INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

MIDTERM

Animal Nutrition

1. Definitions of Terms

Nutrition – the study of processes involved in the conversation of food/feed

elements into body elements.

Food/Feed – carriers of nutrients; substances taken in by the animal that provide

nutrients to the body (feed is usually applied to food eaten by animals)

Nutrient – a specific chemical element or compound supplied by, or derived from,

the diet and absorbed into the blood from the digestive tract to be used by
the body tissues to support physiological processes; any substance of feed
or non-feed origin which may function in the nutritive support of animal life.

Digestion – the process that prepares food for absorption; converts complex
substances in food to simple, absorbable molecules; involves a series of
processes in the alimentary tract by which feeds are broken down in
particle size and finally rendered soluble so that absorption is possible

Absorption – the movement of the end-products of digestion from the gastro-

intestinal tract into the blood and/or lymph system by means of diffusion.

Transport – movement of nutrients from the point of absorption to the point of

utilization.

Metabolism – the sum of the chemical changes occurring in an organism during the
breakdown of food (substrate) and the synthesis of cellular material

2. Gross Composition of plant and animal tissue

2.1 Elemental composition – both plant and animal tissues contain the following
Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca),
Phosphorus (P), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Magnesium
(Mg), Selenium (Se), Copper (Cu), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum
(Mo), Iron (Fe), Iodine (I), Fluorine (F), Zinc (Zn)

2.2 Proximate Composition – These are the approximations of the various

components or fractions of feed using the Weende
analysis developed in the Weende experiment station in
Germany. Each component serves to represent a certain
nutrient.

Sampling - process of reducing large amount of materials to an amount

convenient for laboratory analysis. The resulting sample should be
representative.

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 Moisture - determined by drying the sample in the oven at 100oC for 8-24 hrs or
at 135oC for a short period (less than 2 hrs for air-dry materials) or at less than
100oC with forced air or under vacuum.

Crude Protein - the determination is based on the fact that most nitrogen-
containing macromaterials in most feeds are proteins and proteins on the
average are approximately 16% nitrogen. Actually, individual proteins will
range from about 15% to over 18% nitrogen.

The analysis (known as Kjeldahl analysis) consists of:

a. Digestion with concentrated H2SO4 to convert ammoniacal nitrogen to (NH4)2SO4

b. Distillation to release NH3 after adding concentrated NaOH to the digested sample.
NH3 is collected into a known quantity of standard acid solution
c. Titration with standard alkali the amount of acid neutralized by the ammonia formed
from the nitrogen in the feed.

Crude Protein - “crude” since it may contain ammoniacal-containing materials

such as amino acids, enzymes, certain vitamins, urea, biuret ammonia, etc.
These are nonproteins.
Crude Fat - includes all of that portion of a feed soluble in ether; crude fat is
commonly referred to as ether extract or EE.
Crude Fiber -this fraction was designed to include those materials in a feed that
are of low digestibility. Included are cellulose, certain hemicelluloses, and some
of the lignin, if present. Some of the lignin, however, may be included in the
nitrogen-free extract.
Mineral Matter or Ash - includes the inorganic or mineral components of a
feed.
Nitrogen-free Extract - includes mostly sugars and starches, and also some
of the more soluble hemicelluloses and lignin, which can distort the
meaningfulness of NFE values since lignin is essentially in digestible.

Vitamins are not analyzed in the proximate analysis.

Ways of expressing composition:

1. In percent (%)
2. In parts per million (ppm)
3. In milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) (same as ppm)
4. In milligrams per pound (mg/lb)

Composition of feeds based on dry matter may be:

1. As-fed - wet or fresh basis; DM may range from 0% to 100%
2. Air-dry - maybe actual or “assumed dry matter content” basis. The latter is
usually 90%
3. Oven-dry - based on moisture-free or 100% dry matter. Useful for
comparing feeds of different moisture content.

Detergent Fiber Analysis - separates the sample into cell wall and contents.
The cell wall fraction that includes the cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin is the neutral detergent fiber (NDF) while the cell wall
fraction that includes only the cellulose and lignin is the acid
detergent fiber (ADF).

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3. The Nutrients
3.1 Classes of Nutrients
3.1.1 Water - contain H and O, with H and O in the ratio of 2H:1O

3.1.2 Carbohydrates - contain C, H and O, with H and O in the same proportions

as in water; consist largely of hexosans (6-carbon sugars) as
components.
Classes of Carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides
b. Oligosaccharides
c. Polysaccharides
 Homoglycans
 Heteroglycans

3.1.3 Fats - contain C, H and O, with C and H in higher proportion to O than do

carbohydrates; made up of fatty acids and glycerol.

3.1.4 Proteins - always contain C, H, O and N, and sometimes iron, phosphorus,

and/or sulfur; formed from
amino acids.

3.1.5 Vitamins - organic substance required by animals in very small amounts for
regulating various body processes toward normal health,
growth, production and reproduction.

3.1.6 Minerals - inorganic nutrients, classified into macrominerals (required in

relatively large amounts, and,
microminerals (required in very small or trace amounts).

3.2 Utilization of nutrients

The foodstuffs that animals eat and assimilate have two principal functions:
A. Furnish energy to run the complex machinery of the animal cell
B. Provide building blocks for the process of growth, reproduction and lactation

4. Different Classification of Feedstuffs

Feedstuffs maybe classified into two major categories:

a. Concentrates - feedstuffs containing at least 70% TDN and less than 18% crude
fiber (CF) or 22% acid detergent fiber (ADF).
b. Roughages - Roughages are a coarser more fibrous type of feed.

Physiological Phases of Livestock Production

Every animal should be fed so that the nutritive requirements of each
physiological phases of production with which it is involved are met. The physiological
phases are:

1. Maintenance
2. Growth
3. Fattening
4. Milk Production
5. Fetal development

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 6. Wool production
7. Work

5. Ration Formulation

5.1 Pointers in feed formulation

Requirements or information needed in ration formulation:

a. Requirement of the animal
b. List the feed ingredients available in the locality
c. Look for the chemical composition of the feeds
d. Consider the price of the ingredients
e. Consider the limitations of the use of certain ingredients especially those that are
fibrous or those that may contain toxic factor and/or metabolic inhibitors

5.2 Methods of compounding ration

5.2.1 Pearson square method – this is simplified equation method. This is usually
used to balance the protein requirement but may be used to balance both
the CP and energy requirements.

5.2.2 Trial and error method – this method is done by assigning any value (%) for
any ingredient in the ration and then adjusting the values until the requirements
for CP, energy, Ca and P are met

Slaughtering, Processing and Marketing of Farm Animals

1. Slaughtering and Fabrication

1.1 Basic Principle of Selecting Animals for Slaughter

a. Hogs
b. Cattle
c. Goat
d. Poultry

1.2 Handling Prior to Slaughter

a. Hogs
b. Cattle
c. Goat
d. Poultry

1.3 Basic Requirements in Slaughtering

1.4 Meat Fabrication - refers to the process of cutting carcasses into standard wholesale
and retail cuts.
a. Importance of Proper Meat Fabrication
1. Proper meat fabrication lowers cutting losses
2. It makes everybody conscious of what they’re buying
3. It establishes confidence in all channels of the meat industry

b. Identification of Cuts

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  Pork:

A. Wholesale Cuts
1. Ham – 3rd & 4th sacral vertebra, 5. Spare Ribs – close as
2inches anterior to the aitch bone possible the ribs
2. Shoulder – 2nd & 3rd rib 6. Neck Bones
3. Loin – 1 cm. ventral to the 7. Pig’s Feet
blade bone 8. Lean and Fat trimmings
4. Belly – rectangular slad

B. Retail Cuts
1. Ham 3. Loin
2. Shoulder 4. Belly

 Beef

A. Wholesale Cuts
1. Forequarter 2. Hindquarter

A. Retail Cuts
1. Round
2. Sirloin 6. Brisket
3. Short loin 7. Foreshank
4. Flank 8. Ribs
5. Chuck 9. Short plate

 Poultry
A. Various Retail Cuts
1. Breast
2. Thigh 7. Feet
3. Drumstick 8. Giblets
4. Back  Gizzard
5. Wings  Liver
6. Neck  Heart

1. Composition of Meat, Milk and Eggs

 Meat
A. Meat Defined
 The flesh obtained from farm animal. (Vilegas, 1969)
 Any flesh used as food. (Oxford Concise Dictionary)

B. Composition of Meat
a. Major component of meat
1. Lean (83%)
2. Fat (8.5%)
3. Bone (8.5%)

b. Meat of different animals

1. Beef 2. Veal

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 3. Cara-beef 8. Pork
4. Mutton 9. Rabbit meat
5. Lamb 10 Dog meat
6. Chevon 11. Poultry
7. Venison

 Milk
A. Milk Defined - the secretion of the mammary glands of mammals, e.g. cow, cara-
cow, doe, and to some extent, ewe and mare.
B. Milk Composition - milk contains water, milk sugar (lactose), milkfat, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals

C. Properties of milk - milk has slightly sweet and pleasant taste. Milk with low fat
content tends to be flat,while that of high er fat has creamy an d fuller flavor.

D. Common Test
 Alcohol Precipitation Test (APT)
 Clot on Boiling Test (COB)

E. Food Value of Milk - milk is considered as nature’s most complete food, it

contains practically nutrients required for growth and maintenance of life,
particularly for young mammals

 Egg

A. Egg Defined - Egg is a compact package of well-balanced food nutrients enclosed in

hermetically sealed container, the eggshell.

B. Composition of the Egg - The egg is made up of three parts, namely the yolk,
albumen, and shell; and has a chemical composition of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates,
and ash.
C. Food Value of Egg - The hen’s egg resembles meat in nutritive value but is inferior to
milk.

3. Basic Principles of Proper Handling and Processing of Meat and Milk

3.1 Proper Handling of Milk

A. Milking Methods
1. Hand milking
2. Machine milking
B. Milk Pasteurization
a. Definitions - Refers to heating the milk to a temperature of 145o to 165o to
destroy germs that may be present.
b. Methods Pasteurizing Milk
1. Flash method
2. Holding method

3.2 Processing of Milk

A. Milk Products
1. Cheese 4. Milk ice and milk lollies
2. Butter 5. Yoghurt
3. Ice cream

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 B. Manufacture of Dairy Product
 Evaporated Milk  Pastillas De Leche
 Sweetened Condensed  Yema
Milk  Butter
 Chocolate Milk  White Cheese (Kesong
 Milk-Based Custard puti)
 Leche Flan  Milk-O-Jel

4. Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products

4.1 Marketing Live Animals

a. The Marketing Process
1. Assembling 5. Storing
2. Grading and 6. Financing
Standardizing 7. Transporting
3. Packaging 8. Selling
4. Processing 9. Risk-bearing

b. The marketing Stages

1. Concentration of supplies and shipping
2. Equalization of supplies and demand in wholesale transactions
3. Distribution to consumers through retailers

c. Methods of Selling Livestock

 Which Outlet?
 Sales volume handed  Distance and transport
 Quality of livestock facilities available
 Kind of livestock  Financial resources of
handled sellers/buyers
 Net return to producer  Established trade
connections

 Which Methods
a. Local Markets f. Selling on contact for
b. Country dealers or future
traders delivery
c. Auction markets g. Cooperative marketing
d. Central or terminal of
markets livestock
e. Commission firms at
central market

d. Marketing Beef
1. Purebred marketing
2. Marketing classes and grades
 Calves/Age Classification
 Cattle/Sex Classification

e. Marketing Swine
1. Market classes
 Slaughter swine
 Barrow  Sow
 Gilt  Boar

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  Stag  Shote

2. Weight and Time to Sell

 Consider:
a. Type of hog
b. Hog-feed price ratio
c. Amount of discount for heavy hogs
d. Time of the year
 Recommended:
 200-220 lbs. or 90-99 kg. body weight
 Shrinkage:
 About 2%; can reach 4% with distance, rough handling and
environmental temperature

f. Marketing Sheep
1. Classes
 Age
 Lamb - 2 to 14 months old
 Yearling - 12 to 25 months old
 Sheep - over 25 lamb

 Use classes
 Slaughter sheep/lamb
 Feeder sheep or lamb
 Breeding sheep
 Shearer lamb
 Sex classes
 Ewe - mature female sheep
 Ram - male sheep of any age used for breeding
 Wether - male sheep castrated while young, preferably 1-3 weeks
old
 Weight classes
 Light - 60 to 75 lbs.
 Medium - 75 to 85 lbs
 Heavy - more than 85 lbs.

2. Grades % Retail Cuts

a. Prime 49.0
b. Choice 47.2
c. Good 45.4
d. Utility 43.6
e. Cull 41.8

4.2 Marketing Livestock Products

a. Marketing Wool
 Local buyers  Warehouse operators
 Wool pools  Direct sale to wool mills
 Cooperatives

 Wool Grades - wool is graded according to its fineness either by the blood or
spinning count.

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 b. Marketing Mohair
 Graded on the basis of fineness
 Kid hair is finer than adult hair
 Average diameter

c. Marketing Chevon
 As “cabrito” (little goat), weighing 30 to 40 lbs. (13.6 to 18 kgs)
 As chevon, but sold as lamb or mutton

d. Marketing Milk and Diary Products

A. Types of Market Milk
1. Fresh Milk
2. Pasteurized milk
3. Homogenized milk
4. Evaporated milk
5. Condensed milk
6. Dried milk
7. Toned milk
8. Flavored milk
9. Skimmilk
10. Cream

e. Marketing Poultry and Eggs

Marketing of eggs is based in “candling”
Classes of eggs are based on weight

Classes of Poultry
 Chicken
 Turkeys
 Ducks
 Geese
 Guinea fowls

5.0 Processing of Meat Products

o Meat Preservation Defined - Keeping meat in such a manner that will stay longer or
retard the spoilage.

B. Principles Involved in Meat Preservation

 Reduction/Inhibition of microbial growth
 Reduction/Inhibition of atmospheric oxidation
 Reduction/Inhibition of enzymatic reaction

C. Methods of Meat Preservation

o Moisture Control
 Drying  Freeze drying
 Smoking  Curing
 Salting

o Thermal Control
1. Refrigeration
2. Freezing

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 o Thermal Control
1. Cooking
2. Canning
3. Irradiation

o Use of Chemical Preservatives

1. Salt 4. Nitrates (NO3)
2. Sugar 5. Benzoates
3. Acids 6. Spices

C. Meat Curing Defined - The process of preserving meat through salting, pickling,
smoking or drying.

a. Objectives of Meat Curing

o To prolong the shelf life of the meat products
o To give added desirable flavor to the meat
o To make the product more attractive by improving the color

b. Curing Ingredients
1. Salt Benzoates
2. Sugar . Acetic Acids
3. Nitrite or Nitrate Spices
4. Ascorbates Monosodium G
5. Phosphates Coloring Agents

D. Binders/Fillers/Extenders
1. Binders
2. Fillers
3. Extenders

E. Ham Making - Ham as applied to the processed product, refers to the cured
aged leg piece of pork
obtained from the ham portion or shoulder.

a. General Procedure in Making Ham

1. Chilling the meat
2. Trimming the meat
a. Chinese Style c. Australian Style
b. American Style d. Boneless Ham
3. Weighing the meat
4. Washing the meat
5. Hanging to drip
6. Deciding on the formula and method to use
a. Dry Cure Method d. Use of Prague
b. Sweet Pickle Cure Powder
c. Combination Method e. M-387 Ham Mixture
7. Curing the meat
8. Washing and allowing meat to drip
9. Smoking
10. Cooking Ham

F. Making Bacon - Generally bacons are made from the side or bellies of pork minus
the ribs.
a. Different Methods in Curing Bacon

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 b. Method of Smoking Bacon

G. Sausage Making - Mixtures of minced meat or seasoned, spice and stuffed in

casings.
a. General Procedure in Making Sausage
b. Different Kinds of Sausages
 There are several kinds of sausage according to their method of preparation;
there are
o Fresh Sausage
o Dry Sausage
o Smoked/Cooked Sausage

H. Tocino - Is prepared from pork chop, liempo or portions with fat from the hind leg.

I. Tapa - Is prepared from lean meat (beef, pork, mutton, or rabbit)

J. Corned Beef

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

MIDTERM ACTIVITY

Name: ____________________________________________Date Submitted: ___________

Course & Set: _____________________________________ Score: ___________________

Enumeration: Enumerate the answer in the given questions. 1pts each

1. Ways of expressing composition of vitamins.
1. ________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________
2. Physiological Phases of Livestock Production

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1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
3. Whole sale cut for pork.
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________

4. General Procedure in Making Ham

1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
10. ______________________________

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

MIDTERM EXAM

Name: ____________________________________________ Date Submitted: ___________

Course & Set: _____________________________________ Score: ___________________

1. Mixtures of minced meat or seasoned, spice and stuffed in casings

A. Cooking Ham

B. Making Bacon

C. Sausage Making

2. A process refers to the cured aged leg piece of pork obtained from the ham portion or
shoulder

A. Sweet Pickle Cure

B. Ham Making

C. Making Bacon

3. The process of preserving meat through salting, pickling, smoking or drying.

A. Ham Making

B. Sausage Making

C. Meat Curing

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4. Keeping meat in such a manner that will stay longer or retard the spoilage.

A. Meat Curing

B. Meat Preservation

C. Ham Making

5. Objectives of Meat Curing except;

A. To market the product after sloughing

B. To make the product more attractive by improving the color

C. To prolong the shelf life of the meat products

6. It is an according to its fineness either by the blood or spinning count of wool.

A. Wool Grade

B. Wool Spin

C. Wool Color

7. Name of the sheep ages to 12 to 25 months old.

A. Lamb

B. Yearling

C. Sheep

8. Name of the sheep ages to 2 to 14 months old.

A. Lamb

B. Yearling

C. Sheep

9. Male sheep of any age used for breeding.

A. Wether

B. Ewe

C. Ram

10. Male sheep castrated while young, preferably 1-3 weeks old

A. Wether

B. Ewe

C. Ram

11. Recommended body weight of swine to market.

A. 30-45kg

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B. 90-99kg

C. 100-150kg

12. Refers to heating the milk to a temperature of 145o to 165o to destroy germs that may be
present.

A. Milking

B. Milk Condensation

C. Milk Pasteurization

13. The egg is made up of three parts, namely

A. yolk, albumen, and shell

B. yolk, carbohydrates, and shell

C. yolk, protien, and shell

14. The flesh obtained from farm animal.

A. Bones

B. Meat

C. Skin

15. Refers to the process of cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts.

A. Meat Fabrication

B. Meat Process

C. Meat Cut

16. A feedstuffs with a coarser more fibrous type of feed.

A. Roughages

B. Concentrates

C. Pellets

17. Feedstuffs containing at least 70% TDN and less than 18% crude fiber (CF) or 22% acid
detergent fiber (ADF).

A. Roughages

B. Concentrates

C. Pellets

18. Contain H and O, with H and O in the ratio of 2H:1O

A. Protein

B. Carbohydrates

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C. Water

19. Contain C, H and O, with H and O in the same proportions as in water; consist largely of
hexosans (6-carbon sugars) as components.

A. Protein

B. Carbohydrates

C. Water

20. The study of processes involved in the conversation of food/feed elements into body
elements.

A. Nutrition

B. Digestion

C. Metabolism

21. The sum of the chemical changes occurring in an organism during the breakdown of food
(substrate) and the synthesis of cellular material.

A. Nutrition

B. Digestion

C. Metabolism

22. The process that prepares food for absorption

A. Nutrition

B. Digestion

C. Metabolism

23. Process of reducing large amount of materials to an amount convenient for laboratory
analysis.

A. Test

B. Sampling

C. Experiment

24. The determination is based on the fact that most nitrogen-containing macromaterials in most
feeds are proteins and proteins on the average are approximately 16% nitrogen.

A. Moisture

B. Sampling

C. Crude Protein

25. Determined by drying the sample in the oven at 100oC for 8-24 hrs or at 135oC for a short
period (less than 2 hrs for air-dry materials) or at less than 100oC with forced air or under
vacuum.

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A. Moisture

B. Sampling

C. Crude Protein

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