HANDBOOK-đã Gộp

THE GENERAL
HANDBOOK
Diplomatic Academy of Viet Nam Department of
DAV Model United Nations Research and Development
DAV MOCK MUN 2024
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL

ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)
***
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ 2
A. DAIS INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 4
1. Quynh Huong, Pham - Chairwoman......................................................................... 4
2. Quynh Trang, Ho - Chairwoman................................................................................ 5
3. Ngoc Minh, Tran Nguyen - Chairwoman..................................................................6
B. COMMITTEE INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 7
I. HISTORY & FOUNDATION........................................................................................ 7
II. SCOPE & AUTHORITIES............................................................................................7
III. MEMBER STATES....................................................................................................... 8
IV. INTRODUCTORY NOTES & COUNCIL EXPECTATIONS..................................9
C. COMMITTEE TOPIC: PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY DURING

ARMED CONFLICTS......................................................................................................... 10
I. TOPIC INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 10
II. DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 10
III. CURRENT SITUATION & FORTHCOMING CHALLENGES.......................... 12
IV. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES............................................................................ 14
1. Efforts by UNESCO...............................................................................................14
2. Efforts by the United Nations and its sub-organs............................................ 14
3. Other regional and international responses...................................................... 14
V. CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS...................................................................................16
VI. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS........................................................................................... 17
VII. COUNTRY STANCES/FEATURES.......................................................................20
1. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan......................................................................... 20
2. People's Republic of China...................................................................................21
3. Republic of Colombia........................................................................................... 22
4. Democratic Republic of Congo............................................................................22

5. French Republic..................................................................................................... 23
6. Republic of Honduras...........................................................................................24
7. Republic of India................................................................................................... 25
8. Republic of Iraq......................................................................................................26
9. Japan........................................................................................................................27
10. Republic of Korea................................................................................................ 28
11. Republic of Kuwait..............................................................................................29
12. State of Libya........................................................................................................30
13. Kingdom of Morocco.......................................................................................... 31
14. New Zealand........................................................................................................32
15. Russian Federation..............................................................................................33
18. Swiss Confederation........................................................................................... 36
19. Syrian Arab Republic.......................................................................................... 37
20. Ukraine..................................................................................................................38
21. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland...............................39
22. United Mexican States........................................................................................ 40
23. United States of America....................................................................................41
24. Republic of Yemen...............................................................................................42
VIII. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER............................................................................... 42
D. REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 42
E. CREDITS........................................................................................................................... 47
A. DAIS INTRODUCTION
1. Quynh Huong, Pham - Chairwoman
Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers,
My name is Pham Quynh Huong and I am a student majoring in English
Linguistics and International Law at the Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam. As the
Chairwoman, I would have the honour to accompany you on this journey, which I
hope will be unforgettable for all of us.
The word “curious” seems to perfectly epitomise me, and I have an insatiable
thirst for knowledge in various fields. MUN is one that can quench it. My first MUN
is treasured as one of the most heartfelt and joyful memories of my university life,
and I believe there are still many kindred experiences in store for me. Therefore, I
would love to see more people embark on this journey and derive the same pleasure.
Joining MUN can be difficult and overwhelming, it can also be empowering,
enlightening and light-hearted. There are questions to be considered, lessons to be
learned, people to be met, and memories to be cherished. My watchword is “Trust
the process”, and I hope it also comes in handy for you. Should any obstacles arise,
please feel free to voice your concerns and I will try my best to come to your aid.
Yours sincerely,
Pham Quynh Huong.
2. Quynh Trang, Ho - Chairwoman
Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee members

and staff,
First and foremost, I would love to welcome all future delegates to the DAV Mock
MUN 2024. My name is Ho Quynh Trang, currently a junior majoring in
International Law at the Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam. It is my utmost privilege
to accompany you on your upcoming journey as your Chairperson for the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
As a student who hesitantly took her first step in the Model United Nations (MUN)
journey, I truly understand that MUN can be daunting for some of you. However, let
me make it clear that MUN is all about research, self-confidence, and collaboration.
From the knowledge gained from our background guide and your own
investigation, you will be able to come up with a wide range of innovative ideas.
And through collaboration, these ideas of yours and others will form realistic
solutions. This is how MUN boosted my self-esteem and bridged me to incredible,
brilliant individuals. I am flattered to experience it again this time, not from a
delegate perspective, but as a Chairperson.
By joining UNESCO at DAV Mock MUN 2024, delegates may take the chance to
discuss the topic “Preservation of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict”. With
innovations and creative policies, shall delegates take steps to lean towards a better
heritage conservation in a world full of turmoil and unpredictability?
Kindest regard,
Ho Quynh Trang.
3. Ngoc Minh, Tran Nguyen - Chairwoman
Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee members

and staff,
Welcome to the DAV Mock 2024, my name is Tran Nguyen Ngoc Minh, a
sophomore at the Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam. It is my great honor to be a
Co-Chair of the UNESCO committee.
Although I am relatively new to the MUN community, I have always been

passionate about spreading the benefits of engaging in academic activities to others.
I believe that such activities allow individuals to learn and share knowledge as well
as foster new friendships.
By joining this Committee, you will have a chance to discuss cultural property
preservation during armed conflicts, a dilemma that plagued almost every single
nation in the global community. I believe the discussion and decisions made by you,
the delegates, will have a lasting impact on the future itself.
Lastly, I would like to encourage you, delegates, to thoroughly prepare and

deliver your best performances on the designated day. Besides, I hope that all
observers will have a memorable and engaging experience at DAV Mock 2024.
Yours sincerely,
Ngoc Minh.
4. Hai Yen, Nguyen - Content Developer
Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee

members and staff,
First and foremost, I would like to extend my warmest welcome to the

delegates that will be joining us here at DAV Mock 2024. My name is Nguyen Hai
Yen, a junior of the Faculty of International Communication and Culture at the
Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam. It is my honour to assist UNESCO as a Content
developer.
During my on-going journey with DAVMUN, I have had the privilege to step
out of my comfort zone and improve in many aspects. With the intriguing and
sometimes stressful nature of MUNs, I was able to polish my critical-thinking and
public speaking skills, have first-hand experience with such formal events, and most
importantly, to believe in myself. Moreover, MUNs are where I met and formed
meaningful connections with interesting and like-minded friends now.
With the topic “Preservation of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict”,

UNESCO offers delegates a platform to discuss an alarming topic of numerous
nations in the world. While different nations have different approaches to the topic,
how will countries cooperate to resolve this on-going matter, especially with the
complex nature of armed conflicts? The answer now lies in delegates’ hands, with
their upcoming solutions and initiatives.
I hope to witness the preparation and confidence of the delegates during the
conferences. I would also like to encourage the delegates to enjoy the journey and
focus on the experience instead of having tunnel vision on the awards after.
Once again, thank you for participating in DAV MOCK 2024 and choosing
UNESCO. See you at the conference!
Yours truly,
Nguyen Hai Yen.

5. Hai Nguyet, Bui Thi - Content Developer
Greetings our prospective delegates,
It is a genuine blessing for me and all of the members within DAVMUN crew
to have you at Mock MUN 2024. I am Hai Nguyet, currenly a freshman at the
National Economics University. And I could not be more excited to stand by you as a
Content Developer in UNESCO this time.
I usually envisage my MUN path as an image of a roller coaster. Yet it is
thrilling and challenging from the start; however, the more you follow, the more
intriguing and promising experience you may gain. After every single conference,
what I have accomplished is not solely limited to the academic boost or vital skills;
the drive to steadily muster up my courage is also recognizable. Without an
opportunity to stand and speak up, I could barely imagine how long I would push
myself to go that far and what insufficient aspects I needed to sharpen.
Firmly do I believe that our topic of “Preservation of cultural property during
armed conflicts” would have impressed you from the first line. Trust me, our journey
ahead will not disappoint you at all if you choose to enjoy with us to the fullest.
We are looking forward to seeing you bloom.
Sincerely,
Bui Thi Hai Nguyet
6. Gia Linh, Nguyen Vu - Content Developer
Dear distinguished delegates and esteemed observers,
On behalf of the organizing committee, it is my utmost pleasure to extend a
warm welcome to all delegates attending the upcoming Model United Nations
conference. It is my honor to support you in this DAVMUN journey. Whether this is
the first time you attended this event or you have already become acquainted with
MUN, I hope this will be one of your unforgettable experiences.
How can MUN help you in your personal development journey? This is a
playground for you to develop and learn to synthesize knowledge from all aspects,
ranging from history, geography…to culture, and international relations. And most
of all, it gives you an outstanding experience in becoming a delegate of the United
Nations, where our responsibility is to solve the world's great issues in a formal
manner.
Your dedication to the conference is key to creating an interesting,
informative, and unforgettable MUN. May this conference be a rewarding journey
filled with growth, learning, meaningful connections, and fruitful debates. Once
again, we extend our gratitude for selecting DAVMUN as a shining milestone in
your MUN journey!
Best regards
Nguyen Vu Gia Linh
7. Binh, Nguyen Thanh - Content Developer
members and staff,
Greetings, everyone. My name is Nguyen Thanh Binh, currently a sophomore
at the Diplomatic Academy of Viet Nam. It is an honour for me to be the content
developer of the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization at
DAV Mock MUN 2024. I hope that all the Delegates and Observers will have a
memorable time and grab new knowledge at the conference this year.
Good luck and see you at the conference!
Best wishes,
Binh
Nguyen Thanh Binh
8. Ngoc Diep, Le Thi - Content Developer
members and staff,
For the very first thing, I would like to send a great welcome to the delegates
here who will become an unforgettable part of Mock MUN 2024. I am Le Thi Ngoc
Diep, a freshman majoring in International Economics at the Diplomatic Academy of
Vietnam.
MUN to me is a special, where I can explore new aspects of myself through
every attendance. I have not been in the MUN community for too long, through this
playground I have grown and broken my limitations more than eve, from a shy girl
who needs to mobilize all her strengths and courage to raise her very first motion to
the one who can comfortably express her country’s attitudes. And I believe, with
thorough investigation and enthusiasm during the conference, MUN can give you
the same wonderful experience.
With the topic of “Preservation of cultural property in armed conflicts”, you
will be able to see global conflicts from a very different and special attitude.
Yours Sincerely,
Le Thi Ngoc Diep
B. COMMITTEE INTRODUCTION
I. HISTORY & FOUNDATION
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) was established on 16 November 1945. The idea of reconstructing and
restoring educational systems after the denouement of the war, which served as the
bedrock of its inception, traced its roots to 1942, when warfare had still been reigning
and European country representatives met in the Conference of Allied Ministers of
Education (CAME), convened in the United Kingdom.1 It was upon the proposal of
this conference that a United Nations Conference was subsequently organized in
London from 1 to 16 November 1945, from which the establishment of an
educational and cultural organization eventuated. UNESCO was established from a
Constitution adopted on the last day of the aforementioned conference and has
undergone over 20 amendments by the General Conference thereafter.
II. SCOPE & AUTHORITIES
As declared by the Constitution, the purpose of UNESCO is to strengthen
international collaboration through education, science and culture to promote and
uphold justice, rule of law, human rights and fundamental freedoms without racial,
sexual, linguistic or religious distinction, by the Charter of the United Nations,
thereby contributing to peace and security. Besides supporting educational and
scientific projects, UNESCO has also emerged as one of the entities that ensure the
preservation of the environment and the conservation of the common cultural legacy
of humanity.
As listed in the Constitution, to realize this purpose UNESCO shall:

(a) Contribute to the advancement of the mutual knowledge and
understanding of peoples, via recommending international agreements that may be
required to promote the free flow of ideas;
1
R. A. Butler, and Sir Malcolm Robertson. 1942. Review of Conference of Allied Ministers of
Education. Corporate body.
https://atom.archives.unesco.org/conference-of-allied-ministers-of-education.
‌
(b) Provide momentum to mass education and cultural spread:
By collaborating with Members states in educational activities;
By fostering coordination among countries to advance the ideal of equality of
educational opportunity without discrimination of any nature;
By initiating recommendations as to educational methods best suited to equip
the worldwide generations for freedom;
(c) Maintain and intensify the dissemination of knowledge:
By assuring the preservation and protection of the world’s inheritance of
literary materials, artworks and monuments, and recommending necessary
international conventions;
By encouraging cooperative activities among the nations in all intellectual
spheres, including the international exchange of personnel and the exchange of
publications, objects and materials of interests in educational, scientific and cultural
fields;
By initiating methods of international cooperation delineated to ensure
international equal access to printed and published materials.
It should be noted that intervening in matters which are essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of Member States is outside the purview of UNESCO.2
III. MEMBER STATES

As of 2023, UNESCO has 194 Members and 12 Associate Members; whose
membership of UNESCO is governed by Articles II and XV of the Constitution and
by rules 98 to 101 of the Rules of Procedures of the General Conference.34
2
UNESCO. 1945. Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization. Vol. 1.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000382500&fil
e=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_bc9e7a8c-3b3c-4d4e-
aae4-3506dd7dfb09%3F_%3D382500eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000382500
/PDF/382500eng.pdf#Constitution%202022_E.indd%3A.12654%3A10889.
3
UNESCO. 1945. Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural
4
UNESCO. 1945. Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural
It is outlined in the Constitution of UNESCO that membership of the United
Nations shall translate into the right to membership of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It follows that members
suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership of the
United Nations shall be suspended from those of UNESCO. Expulsion from the
United Nations shall automatically count as the invalidation of UNESCO
membership. Non-Member-States of the United Nations may be granted
membership of UNESCO, as recommended by the Executive Board, by a two-thirds
majority vote of the General Conference. Territories or groups of territories not
responsible for their international relations may become Associate Members by the
General Conference by a two-thirds majority of Members present and voting.
Any Member State or Associate Member of the Organization may withdraw
from UNESCO by notifying the Director-General.
Each Member State is entitled to appoint a Permanent Delegate to the
Organization, who shall present his credentials to the Director-General of UNESCO.
All Member States have established a National Commission for UNESCO.
IV. INTRODUCTORY NOTES & COUNCIL EXPECTATIONS
It is at the forthcoming DAV Mock MUN 2024 that the topic “Preservation of
Cultural Property during Armed Conflicts'' is to be brought to the fore under the
auspices of the simulated United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization - UNESCO. In light of the patent essentiality of the humankind’s
cultural legacy and the grave threats posed to it by relentless waves of armed
conflicts erupting nowadays, the Organizing Committee deems the simulation a
chance for delegates to deliberate on the matter from as diverse perspectives as
possible and excogitate workable solutions to it.
‌
Considering that objective, the desideratum for participants is competence
regarding an array of skills, most notably diplomacy, negotiation, and strategic
thinking. We also expect to see proactive and effective responses to the unfolding of
the committee. It is up to delegates whether our resuscitated attempts at this matter
will founder or come to fruition.
C. COMMITTEE TOPIC: PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY DURING
ARMED CONFLICTS
I. TOPIC INTRODUCTION
It is incontestable that cultural properties, ranging from historic temples to
ancient antiquities, are, have been, and should be treasured by each nation and
humankind collectively for their values in defining communities’ identities, bearing
witness to and preserving the legacies left in the trail of history. Regrettably, amid the
chaos of conflict, cultural properties often become tragic casualties of war, facing
threats of intentional destruction, looting, and illicit trafficking. These conducts can
be done for a variety of purposes, from funding war efforts to satisfying selfish gains
and deliberately ruining cultural identities. They irrevocably devastated the social
fabric of the affected communities and nations, creating grave hurdles to full
recovery from armed conflicts.
Facing the vortex of turmoil and instability, the world should consider
preserving cultural properties as one of the most imperative goals due to their
intrinsic values and ability to shape identities, as well as conserve our collective
history. The protection of cultural property during armed conflicts is not merely the
preservation of each country’s distinctive possessions but of our shared legacy.
II. DEFINITIONS
Terms Explanation
This term covers, irrespective of origin or ownership,

Cultural Property movable or immovable property constituting the
cultural heritage of all mankind, to which each people
makes its contribution. This includes historic
monuments, works of art, buildings and places of
worship, archaeological sites, museums and
depositories, libraries, archives, scientific collections,
etc.5
Buildings and historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc.,

which are considered worthy of preservation for the
Tangible Heritage
future, as well as objects significant to the archaeology,
architecture, science, or technology of a specific culture.
Intangible cultural heritage is the practices, expressions,

knowledge, and skills that communities, groups, and
sometimes individuals recognize as part of their cultural
heritage. Also called living cultural heritage, it is
Intangible Heritage
usually expressed in one of the following forms: oral
traditions; performing arts; social practices, rituals, and
festive events; knowledge and practices concerning
nature and the universe; and traditional craftsmanship.
Serious violation of the laws or customs of war as

defined by international customary law and
War Crime
international treaties. Attacking cultural heritage sites is
defined as a war crime.
5
“1954 Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and Its
Protocols.” 2021. Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross.
Indigenous peoples are inheritors and practitioners of
unique cultures and ways of relating to people and the
Indigenous environment. They have retained social, cultural,
economic, and political characteristics that are distinct
from those of the dominant societies in which they live.
An armed struggle between a sovereign state and

non-state actors in which the actors utilize violence in
an effort to bring about political change. Insurgencies
are complex emergencies with numerous, connected,
but unrelated components that constantly modify the
Insurgency
circumstances under which an insurgency is started,
maintained, or fought. Nominally, an insurgent is
defined by 3 main factors:
- The use of violence to achieve political aims;

- The aim of creating a new social order;
- Contesting sovereignty.6
A quality of a force created according to a military

pattern, particularly as a possible auxiliary military
Paramilitaries force. Although a wide range of organizations might be
considered paramilitary, the term is typically used to
describe forces assembled by a government.
6
Johan Lammers, “Defining Insurgency: Framework of Conditions, Causes, and Consequences
Applied to the Dutch Revolt,” Www.academia.edu, January 2017,
https://www.academia.edu/32132367/Defining_Insurgency_Framework_of_Conditions_Causes_an
d_Consequences_applied_to_the_Dutch_Revolt.
III. CURRENT SITUATION & FORTHCOMING CHALLENGES
1. Current situation
From time immemorial, the development and intellectual capacity of the
human race have been documented through what is called ‘culture’. According to
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
“cultural heritage” includes “artefacts, monuments, a group of buildings and sites,
museums that have a diversity of values including symbolic, historic, artistic,
aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological, scientific and social significance”.7 This is
further divided into tangible heritage, including physical artifacts such as buildings
or monuments, and intangible heritage which is nonphysical intellectual property
like folklore or traditions. Both provide invaluable knowledge about human
evolution and give a glimpse at one community at a time.
However, the increasing number of armed conflicts and disputes poses a
threat to the cultural heritage that already needs preservation and restoration. In hot
spots of wars, culturally important monuments and buildings are razed to the
ground under heavy bombardment. Historical artworks and documents are stolen or
purposefully destroyed. A case in point is the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia.
Although popular for its Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque churches, monasteries,
palaces and fountains, the Old City of Dubrovnik was heavily damaged during the
Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s.8 The famous Vincent Van Gogh’s “The painter on his
way to Tarascon”, is reported to be, or even destroyed, during wars or raids.9 These
instances, along with countless other historical sites and cultural works irrevocable
during armed conflicts in the past further reaffirm the importance of international
legal frameworks and joint efforts from member states in preserving the legacy of the
human race.
7
UNESCO. 2020. “Cultural Heritage.” Uis.unesco.org. June 22, 2020.
https://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/cultural-heritage.
8
“Old City of Dubrovnik.” 2022. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2022.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/95/.
9
Jones, Jonathan. 2013. “Missing in Action: Artworks Presumed to Have Been Destroyed in the War.”
The Guardian. November 4, 2013.
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/nov/04/missing-in-action-artworks-destroyed-
war.
The prominent international treaty concerning the safety of cultural property
in such occasions is the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in
the Event of Armed Conflict, also widely known as the 1954 Hague Convention,
along with its first and second protocols. The Convention laid out a legally binding
framework for signatory parties to take proper measures to protect and respect their
cultural property and also that of other contracting parties. To supervise and ensure
the effectiveness of the Convention, signatory parties report on their fulfillment of
the Convention every four years.10 Apart from this, the Rome Statute of 1998
establishing the International Criminal Court (ICC) classifies the intentional and
direct international destruction of buildings dedicated to art and historic monuments
cultural heritage as a war crime pursuant Article 8(2).11 In addition to a legal
framework, Blue Shield International, an international non-governmental
organization, is dedicated to preserving cultural heritage worldwide. This
organization is also responsible for assessing the damage done to cultural property
during and after armed conflicts. Apart from those instances, measures are also
taken nationally, regionally and collectively to preserve cultural property during
peacetime, during armed conflicts and after hostilities.
While the 1954 Hague Convention and the Blue Shield International provided
a fundamental basis for the protection of cultural property, the ongoing disputes and
armed conflicts are still doing damage to artifacts, artworks, buildings and
monuments that are of cultural value. Nearly 200 sites of historical importance have
been destroyed or damaged in Israeli air raids in the Gaza Strip.12 Some of the most
notable properties are an ancient harbour dating back to 800 BC, a mosque that was
home to rare manuscripts and one of the world’s oldest Christian monasteries.
Meanwhile, the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture estimated that at least 480,000
10
“1954 Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and Its
Protocols.” 2021. Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross.
11
ICC. “Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.” legal.un.org, July 17, 1998.
https://legal.un.org/icc/statute/romefra.htm.
12
Saber, Indlieb Farazi. 2024. “A ‘Cultural Genocide’: Which of Gaza’s Heritage Sites Have Been
Destroyed?” Al Jazeera. January 14, 2024.
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/14/a-cultural-genocide-which-of-gazas-heritage-sites-hav
e-been-destroyed.
artworks have fallen into Russian hands.13 International art experts consider this as
“the single biggest collective art heist since the Nazis pillaged Europe in World War
II”.14 Therefore, the preservation of cultural property during armed conflicts remains
a pressing matter that calls for the attention and participation of not only Parties of
the 1954 Hague Convention but also other United Nations’ Member states.
2. Forthcoming challenges
It is undeniable that cultural property holds special value to the human race
as it provides us with insights about our communities in the past. Therefore, to
protect cultural property is to protect the continuity and the legacy of our kind.
However, while efforts have been made nationally and internationally, the process of
preserving cultural property during armed conflicts still encounters many
challenges. It is crucial to emphasize that the damage to cultural property in conflicts
can also be mitigated before and after wartime.
a. During peacetime
A prominent problem that can be seen in many countries is the lack of
expertise in this field. While there are regular staff that attend to the artifacts and
cultural constructions daily, few have the necessary conservation knowledge and
professional skills. Many items of cultural value are therefore already in critical
condition even before armed conflicts, making them more susceptible to destruction
during armed conflicts.
The challenges for the conservation of cultural property also include the lack
of awareness of its significance, not only in the general public but also in
governments, which is equally important. While the public’s interest can shed light
on the matter and put forward suggestions for the process of cultural heritage
preservation, the government will be responsible for a safeguarding plan and
changes in policies. However, for a variety of reasons, most countries do not plan to
take further protective measures. For instance, The Implementation Guidance of the
13
“Inside the Hunt for Ukraine’s Stolen Art.” 2024. The Economist. January 5, 2024.
https://www.economist.com/culture/2024/01/05/inside-the-hunt-for-ukraines-stolen-art#:~:text=T
he%20country.
14
Gettleman, Jeffrey, and Oleksandra Mykolyshyn. 2023. “As Russians Steal Ukraine’s Art, They
Attack Its Identity, Too.” The New York Times, January 14, 2023, sec. World.
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/14/world/asia/ukraine-art-russia-steal.html.
United Kingdom stated that “The government considers that those responsible for
cultural property should already be taking appropriate measures to safeguard their
property against a range of potential disasters and emergencies, including under
existing legislation and designation schemes. Therefore it does not intend to impose
any additional safeguarding requirements during peacetime.”15 However, this
governmental inaction has led to a lack of proper policies and guidelines, such as
emergency planning structures or evacuation routes.
b. During wartime and after the hostilities
The 1954 Hague Convention and its two protocols contain numerous articles
stating necessary actions during wartime for all parties of an armed conflict. Article
4(1) of the Convention, backed by Article 6, 7, 8 of the Second Protocol, states that
States Parties must principally “respect cultural property situated within their
territory and the respective territories of other High Contracting Parties by refraining
from directing any hostile act toward such property”.16 However, the lack of military
awareness of all parties in an armed conflict often leads to disregard for those
articles. Armed forces rarely conduct mandatory cultural property preservation
training, and during actual armed conflicts, evacuation and preservation of cultural
property are usually seen as an “unnecessary distraction”.17 Meanwhile, the
opposing groups may deliberately target cultural sites with the purpose of erasing a
culture’s traces.
Apart from the debate of military awareness, the effect of the 1954 Hague
Convention remains a question to consider. Like other international treaties, the
Convention and the two Protocols are legally binding on their State Parties only, and
the effect also differs within each country. However, the effectiveness of the
Convention encounters challenges due to many reasons, one of which is the
15
“Implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event
of Armed Conflict, its Protocols and the Cultural Property (Armed Conflicts) Act 2017.” 2017.
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. November 2017.
16
“1954 Convention Information Kit.” n.d. UNESCO.
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/1954Convention-InfoKit-EN-Fina-webl_02.pdf?fbclid=Iw
AR3D5w2LPlCUW--2fWLYMtDQvoBnUC6ldAGAfH-TdjSd_23szIxDo8PbTn0.
17
Cunliffe, Emma. 2019. “Enskilt Inlägg | Heritageinwar.” Heritageinwar. Home | Centre for
Heritage in War. February 12, 2019.
https://www.heritageinwar.com/single-post/2019/02/07/The-challenges-of-protecting-cultural-heri
tage-in-armed-conflict.
complexity of the extent to which a cultural heritage becomes a military target. For
example, in the case of the Mostar bridge destruction, those who were prosecuted
and tried were acquitted of their crimes because of the complexity of the case.18
Another reason is the guarantee of compensation and restoration of the damaged
cultural property during disputes. While there have been cases of restitution for
cultural heritage after wartime, such as the Washington Conference Principles on
Nazi-Confiscated Art which provide guidelines for restitution efforts,19 many
cultural properties remain lost or completely damaged.
IV. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES
1. Efforts by UNESCO
a. The Hague Conventions and its Protocols
Since its joint adoption along with the first Protocol in 1954, The Hague
Convention shed a guiding light on further approaches towards cultural property
safeguarding by providing a general framework for Member States and other
stakeholders.20 In the 1950s, conflicts were seen to be exclusively internal affairs of
States and hence worldwide in scope. Thus, the main context in which the articles of
the Hague Convention are intended to be applied during international hostilities.
Thereafter, deficiencies in its practical implementation were put under further
investigation.
With the goal of updating the Hague Convention's provisions for
contemporary conflicts, the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention is especially
intriguing. It was made available for ratification in 1999, following events that
transpired during the former Yugoslavian war. Nonetheless, there is still ambiguity
surrounding the phrase "conflicts not of an international character" in the 1999
Protocol. This instrument's Article 22 specifies that it "shall not apply to situations of
internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of
18
Ibid.
19
“Washington Conference Principles on Nazi-Confiscated Art.” 1998. United States Department of
State. December 3, 1998.
https://www.state.gov/washington-conference-principles-on-nazi-confiscated-art/.
20
Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Event of Armed Conflict. March 26, 1999. UNESCO.
https://en.unesco.org/about-us/legal-affairs/second-protocol-hague-convention-1954-protection-cul
tural-property-event
violence and other acts of a similar nature" and that it "shall apply in the event of an
armed conflict not of an international character, occurring within the territory of one
of the Parties."21
b. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible cultural Heritage
(CSICH)
The identification of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) has been a drawn-out
and contentious process. The worldwide standard for acts pertaining to this kind of
heritage is still the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage, which was established in 2003 and entered into force until April 20, 2006.22
An accomplishment in and of itself, the establishment of a Representative List of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity to honour specific elements deemed
"representative of humanity" is especially noteworthy in light of the fact that not all
nations are members and that there is insufficient representation in its
decision-making bodies. While the Convention contributed to raising awareness of
the importance of intangible cultural heritage, its lack of a comprehensive and
holistic approach was still critically analyzed. For instance, regarding the
endangered Hudhud chanting, raising concerns about the CSICH's capacity to
safeguard cultural aspects. The structures and procedures of the convention need to
be reevaluated in light of this study in order to successfully protect intangible
cultural heritage, particularly that of indigenous groups.22
c. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of
Cultural Expressions
The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
Expressions emphasises the value of treating all cultures with respect and equality. It
was approved in Paris in October 2005 with the goal of preserving and advancing
the world's variety of cultural expressions.23 The Convention seeks to strengthen the
21
Giulia Baj. “Beyond Resolution 2347 (2017): The Search for Protection of Cultural Heritage from
Armed Non-State Groups”. Constitutional Review 2017,
https://consrev.mkri.id/index.php/const-rev/article/view/716
22
Sebastian, et al. “Critical analysis of the UNESCO 2003 convention for the safeguarding of
intangible cultural heritage through the case of the Hudhud chants of the Ifugao community”.
December 2022, https://animorepository.dlsu.edu.ph/etdb_intlstud/7/
23
“UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of
ties that bind the processes of cultural expression creation, production, distribution,
access, and use. It was met with resounding approval, indicating a shared
commitment to safeguarding cultural diversity and advancing cultural rights
worldwide. This accord, grounded in basic values and human rights, symbolises the
global community's commitment to preserving and advancing cultural variety.
However, some critical viewpoints have been identified surrounding the
Convention, notably about its practical and legal effects. The legal character of the
Convention and its enforcement in reality have been considered to provide obstacles,
even while it offers a framework for national policy and international collaboration
to conserve cultural diversity. The extent to which the Convention can force
significant changes in cultural norms and practices has been questioned by certain
experts, raising questions about the Convention's real applicability and efficacy.
Furthermore, there have been concerns that the Convention's clauses pertaining to
cultural manifestations would conflict with international commercial agreements
and regulations, casting doubt on the relative importance of economic policies and
cultural rights.
2. Efforts by the United Nations and its sub-organs

a. Resolution 2347
Being intervened upon The United Nations Security Council on March 24
2017, the Resolution 2347 has been recognized as the fruitful movement in terms of
cultural heritage preservation during emergencies.24 It seeks to improve cultural
heritage protection from terrorist threats in armed situations by fortifying
international collaboration between States, international organisations, agencies, and
other stakeholders. The resolution clearly promoted the destruction, looting and
smuggling of cultural sites as unlawful and emphasized how international peace
and security could also be threatened beyond. But after thorough analysis of how
the Diversity of Cultural Expressions”. 2005. UNESCO,

https://humanrightscommitments.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/UNESCO-Convention-Cultural
-Expressions.pdf
24
Adopted by the Security Council. “Resolution 2347 (2017)”. March 24, 2017,
https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/862506
UN Security Council decisions should be interpreted, it is determined that
Resolution 2347 is not sufficiently explicit, overly focused on combating terrorism,
and ultimately does not clearly bind States.25
Despite the elaborate follow-up actions taken by Member States and other
stakeholders, the figures of damaged or trafficked cultural items or sites did not
witness a significant plummet after the adoption of the Resolution.26 This left
considerable doubts about the binding or non-binding perspective of the Resolution,
especially since its vision had not been fulfilled. Regardless of the Resolution's
repeated declaration that it is posing a danger to global peace and security, no
mention of Chapter VII of the UN Charter is made, and the proposed measures did
not seem to be very specific or enforceable by law. The majority of the Resolution's
provisions are general in nature. In order to stop the criminal trafficking of cultural
property, cooperation between UN Member States and the pertinent UN bodies is
encouraged; however, States are typically requested to “take appropriate steps” or
“take preventive measures”, proving that the Resolution comprises primarily of
general provisions.27
However, it is not possible to regard this resolution as a squandered
opportunity. By establishing a link between attacks on cultural heritage and threats
to peace and security, it paved the way for further developments in the UNSC action
regarding cultural heritage protection under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.28
Thereby, it validated the negative effects of cultural heritage destruction and theft on
a global scale
b. Unite for Heritage
Founded by the Director-General of UNESCO Irina Bokova on March 28,
2015,29 the campaign Unite4Heritage is a step forward in shielding cultural heritage
25
Giulia Baj. “Cultural heritage during armed conflict. The UN Security Council resolution 2347
(2017), its scope and its consequences”. February 28, 2022,
https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03591787v1/document
26
Ibid
27
Ibid
28
Giulia Baj. "Beyond Resolution 2347 (2017): The Search for Protection of Cultural Heritage from
Armed Non-State Groups". Constitutional Review. February 27, 2020,
https://consrev.mkri.id/index.php/const-rev/article/view/716
29
“Unite4Heritage Campaign”. UNESCO. November 2015,
https://en.unesco.org/events/unite4heritage-campaign
and diversity internationally. The campaign, which was started in reaction to the
extraordinary attacks on heritage that have occurred recently, encourages everyone
to honour the locations, artefacts, and traditional customs. Correspondingly, Irina
Bokova also came up with the official launch of the Heritage Preservation Fund30 in
order to build a financial plan for the campaign; however, this proposal seemed
reluctant and did not show transparent results. Unite4Heritage reached millions of
people every week and most of whom were young enthusiasts, making it an
alternative to promoting cultural heritage protection instead of violent propaganda
by extremists.
3. Other regional and international responses

a. The Blue Shield International (BSI)
Being established underneath the “Founding Four”, known as: the
International Council on Archives (ICA), the International Council of Museums
(ICOM), the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and the
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), Blue Shield
was regarded as an international NGO that aimed for the preservation of world’s
cultural property in the event of armed conflicts and other crises.31 Over decades of
launching numerous initiatives to assure its objectives, BSI decided to widen the
scope of work from solely tangible cultural property (as witnessed in the Hague
Convention), to all sorts of properties, irrespective of whether they are tangible or
intangible, natural or artificial.32 In the long run, the organization soon apprehended
that safeguarding efficiency could be guaranteed only if they analyzed across the
heritage, humanitarian, and uniformed sectors (demonstrated in the diagram
below).20
30
Ibid
31
“About the Blue Shield: Factsheet”. The Blue Shield International. November 19, 2020,
https://theblueshield.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Blue-Shield_International-Fact-Sheet-May-
2021.pdf
32
Peter G. Stone. "Protecting Cultural Property in Armed Conflict: The Necessity for Dialogue and
Action
Integrating the Heritage, Military, and Humanitarian Sectors". Paul Getty Trust. July 13, 2022,
https://www.getty.edu/publications/cultural-heritage-mass-atrocities/downloads/pages/CunoWei
ss_CHMA_part-5-31-stone.pdf
Structure of the work of the Blue Shield (Peter G. Stone, 2022)33
This triangle-shaped relationship would be coherent, while first of all, the

irreplaceable connection between safeguarding individuals and their cultural assets.
The heritage sector has to be aware of the limitations faced by the humanitarian and
uniformed sectors and take into consideration their current goals and issues. Hence,
the partnership should also be maintained during peacetime, working through
armed conflict and the stabilization that follows it in the long, medium, and short
terms. This strategy is showing results, in particular how BSI is addressing previous
negative inquiries in the 2003 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) that
they solely prioritized people’s safeguarding before trying to preserve cultural
property, in order to avoid creating uncertainty.
V. CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
Timeline Event
The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural

May 14, 1954 Property in the Event of Armed Conflict was signed,
marking the first international treaty to focus on the
33
Ibid
safeguarding of cultural property under the accountable
impacts of armed conflicts.
Founding event of International Centre for the Study of the

Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property
1959
(ICCROM), which conserved and restored contemporary
cultural heritage after the Second World War.
The signing remark of the Convention on the Means of

Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and
November 14, 1970
Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, entered into
force on 24 April 1972.
The International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS/BSI)

was founded by the four international cultural heritage
organizations (ICA, ICOM, IFLA & ICOMOS), whose
1996
objectives head to the ultimate protection of cultural
heritage, including all forms of property during armed
conflicts and natural disasters.
The Second Protocol of the Hague Convention was written

by the time the Inter-Governmental Committee for Cultural
1999
Property Protection in Armed Conflict recognized BSI as an
advisory body.
The adoption of the Convention on the Protection of the

Underwater Cultural Heritage with an aim to promote
November 2, 2001
inclusive protection towards maritime and underwater
cultural relics.
The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible

October 17, 2003 Cultural Heritage was adopted after 60 years of working
within this domain, and brought into force on 20 April 2006.
The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the
October 20, 2005 Diversity of Cultural Expressions was adhered in the
General Conference of UNESCO.
Fifty countries of the United Nations Security Council

February 2015 adopted Resolution 2199 which banned trade in cultural
property coming from Iraq and Syria.
Italy and UNESCO signed an agreement on the creation of

February 2016 the first Emergency Task Force for Culture in history, made
up of Italian carabinieri and civilian specialists.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) found Al Mahdi

guilty with nine years’ imprisonment regarding his
September 27, 2016
destruction of historic monuments in Timbuktu, Mali. This
marked the first prosecution pronounced by the Court.
The United Nations Security Council announced the signing

March 2017 of the 2347 Convention on the protection of cultural
property.
First inception of the First Aid and Resilience for Cultural

Heritage in Times of Crisis (FAR), offering advisory services
2020
in protecting cultural property before, during, and after
disasters or conflicts.
The Prosecutor of the ICC published a comprehensive policy

on Cultural Heritage with the initial recognition of the term
June 14, 2021 ‘heritage crimes’, ensuring that the policy held necessary
institutional capacity to conduct preliminary prosecutions of
wrongdoings against cultural sites.
VI. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
The cultural property carries specific and intangible connections with the past
that help to provide national identity and prosperity and achieve a healthy, peaceful,
safe, and sustainable community.34 However, due to armed conflicts that have caused
chaos in human lives, cultural property has been destroyed on a large scale.
To meet the requirement to preserve cultural heritage worldwide, the Blue
Shield, a non-governmental international organization under Dutch law, was
established in 1996.35 Its responsibility is to safeguard the world's cultural property
and protect the cultural and natural heritage, specific and intangible, in cases of
armed conflict, natural disasters, or human-made disasters.36
Notably, cultural heritage should be protected seriously with the cooperation
of the political, military, and humanitarian sectors. Some kinds of measures can be
named such as policy development, coordination within the Blue Shield and with
other organizations, proactive and risk-ready protection, education, training,
capacity building, emergency response, and post-disaster recovery and long-term
activities.37 Those solutions can be divided into three main following stages.
1. During Peacetime
(a) Promoting the Hague Convention of 1954 among the public and through
target groups such as cultural heritage experts, and military or police
agencies;
(b) Preparing to protect cultural property located in their territory, which requires
providing inventory lists; planning emergency measures to protect artifacts
against fire or structural collapse; preparing for the movement of movable
cultural property or providing adequate on-site protection for that property;
and designating the authorities responsible for protecting cultural property.
Many interventions to protect cultural heritage during times of conflict
34
Stone, Peter G. “Protecting Cultural Property in Armed Conflict: The Necessity for Dialogue and
Action Integrating the Heritage, Military, and Humanitarian Sectors.” Cultural Heritage and Mass
Atrocities, September 20, 2022.
https://www.getty.edu/publications/cultural-heritage-mass-atrocities/part-5/31-stone/.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
depend on significant planning and timely intervention. Immobile objects
such as historic buildings, monuments, and statues must be shielded on-site
after being enveloped in sandbags or brick walls to minimize damage from
explosions. Movable objects such as museum collections must be listed and
protected from the risk of loss. Sometimes, they must be hidden from view or
moved to secure locations;
(c) Considering the possibility of placing a limited number of safe havens,
monument centers, and other immovable cultural properties under "special
protection" after being listed on the "International List of Cultural Property
under Special Protection". Consider using a special symbol for easy
identification of cultural property;
(d) Moving, to the maximum extent possible, cultural property that can be taken
away from the vicinity of military targets, and avoiding placing military
targets near cultural property;
(e) Firmly enforcing prosecution and penalties or disciplinary measures on
individuals and groups, regardless of nationality, who commit crimes or order
crimes within the framework of their normal criminal justice jurisdiction;
(f) Planning or establishing, in peacetime within their armed forces, services, or
purpose-trained personnel, to ensure respect for cultural property and
cooperation with civilian authorities in that field;
(g) Supporting cultural professionals through remote financial assistance,
scholarships, or long-term capacity-building initiatives.
2. During Armed Conflict
(a) Establishing special units within the military responsible for protecting
cultural property;
(b) Respecting cultural property located within their territory and the
corresponding territories of other High Contracting Parties by refraining from
any hostile acts towards such property;
(c) Restricting any retaliatory actions against cultural property. Prohibiting,
preventing, and, if necessary, terminating any form of theft, looting, or abuse,
and any acts of vandalism targeting cultural property;
(d) Prosecuting and imposing criminal or disciplinary penalties on offenders or
those ordering offenses related to cultural heritage damage;
(e) Protecting cultural property located in occupied territories and, if possible,
taking necessary measures to preserve it, specifically prohibiting all
unauthorized export, transfer, or movement of cultural property;
(f) Resettling cultural workers in a conflict.
3. After the Hostilities

(a) Returning cultural property exported within its territory to the competent
authority of the previously occupied territory upon the conclusion of military
actions;
(b) Prohibiting retaining cultural property as war reparations.38
VII. COUNTRY STANCES/FEATURES
1. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Afghanistan’s potential for cultural development is currently at risk due to

decades of war, civil unrest, and rebellion even when culture plays a crucial role in
the establishment and maintenance of sustainable peace in this nation.39
The Bamiyan Buddhas which can be found in Bamiyan, Afghanistan were
destroyed by the Taliban in 2001; moreover, this warning phenomenon related to
cultural property losses persists to this day in a report published in April 2023. This
report revealed that the historical site of Dilberjin had been looted and organized in
significant quantities from 2019 to 2021. There are also reports in the Bamiyan Valley,
where the Bamiyan Buddhas were once prominently placed about theft and illegal
excavations and two unauthorized excavations in caves possibly full of cultural
heritage in the Bamiyan Valley in 2022.40
In the case that cultural sites and property are recognized and valued by both
UNESCO and the Afghan government, the capability to carry out necessary
38
“Protect Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” UNESCO. Accessed March 16, 2024.
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/1954Convention-InfoKit-EN-Fina-webl_02.pdf.
39
“The Challenges Ahead for Afghanistan’s Cultural Heritage.” 2010. UNAMA. March 14, 2010.
https://unama.unmissions.org/challenges-ahead-afghanistan%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-0.
40
Mao, William. “Conserving Afghanistan’s Cultural Heritage Under Taliban Rule.” Harvard
International Review, January 29, 2024.
https://hir.harvard.edu/conserving-afghanistans-cultural-heritage-under-taliban-rule/ .
measures for emergency conservation and preservation is under limitation.41 Many
destinations in Afghanistan are inaccessible due to ongoing conflicts or their remote
location, leading to difficulties in their possible conservation intervention or legal
protection.42 In addition, many sites, especially local markets, are still exposed to
illegal looting and trafficking of cultural property.43
2. People's Republic of China
According to UNESCO statistics, more than 1,600,000 cultural objects looted

from China are dispersed in 200 museums located in 47 countries worldwide.44 In
retrospect, armed conflicts have led to the destruction, looting, and plundering of
cultural objects in China; millions of them are privately owned, creating barriers to
monitoring and determining their locations.45 In general, China’s loss of cultural
property during this period has been taken in three ways namely cultural
expeditions, looting and plundering, and illegal trade.46
The Old Summer Palace in China was looted and destroyed during the
Second Opium War (1856-1860) by the imperial invasion, initiated by the
Anglo-French allied forces. Even in the late modern period, the illegal excavation
and trade of Chinese cultural objects could be witnessed, especially in Northwest
China. Those excavations and clandestine destruction which were concealed under
the terms "cultural expeditions" or "explorations in the Orient” were often carried
out by archaeologists or foreign adventurers.47
To facilitate joint collaboration in the enforcement of the safeguarding and
repatriation of cultural relics, China is engaging in bilateral agreements with other
nations. Despite those attempts, China’s issue of cultural relics loss remains in the
41
UNAMA. “The Challenges Ahead for Afghanistan’s Cultural Heritage,” January 15, 2016.
https://unama.unmissions.org/challenges-ahead-afghanistan%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-0.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.
context of globalization as China has significantly involved itself in the global
market, increasing the emergence of cross-border interactions.48
3. Republic of Colombia
The National Park of Colombia, Los Katíos, was listed in the World Heritage
in 1994 because of its biodiversity.49 However, this park is affected by the illegal use
of natural resources, drug trafficking, and the transit of armed groups as well as
those displaced by armed conflict.50 Los Katíos Park’s managers lost control of it due
to decades of internal armed conflict in the region; moreover, the rural areas’ poverty
has also provoked the demands for its resources in the context of alternative sources
of livelihood.51
Despite the incompletely resolved security situation, at the meeting of the
UNESCO World Heritage Committee taking place in Bonn, Germany, Los Katíos was
removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger as its control was recovering
through promoting local cooperation and patrolling natural resources sustainable
usage by the managers.52
Colombia’s government also takes action to address these cultural urgent
issues via Colombia’s National Campaign against Illicit Trafficking in Cultural
Property.53 The Colombian State also approved the "Convention for the Protection of
Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict" and its "Regulation for
48
CGTN. “Return of Cultural Heritage Celebrated, but China Has to Do More,” March 1, 2020.
https://news.cgtn.com/news/2020-03-01/Return-of-cultural-heritage-celebrated-but-China-has-to-d
o-more-OtZAmcLboY/index.html.
49
IUCN. “Belize Barrier Reef and Los Katios Park in Danger,” June 27, 2022.
https://www.iucn.org/content/belize-barrier-reef-and-los-katios-park-danger#:~:text=Los%20Katios
%20National%20Park%20was,hills%2C%20 tropical%20 rainforests%20and%20 wetlands.
50
IUCN. “Colombian World Heritage Site in Conflict Area Comes off ‘Danger List’, as Advised by
IUCN,” November 8, 2019.
https://www.iucn.org/content/colombian-world-heritage-site-conflict-area-comes-danger-list-advis
ed-iucn.
51
“IUCN Reactive Monitoring Mission: Los Katíos National Park, Colombia (N 711).” Uploaded by
IUCN and WCPA. Tilman Jaeger, January 30, 2015.
52
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “Colombia’s Los Katíos National Park Removed From List of
Heritage in Danger,” n.d. https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1306.
53
“National Report on the Implementation of the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and
Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property: Colombia,
Reporting Period: 2019-2022.” UNESCO Digital Library. UNESCO, 2023. Accessed March 17, 2024.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387150.
Application of the Convention", the "First Protocol" (The Hague, 14, May 1954). The
"Second protocol of the Hague Convention of 1954 for the protection of cultural
property in the event of armed conflict." (The Hague, 26 March 1999) was approved
in Law 899 of 21 July 2004.54
4. Democratic Republic of Congo
The Democratic Republic of Congo’s culture is diverse, reflecting the national

variety and different customs with 5 properties inscribed on the World Heritage
List.55 The culture here is a combination of regional traditions as well as foreign
influences from the colonial period. The traditional art of over 100 ethnic groups
consists of textiles, masks, wooden or ivory statues, and woven artifacts.56
The DRC’s new National Museum (MNRDC), whose establishment project

was rooted in the request of the DRC president when the Korean President visited,
was opened to visitors on November 23rd, 2019, displaying both traditional,
tangible, and intangible cultural heritage.57
Although the DRC had its official liberty in 1960, ending Belgium’s colonial
rule, that country is still under colonial historical impacts. In November 2022, the
Congolese minister of Culture presented a decree calling for Belgium’s repatriation
of human remains, and properties. Most of the things are in the Africa Museum’s
collections. Therefore, a national commission was established to repatriate these
properties.58
54
“National Report on the Implementation of the Hague Convention of 1954 and Its Two Protocols
(1954 and 1999).” UNESCO. Accessed March 16, 2024.
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/Colombia_ok.pdf.
55
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “Democratic Republic of the Congo - UNESCO World Heritage
Convention,” n.d. https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/cd/.
56
Ukonu, Ruth. “THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF CONGO IN AFRICA.” Aziza Goodnews, April 26,
2023. https://www.aziza.com.ng/read/2023/04/cultural-heritage-of-congo/.
57
Kim, Kwang-Su. “Contextualising Historical and Cultural Identities With Exhibitions of the New
National Museum in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Modern Africa 8, no. 2 (December 15, 2020):
25–59. https://doi.org/10.26806/modafr.v8i2.328.
58
Martínez, Gerardo. “Restitution of Historical Objects Between DR-Congo and Belgium : Beyond
Symbols, the Need for Lasting Cooperation.” Equal Times, November 8, 2023.
https://www.equaltimes.org/restitution-of-historical-objects?lang=fr.
In UNESCO’s 42nd general session in Paris, Congo updated its cultural
properties list whose aim is to highlight and preserve the country’s cultural heritage.
This update, according to a press release from the Ministry of Culture, Arts, and
Heritage, contains fundamental historical properties that represent paramount proof
of the evolution of the DRC in the past.59
5. French Republic
France is home to 52 World Heritage properties which present exceptional

universal value.60 Therefore, the problem of protecting cultural property is and will
continue to be of utmost importance to France, given its fundamental and vital
significance.61
In terms of legal protection, France was among the pioneering nations to

enact legislation governing cultural property. As early as 1887, the nation passed a
law classifying public cultural assets, completing the legal protection framework
under the civil code.62 Despite having taken several steps in the preservation work,
illicit trafficking in cultural goods remains a top challenge for the French
government. In 2016, an act was adopted with a view to punishing deliberate
involvement in cultural property’s illicit trafficking from regions in which terrorist
groups are established.63
Up to now, France is a party to various international treaties and conventions

aimed at the preservation of cultural property during armed conflict, including the
59
Fatshimetrie. “‘UNESCO Updates the List of Cultural Properties of the DRC, an Approach to
Preserve and Promote the Country’s Heritage.’” Fatshimetrie, November 17, 2023.
https://eng.fatshimetrie.org/2023/11/17/unesco-updates-the-list-of-cultural-properties-of-the-drc-a
n-approach-to-preserve-and-promote-the-countrys-heritage/.
60
Ministère de la Culture. “French Properties Inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List,”
September 21, 2023.
https://www.culture.gouv.fr/en/Thematic/Monuments-Sites/Historical-monuments-heritage-sites/
French-properties-inscribed-on-the-Unesco-World-Heritage-List.
61
France ONU. “Cultural Heritage Remains Highly Threatened,” November 30, 2017.
https://onu.delegfrance.org/Cultural-heritage-remains-highly-threatened.
62
Niec, Halina. “Legislative Models of Protection of Cultural Property.” Hastings Law Journal 27, no.
5 (January 1, 1976): 1089.
63
France ONU. “Cultural Heritage Remains Highly Threatened,” November 30, 2017.
https://onu.delegfrance.org/Cultural-heritage-remains-highly-threatened.
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of
Armed Conflict and its two Protocols from 1954 and 1999.64 France is also taking the
lead in the International Alliance for the protection of cultural heritage in conflict
areas (ALIPH) with positive contributions to the global cultural property
preservation. The country has provided an initial 5 million USD for emergency
measures to stabilize, conserve, and reconstruct Beirut's cultural heritage.65
6. Republic of Honduras
Being the second largest country in Central America, Honduras boasts a rich
and diverse cultural expression thanks to indigenous roots and the blend of Spanish
colonial history, as well as African traditions.66 The country is well-known for its
intangible cultural heritage including the language, dance, and music of the
Garifuna.67
Although Honduras did not experience devastating impacts on cultural
property from conflict, the nation is in jeopardy from pillaging.68 Thousands of
Honduran ancient monuments are prone to pillage, as proven by systematic looting
in areas like the Copán Valley, Santa Barbara, Ulua Valley, and others.69 According to
archaeological experts, pillaging not only ruins artifacts but also the cultural legacy
of the country from which they are taken.70 In response, the government of
64
https://plus.google.com/+UNESCO. “States Parties.” UNESCO, July 25, 2021.
https://en.unesco.org/protecting-heritage/convention-and-protocols/states-parties.
65
Sbarsi, Simone. “France’s Contribution to the Protection and Recovery of the Beirut Cultural
Heritage – Proculther.” Proculther, October 26, 2020.
https://www.proculther.eu/france-mobilisation-of-cultural-heritage-professionals-to-lebanon/.
66
LAC Geo. “Honduras: Cultural Landscape | LAC Geo,” August 6, 2023.
https://lacgeo.com/cultural-landscape-honduras.
67
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. “Honduras - intangible heritage - Culture Sector -
UNESCO.”December 15, 2012.
https://ich.unesco.org/en-state/honduras-HN?info=periodic-reporting.
68
IQBAL, ANWAR. 2004. “U.S. to help protect Honduran artifacts.” UPI.
https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2004/03/16/US-to-help-protect-Honduran-artifacts/7959107
9482557/.
69
Voice of America. “Honduras Cultural Property,” March 21, 2009.
https://editorials.voa.gov/a/a-41-2009-03-24-voa4-84654787/1481153.html.
70
IQBAL, ANWAR. 2004. “U.S. to help protect Honduran artifacts.” UPI.
https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2004/03/16/US-to-help-protect-Honduran-artifacts/7959107
9482557/.
Honduras and the US came into an agreement in 2004 to help protect pre-Columbian
cultural treasures in the country.71
The Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History (IHAH) also plays a
significant role in the preservation of cultural property within the country. It is
dedicated to research, protection, and conservation of Honduran cultural heritage to
bolster the country’s societal cultural identity and historical memory.72
7. Republic of India
Indian cultural legacy emanates from the nation’s 5000-year history. The
nation’s cultural heritage is characterized by a wide range of faiths, beliefs,
traditions, and customs; rendering Indian culture unrivaled.73 Yet, the preservation
of cultural property in India faces challenges from country’s complicated situation
and pillage.
Conflicts in India have hindered efforts of the nation’s government to protect
cultural property. Since Independence, Kashmir has become a hotspot for strife
between India and Pakistan. Its rich cultural legacy has unavoidably both been
purposefully attacked and turned into collateral damage.74 For example, in the
summer of 1995, Shrine of Nooruddin Rishi was targeted for burning through
gunpowder to eliminate 21 militants who used it as a hideout.75 Similarly, the Islamia
College Library was set on fire in 1990 by a militant group in response to the
shooting by army troops on the gunmen at the funeral of Mirwaiz Maulvi Farooq.76
71
Voice of America. “Honduras Cultural Property,” March 21, 2009.
72
Culture in Crisis. “Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History.” Accessed March 21, 2024.
https://cultureincrisis.org/organisations/honduran-institute-of-anthropology-and-history.
73
N. R. Gopal. “The Implications of British Colonial Domination on the Indian Cultural Ethos.” The
Creative Launcher 6, no. 5 (December 30, 2021): 108–16. https://doi.org/10.53032/tcl.2021.6.5.13.
74
Grover, Sumira. “Conflict and Destruction of Heritage: A Case-Study of Kashmir.” DEPARTMENT
OF HISTORY, October 25, 2021.
https://lsrhistory.wordpress.com/2021/10/25/conflict-and-destruction-of-heritage-a-case-study-of-k
ashmir/.
75
orfonline.org. “The Unintended Consequences of Conflict: Erosion of Cultural Heritage in the
Kashmir Valley,” October 19, 2019.
https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/unintended-consequences-conflict-erosion-cultural-heritag
e-kashmir-valley-56384.
76
Grover, Sumira. “Conflict and Destruction of Heritage: A Case-Study of Kashmir.” DEPARTMENT
OF HISTORY, October 25, 2021.
Besides, plunder and pillage remain a difficult task for the authorities to
tackle. According to UNESCO’s estimation, India has lost 50,000 antiques by 1989,
and the number continues to rise.77 Plenty of artifacts looted from Chandraketugarh,
one of the most significant early historic urban coastal sites of eastern India, have
ended up in prestigious museums and private collections all over the world.78
8. Republic of Iraq
Iraq, which has been famously recognized as the “Cradle of Civilization”,

holds significant sites of cultural heritage including Babylon Ashur, Samarra, and
Nineveh.79 Unfortunately, the cultural legacy loss of Iraqis is a pain that prevails for
years.
Before 1991, Iraq was believed to have the most effective cultural property
preservation regime in the Middle East region by its national law that specified all
antiquities to be under government control.80 However, the 1991 Gulf War ruined
this cultural heritage conservation plan. All the funds and efforts were diverted to
support the war, and the preservation of ancient sites took on a low priority
compared to defense.81
After the US invasion in April 2003, Iraq experienced a total collapse that left
the ancient city of Babylon in shambles, and the country’s cultural heritage was open
to plunder.82 The National Museum of Iraq, housing countless artifacts and
https://lsrhistory.wordpress.com/2021/10/25/conflict-and-destruction-of-heritage-a-case-study-of-k
ashmir/.
77
Q&A, TOI. “‘Unesco Estimated That India Lost 50,000 Artefacts till 1989 … Our Biggest Victory Has
Been the Narrative War.’” The Times of India, September 18, 2018.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/the-interviews-blog/unesco-estimated-that-india-lost-50
000-artefacts-till-1989-our-biggest-victory-has-been-the-narrative-war/.
78
Banerjee, Samayita. “India: Heritage Theft Remains a Challenge.” Unesco.org, 2023.
https://courier.unesco.org/en/articles/india-heritage-theft-remains-challenge.
79
Adams, R. McC. “Iraq’s Cultural Heritage: Collateral Damage.” Science 293, no. 5527 (July 6, 2001):
13–13. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.293.5527.13.
80
Hussein, Aya Ali, and Rasyikah Md Khalid. “Issues in the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Iraq.”
International Journal of Asian Social Science 8, no. 7 (2018): 396–405.
https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.1.2018.87.396.405.
81
Cunning, Andrera. “Safeguarding of Cultural Property in Times of War & (And) Peace, The.” Tulsa
Journal of Comparative and International Law 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2003): 211.
82
Levkowitz, Joshua. “Saving Iraq’s Cultural Heritage.” Middle East Institute, September 13, 2016.
https://www.mei.edu/publications/saving-iraqs-cultural-heritage.
manuscripts for more than eight decades, suffered from severe looting and damage.83
By September 2003, 1700 items were returned, yet, 10,000 of them remained
missing.84
International efforts have been made to prevent the tragedy in Iraq, including
the adoption and implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention and the 1970
UNESCO Convention. However, efforts also need to stem from the national side.
More reference regarding the law regulating the retrieval of artifacts from other
countries should be made since Iraqi legislation failed to address this problem.85
9. Japan
Being famous as a country of temples, Japan is synonymous with great

elegance due to the harmonious blend of religions. Yet, since the end of WWII, the
country prioritized economic growth and the efforts to protect cultural property
were hampered by heavy taxes, hyper-inflation, psychological damage from Japan’s
defeat, and a public loss of interest in tradition.86
After a fire at Horyu-ji temple in 1949 that damaged outstanding wall murals
in its Buddha Hall, the Japanese government has paid more attention to cultural
property preservation work, leading to the adoption of the 1950 Law for the
Protection of Cultural Properties (LPCP). The law requires all necessary measures
from the national and municipal authorities to protect cultural heritage, while at the
same time requests owners and custodians to make efforts for the conservation
work.87
83
Thurlow, Matthew D. “Protecting Cultural Property in Iraq: How American Military Policy
Comports with International Law.” Yale Human Rights and Development Journal 8, no. 1 (January 1,
2005): 4.
84
85
86
Kakiuchi, Emiko. “Cultural Heritage Protection System in Japan: Current Issues and Prospects for
the Future.” Gdańskie Studia Azji Wschodniej 10 (January 17, 2017).
https://doi.org/10.4467/23538724gs.16.013.6170.
87
Ibid.
As a member of the UNESCO 1954 Hague Convention and its two protocols,
Japan has been doing its best to contribute to the strengthening of the legal
framework while also promoting the adherence to the convention among other
countries. To date, Japan has allocated more than 4.5 million USD for the
conservation of Ukraine’s cultural property; as well as has been sending assistance to
help enhance the Syrian archaeologists and communities’ capacity.88
10. Republic of Korea
Preservation of cultural property is a key legislative and political concern for

South Korea. This stems from the colonization of Japan (1910-1945), the Korean War
(1950-1953), and the advent of the paradigm of Westernized cultural, social, and
educational policy that threatened the country’s national identity and values. As a
direct result, the interest in cultural preservation and the cause of nationalism
entwined with government interest in the formation of the Cultural Heritage
Protection Act in 1962.89 Regarding the preservation of heritage during the conflict, it
stipulates the protection of Korean tangible heritage on the authority of the Cultural
Heritage Committee, which is responsible for the relocation or burying of cultural
heritage at the time of war or upheaval.90
In relocating and restituting missing cultural objects due to illicit transfer, the
Korean government had initiated extensive bilateral negotiations with some concrete
results. Up until 2009, a total of 1,69 objects have been voluntarily returned through
bilateral agreements with the Japanese Government.91 However, some 245,000
88
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. “Statement by H.E. Ambassador ISHIKANE Kimihiro,
Permanent Representative of Japan to the United Nations, at the Security Council Arria-Formula
Meeting ‘Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts,’” 2023.
https://www.un.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/ishikane050223.html.
89
UNESCO Digital Library, “Korean Cultural Property Protection Law with Regard to Korean
Intangible Heritage,” ed. Yang Jongsung, Unesco.org, 2004,
90
Korean Law Translation Center, “Statutes of the Republic of Korea,” elaw.klri.re.kr, March 27, 2015,
https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=33988&lang=ENG.
91
Permanent Mission of the Republic of Korea to the United Nations, “Agenda Item 27: Return or
Restitution of Cultural Property to the Countries of Origin 상세보기|Human Rights and
Humanitarian AssistancePermanent Mission of the Republic of Korea to the United Nations,”
overseas.mofa.go.kr, August 6, 2009,
https://overseas.mofa.go.kr/un-en/brd/m_5069/view.do?seq=748519&srchFr=&amp%3BsrchTo=&
Korean heritage properties were still displayed outside the country as of January
2024, with nearly 45% of the total remaining in Japan. The Korean government only
focuses on the return of objects that are confirmed to have been taken from the
peninsular through illegal means, as well as those that belonged to former royal
families and properties that have no remaining analog in South Korea.92
11. Republic of Kuwait
In a survey conducted by UNESCO in 2019, more than 20 million items were

registered as tangible property of the state of Kuwait, demonstrating the nation’s
richness in documentary heritage preserved.93 The country is a party to international
treaties and conventions aimed at the preservation of cultural property during
armed conflict, including the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural
Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its one Protocol from 1954 (UNESCO).
In 1990, Kuwait suffered from the invasion by the Iraqi government of
Saddam Hussein. During the conflict, Iraqi soldiers were instructed to clear out
many important cultural hubs, namely, the Kuwait National Museum, National
Archives, and Kuwait University. Of these, the Kuwaiti States Collection and the Dar
al-Athar al-Islamiyyah (DAI, “Hose of Islamic Antiquities”) were taken back to Iraq
while the remaining artifacts were turned to ash. The actions carried out by Iraqi
forces were an attempt to make the country indistinguishable from Iraq by
liquidating Kuwait’s identity. After the war, it took more than a decade for the
process of returning cultural properties as the two countries embarked on bilateral
negotiations.94 However, several thousands of items looted remained missing as the
amp%3BsrchWord=&amp%3BsrchTp=&amp%3Bmulti_itm_seq=0&amp%3Bitm_seq_1=0&amp%3Bit
m_seq_2=0&amp%3Bcompany_cd=&amp%3Bcompany_nm=.
92
Nikkei Asia, “Cultural Properties Can Be Japan-South Korea Diplomatic Opportunity,” ed.
Nobuyuki Gohara, Nikkei Asia, July 9, 2023,
https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Japan-South-Korea-ties/Cultural-properties-can-be-Japan-South-Ko
rea-diplomatic-opportunity
93
UNESCO and Kuwait University: College of Social Science, “Preserving Cultural Heritage in
Kuwait” (Preserving Preserving Cultural Heritage in Kuwait, Kuwait: Kuwait University, 2022), 2–10,
https://kuwait.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-01/English%20-%20Conference%20Booklet%20%284
%29.pdf.
94
Martin Chulov, “Kuwait’s Lost Treasures: How Stolen Riches Remain Central to Rift with Iraq,” The
Guardian, June 21, 2010, sec. World news,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/21/kuwait-lost-treasures-stolen-riches-rift-iraq.
majority of them ended up in the black market when Saddam Hussien's government
was toppled in 2003.
It is suggested that the main concern for Kuwait emphasized tracing clients
who participated in the transaction of cultural property as much of its precious items
ended up in private collections across the Arab World.
12. State of Libya
Regarded as one of the richest countries in the Mediterranean basin, Libya

was well-known for its cultural diversity with five enlisted UNESCO World Heritage
Sites. The ancient Greco-Roman cities of Cyrene in the east, Sabratha and Leptis
Magna in the west, and multiple well-preserved archaeological remains across the
nations. The country is a party to international treaties and conventions related to
the preservation of cultural property during armed conflict, including the 1954
Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Events of Armed
Conflict and two of its Protocol from 1954 and 1999 (UNESCO).95
The outbreak of the revolution in February 2011 made efforts to protect
cultural property became precarious. Although archaeological sites remain
unscathed as conflict intensifies, many local museums are subjected to looting and
pillage. The main predicament is the split of government autonomy with two halves
struggling to negotiate and come to terms with each other. This lack of central
authority gave rise to factionalism and tribalism as multiple armed groups struggled
for control with fighting taking place in various heritage sites.96 Additionally,
clandestine excavations, looting, and illicit exportation are rampant in Cyrenaica and
Tripolitania.
With the ongoing civil war, the availability of monitoring and tracing antiques
becomes a challenge as the fighting renders direct monitoring impossible. In
response, Libyan archaeologists and their international counterparts founded the
95
UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Libya’s Five World Heritage Sites Put on List of World Heritage
in Danger,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre (UNESCO, July 16, 2016),
https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1523.
96
Ardi Associates, “Libya Calls on UNESCO to Protect World Heritage Site in Sabratha,” Middle East
Monitor (Ardi Associates, August 27, 2017),
https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170927-libya-calls-on-unesco-to-protect-world-heritage-site-
in-sabratha/.
Libyan Antiquities at Risk (LAaR) project. By digitalizing existing data from the
Society for Libyan Studies Archive, project LAaR is essential for investigators in
tracing antiques in illicit markets, and serving as a data set for preservation efforts.97
13. Kingdom of Morocco
Morocco is home to more UNESCO World Heritage sites than any country in
Africa. Comprised of a total of nine designated sites, the country was well-known
for its well-preserved fortified ancient cities, namely, Fes, Essaouira, Ait
Bennhaddou, and Meknes. The Kingdom is a party to international treaties and
conventions related to the preservation of cultural property during armed conflict,
including the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Events of Armed Conflict and two of its Protocol from 1954 and 1999 (UNESCO).
Additionally, the country is also a donor of the Alliance for the Protection of
Heritage in Conflict Zones (ALIPH).98
In the sphere of protecting cultural property, the country extensively
collaborates with the international community in combating terrorism and its
negative effects, especially in the cultural field. This can be illustrated through a
bilateral agreement between Rabat and the US government regarding the protection
of tangible heritage sites from pillage and looting.99 Notwithstanding its
commitment to preserving cultural heritage, the bitter conflict between Morocco and
West Sahara - a self-declared independent nation in disputed territory between
Morocco and Mauritania sparked in the 1970s. The dispute is currently a frozen
conflict as Moroccan deploys around 160,000 active personnel along the 1,600km
line, effectively blocking archeological efforts in the disputed regions. It can be
assumed Morocco’s position on the matter is a delicacy as its commitment sparkly
97
Niccolò Mugnai et al., “Libyan Antiquities at Risk: Protecting Portable Cultural Heritage,” Libyan
Studies 48 (August 22, 2017): 11–21, https://doi.org/10.1017/lis.2017.8.
98
Atalayar, “Morocco Is Committed to the Protection of Cultural Heritage under Threat in Conflict
Zones,” Atalayar, February 4, 2022,
https://www.atalayar.com/en/articulo/culture/morocco-committed-protection-cultural-heritage-un
der-threat-conflict-zones/20220204145503154960.ht
99
Safaa Kasraoui-Morocco World News, “Morocco, US Sign Agreement to Protect Moroccan Cultural
Heritage,” www.moroccoworldnews.com (MWN, 2023),
https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2021/01/331941/morocco-us-sign-agreement-to-protect-mor
occan-cultural-heritage.
contrasted with its action in the southern region. Mechanism and framework
supporting cultural preservation during protracted armed conflict without
infringing territorial integrity is one of Rabat's main interests. 100
14. New Zealand
New Zealand is an active participant in international efforts to preserve

cultural property. The country is a party to the Hague Convention on the Protection
of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and two of its protocols in 1954
and 1999. The commitment made by New Zealand can be illustrated in its effort to
internalize such international commitment into domestic law with the Pouhere
Taonga Act and the Cultural Property Act enacted in 2012 and 2014 respectively.101
Despite having adopted concrete actions to preserve cultural property, the
trafficking of it remains a challenge for New Zealand, which includes the lack of
ratification by European countries over the aforementioned conventions. This
prevents the country from preventing its heritage from being sold on the black
market.102 Hence, the country’s main interest would emphasize expanding the
membership of UNESCO’s related conventions as well as the ratification process to
strengthen international collaboration.
15. Russian Federation
Russia has taken a firm stance on the protection of cultural property through
comprehensive legislation and international agreements. The complex legal
framework for cultural heritage protection, conservation, use and promotion in
Russia is based on the Federal Law on Items of Cultural Heritage and strengthened
by federal regulations as well as regional laws; such as the Federal Law on the
100
Nick Brooks, “Cultural Heritage and Conflict: The Threatened Archaeology of Western Sahara,” The
Journal of North African Studies 10, no. 3-4 (September 2005): 413–39,
https://doi.org/10.1080/13629380500336797.
101
New Zealand Police, “Historical and Cultural Heritage of New Zealand,” December 8, 2023,
https://policepolicy.nz/policies/historical-and-cultural-heritage-of-new-zealand/u-szuxe/historical-
cultural-heritage-new-zealand-061223.pdf.
102
admin-sgribl, “Olivia’s Travel Blog - the Legal Protection over New Zealand’s Cultural Artefacts,”
SMQ Legal Services, December 12, 2019,
https://smqlegal.co.uk/olivias-travel-blog-the-legal-protection-over-new-zealands-cultural-artefacts
/.
Museum Fund of the Russian Federation and Museums in the Russian Federation
(the ‘Museums Law’).103 On the other hand, the Federal Law on Export and Import of
Items of Cultural Value outlines penalties for unauthorized excavation and removal
of valuable items, including the implementation of a fine, confiscation of antiquities,
and criminal liability.104 Additionally, the Russian government has established
special agencies such as the Ministry of Culture (Minkultury) that are responsible for
the protection of cultural property at a national level.105
The country is also a signatory to the 1954 Hague Convention for the
Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict,106 which obligates
state parties to take measures to safeguard cultural heritage during times of warfare.
Furthermore, policies established by the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU),
regarding the exchange of cultural heritage properties, are also approved in Russia.
Specifically, the Regulations on the Export of Cultural Property set out procedures
for exporting such items within the EAEU customs territory.107 Through a
combination of legal measures and practical initiatives, Russia is committed to
protecting and preserving its cultural heritage from the destructive impact of armed
conflict, both domestically and internationally.
16. Kingdom of Spain
The multifaceted history and expansive culture of Spain have led to a

fascinating mix of regional diversity, reflected in the impressive 50 sites inscribed on
103
“CULTURAL HERITAGE AND ART MARKET: Does Your Country Have Regulations on National
Patrimony, Cultural Heritage, Indigenous Art and the Like and, if so, What Are the Essentials?” n.d. The Art
Collecting Legal Handbook.
https://alrud.ru/upload/iblock/a45/the%20art%20collecting%20legal%20handbook%20-%20russia%20chapter.p
df.
104
“NATIONAL REPORT ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONVENTION ON THE MEANS
OF PROHIBITING AND PREVENTING THE ILLICIT IMPORT, EXPORT AND TRANSFER OF
OWNERSHIP OF CULTURAL PROPERTY: Russia.” n.d. UNESCO 1970 Convention - Periodic Reporting
Form. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387136
105
“Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation.” n.d.
http://government.ru/en/department/27/events/
106
“Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict With Regulations for the
Execution of the Convention: State Parties” n.d.
.https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/convention-protection-cultural-property-event-armed-co
nflict-regulations-execution-convention#item-4
107
“Protection of Cultural Property: Russia.” 2020. Art Law: Restrictions on the Export of Cultural Property and
Artwork, December.
https://www.ibanet.org/MediaHandler?id=ce449229-4a91-4654-a003-b4b99e5b3400
the World Heritage List that extend across different areas. The nation was famous for
its remarkable and carefully maintained monuments, specifically the Alhambra and
the Generalife, the Chronicles of the Escurial in the 20th century, the Great Wall of
Europe and La Lonja de la Seda.108 The Kingdom of Spain acknowledges the great
importance and value of its cultural, historical, and artistic heritage and makes
significant efforts to protect its cultural property through legislation and government
initiatives. Spanish Heritage law and the Historical Heritage Act outline regulations
for the preservation and conservation of cultural heritage sites, ensuring that
historical sites, artworks, and artifacts are safeguarded from damage, theft, and
illegal trafficking.109
Spain ratified a lot of international conventions of UNESCO, such as the

Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed
Conflict.110 The Second Protocol to The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection
of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, The Hague, 26 March 1999
(UNESCO) was signed and ratified by Spain on May 17, 1999 and June 21, 2001
respectively (BOE, March 30 2004).111 Spain is also a signatory to regional
agreements, such as the European Convention on the Protection of the
Archaeological Heritage and the Convention for the Protection of the Architectural
Heritage of Europe,112 demonstrating its commitment to preserve cultural heritage
not only within its borders but also on a global scale.
108
“World Heritage in Spain.” 2009. Uploaded by UNESCO. World Heritage in Spain. June 2009.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/review/53/
109
“Spain Herein System: Institutional Framework.” n.d. Council of Europe.
https://www.coe.int/en/web/herein-system/spain
110
Ibid
111
Ibid
112
NATIONAL REPORT ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONVENTION ON THE MEANS OF
PROHIBITING AND PREVENTING THE ILLICIT IMPORT, EXPORT AND TRANSFER OF OWNERSHIP
OF CULTURAL PROPERTY: Spain. (n.d.). UNESCO 1970 Convention - Periodic Reporting Form 2019.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387669?posInSet=1&queryId=a7ca090e-efba-4a72-9d4
d-3c79c3d06084
17. Republic of Sudan
The ongoing conflict in Sudan has had a profound impact on the preservation
of its rich cultural heritage. The country of Sudan possesses thousands of historical
and cultural artifacts that dated back to the early Islamic Golden Age; and even
home to one of the World Heritage Sites—the archaeological site of Meroe
Island—was known as the center of the Kingdom of Kush.113 However, the
preservation of Sudan’s historical relics is facing serious challenges due to constant
conflicts and environmental factors. Several historical buildings have been damaged
in the conflict, including the buildings of the Judicial Authority, the Ministry of
114
Health and Finance, and the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Khartoum.
One of the most prominent incidents caused by fire is the destruction Mohamed
Omer Bashir Center, resulting in the loss of research on ancient Sudanese culture at
Omdurman Ahlia University115.
Sudan has made significant efforts to preserve its cultural heritage through
various initiatives and projects. The National Corporation for Antiquities and
Museums (NCAM), under the Ministry of Culture and Media, is the governmental
agency responsible for managing archaeological sites, historic buildings, and
museums in Sudan. The Ordinance for the Protection of Antiquities (1999) lays the
legal framework for heritage preservation with provisions regulating the ownership,
exchange, and circulation of state antiquities as well as the excavation of archeology
sites (Fushiya. T, 2021).116
113
Fahmy, A., Domínguez-Bella, S., Martínez-López, J. et al. Sand dune movement and flooding risk
analysis for the pyramids of Meroe, Al Bagrawiya archaeological site, Sudan. Herit Sci 11, 136 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-023-00986-5
114
Hamid, I., Mahssin, Y., Isber, S. et al. 2023. “The first report cultural heritage situations in Sudan.” Sudan
Heritage Protection Initiative (SHPI).
https://www.heritageforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/SHPI-final-report-27.06.2023.pdf
115
Ibid
116
Fushiya, Tomomi. 2021. “Sudan: Cultural Heritage Management.” In Global Archaeology.
https://www.academia.edu/74703232/Sudan_Cultural_Heritage_Management_In_C_Smith_ed_Enc
yclopedia_of_Global_Archaeology
18. Swiss Confederation
Switzerland has a long-standing commitment to the preservation of cultural

properties, recognizing their importance in maintaining national identity and
fostering cultural identification. The nation is rich in archaeological heritage sites
with 13 of them are inscribed in UNESCO World Heritage Sites and around 40,000
still remain undiscovered. Thousands of artifacts, relics and historical properties are
strictly preserved in museums or archaeological departments. The nation's largest
museum, Swiss National Museum located in Zurich, possesses an outstanding
collection of almost 100.000 historical objects dated from the Palaeolithic era to the
early Middle Ages. Fortunately, Switzerland remained peaceful for a long period of
time until the present time. Therefore, it suffers minimal impact from conflicts or
illegal trafficking of antiquities. However, the Swiss archaeological heritages are at
stake with extensive construction and intensified cultivation of land, which has
potential repercussions on the uniqueness and fragility of the monument.117 At the
cantonal level, the Swiss Federal Office of Culture plays a key role in overseeing the
protection of cultural heritage and works closely with museums, archives, libraries,
and other institutions to safeguard artworks, artifacts, historical buildings and sites.
In addition, various institutions and associations, including the two largest
organizations: Swiss Archaeology and Swiss Heritage Society, play an equally
important role in protecting, preserving, and promoting the archaeological
monuments.
Joining hands with the world’s effort in preserving antiquities, Switzerland is

a mandate to the World Heritage Committee twice118 and signatory of international
conventions such as the European Convention on the Protection of the Archeological
Heritage and the Conventions on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit
Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Objects of the UNESCO.119
117
“ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE.” n.d. Swiss Archaeology.
https://swiss-archaeology.ch/archaeological-heritage/
118
Ibid
119
Multilateral. 1997. European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage
(Revised).
https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201966/volume-1966-A-33612-English.pdf
This effort shows Switzerland’s emphasis on preserving cultural artifacts on both
cantonal scale and international scale.
19. Syrian Arab Republic
Cultural heritage sites, archeological landscapes, and social infrastructures

were severely deteriorated during the ten-year conflict in Syria, which resulted in a
significant degeneration of Syria's long-standing cultural and historical values. There
are 6 properties inscribed on the World Heritage List, but there are 72 states of
Conservation Reports120. The consequence of the crisis has seriously impacted
cultural, social, and demographic factors in all aspects; resulting in scarce human
and financial resources and political turmoil. Thus, it obstructed the country’s
capability of safeguarding and preserving cultural properties and made the
conservation of heritage more challenging than ever. One of the most severely
damaged cities is Alpedo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the
world and the most populous city in Syria. The total number of damaged buildings
is estimated to be nearly 8000 and 98% of the city's infrastructure was damaged.
There are cooperation projects with major NGOs and international

organizations to help Syria protect antiquities. One of them is UN – Habit and
United Nations Development Programs121, which are dedicated to promoting
projects to safeguard and recover cultural sites across Syrian cities. On a local scale,
there are stakeholders that actively address this issue such as Aga Khan
Development Network (AKDN)122, an organization that helps restore historical
monuments and specific archaeological areas in the city of Aleppo or the
International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas (ALIPH) which
organizes projects to support the devastated cities in northeastern Syria123. Despite
120
“Syrian Arab Republic.” n.d. UNESCO World Heritage Convention.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/sy
121
Urban Recovery Framework. 2021a. “Crisis Impact on Urban Heritage.” In Restoration of Cultural Heritage
and Urban Identity in Syria, 11–13. UN Habitat.
https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2022/09/heritage_paper.pdf
122
“SYRIA | CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT.” n.d.
https://the.akdn/en/where-we-work/middle-east/syria/cultural-development-syria
123
https://www.aliph-foundation.org/en/actions-country/SY
the support from the international and national communities, Syria's cultural
heritage and historical sites are under constant threat of illegal looting, excavation,
smuggling and destruction, mostly due to the ongoing armed conflict. Therefore,
more comprehensive measures are required to protect Syria's rich cultural heritage
from further damage and ensure its preservation for future generations.
20. Ukraine
Since the catastrophic Russia-Ukraine conflicts began in 2022, the cultural

property in Ukraine is on the verge of serious damage more than ever.124 According
to the update from UNESCO in March 2024, there are 345 sites of cultural property
in danger.125 In response to this crisis, Ukraine's government has several programs to
protect its cultural legacy.
In terms of national measures, the Heritage Emergency Response Initiative

(HERI) is established to handle this issue.126 This is an organization consisting of
museum professors with a mission to promote safety and prepare as well as
stimulating recovery for damaged cultural property. The main programs of this
organization include launching rescue operations, gathering evidence of crime
against cultural property, restoring damaged cultural heritage as well as
communicating with the museums in need. In order to regulate and execute any
activities during the war period, this organization also collaborates with other
international parties to ensure rapid assistance in emergency cases.127 Moreover, to
collect evidence for any offensive activities aiming at cultural identities, the Ministry
of Culture and Information Policy of Ukraine (MCIP) has created a public database
124
Anziutti, Rachele. 2023. “The Damage of Cultural Heritage in Ukraine.” The Organization for
World Peace. October 17, 2023. https://theowp.org/the-damage-of-cultural-heritage-in-ukraine.
125
“Damaged Cultural Sites in Ukraine Verified by UNESCO.” 2024. UNESCO. March 18, 2024.
https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/damaged-cultural-sites-ukraine-verified-unesco.
126
“Heritage Rescue Emergency Initiative (HERI).” 2023. Cimam.org. 2023.
https://cimam.org/museum-watch/museum-watch-actions/anti-war-petitions-and-resources-in-res
ponse-to-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/fundraising-initiatives/heritage-rescue-emergency-initiative-he
ri/.
127
Ibid.
on the destruction of cultural heritage committed by militancy troops in Ukraine.128
129
The situation in Ukraine is so aggressive that only national protection is far

more than enough. Therefore, international support is necessary. The aid to this
country is diverse, consisting of museum reports and flash mobs, as well as financial
and management aid, internships, and scholarship opportunities for people coming
from UNESCO as well as other museum colleagues and cultural heritage defenders
throughout the world.130 As the threat to cultural property becomes more and more
fierce, in September 2023, a meeting was launched by UNESCO to strengthen the
support to Ukraine to protect cultural property.131
21. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The United Kingdom has a long history, therefore, the treasure of cultural
property in this country is huge with 33 World Heritage Sites and other cultural
property, especially agricultural artifacts.132 Fortunately, these cultural sites are not
harmed by armed conflicts, but they must face the huge challenge of illicit trade.
The government in the UK is recognized for active international support in

dealing with the problem of damaged property owing to conflicts using weapons in
128
“1938 Cultural Infrastructure Objects Have Suffered Damage or Destruction due to Russian
Aggression.” 2024. Міністерства культури та інформаційної політики України. February 6, 2024.
https://mcip.gov.ua/en/news/1938-cultural-infrastructure-objects-have-suffered-damage-or-destruc
tion-due-to-russian-aggression/.
129
Kitsoft. 2022. “Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine - the Ministry of Culture and Information Policy
Encourages Reporting on Crimes against Cultural Heritage Committed by Occupants on Ukrainian
Territory.” Www.kmu.gov.ua. March 17, 2022.
https://www.kmu.gov.ua/en/news/ministry-culture-and-information-policy-encourages-reporting-
crimes-against-cultural-heritage-committed-occupants-ukrainian-territory.
130
“ShieldSquare Captcha.” n.d.
https://www.kmu.gov.ua/en/news/ministry-culture-and-information-policy-encourages-reporting-
crimes-against-cultural-heritage-committed-occupants-ukrainian-territory.
131
“Ukraine: 20 Cultural Properties Receive Enhanced Protection by UNESCO’s Second Protocol to
the 1954 Hague Convention.” 2023. United Nations in Ukraine. September 7, 2023.
https://ukraine.un.org/en/245113-ukraine-20-cultural-properties-receive-enhanced-protection-unesc
o%E2%80%99s-second-protocol-1954#:~:text=Paris%2C%207%20
September%202023%20%E2%80%93%20Today,properties%20as%20we%20as%20 deciding.
132
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2016. “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
UNESCO World Heritage Centre.” Unesco.org. 2016. https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/gb.
several areas.133 This action includes collaboration with other organizations or direct
support to countries in need. Through empowered department - the Department for
Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) as well as other parties in this country
namely the British Council, the Arts and Humanities Research Council, and the
British Museum, these governments have delivered cultural aid with the top priority
is to engage that native community to gain long-term sustainable growth for cultural
heritage.134 The aids consist of capacity building, experts exchanging, assessment,
and reconstruction of damaged cultural treasures. One notable action is the Cultural
Protection Fund for ODA-eligible nations suffering from ruination to cultural
property because of security problems.135 From 2021 to 2022, it awarded up to £2.4
million received from the British Council. This fund was used to run 20 projects in
the Middle East and North and East Africa such as Iraq, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, the
Occupied Palestinian Territories, Sudan, Syria, Uganda, and Yemen.136
22. United Mexican States
The United Mexican States is one of the most culturally diversified countries
with 35 UNESCO Heritage Sites. Holding the largest collection of cultural property
in Latin America and seventh in the world.137 However, its safety is jeopardized by
theft, internal conflicts, lax laws, and a lack of coordination among authorities in
charge of preserving the items. In 2016, up to 90% of objects including archaeological
fragments, liturgical objects, and religious art were stolen and were never recovered
in this year.138
133
“DCMS’s International Cultural Heritage Protection Programme.” 2021. GOV.UK. November 24,
2021.
https://www.gov.uk/guidance/dcmss-international-cultural-heritage-protection-programme#full-p
ublication-update-history.
134
Ibid.
135
Ibid.
136
Ibid.
137
“Mexico [ICCROM Country Profiles].” 2020. ICCROM. June 2020.
https://cp.iccrom.org/cprofiles/doku.php?id=countries:mex.
138
Mcintosh, Jane. 2017. “Mexico Police to Protect National Heritage.” Dw.Com, August 28, 2017.
https://www.dw.com/en/mexico-creates-new-federal-police-division-to-protect-cultural-heritage/a-
40255182.
To protect the cultural diversity in Mexico, this country’s government via the
National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) in collaboration with other
government agencies, non-profit organizations, and private individuals has
launched several cultural heritage management programs.139 Through these
programs, the Mexican government set out 3 goals for the protection of cultural
assets within the country. These goals include identifying and prioritizing cultural
heritage sites that are at risk from emergencies, developing and implementing
measures to protect these sites in the event of an emergency, and raising awareness
of the importance of cultural heritage protection in emergencies.140
In terms of supporting other countries in dealing with threats to cultural

property in the context of armed conflicts, the National Institute of Anthropology
and History (INAH), a federal government organization, has collaborated with the
National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA) to raise public as well as militancy
awareness.141 This program consists of several initiatives such as educational
programs, public outreach events, and collaboration with the military on cultural
sensitivity training. Through this program, the Mexican government shows its
commitment to international law and that its militancy complies with war law on the
protection of cultural heritage.
23. United States of America
Having 25 World Heritage Sites, along with many archaeological artifacts, the
United States can boast about its cultural richness.142 Recently, this country’s cultural
139
“INAH. National Institute of Anthropology and History.” n.d.
https://www.mexicoescultura.com/recinto/66994/en/inah-national-institute-of-anthropology-and-h
istory.html.
140
Rios Allier, Jorge. 2016. “CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT in MEXICO: PUBLIC
ARCHAEOLOGY, COMMONS, CULTURAL GOVERNANCE, and ETHIC ISSUES.” Ostrom
Workshop. International Journal of Heritage Studies.
https://ostromworkshop.indiana.edu/pdf/seriespapers/2020spr-res/riosallier.pdf.
141
“PROTECTION of CULTURAL PROPERTY in the EVENT of ARMED CONFLICT INFORMATION
on the IMPLEMENTATION of the CONVENTION for the PROTECTION of CULTURAL PROPERTY
in the EVENT of ARMED CONFLICT.” 1995.
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/1995-secretariat-report-en_02.pdf.
142
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. n.d. “United States of America - UNESCO World Heritage
Convention.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/us.
property has not faced threat from armed conflict, however, illegal historical artifacts
trading is a huge problem in this country.143
Playing a leading role in supporting the international protection of cultural

properties, America has taken several actions. In terms of promoting a clean art
market, the United States uses cultural programs called the Cultural Antiquities Task
Force to prohibit any stolen cultural property trades happening in this country by
creating import restrictions through bilateral agreements with restricted countries.144
Moreover, to demonstrate its commitment to the 1954 Hague Convention, The
United States issued a directive instructing the Department of Defense to follow the
law of war during all armed conflicts.145
The United States also assists other nations in preserving cultural treasures
through the Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation (AFCP).146 Besides this
fund, the United Nations actively helps other organizations to protect cultural
property during military crises such as supporting ICCROM in developing
Ukrainian experts' capacity to conduct damage and risk assessment, as well as to
protect and recover their cultural heritage.147 However, in terms of partnering with
UNESCO, this country appears to be less active, as political differences have resulted
in multiple withdrawals and reunifications in this body.148
143
SAFE (Saving Antiquities for Everyone), "Cultural heritage at risk: United States," in Smarthistory,
January 11, 2018, accessed March 21, 2024,
https://smarthistory.org/cultural-heritage-risk-united-states/
144
“Agreements and Emergency Actions | Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.” 2024.
State.gov. 2024.
https://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center/cultural-property/agreements-and-emergency-actions
145
“International Cultural Property Protection – Cultural Resources.” n.d. Www.denix.osd.mil.
Accessed March 21, 2024. https://www.denix.osd.mil/cr/international/#:~:text=This%20
directive%20 establishes%20DoD%20policy.
146
“Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation | Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.” n.d.
Eca.state.gov.
https://eca.state.gov/cultural-heritage-center/ambassadors-fund-cultural-preservation.
147
“Funding Partners | ICCROM.” 2022b. Www.iccrom.org. December 1, 2022.
https://www.iccrom.org/funding-partners.
148
Falk, Pamela. 2023. “U.S. Rejoins UNESCO: ‘It’s A Historic Moment!’” CBS News, July 11, 2023.
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-rejoins-unesco-biden-adminstration-un-agency-historic-mome
nt/.
24. Republic of Yemen
Yemen has experienced armed conflict since 2015, and this ongoing crisis has
caused much damage to this country, especially to its priceless, rich cultural
properties. In 2015, there were three of Yemen’s cultural heritage monuments listed
in the List of World Heritage Sites. Despite international efforts to tackle this issue,
the problem seems to become worse when the release of an updated list from
UNESCO in 2023 informs that the number of Yemen's cultural heritage has
increased to 4.149 Besides these cultural heritages, a huge number of other cultural
properties were also damaged including architecture, museum collections, and
archeological sites, some of them are even not informed.
The prolonged conflict overwhelms Yemen with disorder and lawlessness

making it nearly unable to deal with this problem, therefore, this nation depends
heavily on international support.150 To respond to this situation, various
organizations like UNESCO, the British Council's Cultural Protection Fund, and the
Prince Claus Fund are working on protecting cultural properties.151 These assistances
can come in the form of awareness-raising projects, information gathering and
coordination, and technical assistance through risk-mitigation measures on the
ground and capacity-building initiatives, …. The Emergency Action Plan for the
Safeguarding of Yemen's Cultural Heritage by UNESCO is one of the most notable
programs.152 Besides funding and aid from organizations, Yemen also receives direct
support from developed nations.
VIII. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1. How important are cultural properties in the cultural development of each
nation?
149
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 1013. “45 COM 8C.2 - Decision.” UNESCO World Heritage
Centre. 1013. https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/8346.
150
“Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Yemen: 2015 to the Present.” 2023. HAL, November.
https://hal.science/hal-04301835/document.
151
“Cultural Protection Fund in Yemen | British Council Yemen.” 2021. Britishcouncil.org. 2021.
https://yemen.britishcouncil.org/en/cultural-protection-fund-yemen.
152
UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial. 2015. “Emergency Action Plan for the Safeguarding of
Yemen’s Cultural Heritage Announced.” UNESCO Centre Du Patrimoine Mondial. July 16, 2015.
https://whc.unesco.org/fr/actualites/1325.
2. What is UNESCO’s response to the deliberate destruction of cultural property
during armed conflict?
3. What are the challenges that countries might face when protecting cultural
property during armed conflict?
4. What initiatives and programs currently exist to promote cultural property
preservation?
5. What are some key resources in protecting effectively cultural properties
during armed conflicts?
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E. CREDITS
This background guide is written by the following Chairpersons and Content
Developers of DAV Mock MUN 2024 - United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
1. Quynh Huong, Pham - Chairwoman, Sophomore at the Diplomatic Academy

of Vietnam;
2. Quynh Trang, Ho - Chairwoman, Junior at the Diplomatic Academy of
Vietnam;
3. Ngoc Minh, Tran Nguyen - Chairwoman, Sophomore at the Diplomatic
Academy of Vietnam;
4. Hai Yen, Nguyen - Content Developer, Junior at the Diplomatic Academy of
Vietnam;
5. Hai Nguyet, Bui Thi - Content Developer, Freshman at the National
Economics University;
6. Ngoc Diep, Le Thi - Content Developer, Freshman at the Diplomatic Academy
of Vietnam;
7. Gia Linh, Nguyen Vu - Content Developer, Freshman at the Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology Vietnam;
8. Binh, Nguyen Thanh - Content Developer, Sophomore at the Diplomatic
Academy of Vietnam.

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THE GENERAL

DAV Model United Nations Research and Development

DAV MOCK MUN 2024

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL

1. Quynh Huong, Pham - Chairwoman......................................................................... 4

2. Quynh Trang, Ho - Chairwoman................................................................................ 5

3. Ngoc Minh, Tran Nguyen - Chairwoman..................................................................6

I. HISTORY & FOUNDATION........................................................................................ 7

II. SCOPE & AUTHORITIES............................................................................................7

III. MEMBER STATES....................................................................................................... 8

IV. INTRODUCTORY NOTES & COUNCIL EXPECTATIONS..................................9

C. COMMITTEE TOPIC: PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY DURING

III. CURRENT SITUATION & FORTHCOMING CHALLENGES.......................... 12

IV. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES............................................................................ 14

2. Efforts by the United Nations and its sub-organs............................................ 14

3. Other regional and international responses...................................................... 14

VI. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS........................................................................................... 17

VII. COUNTRY STANCES/FEATURES.......................................................................20

1. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan......................................................................... 20

2. People's Republic of China...................................................................................21

4. Democratic Republic of Congo............................................................................22

10. Republic of Korea................................................................................................ 28

11. Republic of Kuwait..............................................................................................29

12. State of Libya........................................................................................................30

13. Kingdom of Morocco.......................................................................................... 31

14. New Zealand........................................................................................................32

15. Russian Federation..............................................................................................33

18. Swiss Confederation........................................................................................... 36

19. Syrian Arab Republic.......................................................................................... 37

21. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland...............................39

22. United Mexican States........................................................................................ 40

23. United States of America....................................................................................41

24. Republic of Yemen...............................................................................................42

VIII. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER............................................................................... 42

Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee members

Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee members

Although I am relatively new to the MUN community, I have always been

Lastly, I would like to encourage you, delegates, to thoroughly prepare and

Distinguished Delegates, Esteemed Observers, and fellow Organizing Committee

First and foremost, I would like to extend my warmest welcome to the

With the topic “Preservation of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict”,

Nguyen Hai Yen.

As listed in the Constitution, to realize this purpose UNESCO shall:

III. MEMBER STATES

This term covers, irrespective of origin or ownership,

Buildings and historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc.,

Intangible cultural heritage is the practices, expressions,

Serious violation of the laws or customs of war as

An armed struggle between a sovereign state and

- The use of violence to achieve political aims;

A quality of a force created according to a military

2. Efforts by the United Nations and its sub-organs

the Diversity of Cultural Expressions”. 2005. UNESCO,

3. Other regional and international responses

This triangle-shaped relationship would be coherent, while first of all, the

The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural

Founding event of International Centre for the Study of the

The signing remark of the Convention on the Means of