixth Committee,
Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed
20th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​60/​
Conflicts on Treaties (Draft
SR.20, para 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61–​62n33
Articles) in Yearbook of the
Views of Belarus in the Official
International Law Commission,
Records of the General Assembly,
2011, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​
63rd Session, Sixth Committee,
SER.A/​2010/​Add.1
16th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​63/​
(Part 2). . . . . . . . . . . . 10n24, 13, 57–​58,
SR.16 (2008), para 40. . . . . . 73–​74n102
57–​58n5, 59–​60, 62, 64–​65, 70,
Views of Ukraine in the Official
73–​74, 73–​74n99, 73–​74n101,
Records of the General Assembly,
75–​76n114, 83, 83–​84n157,
65th Session, Sixth Committee,
84–​86, 84–​85n162
25th meeting, UN Doc A/​C.6/​65/​
Art 2(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–​61n27
SR.25 (2008), para 30. . . . . . 73–​74n102
Art 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 61n29
Art 4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 63
UNCTAD Reports Art 5, 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
UNCTAD Report, ‘Bilateral Art 7 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 64, 70–​71n80
Investment Treaties 1995–​2006: Art 9 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84–​85n164, 85
Trends in Investment Rule Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62n37
Making’ (2007) UNCTAD/​ITE/​ Art 18. . . . . . . . . 72, 72n91, 72n92, 73–​74
IIA/​2006/​5. . . . . . . . . 67n65, 67–​68n69, Annex . . . . . 61–​62, 61–​62n34, 63–​64n45,
110n143, 209–​10n78 64n48, 65–​66n55, 69–​70n74,
UNCTAD, ‘The Protection of National 69–​70n76, 70n79, 70–​71n80,
Security in IIAs’ (UN 2009) 71–​72n88
Doc UNCTAD/​DIAE/​IA/​2008/​ FV Garcia Amador, ‘Fourth Report
5 (UNCTAD National Security on State Responsibility’ in
Report). . . . . . . . 133–​34n2, 136–​37n20, Yearbook of the International Law
137n23, 138n27, 138n28, 138n30, Commission, 1959, Vol II, UN
143n66, 143–​44n68, 143–​44n69, Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1959/​
144–​45n75, 144–​45n77, 145n78, Add.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n75
152–​53n128 G Fitzmaurice, ‘Second Report on
UNCTAD, Recent Trends in IIAs the Law of Treaties’ in Yearbook
and ISDS (2015). . . . . . . . . . 136–​37n22 of the International Law
UNCTAD, ‘The Role of International Commission, 1957, Vol II,
Investment Agreements in UN Doc A/​CN.4/​107. . . . . 75–​76n112,
Attracting Foreign Direct 75–​76n114, 75–​76n115, 76–​77n121,
Investment to Developing 79n131, 79–​80n136, 79–​80n137,
Countries’ (UN 2009) 80n140, 82–​83n155
UNCTAD/​DIAE/​IA/​2009/​5. . . . 198n16 H Waldock, ‘Second Report on the Law
UNCTAD, ‘World Investment of Treaties’ in ILC, Yearbook of the
Report 2013, Global Value International Law Commission,
Chains: Investment and Trade 1963, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​156/​
for Development’ (UN 2013) Add.1–​3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75n108,
UNCTAD/​WIR/​2013 . . . . . . 206–​7n62 77n123, 78n126, 80n138
xxxvi Table of Instruments and Legislation

H Waldock, ‘Sixth Report on the Law Art 49. . . . . . 158n162, 158n163, 159n167
of Treaties’ in ILC, Yearbook of the Art 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n162, 158n163
International Law Commission, Art 50(1)(c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1966, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​ Art 51–​54. . . . . . . . . . . . 158n162, 158n163
186/​Add.1–​7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93n40 Art 55. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187n151
I Brownlie, ‘First Report on the Effects ILC, ‘Draft Articles on the Law of
of Armed Conflicts on Treaties’ Treaties with Commentaries’ in
ILC 57th Session, 2005, UN Doc Yearbook of the International
A/​CN.4/​552. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64n48 Law Commission, 1966, Vol II,
I Brownlie, ‘Fourth Report on the UN Doc A/​6309/​Rev 1. . . . . . . . . 73n97
Effects of Armed Conflict ILC, ‘Draft Articles on the Law of
on Treaties: Procedure for Treaties between States and
Suspension and Termination’ International Organizations
ILC, 59th Session, 2007, or between International
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​589. . . . . 83–​84n158, Organizations’ in Yearbook of
84–​85n163, 85n165 the International Law
I Brownlie, ‘Third Report on the Commission, 1982, Vol II,
Effects of Armed Conflicts on UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1982/​
Treaties’ ILC 59th Session, Add.1 (Part 2). . . . . . . . . . . . 75–​76n114
2007, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​579/​ ILC, ‘Report of the International Law
Corr.1. . . . . . . . . . 61–​62n32, 61–​62n33, Commission’ ILC 60th Session,
64–​65n51, 64–​65n52 2008, UN Doc A/​63/​10 . . . . 61–​62n32,
ILC, Articles on the Responsibility 73–​74n98
of States for Internationally ILC, ‘Report of the International Law
Wrongful Acts, Yearbook of the Commission’ ILC 62nd Session,
International Law Commission, 2010, Supplement No 10, UN Doc
2001, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​ A/​65/​10. . . . . . . . . . 73–​74n99, 85n168
SER.A/​2001/​Add.1 26 ILC, ‘Report of the International Law
(ARS). . . . . . . 13N30, 32, 32n82, 33n88, Commission on the Work of the
149, 149n104, 149n106, 149n107, Second Part of its Seventeenth
150–​51, 153–​54, 154–​55n145, Session’ 1966, Vol II, UN Doc A/​
157n157, 158, 159n170 6309/​Rev.1 258. . . . . . . . . . . 79–​80n137
Art 4–​6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96n55 ILC Study Group, ‘Fragmentation of
Art 7 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96n55, 122n205 International Law: Difficulties
Art 8, 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96n55 Arising from the Diversification
Art 10. . . . . . . . . . . . 32n82, 33n88, 96n55 and Expansion of International
Art 10(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33n87 Law’ (2006) UN Doc A/​CN.4/​
Art 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96n55 L.682 (ILC Fragmentation
Art 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150n110 Report). . . . . . . . . 162–​63n4, 163–​64n9,
Art 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n162 164n15, 165n18, 182n123,
Art 23. . . . . . . . . . . . 154–​56, 154–​55n139 183–​84n129, 183–​84n134, 185n135,
Art 23(2)(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150n108 185–​86n142, 185–​86n143, 187n150,
Art 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150n110 189–​90n161, 189–​90n163, 190n165,
Art 25. . . . . . . . . . . . 150–​51, 151–​52n117, 192n173, 192n175–​177, 192–​93n180,
151–​52n122 192–​93n181, 218–​19n126
Art 25(2)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150n108 ILC, Yearbook of the International Law
Art 27. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150n109 Commission, 1956, Vol II,
Art 36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200–​1n31 UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1956/​
Art 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160–​61n177 Add.1. . . . . . . . . . 24–​25n37, 28–​29n65,
Art 42. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159n167 32–​33n85, 109n139
Art 48. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxxvii

ILC, Yearbook of the International Session of ILC (2006) UN

Law Commission, 1969, Vol II, Doc A/​CN.5/​565 . . . . . . . . . 40–​41n140
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1969/​ Memorandum by the Secretariat,
Add.1. . . . . . . . . . 28–​29n65, 30–​31n77, ‘The Effect of Armed Conflict
99–​100n75 on Treaties: An Examination
ILC, Yearbook of the International Law of Practice and Doctrine’ 57th
Commission, 1975, Vol I, Summary Session of ILC (2005) UN
of the 27th Session, UN Doc A/​ Doc A/​CN.4/​550 (Secretariat
CN.4/​Ser.A/​1975. . . . . . . . . . 55–​56n254 Memorandum). . . . . . . . . . . . 57–​58n4,
ILC, Yearbook of the International 58–​59n12, 59n16, 59n19,
Law Commission, 1975, Vol II, 59–​60n22, 59–​60n24, 64–​65n51,
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1975/​ 67n63, 70–​71n81, 71n85,
Add.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32–​33n84, 33n86 73–​74n102, 79–​80n134, 79–​80n135,
ILC, Yearbook of the International 84n159, 84–​85n161, 85–​86n171
Law Commission, 1978, Vol II, R Ago, ‘Eighth Report on State
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1978/​ Responsibility’ in ILC, Yearbook
Add.1, 61, 106. . . . . . . . . . . 111–​12n152 of the International Law
J Crawford, ‘First Report on State Commission, 1979, Vol II, UN
Responsibility’ in ILC, Yearbook Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1979.1
of the International Law (Part 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–​55n144,
Commission, 1998, Vol II, 154–​55n145, 157n157
UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1998/​ R Ago, ‘Addendum to the Eighth
Add.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33n87, 33n88 Report on State Responsibility’ in
J Crawford, ‘Second Report on State ILC, Yearbook of the International
Responsibility’ in Yearbook of the Law Commission, 1980, Vol II,
International Law Commission, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​318/​Add.5-​7
1999, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​498/​ (Part 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–​52n118
Add.1–​4. . . . . . . . 77n123, 154–​55n141 R Ago, ‘First Report on State
JG Guerrero in ‘Conclusions of the Responsibility ILC, Yearbook
Report of the Sub-​Committee on of the International Law
State Responsibility, annexed to Commission, 1969, Vol II, UN
Questionnaire No 4 Adopted by Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1969/​
the League of Nations Committee Add.1126. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–​20n12,
of Experts for the Progressive 28–​29n59, 48–​49n199
Codification of International R Ago, ‘Fourth Report on State
Law (1926) in Yearbook of the Responsibility in ILC, Yearbook
International Law Commission, of the International Law
1956, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​ Commission, 1972, Vol II, UN
SER.A/​1956/​Add.1 222–​23, Concl Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​1972/​Add.1,
8 (Guerrero Report). . . . . . . . 23–​24n29, 71, 129. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30n74, 32n82,
30–​31n76 33n86, 33n87, 48–​49n197,
L Caflisch, ‘First Report on the Effects 48–​49n200, 55–​56n254
of Armed Conflicts on Treaties in R Ago, ‘Second Report on State
Yearbook of the International Law Responsibility’ in ILC, Yearbook
Commission, 2010, Vol II, UN of the International Law
Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​2010/​Add.1 Commission, 1970, Vol II, UN
(Part 1). . . . . . . . . . . . 60–​61n28, 61n31, Doc A/​CN.4/​233 . . . . . . . . . . . 149n106
61–​62n32, 64–​65n51, 64–​65n52, Study by the Secretariat, “Force
84–​85n163, 84–​85n164 majeure” and “Fortuitous event”
Memorandum by the Secretariat, as Circumstances Precluding
‘Expulsion of Aliens’ 58th Wrongfulness: Survey of State
xxxviii Table of Instruments and Legislation

Practice, International Judicial Harvard University Humanitarian

Decisions and Doctrine’ in Policy and Conflict Research
Yearbook of the International Law Program, Manual on International
Commission, 1978, Vol II, UN Doc Law Applicable to Air and Missile
A/​CN.4/​315 (Part 1) (Secretariat Warfare, March 2010. . . . . . .171–​72n63
Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–​54n132–​134, Human Rights Committee, General
154–​55n136, 154–​55n138, Comment 29, States of
155–​56n148 Emergency (Article 4) (2001)
UN Doc. CCPR/​C/​21/​Rev.1/​
Institute of International Law Add.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n224
IACHR, ‘Annual Report of the
B Broms, ‘Preliminary Report to
Inter–​American Commission on
the Fifth Commission: The
Human Rights 1996’ (17 March
Effects of Armed Conflict on
1997) OEA/​Ser.L/​V/​II.95,
Treaties’ (1981) 59(1) Institute of
Doc 7, rev. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–​55n251
International Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58n6
Manual on the Law of Non-​
E Brusa, Responsabilité des Etats á
International Armed Conflict,
raison des dommages soufferts
International Institute of
par des étrangers en cas d’émeute
Humanitarian Law (San Remo,
ou de guerre civile (1898) 17
2006) (NIAC Manual). . . . . . . . 44n161,
Annuaire de l’IDI 96, 108–​09. . . . . 21n14
45n169, 170n49
Institute of International Law,
Official Records of the Diplomatic
Deliberations (1982) 59(2)
Conference on the Reaffirmation
Annuaire de l’IDI 217. . . . . . 73–​74n99
and Development of
Institute of International Law, ‘Effects
International Humanitarian Law
of War upon Treaties and
Applicable in Armed Conflicts,
International Conventions: A
Geneva (1974–​1977) Vol 6 (Swiss
Project Adopted by the Institute
Federal Political Department,
of International Law at its Session
Bern, 1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173n70
in Christiania, in August 1912’
Official Records of the Diplomatic
(1913) 7 AJIL 149. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59n17
Conference on the Reaffirmation
Institute of International Law,
and Development of
‘Resolution on The Effects of
International Humanitarian Law
Armed Conflicts on Treaties’
Applicable in Armed Conflicts,
(1986) 61(2) Annuaire de l’IDI
Geneva (1974–​1977) vol 14
200 (1985 Resolution). . . . . 59–​60n25,
(1981). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42–​43n153,
69n73, 73–​74n99
178–​79n109, 178–​79n111
Intervention of Mr McDougal at
Report of the United Nations
11th plenary session of Institute
Fact-​Finding Mission on the
of International Law (1986)
Gaza Conflict, Human Rights
61(2) Annuaire de l’IDI 221 . . . . 69n73
Council, UN Doc. A/​HRC/​12/​48,
P Fauchille, Droits Et Devoirs En
25 September 2009. . . . . . . . 48–​49n199
Cas D’insurrection (1900)
UN Human Rights Committee,
18 Annuaire de l’IDI 234 . . . . 20–​21n13
‘Concluding Observations
on Algeria’ (5 August 1998)
Other CCPR/​C/​79/​ Add.95 . . . . . . 54–​55n251
Concluding Observations of the UN Human Rights Council,
Committee on Economic, ‘Report of the United Nations
Social and Cultural Rights: Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza
Israel (2003) UN Doc. E/​C.12/​1/​ Conflict’ (2009) UN Doc A/​HRC/​
Add.90. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51–​52n224 12/​48, 130 . . . . . . . 170n49, 172–​73n65
 Table of Instruments and Legislation xxxix

NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS Department of the Air Force,

Commander’s Handbook on
United Kingdom the Law of Armed Conflict
Department of the Navy, the (1980) (AFP 110–​34). . . . . 44–​45n166,
Commander’s Handbook 186–​87n148
on the Law of Naval Operations Department of the Navy,
(2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n166 Commander’s Handbook
English Magna Carta of on the Law of Naval Operation
1215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 34, 34n96 (1987). . . . . . . 44–​45n166, 186–​87n148
Ministry of Defence, The Manual of Instructions for the Government of
the Law of Armed Conflict (OUP Armies of the United States in
2005) (UK Manual) . . . . . . 41–​42n145, the Field, prepared by Professor
42–​43n155, 158n166, Francis Lieber, General Orders
171n61, 171–​72n63 No 100 (24 April 1863) (Lieber
National Risk Register of Code). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35n105
Civil Emergencies USAF JAG Department, Air Force
(11 July 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . 108–​9n135 Operations and the Law,
A Guide for Air and Space
United States Forces (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . 42–​43n156
American Law Institute, Restatement
(Second) of the Law of Foreign EU LEGISLATION
Relations of the United States,
Directives
1965. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–​100n75
American Law Institute, Restatement ACP-​CEE 2172/​92 of the Council
(Third) of the Law of Foreign of the European Communities,
Relations of the United States, ‘Community Position on
1986. . . . . . . . . 73–​74n102, 73–​74n104, Investment Protection Principles
99–​100n75 in the African, Caribbean and
Department of Defense, Law Pacific States’ (Brussels,
of War Manual (Office of 3 November 1992) . . . . . . . 125–​26n214
General Counsel 2015) Council Directive (EC) 2004/​83 of 29
(US Manual). . . . . . . . . . . . 42–​43n155, April 2004 on Minimum Standards
44–​45n164, 44–​45n166, 171n61, for the Qualification and Status
171–​72n63, 172–​73n66, 173n73, of Third Country Nationals or
186–​87n148 Stateless Persons as Refugees or
Department of Defense Report to as Persons who Otherwise Need
Congress on the Conduct of the International Protection and the
Persian Gulf War—​Appendix on Content of the Protection Granted
the Role of the Law of War (1992) [2004] OJ L 304/​12
31 ILM 612 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170–​71n56 Art 15(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8n19
 Select List of Abbreviations

ACHPR African Charter on Human and People’s Rights

ACHR American Convention on Human Rights
AJIL American Journal of International Law
AP I First Protocol to the Geneva Conventions
AP II Second Protocol to the Geneva Conventions
ARS Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
ASIL American Society of International Law
BIT Bilateral Investment Treaty
BYIL British Yearbook of International Law
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
EACT Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
EComHR European Commission on Human Rights
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
EECC Eritrea–​Ethiopia Claims Commission
EFTA European Free Trade Association
EHRR European Human Rights Report
EJIL European Journal of International Law
EU European Union
FCC Fundamental Change of Circumstances
FCN Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FET Fair and Equitable Treatment
FPS Full Protection and Security
FTA Free Trade Agreement
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HILJ Harvard International Law Journal
IACtHR Inter-​American Court of Human Rights
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICLQ International & Comparative Law Quarterly
ICLR International Community Law Review
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICSID International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
IHL International Humanitarian Law
ILA International Law Association

The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
xlii Select List of Abbreviations

ILC International Law Commission

IRRC International Review of the Red Cross
ITO International Trade Organization
JCSL Journal of Conflict and Security Law
JIEL Journal of International Economic Law
JWIT Journal of World Investment and Trade
JWT Journal of World Trade
MAI Multilateral Agreement on Investment
MFN Most Favoured Nation
MJIL Melbourne Journal of International Law
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NGO Non-​Governmental Organization
NILR Netherlands International Law Review
NPM Non-​Precluded Measures
NYIL Netherlands Yearbook of International Law
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-​operation and Development
PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice
SIP Supervening Impossibility to Perform
TWQ Third World Quarterly
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNCC United Nations Compensation Commission
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNSC United Nations Security Council
US United States
VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
VJTL Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law
WTO. . . . . . . . World Trade Organization
 1
Introduction

A. The Problem and the Questions

Mahiladittivu is a small Tamil village, surrounded by paddy fields and a lagoon, on

the eastern coast of Sri Lanka. The villagers recall that there was a prawn farm that
used to be the source of the local livelihood. The memory of the farm is attached
to a particular event that forcefully interfered with their lives. On 28 January 1987,
the Sri Lankan special task forces stormed into the village, besieging it from air,
water, and land. Their target was the farm, where they rounded up the workers and
the villagers who happened to be there, took them to the nearby road junction, and
shot them. More than eighty Tamil civilians were killed, their bodies never to be re-
trieved. The farm was burnt to the ground and some of the prawns were eaten and
the rest sold by the soldiers. One year later, these tragic events, as remembered by
the witnesses of the massacre,1 gave rise to an investment treaty arbitration, AAPL
v Sri Lanka, initiated by the foreign investor who owned the farm.2 The case perfectly
encapsulates what this book is about, the situations it sets to investigate, the
misconceptions it attempts to unravel, and ideas it purports to convey.
The book examines how foreign investment is protected under the investment
treaty regime during times of armed conflict. There is little doubt that violent and
politically volatile circumstances can adversely affect foreign investment. While
investors may suffer general commercial losses as a natural consequence of pol-
itical instability, they may also sustain direct injuries as a result of the actions or
omissions of the host state. Political and social unrest may increase the likelihood
of targeted attacks or other forms of selective interference with strategic assets by
mobs, political opponents, or associated guerrillas. They may also make the in-
vestment prone to becoming a primary target of the host state’s security forces if
the investor’s premises have been used by a party to a conflict or because of the
investors’ association with an enemy regime; for example, by seizing or freezing
their assets in order to reduce the enemy’s capacity to use force and compel its

1 M Trawick, ‘Lessons from Kokkadichcholai’ (paper presented at International Conference on

Tamil Nationhood and Search for Peace in Sri Lanka, 21–​22 May 1999) <http://​tamilnation.co/​confer-
ences/​cnfCA99/​trawick.html> accessed 18 December 2018; D McConnell, ‘The Tamil People’s Right
to Self-​Determination’ (2008) 21(1) Cam Rev Intl Aff 59, 68; KT Rajasingham ‘Sri Lanka: The Untold
Story’ (Online Asia Times, 30 March 2002) <http://​www.atimes.com/​ind-​pak/​DC30Df04.html> ac-
cessed 18 December 2018.
2 Asian Agricultural Products Ltd (AAPL) v Republic of Sri Lanka ICSID Case no ARB/​87/​3, Award,

27 June 1990.
The Protection of Foreign Investment in Times of Armed Conflict. First Edition. Jure Zrilič. © Jure Zrilič 2019.
Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.
2 Introduction

capitulation. These are not hypothetical situations; rather, they are real examples of
losses that foreign investors have sustained in the past and have sought to recover
through different remedial regimes.
The mistreatment of foreign investors in times of armed conflict has a long trad-
ition. In the context of international warfare, the destruction and confiscation of
enemy subjects’ private property was permitted for a long time. While the English
Magna Carta of 1215 stipulated that the property of enemy merchants residing
in England should not be confiscated in wartime except by way of reprisals, even
more enlightened views with respect to the treatment of private property emerged
in the works of Hugo Grotius and French humanists after the French Revolution.3
It was not until the eighteenth century that it became clear that states had certain
obligations with respect to the treatment of alien property. The period spanning
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was characterized by frequent internal
strife in developing countries. Foreign investors who sustained losses in the midst
of the violence often blamed their host state for either causing the injuries or failing
to prevent them. Through the institution of diplomatic protection, they sought
compensation via arbitration and before mixed claims commissions, which to-
gether built a body of jurisprudence. These precedents clarified that if a state had
failed to exercise sufficient care in protecting foreign nationals, it could be held
responsible for the injuries incurred by them, even if those losses were caused by
non-​state actors like mobs, rioters, and armed groups. The precise nature of that
duty of care, however, was subject to debate, and reflected the opposing views of
developing countries (who were usually the ones being sued) and developed coun-
tries (whose nationalities the foreign investors usually held). Consequently, several
contemporary scholars engaged in the debate over state responsibility for injuries
inflicted during times of conflict; moreover, the jurisprudence proved to be so in-
fluential that the codification of state responsibility was initially confined to the
treatment of aliens alone.4
Since then, the legal framework governing the protection of foreign investors
has gone through significant changes. In the second half of the twentieth century,
countries have begun to enter into bilateral investment treaties (BITs) in which
they agree to provide certain reciprocal treatment to investors who are nationals
of the other contracting state. Somewhat revolutionarily, these treaties provide in-
vestors with a direct right to seek compensation for potential treaty violations from
the host state via investor–​state arbitration. The treaties also entail provisions that
purport to protect investors from violent interferences, commonly effectuated in

3See Chapter 2 C.
4See e.g. E Huffcut, ‘International Liability for Mob Injuries’ (1891) 2 Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci
69; H Arias, ‘The Non-​liability of States for Damages Suffered by Foreigners in the Course of a Riot,
an Insurrection or a Civil War’ (1913) 7 AJIL 724; J Goebel, ‘The International Responsibility of States
for Injuries Sustained by Aliens on Account of Mob Violence, Insurrections and Civil Wars’ (1914) 8
AJIL 802.
 The Problem and the Questions 3

times of conflict, which have periodically been invoked in practice. As the number
of treaties only really began to proliferate in the 1990s, until recently there had been
relatively little opportunity to assess the application of treaty protections in times
of armed conflict, and consequently the topic had attracted almost no attention.
However, a shift occurred in the wake of the political unrest and revolutions ex-
perienced in North African countries in 2010–​11 (commonly referred to as ‘Arab
Spring’ events)—​particularly as a result of the revolution in Egypt and the civil war
in Libya. Since many of these countries were (and are) parties to a number of BITs,
the leading international law firms started publishing client alerts, suggesting that
foreign investors could rely on BITs that afforded them effective protections and
would enable them to bring lawsuits against the host states for losses sustained
during the hostilities.5 While several investment treaty claims emerged in the
immediate aftermath of these conflicts,6 the pace of claims has accelerated since
2017.7 In parallel, the conflict in Ukraine in 2014 gave rise to another controversial
cluster of conflict-​related claims against Russia.8 While the sudden increase of this
type of arbitration claim clearly demonstrates the topicality of the subject matter
investigated in this book, it is not a sole indicator of its relevance. Namely, in order
to avoid costly litigation, the outcome of which is difficult to predict due to in-
consistent interpretations of relevant investment treaty provisions, and to prevent
related bad press that could deter prospective foreign investment, countries ex-
periencing tumult may decide to settle claims instead, often on a confidential basis.

5 See e.g. G Petrochilos and M Benedettelli, ‘Investments in Libya: Potential Claims under Bilateral

Investment Treaties and Political Risk Insurance Policies’ (Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP, March
2011) <https://​www.lexology.com/​library/​detail.aspx?g=c732662c-​f387-​45d8-​bb26-​03b58f9c0a9b>
accessed 19 December 2018; M Levy et al, ‘Civil Unrest and Sanctions: Implications for Investors in
Libya’ (Allen & Overy, 21 March 2011) <http://​www.allenovery.com/​publications/​en-​gb/​Pages/​Civil-​
Unrest-​and-​Sanctions-​-​Implications-​for-​investors-​in-​Libya.aspx> accessed 19 December 2018; R
Hill et al, ‘New Business Opportunities Expected, but are Troubling Times also Ahead for Investors
in Libya?’ (Fulbright & Jaworsky, 6 September 2011) <https://​www.lexisnexis.com/​legalnewsroom/​
international-​law/​b/​commentry/​posts/​fulbright-​briefing-​new-​business-​opportunities-​expected-​but-​
are-​troubling-​times-​also-​ahead-​for-​investors-​in-​libya> accessed 19 December 2018.
6 See e.g. Ampal-​American Israel Corp and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​12/​

11 (pending); Al Jazeera Media Network v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​16/​1 (pending);
Utsch and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​13/​37 (discontinued); Hussain Sajwani
and Others v Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID Case no ARB/​11/​16 (discontinued); Yosef Maiman and
Others v Arab Republic of Egypt, UNCITRAL (not public).
7 Over the past two years, Libya has been inundated with investment treaty claims. See L Peterson,

‘As Libya Begins to See Wave of Investment Treaty Arbitrations, at Least Seven Turkish BIT Claims are
Pursued at ICC’ (IAReporter, 31 March 2017) <https://​www.iareporter.com/​articles/​as-​libya-​begins-​
to-​see-​wave-​of-​investment-​treaty-​arbitrations-​at-​least-​seven-​turkish-​bit-​claims-​at-​icc/​> accessed 19
December 2018.
8 See e.g. Aeroport Belbek LLC and Kolomoisky v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no

2015-​07 (pending); JSC CB PrivatBank and Finilon LLC v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case
no 2015-​21 (pending); Lugzor and Others v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​29
(pending); PJSC Ukrnafta v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​34 (pending); Stabil
LLC and Others v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​35 (pending); Everest Estate LLC
et al v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2015-​36, Award, 2 May 2018; NJSC Naftogaz of
Ukraine et al v Russian Federation UNCITRAL, PCA Case no 2017-​16 (pending).
4 Introduction

For example, it was reported that Ethiopia had agreed to pay a generous amount
of compensation to hundreds of foreign investors whose property was damaged
in the course of riots that have afflicted the country since 2015.9 Since the number
of internal conflicts being experienced by contracting parties to BITs is on the rise
(e.g. the civil war in Syria; the hostilities and insurgencies in countries like Mali,
Nigeria, and Mozambique; the Yemeni civil war), and law firms continue to en-
courage investors to bring investment claims for conflict-​related losses,10 thereby
highlighting the likelihood of being awarded damages, it is more than ever before
important to re-​examine the application of the investment treaty framework in the
context of conflict.
There is a great deal of uncertainty as to the applicability and the scope of pro-
tections granted under the investment treaty framework in the context of armed
conflict. The pre-​Arab Spring investment arbitrations emerging from occasional
violent strife gave rise to inconsistent, often inaccurate, and even contradictory in-
terpretations of relevant treaty provisions, such as full protection and security and
armed conflict clauses.11 Since the doctrinal focus has been on other topics (e.g.
financial crisis, environmental concerns) and treaty provisions (e.g. fair and equit-
able treatment, expropriation), these substantive standards have remained under-​
studied and under-​theorized. Consequently, investment law has been imbued with
an unpredictability as to how effective the legal frameworks for protecting foreign
investors against violence are.
In addition, the prospect of applying investment treaty protections during the
tempestuous period of a conflict, when the state’s control over its matters is ser-
iously constrained, gives rise to important questions about the fairness and appro-
priateness of the international investment system. Some scholars have thus argued
that investment treaties unfairly restrict a state’s sovereignty to react to security
concerns, and that other legal frameworks, notably international humanitarian law
(IHL), may be more appropriate.12 Furthermore, it has been argued that invest-
ment treaties may complicate the post-​conflict transition to peace.13 Traditionally,
conflict-​related claims by individuals have been dealt with via government-​to-​
government resolution (e.g. interstate arbitration or peace treaties), thereby taking
into account a number of political and strategic considerations that are normally

9 D Gebreamanuel, ‘Economic Commentary: FDI and Democracy in Ethiopia: Can FDI Push

for a Well-​Administered Government?’ (Addis Standard, 6 July 2018) <http://​addisstandard.com/​

economic-​commentary-​fdi-​democracy-​ethiopia-​can-​fdi-​push-​well-​administered-​government/​#_​
ftnref5> accessed 12 December 2018.
10 See e.g. H Burnett et al, ‘Recent Developments: Mozambique—​What Legal Options are Available

to Investors in Oil, Gas and Mineral Resources?’ (King & Spalding, 31 October 2013) <https://​
www.lexology.com/​library/​detail.aspx?g=390bf6e2-​74c3-​4a32-​a5dc-​a787f9f6f8d2> accessed 12
December 2018.
11 See Chapter 4.
12 See Chapter 6.
13 J Zrilič, ‘International Investment Law in the Context of Jus Post Bellum: Are Investment Treaties

Likely to Facilitate or Hinder the Transition to Peace?’ (2015) 16 JWIT 604. See Chapter 7.
 The Problem and the Questions 5

prioritized in the peacemaking process. This is in contrast to investor claims which

are typically not concerned with such considerations and seek to recover damages
that can amount to several hundreds of millions of dollars, the payment of which
may impose a heavy financial burden on an impoverished state seeking to recover
and regain peace.14
Based on the problems outlined above, the book sets out to address two research
questions. First, how effective are investment treaty protections in times of armed
conflict? Second, how appropriate is the investment treaty framework for settling
conflict-​related disputes? For the purposes of this work, effectiveness is examined
from the perspective of a foreign investor. In other words, how beneficial are in-
vestment treaties, compared to other legal frameworks, when protecting foreign
investors during times of conflict and remedying conflict-​related injuries? This en-
tails a comparison of the investment treaty regime to other applicable legal frame-
works, an examination of the doctrines governing the operation of international
treaties in times of armed conflict, and the content of the relevant investment treaty
provisions. On the other hand, the question of appropriateness is addressed from
the point of view of the host state and concerns its right to pass certain measures in
pursuit of its own security, and its ability to establish a stable post-​conflict order.15
This entails an analysis of the defences that host states can raise against potential
investment claims, a comparison of investor–​state arbitration to alternative re-
medial regimes, and an analysis of the negative effects of post-​conflict compen-
sation. While the emphasis in the book (as suggested by the title) is placed on the
legal framework for protecting foreign investment in times of armed conflict, the
effectiveness thereof cannot be examined without also addressing its appropri-
ateness for a host state. The research questions thus reflect two sides of the same
coin—​stronger legal protections for foreign investors (thus a more effective legal
framework) connote more limited space for a host state to react to security con-
cerns or engage in post-​conflict reconstruction (thus potentially making the in-
vestment regime less appropriate). This duality is addressed in each chapter and
informs the design of the analytical framework that is articulated graphically in the
concluding chapter.
So far, no scholarly work has addressed the questions raised above in a com-
prehensive and complete manner. While the Arab Spring events provoked some
doctrinal discussions,16 the topic has been treated from a mostly situation-​or

14 See e.g. Mohamed Al-​Kharafi & Sons Co v Libya Ad hoc Arbitration, Award, 22 March 2013 (re-

quiring Libya to pay exorbitant compensation).

15 Admittedly, the question of appropriateness is broader and includes other considerations, such as

the adverse impact that foreign investment can have on human rights in the context of armed conflict.
While important, this aspect is outside the scope of the book.
16 See e.g. C Schreuer, ‘The Protection of Investments in Armed Conflicts’ in F Baetens (ed),

Investment Law within International Law: Integrationist Perspectives (CUP 2013) 3; G Hernández,
6 Introduction

issue-​specific perspective and in isolation from other applicable bodies of law. In

contrast, this book seeks to examine the law and practices relating to the protec-
tion of foreign investment from the angle of multiple legal frameworks and their
mutual interaction. While the main focus of the study is international investment
law, the book ventures into other subfields of international law, such as the law of
treaties, the law of state responsibility, international human rights law, and IHL. It
uses historical context and draws on insights taken from other legal frameworks to
inform the investment treaty practices and challenge the conventional doctrinal
accounts.
The book argues that the effectiveness and appropriateness of investment
treaties is ultimately a question of balancing competing objectives: on the
one hand are investors’ interests, certainty, and stability; and on the other
hand, the state’s sovereign right to protect its security interests and enable a
smooth transition to peace. The study examines how these conflicting inter-
ests are balanced on different levels: on the level of the application of invest-
ment treaties, on the level of the invocation of relevant treaty protections and
host state defences against them, on the level of post-​conflict compensation,
and lastly, on the level of the resolution of conflict-​related disputes. Based
on observation, it proposes a framework according to which the effectiveness
and appropriateness of the investment treaty regime will depend on how the
treaties are drafted and interpreted (distinguishing between investment and
security paradigms) and the types of conflict and contexts that give rise to in-
vestment treaty claims. While traditionally, the investment treaty regime has
tended to prioritize investment concerns over a state’s security concerns, there
has been a notable shift towards safeguarding states’ discretion in volatile
times. In particular, this reflects tribunals’ interpretations of some treaty pro-
tections, the inclusion of security exceptions in new investment treaties, and
post-​Arab Spring scholarship. The thesis remains critical of both investment
and security paradigms, acknowledging their advantages and highlighting
their flaws. Rather, it advocates a new paradigm that presupposes a careful
balancing of the competing interests at the different levels of treaty applica-
tion, guided by the contextual circumstances of each case, most notably the
type and conditions of a conflict situation.

‘The Interaction between Investment Law and the Law of Armed Conflict in the Interpretation
of Full Protection and Security Clauses’ in F Baetens (ed), Investment Law within International
Law: Integrationist Perspectives (CUP 2013) 21; H Bray, ‘SOI–​Save Our Investments! International
Investment Law and International Humanitarian Law’ (2013) 14(3) JWIT 578; O Mayorga, ‘Arbitrating
War: Military Necessity as a Defence to the Breach of Investment Treaty Obligations’ (Policy Brief,
August 2013) Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research Harvard University. The topic
was also at the centre of the colloquium ‘International Investment Law & the Law of Armed Conflict’
organized on 5–​6 October 2017 in Athens. The proceedings of the colloquium have not been published
at the time of completing this monograph.
 The Concept of Armed Conflict 7

B. The Concept of Armed Conflict

Since the examination of investment treaty protections is contextually limited to the

situation of armed conflict, it is important to clarify the scope of the study. Naturally,
the question arises as to what exactly is meant by armed conflict. The concept has at-
tracted considerable attention in legal scholarship.17 This hardly comes as a surprise
given the lack of an unequivocal definition of armed conflict and the fact that the con-
cept bears great legal significance in the international legal system. The accurate quali-
fication of a factual situation as an armed conflict has wide-​ranging implications for
different branches of international law. The presence of armed conflict triggers the ap-
plication of IHL, it may affect the operation of international treaties, justify derogation
from some human rights obligations, and have implications for obligations in other
treaties.

1. Approaches to Conceptualizing Armed Conflict

The legally relevant definition of armed conflict has evolved over time and is by no
means settled. In particular, three approaches to conceptualizing armed conflict in
international law have emerged: (1) the IHL-​based concept of armed conflict, (2) the
autonomous concept of armed conflict, and (3) the indifferent approach to defining
armed conflict.
The prevailing understanding of armed conflict has been shaped by the sources of
IHL—​the branch of international law that regulates situations of armed conflict and
whose applicability depends on the existence of armed conflict. Depending on how
the situations are legally defined, the rules applied differ from one case to the next.
If a violent situation falls within the definition of armed conflict, armed parties are
accorded certain belligerent powers and their conduct in hostilities is restricted by
the rules of IHL. If, on the other hand, the situation of violence does not reach the
threshold of armed conflict, the state’s domestic policing rules continue to apply.
The concept of armed conflict in IHL is based on a double dichotomy. First,
IHL distinguishes between international and non-​international armed conflict.18

17 A Cullen, The Concept of Non-​international Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law

(CUP 2010); S Vité, ‘Typology of Armed Conflicts in International Humanitarian Law: Legal Concepts
and Actual Situations’ (2009) 91 IRRC 873; D Akande, ‘Classification of Armed Conflict: Relevant
Legal Concepts’ in E Wilmshurst (ed), International Law and the Classification of Conflicts (OUP 2012);
Committee on the Use of Force, ‘Final Report on the Meaning of Armed Conflict in International
Law’ in International Law Association Report of the Seventy-​Fourth Conference (The Hague 2010)
(International Law Association, London 2010) 676; ME O’Connell, ‘Defining Armed Conflict’ (2008)
13 JCSL 393; A Duxbury, ‘Drawing Lines in the Sand—​Characterizing Conflicts for the Purposes of
Teaching International Humanitarian Law’ (2007) 8 MJIL 259; L Hill-​Cawthorne, ‘Humanitarian Law,
Human Rights Law and the Bifurcation of Armed Conflict’ (2015) 64 ICLQ 293.
18 A critical source for international armed conflict is Common Article 2 to four Geneva Conventions

1949, while non-​international conflict is introduced with a negative definition in Common Article 3. In
8 Introduction

Second, a distinction is made between domestic violent situations that fall within
the definition of non-​international armed conflict and those that fall outside
the scope of IHL. The decision of the International Criminal Tribunal for the
Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in the Tadić case has been widely relied upon as au-
thoritative with regard to the meaning of armed conflict in both international and
non-​international conflicts. According to the tribunal, an armed conflict exists
whenever ‘there is resort to armed force between States or protracted armed vio-
lence between governmental authorities and organized armed groups or between
such groups within a State . . . .’19 The Tadić tribunal emphasized two aspects of con-
flict: first, the intensity of the violence, and second, the organization of the parties.
In this way, the tribunal aimed at distinguishing an armed conflict from situations
of internal disturbance, such as riots, banditry, unorganized and short-​lived insur-
rections, and terrorist activities, which are beyond IHL’s scope.
Despite the dominant IHL understanding of the meaning of armed conflict,
applying the same concept in another legal regime that pursues different object-
ives and purposes can be inapposite, and an autonomous definition may thus be
needed. Consequently, some regimes have construed armed conflict independ-
ently from the IHL definition and set the threshold much lower. For example, the
Court of Justice of the European Union rejected the reliance on IHL for the de-
termination of armed conflict and interpreted the concept of non-​international
armed conflict in an EU asylum law context autonomously.20 In this way, it has
considerably lowered the threshold to include situations of great violence that may
not qualify as armed conflict in IHL terms, but may nevertheless expose persons to
the risk of serious human rights violations that may force them to flee their country
of origin or habitual residence.
Lastly, the indifferent approach is based on the presumption that the same
rules apply during times of peace or war and thus there is no need to ascertain the
meaning of armed conflict. It goes a step further than the autonomous approach,
which lowers the bar as to what type of situation constitutes armed conflict, by

addition, a narrower definition of non-​international armed conflict was heralded in 1977 with Article
1 of the Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions. See Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the
Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (signed 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October
1950) 75 UNTS 287; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to
the Protection of Victims of Non-​International Armed Conflicts (signed 8 June 1977, entered into force
7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 609.

19 Prosecutor v Tadić (Decision on Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction) IT-​94-​

1-​T (2 October 1995) para 70. This definition was followed in Article 8 of the Rome Statute that cre-
ated the International Criminal Court. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (adopted 17
July1998, entered into force 1 July 2002) 2187 UNTS 90.
20 See Council Directive (EC) 2004/​83 of 29 April 2004 on Minimum Standards for the Qualification

and Status of Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons who Otherwise
Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted [2004] OJ L 304/​12, Art
15(c). See also Case C-​495/​07 Elgafaji v Staatssecretaris van Justitie [2009] ECR-​I 921; Case C-​285/​12
Aboubacar Diakité v Commissaire Général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides ILEC 033 (CJEU 2014).
 The Concept of Armed Conflict 9

disposing of any threshold. This has been particularly evident in the field of human
rights. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has dealt with several cases
of the violation of human rights and IHL in situations involving armed clashes,
but has avoided clarifying the meaning of armed conflict.21 This approach reflects
the increasing convergence of fundamental protection rules that apply in situ-
ations of armed conflict and peace. While IHL distinguishes from among different
types of armed conflicts which rules apply, in contrast, the rules espoused by the
ECtHR have no thresholds but form a single body of law that covers everything
from clashes between rioters and police forces to battles between insurgents and
national armies.
Depending on the contexts in which investment treaty provisions are applied,
all three approaches may prove relevant for the investment treaty framework. In
most cases, the investment treaty practice mirrors the flexible approach adopted
by the ECtHR. Like human rights treaties, investment treaties typically apply in
times of peace and war. While courts and tribunals applying IHL need to first
determine whether the armed conflict actually existed and then classify the situ-
ation to determine which set of IHL rules apply, investment tribunals would
not typically be concerned with defining and classifying violent situations. This
applies in particular to the key provision that accords investors the protection
against forcible action, namely the full protection and security clause.22 However,
this does not mean that the elements that are normally considered determining
factors when defining armed conflict, such as the intensity of the conflict and the
organization of the armed groups, will be of no relevance. Although they will not
be considered as the normative elements triggering the applicability of the pro-
vision, they will still be an important factual consideration in determining state
responsibility.
On the other hand, the autonomous concept of armed conflict has emerged
from armed conflict clauses that are largely harmonized in the wording used across
the network of investment treaties and have a lower applicability threshold than
that which was developed in IHL.23 They encompass any violent actions related to
situations of such proportion as to constitute an emergency. The departure from
the IHL notion of armed conflict is best demonstrated by the example set by the
Pakistan–​Philippines BIT which states that the clause applies with respect to losses
owing to ‘war, revolution, state of emergency, revolt, insurrection, riot, or other
armed conflicts in the territory of such Contracting Party’, implying that ‘armed

21 See e.g. Isayeva, Yusupova and Bazayeva v Russia App nos 57947/​00, 57948/​00 and 57949/​00,

Judgment (ECtHR, 24 February 2005); Isayeva v Russia App no 57950/​00, Judgment (ECtHR, 24
February 2005). However, recent decisions may signal a trend towards distinguishing between inter-
national and non-​international armed conflicts. See Al-​Jedda v United Kingdom App no 27021/​08,
Judgment (ECtHR, 7 July 2011) paras 97–​110; Hassan v United Kingdom App no 29750/​09, Judgment
(ECtHR, 16 September 2014) paras 96–​111.
22 For the analysis, see Chapter 4 B.
23 For the analysis, see Chapter 4 C.
10 Introduction

conflict’ is used as a generic term covering different situations of collective violence

of varying intensity.24 The concept of armed conflict that determines the area of
operation of this treaty provision is thus broader than the IHL-​based ‘armed con-
flict’, but narrower than the forcible interferences covered by the full protection and
security clauses.
Although investment treaties break away from the binary understanding of
armed conflict in terms of IHL, the latter can still play a limited role in situations
where investment treaties interact with other legal frameworks. For example, the
International Law Commission’s (ILC) Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed
Conflicts on Treaties25 espouse the IHL concept of armed conflict. Thus, for the
purposes of examining the effects of outbreaks of armed conflict on the oper-
ation of investment treaties, the IHL concept may become relevant. The same
applies to the examination of the normative interplay between investment law
and IHL.
Throughout this book, the concept of armed conflict is applied broadly and
flexibly to include different types of violent situations, most notably those
covered within armed conflict clauses. The narrower, IHL concept becomes
important only in those chapters that discuss the application of the IHL frame-
work and the doctrines governing the effect of armed conflict on the oper-
ation of treaties (in particular Chapters 2, 3, and 6). Beyond that, however,
there appear to be no strong reasons for limiting the research to an IHL-​based
understanding of armed conflict. Several legal scholars have highlighted the
importance of taking a broad understanding of conflict that extends beyond
the traditional IHL boundaries.26 To argue otherwise would mean unneces-
sarily limiting the practical relevance of this study and its findings for modern
international investment law.
That said, one of the key arguments in the book is that the conditions and char-
acteristics of a conflict situation (e.g. its international dimension, the intensity of
the lethal violence, scope and scale of the conflict, its destructive impact, the level
of organization, goals and motivation behind it, etc) may affect the application of
investment treaty standards as well as help gauge their appropriateness. Based on
these conditions, the book proposes a typology of conflicts with a view to further
clarify the scope of the research and facilitate the understanding of investment law
protections during violent conflicts.

24 Pakistan–​Philippines BIT (1999) Art V (emphasis added).

25 ILC, ‘Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties, with Commentaries’ in Yearbook
of the International Law Commission, 2011, Vol II, UN Doc A/​CN.4/​SER.A/​2010/​Add.1 (Part 2).
26 C Bell, ‘Of Jus Post Bellum and Lex Pacificatoria’ in C Stahn, J Easterday, and J Iverson (eds), Jus

Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundations (OUP 2014) 197; C Stahn, ‘Mapping the Discipline(s)’
in C Stahn and J Kleffner (eds), Jus Post Bellum: Towards a Law of Transition From Conflict to Peace
(TMC Asser Press 2008) 105, 233.
 The Concept of Armed Conflict 11

2. Typology of Conflicts

Drawing on the insights from the nineteenth-​and early twentieth-​century schol-

arly debates, legislative proposals, and investment jurisprudence discussed
below,27 as well as on the work of political and social scientists researching political
violence,28 the following classification of conflict situations is constructed:

–​ International Armed Conflicts

This category, overlapping with the IHL concept of international armed con-
flicts, includes institutionalized forms of armed and political violence between
two or more sovereign powers. It typically involves penetration of territorial
borders and thus violation of state sovereignty. Examples include the South
Ossetia War between Georgia and Russia in 2008, the war between Eritrea and
Ethiopia (1998–​2000), Persian Gulf War (1990–​91), and both World Wars.
–​ Internal Armed Conflicts (Including Civil Wars and Revolutions)
This cluster includes armed violent events that involve organized non-​state
groups fighting the governing regime or fighting between themselves. It
crosses the rigid frontiers of armed conflict as defined by the IHL and in-
cludes borderline categories, like internal disturbances such as the Arab
Spring revolutions. What is characteristic for this group is that the conflict
is politically motivated, often involves intense combat, and can result in the
government’s loss of control over the situation or part of the territory. Apart
from the revolution in Egypt and war in Libya, examples include civil wars
in Syria (2011–​) and Yemen (2015–​), rebellions in South Sudan (2013–​),
Democratic Republic of Congo (2016–​), and in the north border region of
Nigeria (2009–​).
–​ Collective Protests (Including Riots and Violent Demonstrations)
The third category consists of violent events and clashes carried out by a large
group of people that are typically precipitated by unpopular economic or so-
cial policies or motivated by xenophobic sentiments. Unlike the preceding
category, this type of violent situation can usually be contained by the deploy-
ment of law enforcement agencies. Recent examples include the ‘yellow vest’
protests in Paris (2018), the protests and strike over the Catalonia referendum
in Spain (2017), and xenophobic riots in South Africa (2015).

27 See in particular Chapter 2 B.4.

28 Political violence is defined as the use of force between different social groups that results in de-
struction, injury, and/​or death. See e.g. D Hibbs, Mass Political Violence: A Cross-​National Causal
Analysis (Wiley-​Interscience Publication 1973); J Vasquez, The War Puzzle (CUP 1993); M Marshall,
Third World War (Rowman & Littlefield 1999); R Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Routledge 1970); C Tilly, The
Politics of Collective Violence (CUP 2003); R M Ginty, ‘Looting in the Context of Violent Conflict: a
Conceptualisation and Typology’ (2007) 25(5) TWQ 857.
Another random document with
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moment’s notice. Sad accounts are daily coming in of the people
about here; every person who ventures out is robbed and beaten:
several people are waiting here for an escort. I cannot so much
blame the Shilhahs and Súsís;[87] they have been sadly oppressed
by the Sultán’s army; and now it is gone, they are repaying
themselves. They acknowledge no law but that of force, and exhibit
but little trace of any religion: their tribes extend, with intervals, to the
Gambia. This has been a dies non.
Sunday, Apr. 3.—Therm. 72°.—A large wolf stole up to the battery
during the night, which roused us all. To-day the wind feels cold, and
there is such a heavy fog that we cannot see the sea; the sun rarely
broke through. There is, at least, a difference of 40°. between the
temperature of to-day and yesterday out of doors, and of 8 to 10
within. Felt not all well, and kept all day to my carpet: beginning to
get tired of Agadír. An arrival from Teródánt, but it brought no news.
Monday, Apr. 4.—Therm. 65°. Very cold, and a mist equal to rain.
All hard at work in making leather bottles, &c., for the water.
Received a large present of fish. A large Káfilah[88] passed this
morning for Teródánt. Did not leave the battery all day.
Tuesday, Apr. 5.—Therm. 72°. The mist continues heavy, and
quite darkening the air. Not very well; kept within the battery. Alas! all
our bread is gone, and these people eat none; and as it is the feast
of unleavened bread, the Jews cannot make any for me, a
deprivation which I feel not a little. The man was seized again by the
devil. Heard the history of the enchanted castle, and the black
woman, who lives at three days’ ride from this place. Heard likewise
of the Jews, and of the tombs. I must see them on my way to Wád
Nún.
Wednesday, Apr. 6.—Therm. 72°. Heavy mist, with rain in the
N.W. A dies non.
Thursday, Apr. 7.—Therm. 76°. Beginning to look out for news:
my man returned from the mines; the specimens he brought were
very bad; he found great difficulty in getting any at all. There was a
market to-day, where I bought nothing but a few carrots. Quite tired
of Agadír. Hope two or three days will decide whether I can go on or
not.
Friday, April 8.—Therm. 60°. Very cold. My fingers were so
chilled, that I could not dress myself. At noon a courier arrived; all is
right; wrote my letters, and after detaining the man an hour,
dispatched him again to Mogadór, to say that we should be ready to
start at an hour’s notice. The feast of the Passover finishes to-day: it
has been very cold, with a strong breeze from the N.E.
Saturday, April 9.—Therm. 70°. Day beautiful; but a stiff gale from
the E. This is the clearest day we have yet had here. The mountains
can be seen distinctly: hard at work in arranging bags, &c.
Sunday, April 10.—Therm. 74°. Weather beautiful. Read the
service. A large káfilah is now passing from Sús; the mountains very
visible; in the afternoon there was a repetition of the easterly wind,
accompanied with the dust, which was very distressing.
Monday, April 11.—Therm. 68°. Wind strong from the E.
Disappointed again, as Hájí Majíibí[89] will not start for some days.
Our horses are to leave Mogadór to-morrow, in order that they may
be fresh for the start (‘Inshállah’) on Saturday next.
Tuesday, April 12.—Therm. 68°. The wind has got more to the N.
with weather very clear. This delay makes me very fidgetty: besides,
I am so well known here, that various reports have been circulated
about me, which rather annoy me. In the evening, thermometer fell
to 56°, when it became very cold. The horses and mules are to leave
Mogadór to-day.
Wednesday, April 13.—Therm. 60°. A dies non. Felt very poorly:
had a touch of the lumbago. Weather variable. Thirst excessive.
Thursday, April 14.—Therm. 70°. Looking out for the arrival of the
horses, as Hájí Majíibí is to start to-day. The people here are rather
too inquisitive, and I am getting rather alarmed. Evening came, but
brought no tidings of my horses, nor has a courier arrived. I am very
uneasy, and all the people here full of conjectures. The Hájí is
thinking only of himself. If he would only consider for one moment
what an object of suspicion I am, while I remain here, he would hurry
on; but no, it is all self in this country. I cannot bite, and therefore I
had better not shew my teeth. Wind got round to the E. The
thermometer fell 11°., when it became very cold. Went to my carpet
rather sulky.
Friday, April 15.—Therm. 70°. This is the first day of the
Mohammedan year 1252. The horses, &c. have arrived. I made my
present to the Sheïkh; got the Sultán’s letter, and one for Sheïkh
Mobarik. A report has reached Mógador, that a party is waiting for
me, who have determined to murder me. The governor here is very
desirous not to let me go. I question, however, if there are any real
grounds for these fears. At half-past seven there came on one of the
severest gales of wind I ever experienced; it threatened the very
fortress: a heavy sea, with lightning in the S.E. The gale from the
N.W. continued to blow hard till half-past nine. This change of
weather may go much against me. I find that I am an object of great
suspicion. A party have sent to ask me to prescribe for a man who
has been bewitched, and is now in a decline. I promised to see him
on Monday, although he lives twenty miles off. This may, however,
do me some good. The people of his tribe offered to bring him here,
but I pointed out the danger of removing him, and hope to gain their
good-will by going so far to visit a Muselmán. Tired, but not sleepy:
no appetite, and out of spirits.
Saturday, April 16.—Therm. 72°. Day beautiful; the gale passed
off without doing any damage. There was one about six weeks ago,
which threatened destruction to the whole place. Despite all I said
about the sick man, they have brought him to-day to Fontí. I had
promised to go down and see him, when the sun was a little lower; I
was scarcely half way down the rock, when I met him on the road; he
was attended by eight of his people, who took it by turns to hold him
on his horse, a splendid animal; the poor Sheïkh, Hájí Ibráhím, was
seriously ill. As he was so far up, I ordered him to the governor’s,
and told his attendants to lay him down, and let him obtain some
rest, previous to my examination of him. I found him in a sad state,
nearly dying to all appearance; he had been frightened, as they call
it, by some spirit, whom, as usual, they had burned out: he had been
fired all over his stomach, which had now lost all its powers. I gave
him a saline draught with tartar acid in effervescence, and made him
a good basin of arrow-root. He no sooner tasted it, than he put the
bowl to his mouth, and nearly emptied it, telling the crowd, that had
now collected to see the holy man, that he had got at last what his
stomach was craving for. I promised to make him a breakfast on the
morrow, and to give him some medicines. By my treatment of him, I
got no little credit; for which I can obtain some help from him in
return. Am heartily sick of this place; although it has lost all its
commerce, it has still a considerable revenue; it may be considered
a frontier town, and is capable of being well defended; it receives
one ducat a-head for all slaves that pass through it, two ounces for
each camel, half a peseta for each mule, and two blanquillas for
each donkey; and as it is in the great road to Sús and Súdán, these
imposts produce a large income.
Sunday, April 17.—Therm. 74°. Had hardly returned from my
patient, when Hájí Majíibí arrived. I repaired immediately to the
governor. All is now arranged for my departure to-morrow, at break
of day: hard at work in packing up. Wrote my letters: dispatched
Cohen and his boy: received a blessing in the synagogue yesterday,
which cost four dollars. I have to part with most of my things, as I
shall be allowed only two mules; the sharks are therefore looking out
for what they can get. I am quite sick at heart at these Moors: poor
ignorant creatures. I have just this moment learned that there is a
town E. of Teródánt, called Tazelt, where there is a Christian church,
in perfect preservation, well finished and painted, but shut up: it is
held in some veneration by the natives, who can only look into it
through the windows. There are also Christian villages in the
neighbourhood of the church. Went down to Fontí; every thing works
well; I am to start as a soldier, accompanying some mules: took
leave of my patient, who is to go with me; but not a soul has an idea
of this. Cohen is very anxious to go on. I have, at his own request,
given him a letter to Lord Glenelg: have packed up every thing: am in
a great bustle. I fear, however, there will be some detention to-
morrow. I suspect the courier has been stopped, as no escort was
visible at sun-set. Laid down to rest, but with no chance of sleeping,
as I am to be up at the earliest dawn, to start, if possible, to-morrow.
 Monday, April 18.—Therm. 70°. Up at four A.M., but did not get
away till seven. I was accompanied as far as the river by the
governor, and four soldiers, Hájí Ibráhím, and our own party; in all
sixteen souls. At half-past eight we came to the boundary of the
district, where a prayer was offered up for the Sultán; after which, the
governor and his party returned. In defiance of all I said about Hájí
Ibráhím’s state of health, he would go on, or rather his tribe
compelled him, to his own house, distant a ride of four hours. Here
we stopped, and had kuskusú and barley-cakes with butter, and
some leben (sour milk). Ibráhím was, indeed, in a sad state of
health.[90] I gave him the medicines I thought best. The perfect
indifference shewn by Hájí Majíbí towards a fellow-creature quite
disgusted me. Had my horse shod, and proceeded S. to Stúka,
attended by a strange semi-devil from the Hájí (Ibráhím), who told
me that I need be under no alarm, as he could bring one hundred
horse into the field, and had promised to protect me. Crossed the
Sús river, which is here a considerable stream, although twenty
miles from the sea. We arrived at a little before six P.M., at the house
of Sheïkh Hamed, who is a fine young man: he and the people of his
town were all out at prayers. The country is fine, with large
plantations of figs and almonds. During the time that our food was
preparing, I was amused with some good ball-firing, the party
standing on one leg or lying down: they are a merry people. We
commenced with bread and butter and honey; then came kuskusú;
then tea till midnight. Abú here received from one of his countrymen
some account of his friends. The pocket-handkerchief is used for the
towel generally, and the corner of the mat lifted up for wiping the
nose: the belching is quite beastly. Passed but a bad night.
Tuesday, April 19.—Therm. 72°. Up at four A.M. and got off at six.
Just before starting, I had the place half-full of patients. I had been
bored to death the night before with questions. One man was
brought to me with a ball in his foot; and by way of assisting me to
cure him, the gun was brought from which the ball had been
discharged. Accompanied by the brother of the Sheïkh and four of
his people, and Hájí Ibráhím’s semi-devil, we reached the Mésah, a
finer river here than at Sús. Its course was S.S.W. We rode along its
banks through a fine and populous district, called Assa, and crossed
it at the great Sók (Tlátah.) Here we met the Sheïkh of ’Akúlí, with
twenty horsemen. Our party stopped; it was a trying moment for me:
the two parties held a council, and after some ten minutes, the
muhabbah-bik[91] (welcome) was pronounced. Here Hájí Ibráhím’s
semi-devil was sent back, and one of the other party took his place,
and conducted us to the house of Sheïkh ’Alí at Tamasert, in the
populous district of ’Akúlí, from which the sea is distant about a half
mile. The people here are said to be very bad characters, and their
looks confirm the tale. We had tea and kuskusú. The Sheïkh was ill,
and I was required to cure him, and a dozen others; but I pretended
to be unwell, and with this view I went without food, for the second
day. Some of Abú’s countrymen came to play and sing to him; and
thus kept me awake till midnight: afterwards the vermin, which were
a worse plague than last night, prevented me from sleeping.
Wednesday, April 20.—Therm. 70°. Heavy rain. Up at five A.M.
After eating and drinking, the people took me out to find a spring;
they had water enough, and so I pretended to point out the spot
where they are to dig. We got off at nine, accompanied by Sheïkh
’Alí. Owing to the rain, we travelled very slowly. I fear that I have had
to pay dear for passing this place. We arrived at the residence of a
great saint. This humbug has the power of taking me any where
through Sús. I bought him for dollars. At this point the Sheïkh
left us to return home. The country is completely cultivated: it is
backed by four regular rows of limestone-hills, which serve as a kind
of embankment against the desert. They are now cutting the corn,
which produces more than one hundred fold, most of the seeds
throwing out four stems, and some five. I am not over-pleased with
my conductor, Hájí Majíbí, who, I see plainly, is making a job out of
my journey. We passed the tomb of a great saint, El Ab, where all
the party, but the Káfri (myself) offered up their prayers. We then
entered a pass, which required some hard climbing. My horse
became so lame, that I was compelled to walk the rest of the
journey, a distance of three hours; when we reached the residence
of another great saint. Here they have to prepare a room for myself,
as I cannot be permitted to enter his apartment. My grumbling to-day
has been of service. I have some Tumbucktú quilts laid over my
carpet to serve for a bed. Received some barley-cakes and honey,
but could not eat them; afterwards butter and honey, and leben (sour
milk); but it will not do: a biscuit is the only food I have taken this day,
although I have fasted for three. The Moors, and Hájí Majíbí
amongst them, who had taken some refuse kuskusú from some
labourers on the road, were eating and drinking till midnight. Not
being allowed to enter the room of the saint, I was put into the
garden, until one was prepared. This is the district of Eit Bamáram.
The water is here both bad and scarce.
Thursday, April 21.—Therm. 74°. Weather muggy, with much rain.
I had been promised that I should reach Wád Nún to-day; but after
travelling two hours, having waited till past nine for the Moors to eat
three times, we met a courier from Wád Nún, and we were then
taken out of our road to a house, where we are to stop all day. This, I
am convinced, is owing to Hájí Majíbí not having sent word in proper
time. I am most grievously disappointed, but must bear it as well as I
can; the day hangs very heavy on my hands. A lot of these beasts
came as usual for physic; called me káfrí, and all the rest of it, but
could get nothing to eat. I would not advise any other traveller to
come through Sús: they ask for every thing, but will neither give, nor
even shew any thing. They affect much on the score of religion;
never going in or out, sitting up or standing, without the Bismillah. At
eight P.M. got four eggs, and had some biscuit. I received a message
from the Sheïkh, stating that we are to arrive to-morrow. This place is
Tisseret, famed for its copper mines.
Friday, April 22.—Up at four, A.M., or rather up all night. Vermin in
myriads. Hurried away; and after one hour’s march, stopped for two
more to eat. At length we reached Ifran Ochran, the last town in Eit
Bamáram. Passed the range of mountains in Lower Sús, and
entered Wád Nún. During the route, saw people reaping corn, with
arms by their side. Wád Nún is a large town, with several small
clusters of buildings: it derives its name[92] from a Portuguese
Queen, Núnah. Hence Wád Nún is the valley of Núnah: the place is
distant from the sea a journey of five or six hours. Our first halt was
on the banks of a magnificent stream of water. When we came to the
spring (Agusa), we washed and drank, while the people prayed. A
fine line of hills protects it from the Sahra. We found here the Sheïkh
waiting for us, who took us at once into his house: at half-past five he
gave us a good dinner, which set me all right. I am much pleased
with him. After tea, all the great folks of the place came to see me:
as soon as he had read the Sultán’s letter, he sent for Hájí Majíbí:
when he came back at nine, he said he wanted three double-
barrelled guns, silver-mounted, and the barrels damascened in gold,
together with an air-gun; to which I am to add my brace of pistols. I
talked over all the wonders of England, and then wrote to Mr.
Willshire to tell him what I had done. The Sheïkh assures me, he will
send me without the least danger. I like him much: he has a large
and fine family. I have brought him a handsome present, and I fear
he expects that I shall return this way back: but this is not in the
bond. Abú is very helpless. Here one begins to see slavery again:
the house swarms with slaves, who form a large item of property.
This Berúk is a person of great wealth: he possesses forty thousand
head of cattle, and has never less than one thousand camels,
working between here and Súdán. His eldest son is a fine young
man. Went to bed at midnight, quite done up.
Saturday, April 23.—Therm. 76°. Symptoms of heat. Had my sour
milk, and then unpacked my things. The Sheïkh highly amused with
the pillow, and the little globe firing the guns: he was smoking and
laughing alternately. All goes on well. I was kept up to write my
letters, and they are not yet sent off: these people are so very
dilatory, where they are not immediately interested. Patients are
beginning to come in. The fellows, who were so free on the road,
have come a little to their senses. Lots of patients, and amongst
them a man, who had been wounded sadly. Had the whole of the
Sheïkh’s family with me: gave each of his little children a bracelet. In
the afternoon walked about and round the town: went to the Abú
Sebah’s tents; from thence to the garden, where I saw a fine crop of
apples: saw likewise several heïries, both of dromedaries and
horses. As the Sheïkh’s cattle were coming in, I perceived that what
looked like a river, was a very small stream of water: it is the Assaka.
The view from the heights is rather pretty over fields of tobacco and
plantations of date-trees; here and there a garden, and many fine
wells: saw a part of my companions, who are to be fasting to-day,
but we hope we shall have some supper, although I am sick at the
sight of my sable attendants, who have the itch very bad. I shall have
to remain here at least three weeks, although I should be glad to
shorten the time.
Sunday, April 24.—Therm. 76°. I was kept up till midnight grinding
a small barrel-organ; and fainting with hunger, I took at last to the
kuskusú, and got some sleep. This morning my patients have
increased, so that I am obliged to say “hold.” Here the people are
really ill; but so stupid or stubborn, that it is impossible to do them
any good. Gorged to their throats, they sleep half their time away,
and then wonder they are ill. The houses here are better than any in
Marocco, and look like casts[93] in plaster, being built piece by piece
in moulds. These people have no idea of taking a draught, and they
sip the most nauseous medicines. As soon as all are asleep, I take
the opportunity of writing up the journal, and reading the prayers.
This is Sók-day, and no little bustle. I do not feel very well, the heat is
so excessive. We had a capital supper of meat, mixed with grapes
and butter; a strange mixture, but a good dish. A man, who has got a
gold mine here, has come to ask me about it. Great doings may be
expected here to-morrow, as I have given to twenty persons strong
doses of medicine. But they are such fools.
Monday, April 25.—Therm. 70°. Very close; heavy dew through
the night, during which I was called up twice to visit patients, some of
whom are very ill; but I am expected to cure them by merely looking
at them; a most disheartening business. Up early and went to the
garden; returned home, and visited patients. All my cigars are gone,
and I am now manufacturing a pipe. Have the prospect of being here
a month; but I must bear it all, as I am quite in the power of these
people. Walked round the town, which is a large one: went to the
millah; looked about for springs. Am sadly bored. They will not give
me a moment’s rest.
Tuesday, April 26.—Therm. 76°. Very hot, and towards mid-day
the sun was oppressive beyond description. Had a strange request
from Hájí Majíbí, whom I hate: he had the impudence to ask me for
one of my gold watches, although he knows they are worth here five
hundred dollars. I shall put him in the hands of Mr. Willshire, to whom
I shall write strongly on the whole subject. The Sheïkh had a
conversation with Abú and myself this evening, and promised us
every thing we could desire; he assured me that he both could and
would protect us. I felt quite satisfied with this: but later in the
evening, that scoundrel, Majíbí, came and started difficulties; that
there was danger here, and much to be arranged there: he was not
aware of the conversation I had had with the Sheïkh. I was sadly
annoyed, and determined to give him a set-down in the morning.
 t
Drawn by J. G. Wilkinson Esqre. from a Sketch taken Drawn on Stone & Printed by P. Gauci, 9, North Cres .
by the late John Davidson. Bedford Sqre.

Style of Buildings of Wadnoon.

(Large-size)

Wednesday, April 27.—Therm. 70°. Made Abú write, for he cannot

talk, to this Majíbí, to ask if he meant to say that his party did not
wish me to go on: if so, that I would return, as I cared little upon the
subject, and had a ship waiting for me. He was taken somewhat
aback at this, and admitted that the observations came from himself,
and not from the Sheïkh. I shall write to Mr. Willshire, and give him
my candid opinion of this scoundrel, whose object is to induce me to
give him a bribe for his assistance. I will see him d———d first. Went
out to see my patients, when I was stopped by a marabout, who
humbugged me out of a dollar. ’Tis well to keep on good terms with
these impostors, who possess considerable influence. This journey
will ruin me, and I fear I shall break down. No person can be more
kind than the Sheïkh has been; and but for this blackguard I should
do very well. I must, however, put up with him, and patiently wait to
see how matters will turn out. The people here are a fine race; they
wear their hair generally curled, and are not at all dark; they are tall
in figure, ride upon spare horses without a bit, and with only a mere
rope put round the nose and neck of the animal; they have fine eyes
and beautiful teeth. The majority of those in better circumstances
have one or more of the desert-horses, which are fed entirely on
camel’s milk, and this only every fourth or fifth day. It is very strange
that they know nothing of the Jebel Khal, the black mountain; Sók
Assa is distant only one day’s journey; Tatta four; Akka five; Tódeny
twenty; from this to Arowán is another twenty; and thence to
Tumbuktú seven. There is another route to Tumbuktú. From hence
to Woden or Weddán, the name better known, twenty days; then to
Tishít ten; and to Tumbuktú ten more. Caravans frequently go to
Jennah from Tishít; from thence to Gwalátah, they say often; thence
to Drah in ten days; to Táfilelt in fifteen, &c. Some of my patients are
improving; others giving up medicines altogether. There is a
Muselmán-fast to-day, which is slept away. The weather has become
very cold. The thermometer has fallen 12°.
Thursday, April 28.—Therm. 68°. Some rain has fallen in the
night. I was called up to give the Sheïkh his medicines. It is perfectly
useless doing any thing for people who take five meals a-day, and
pass the rest of their time in sleep; with no exercise and no
employment, but sitting outside their doors or inside their walls, to
see on whom they can pounce. It is really sad to look upon the two
sides of the picture, which this place presents; the one, the
possessors of the soil, the daring, hardy, and commanding
inhabitants reduced to the level of the brute by his indulgence in food
and sleep, with the past forgotten, the future uncertain: the other
subject to slavery in its most abject form. A large káfilah is expected
from Mogadór to-day or to-morrow, and one from Súdán in a few
days. These will enliven us; but I hardly dare venture out. The
Christian is still upon me. The population may amount to two or three
hundred families, together with twelve Jewish, who are the working
classes, and manufacture good guns and daggers, ornaments in
silver, brass, &c. They are also the tailors and shoemakers, and do
the iron-work. The Muselmáns are the intermediate merchants, or
cultivators or breeders of cattle, which are very fine. There are some
Talebs here, and one has written for me a few prayers most
beautifully. Four káfilahs leave this place annually, consisting each of
slaves varying from three hundred to one thousand. At that time a
large encampment is formed outside of the town, where they collect
and prepare for the journey. I have been used most rascally by
Majíbí: I wish I dared kick him. Went out again to look for water: had
a conversation to-day about Christians, whom these people conceive
to have no idea of any religion. I tried, but in vain, to explain the
matter to them. I have evidently some foes here, because I will not
submit to be plucked unmercifully. I should be left without a penny or
a rag, were I to give all, or even half of what they endeavour to extort
from me. I am fairly tired out. The weather feels very cold. The
thermometer is down to 60°. We have had some rain to-day. I am
anxious to get out; but fear I am in for at least another month, and
must bear it.
Friday, April 29.—Therm. 58°. The wind is still east, and all are
suffering from the cold: I feel the effect of it, being but thinly clad. It
tells pretty sharply to a man with bare arms, legs, and feet. It is a sad
state of existence, where no one cares for his fellow, and throws off
a person the moment he ceases to be useful. As soon as they have
got what they want, they care not what becomes of you. I hope this
is not the case with the Sheïkh, who is certainly a very superior
person; but I find I shall have great difficulty in managing my affairs
here. Abú is not competent for this. To-day we are to have a private
conference with the Sheïkh, as soon as all the persons are gone to
the mosque, which is here a mere circle of large stones. The kiblah
is not quite due east, but rather to the south of it. I wish the Sheïkh
was quite well: but it is impossible to do him, or any of these people
here any good, with their five or six meals a-day, and without
exercise of body or mind, except a constant craving after sensual
enjoyments and for gold, gold, which is always uppermost in their
thoughts. The subject of Beïrúk’s[94] communication was to have an
English consul resident at his port,[95] and to open a trade direct with
England; that for this purpose he would send one of his sons to
London to manage his affairs; that by these means the route to
Súdán would be opened at once; the whole distance be performed in
forty or forty-four days, and a large trade be carried on; that a courier
would perform the journey to Súdán in fifteen or twenty days,
according to the heat—more wonderful for the man than the beast;
that England would receive in exchange gum, almonds, wool, hides,
ostrich feathers, ivory, and all the produce of Súdán, which would
find its way to Wád Nún rather than by a lengthened journey to
Marocco. I wrote to Lord Glenelg on the subject.
Saturday, April 30.—Therm. 60°. Wind still east. The Sheïkh now
thinks it will be impossible for me to cross the desert for the next four
months, owing to the great heat. The last caravan-kafilah left only a
fortnight before I arrived, and none go during the summer. I told him
that I ought to be sent on to overtake it. This he promised to do, if I
wished it; but he warned me of the danger of all the party perishing
from the want of water, as all the springs are then dried up, and the
camels cannot carry heavy loads during the hot months. I have
written to Mr. Willshire, and a courier has been dispatched to
Tumbuktú to say that a Christian is coming, accompanied by the
cousin of the King, Hámed Libbú. Hájí Majíbí now finds that I am too
canine for him to be in the same apartment, and thank Heaven he
has removed. I have the utmost contempt for this beast. The
population of this place rather exceeds six hundred, with great
capabilities for increase. The Sheïkh has about four hundred horse
that he could bring into the field. Went to the Millah, where I saw a
very beautiful woman anxious to get away. Her husband is one of the
principal workmen here. Provisions are cheaper than in any other
place. A good bullock may be purchased for 20s. to 30s.; heifers,
15s.; a sheep, 2s. to 4s.; fowls vary: I paid ½d. each; bread, ¼d. per
lb.; wheat, 5 to 6 pesetas; barley, 3 to 4 do. A camel varies in price
from 20 to 30 dollars; a slave from 20 to 100. All accounts are kept in
mitcalls.
Sunday, May 1.—Therm. 50°. The people are half killed with the
cold. Read the prayers. Received newspapers from England through
Mr. Willshire, and walked round the garden. The cold was so intense
this evening, that I was compelled to put on two cloaks. The Sheïkh
is still harping upon his favourite project, and complaining that all his
profits go into the hands of the Sultán of Marocco by the trade
through Mogadór.
 Monday, May 2.—Therm. 60°. Symptoms of the weather
becoming warmer. This will be a great comfort to me: bare feet and
arms feel the cold too severely. Fasted all yesterday; hope to get
something to eat to-day, as there is a savoury smell of kabábs. It is
wonderful to witness the fear the children have of a Christian. The
itch has broken out with violence amongst the people: I suppose I
shall have my turn. There is one comfort in the cold; it drives away
all the vermin, to which the people here are quite indifferent, as their
skin is so thick, that neither lice or fleas can penetrate it. The káfilah
from Súdán is expected in twenty days. The cold felt here is not
unusual at this time of the year, as our winter is their hottest season.
Am extremely anxious to hear from Mogadór.
Wednesday, May 4.—Therm. 60°. Weather warmer; but I still feel
the cold: went only to the gardens. A part of the káfilah is just
arrived; it made its journey in haste: it brings accounts of a war
between the Fellátahs and Bambári. This will make it rather awkward
for me, should hostilities continue, although I do not pass in the
immediate vicinity of the people of Bambári.
Thursday, May 5.—Therm. 60°. Suffering from a severe cold to-
day, did not go out.
Friday, May 6.—Therm. 68°. It got very warm towards noon. I
have now been a fortnight here, and with every prospect of being
detained a month longer. I am bored to death by the people, of
whom the more I see the worse I like them. Had a visit from Sheïkh
’Ali, and a part of his tribe: I was obliged to be civil, lest I should have
to return to Suweïrah; as in that case he would protect me. Health
but indifferent, as I can get no peace or quiet from the importunities
of the people here. Three persons have just come sixty miles to ask
me to tell them where the silver is to be found, that they know is in
great plenty about Tamenart. The old mines are not worked; but the
nokrah is in the field (ground). I told them it was impossible to give
an answer without visiting the spot, or seeing some of the stones
from it. If I am to stop to make them all rich, Heaven knows when I
shall come back. As I have the character of a magician, every dirty
devil in and about the place claims a prescriptive right to the entré,
and the beasts come loaded with vermin. Took a short walk, and
retired to rest.
Saturday, May 7.—Therm. 70°. Weather beautiful. Feeling myself
much better, I strolled to the water, which is not a river, but a kind of
lake. Met with rhododendrons in full flower, and saw a great variety
of odoriferous shrubs, with an abundance of tortoises. I was followed
by one of the Sherí beggars for money. A nephew of the Sultán has
got off under[96] .........[97] order. The river Assaka is to the south of
the mountains that enclose Wád Nún; but I can gain no information
about it. Sick at heart with my evening parties, which occur quotidie
(daily). Received letters from Mr. Willshire. It is lucky that we are
here: we have done the big wigs.
Sunday, May 8.—Therm. 70°. Weather is becoming quite warm;
was up early, and read the prayers: sent Abú to the Sók, and tried to
purchase a dagger, but it was too dear. The Sheïkh’s son bought one
at night, but it was not equal to the one I had seen. Found a
document relating to the Auléd Deleim, one of the Arab tribes: took a
walk with Sheïkh Ali, whose people returned to a sheep-killing, &c. I
have no chance of sleeping, as they are to leave at day-break.
Monday, May 9.—Therm. 72°. Weather beautiful. The camels are
collecting for the Sók: the best will not fetch more than thirty mitcals,
and good ones are to be bought for twenty. This animal changes its
name every year for the first nine years; but after that time, it is the
jemál. In the first year, and while suckling, it is el howar; in the
second, el ben áshar; in the third, el bellibún; in the fourth, el hak; in
the fifth, el zoa; in the sixth, el thání; in the seventh, el erba’; in the
eighth, el siasí; and in the ninth, el jemál: the female is called nákah:
it has been known to work for thirty years; after which they are
turned out. The Heïri horse does not cost more than from sixty to
one hundred dollars. All kinds of cattle and food are cheap to a fault.
With regard to their buildings, the rooms are long and narrow, but
without windows, as the doors answer for that purpose; and there
they keep their guns, swords, saddles, powder-horns, &c. Driven out
of the room by vermin. At four, A.M., I commenced washing my
clothes.[98] The Jewish gentleman was offended, that I did not pay
him a visit on the Sabbath: after this, I helped to cut up the sheep,
and set about preparing my own food; but as these people think I
dislike what they cook for me, I ate a little by way of training, and I
shall now have a daily dose of it. Abú gets more helpless daily. I fear
he has become religiously crazy. Walked to the water, and then had
a large party in the evening, which kept me up till midnight.
Tuesday, May 10.—Therm. 76°. The heat is returning again; very
sultry at noon. Saw the Sheïkh’s three wives, and his numerous
family of sons and daughters; they were more pleased with me than I
with them; there were two pretty girls amongst them, but very dirty:
the Sheïkh’s forty slaves, and all the family, were out to see one of
the ladies off. Walked round the whole place, which is larger than I
thought: ascended a hill that commands all the approaches to the
town; it formerly had a fort upon it, and should have it now. On the
east of the town there is a large enclosure, surrounded with walls,
where the great Sók is held. There are twenty large public ovens for
cooking meat and bread; ten smaller ones for fritters, made of honey
and butter; and some for sphynge and kuskusú, and many matmórs
for corn; and a good supply of water.
All are in expectation of this great day, or rather of these three
days. Sidi Hasan, and all the people from the neighbourhood, will be
here. Beyond the enclosure is a very neat tomb of the Sheïkh’s
predecessor, from which there is a good view of the country. On the
plain are many scattered villages, and four extraordinary hills, distant
from each other about one thousand yards. By the last is meant the
mountains which shut in a part of Wád Nún: in the back ground is a
fine range of hills, about one thousand feet high. I am now in my
third week here, with every chance of detention for three or four
weeks longer. I got rid of my evening party by pretending to be ill.
Wednesday, May 11.—Therm. 76°. Weather most favourable for
acclimatizing me for the Sahrá. Went to the house of ’Omar to see
Banna; had two ladies to examine. There was too great
fastidiousness on the part of some, and too little on the part of
others: from this I went to the Millah. My pretty patient is better to-
day, but is very stupid, as they all are: the Jewesses bear away the
palm of beauty; and dirty as they proverbially are, they are
cleanliness itself, as compared with the Arab ladies, whose filth, dirt,
and misery, are dreadful. A consul lives here, which is quite absurd.
Received many blessings. Had some disturbance about my horse:
the people are beginning to find fault, and my food is falling off; nor
do they give the same hearty welcome as formerly: the fact is, one
must be always giving to get on with these people. I took to my haik,
and like it much better than the sulham. I am nearly devoured by flies
by day, and fleas by night. Am pleased more and more with Hájí El
Khirefí, who is to take us, I hear, to Súdán, where he has been
twenty times. My evening party was much better behaved than
usual.
Thursday, May 12.—Therm. 75°. Went to breakfast with Solomon
the Jew, whose wife is making up my shirts, and mother washing my
clothes; but such is the fashion of the place. Went some distance up
the bed of the river, which is now quite dry. Nothing is talked of but
Sidi El Rásí and the Moutardi, or the forthcoming great Sók. Food is
very bad, and the meat stinking. Saw a beautiful gun that was made
here; the Sheïkh promises to get me one[99] before I go. Some rain
fell before noon, and it became quite cold, as evening came on. To-
day I had many more lady-patients, as Abú calls them; their
complaints are curious. One is to be fattened up to thrice her present
size. Several wish to know how they are to become mothers: many
want me to give them the powder which Christians have to make
people love them. Eyes to be cured out of number; and as they are
far too many for me to attend to all, I have selected two, who are
very ill, and whom I think I can cure, and I have put the rest away as
incurable. Rain has fallen all round, but has not yet reached here.
The husband of the pretty Jewess has sent to say, that he shall feel
hurt, if I do not breakfast with him, as I had breakfasted with
Solomon. I promised to go to-morrow.
Friday, May 13.—Therm. 78°. Went to breakfast with the pretty
Jewess; her husband is a man of some information. We had too
much to eat: afterwards walked about two miles up the bed of the
river, which, when full, must contain a large body of water. Visited the
Arab tents; on returning, saw some very fine women, but they were
beastly dirty. Morality is here at a very low ebb; the husband
prostitutes his wife, and the father his child; and this is considered no
disgrace, if it is done for a valuable consideration, and not for love.
Witnessed a very disgusting scene with the Sheïkh; he has three
wives all living, but he still likes his slaves: his fourth wife died lately;
she was an Arab of great beauty, for whom he gave two hundred
camels, twelve slaves, and a great quantity of produce. His eldest
son is a chip of the old block, and is running after every woman he
takes a fancy to, the pretty Jewess excepted, whose person is
considered sacred. Three Moors have destroyed themselves for her
in a fit of love, and all come to see her. As she is a patient, I can visit
her daily. I am becoming very impatient, and the people tell me I
have a quick temper: but the fact is, time is no object to the people
here; their care is merely how to waste it; as soon as one meal is
finished, they want to sleep till the time for the next arrives. It is quite
dreadful to see the sad state to which human nature is degraded in
this place. The small-pox has broken out with great violence, and I
have to run the gauntlet without the least chance of escaping from it.
A slave was brought in, charged with attempting to run away; it
appears to have been a little love affair: he was punished by having
a fifty-six pound-weight fastened to his leg.
Saturday, May 14.—Therm. 74°. The poor creature is still chained,
and has not a drop of water, although it is now mid-day. The Sheïkh
should have clean hands before he thus punished others. Went out
again to the bed of the river, and made the round of the Khiesin: met
many beautiful women, if they were only clean. Their husbands are
all gone to Súdán; had to prescribe for some fifty of them; they
wanted me to make their faces of the same colour as my legs and
arms. My watch, rings, &c. were a great object of curiosity with them:
had a little difficulty in making some of them shew their tongues,
which they consider a mark of impudence; they all like to be closely
examined; their figures are perfectly beautiful; most of them were at
work. I had prayers and thanks in abundance. One very merry lass
had on her neck a curious collection: it embraced a little bag of
spices and scents; the nail of a horse-shoe; a leather charm, called
horse; a broken shell; a large glass bead; another horse; a shell
again (habha); a small habha, consisting of a circular piece of agate,
and a large horse at the centre, from which was suspended the horn
of a young ram; and the same things were repeated, forming the
circle. Some of the women work beautiful háïks, blankets, and
carpets. In the large tents are two beds raised on feet, with a cradle,
the canopy for the bride. There are two tents in each inclosure of
thorns or prickly pears. Visited the Millah, and then home.
Sunday, May 15.—Therm. 76°. Had a long conversation with
Zeïn, who was at Tumbuktú when Major Laing was killed.[100] It
appears that Hámed Libbú gave all the protection he could; but that
the Sheïkh, to whose care the Major was entrusted, expected to gain
a large plunder by his destruction. Zeïn had seen also Caillié[101]
several times during his stay there. Things have now changed. The
government is now Fulání. Hámed Libbú killed four thousand of the
Tawáriks in one day, and has quite reduced that tribe to subjection.
These marauders are, however, still in force between Tumbuktú and
Sakatú. A large portion of the former place, inhabited by the
Tawáriks, has been burnt down. Zeïn tells me there is no chance of
my getting to Sakatú. The Wád and the river are both beset by the
Tawáriks. The distance by land is forty days to Jennah, which is
distant from Tumbuktú eight days; from thence to Sansanding and
Ségó four or five days; and from thence twenty days to the source of
the river. To Kóng he did not know how long the journey was; but it is
very distressing, and is all performed on foot. Read the prayers. Day
very hot towards noon. There is a little quiet to-day, as all the people
are out at the Sók; which has been but badly attended, as there is no
arrival from Suweïrah, and the káfilah will not be here for some days.
Walked out and looked at Wesnúnah, which is about six miles south,
and to As-sérir about four east. The Sheïkh has about forty villages,
containing a population, they say, of twenty-five thousand. My spirits
are much depressed to-day. My position is truly miserable: I am
bored to death, and obliged to submit, through the fear of making
enemies amongst savages. I have scarcely a book to while away the
time, and no means of improving myself, or getting information from
others. I have at last learnt the name of the river; it is the
Bontkonman, or, as some call it, Buatkuman: it is called also
Mulasar. The large river that is laid down in the maps, as the Akassa,
runs nearly due east and west, flowing through the south of Wád