OUR KHETIWE

TO

SOCIAL STUDIES 2

(HISTORY TOPICS IN SOCIAL STUDIES)

TEACHING AND LEARNING NOTES-8&9

(ADAPTED FROM PROVINCIAL EDUCATION OFFICE (PEO)-NORTHERN)

EDITED AND COMPILED

BY
NAMBEYA OLIVIA AND MBAMBARA SARAH

FIRST DRAFT@2018

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MAN THE SOCIAL BEING
LEARNING ABOUT THE PAST
The meaning of history
 The word History comes from a Greek word Historian which means to
search for or to ‘inquiry’.
 History is knowledge that is acquired by investigation.
 Historians reconstruct the past events through investigations.
 Therefore, History is the study, which goes back to the past to bring to light
the actions and motives of people who lived in then and relate them to the
present.
 History uses the narrative approach to examine and analyse the sequence
of events under investigation.
 Historians examine the nature of history and its usefulness.
Importance of studying history
 History allows people to imagine a better future. It inspires people with
biographical stories of heroic people.
 It develops a sense of citizenship in people and understand the society in
which they live.
 It develops reading, writing and analytical thinking skills in people.
 It gives people entertainment and fun.
 It lets people leave the confines of their environment and see themselves
as a product of thousands of years of history.
 It makes people to understand other people who are different from
themselves.
 It provides the purpose for living to the people.
 It trains people to understand other people before they understand
themselves.
Branches of history:
 History is divided into four major categories and these are: Political,
social, economic and scientific or technological History.

Political History:
 This branch of History involves the searching for truth about the past
famous leaders, their system of governance, dates of their reign and how
they related with their subjects
 The past administration is related to the present administration.
Social History:
 This branch involves finding of facts about the social behaviours of people
in the communities and where they lived.
 The behaviours include their lifestyle, talking, dressing, marriage and
how they were related to each other.
Economic History:
 This branch of history searches to collect information about the economic
potential of people under study.
 The areas of study include the crops, trade, animals reared, birds kept,
minerals mined and other economic activities carried out.

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  It shows the past societies earned a living in relation to the present .e.g
The Bembas were good at clay pot making, Ngoni were good at
blacksmiths and Chewa were good at bead making.
Scientific (technological) History:
 This branch of history involves finding out facts about the origin,
evolution and development of science and technology.
 It is the study of the origin and discoveries of medicine, arithmetic,
construction of magnificent buildings and machines.
 It shows discoveries and inventions such as telescopes, spinning or
weaving machines.
Methods of studying historical issues
1. Archaeology
 The study of ancient remains like bones and tools, dug out from the
ground, tell historians about remnants of human or animal existence.
 This study aim at finding out how the ancient people lived, their time of
existence and the activities they carried out.
 Archaeologists are people who dig up and study the remains of the early
man. The digging up of these remains is called excavation.
 The details are in most cases are illustrated by scientific drawn diagrams
and classified depending on the depth of the ground.
 The classification is called stratigraphy.
Limitations of archaeology:
 Depends on material culture, so fails to cover political or social history of
people.
 People who left the remains cannot be identified.
2. Oral Traditions
 This is a method of learning about the past through the word of mouth.
 History is passed down from one generation to another by word of mouth.
 It is the oldest source of History.
 It is also the primary source of written history. Oral history was always
passes over through songs, proverbs, poems, hymns, legends, myths and
tales by elders of the given society.
 These stories may now be written by people like chiefs, administrators,
missionaries and any other people interested in documenting them.
Limitations of Oral traditions
 Traditional historical stories are only found among centralized societies,
how about those that are not centralized, how will their stories be known?
 Negatives are often omitted as do emphasize on achievements.
 There are problems of dating
3. Written records:
 These are historical events written down in books and other documents by
observers and travelers.
 This is documented history after it has been collected from various sources.
 It is in form of diaries, books, journals, newspapers, magazines and other
written records.
 It should be noted that written history is more accurate than oral sources
since it is not easy to change.

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Limitations of Written records:
 There is cultural and political bias, especially when writers have a
different background.
4. Anthropology
 This is the study of the present and existing social organizations, cultural
values and how they are inter-related in order to explain the past.
 It involves the study of a social life of ethnic groups to find out about ideas,
beliefs, structure and social organization of ancestors.
5. Linguistics
 This is the study of languages (sounds, structure, grammar, their
formation and relationship between different groups).
 It particularly looks at relationships of various language groups in order
to establish:
a)How and when a language spoken in an area came into being.
b) When the languages merged or separated from each other.
6. photographic/visual sources
 These are historical drawings and paintings (pictures).
 They include pre-historic art of various kinds; the drawings and paintings
depicting various kinds of life the earliest people led.
Methods of dating historical events and materials
 There many methods that historians use to try and fix dates for various
ways of life.
1. Radio carbon dating
 Carbon 14 is the chemical that is used to determine how old an ancient
remain is.
 Carbon dating measures the rate of decay of carbon 14 in fossils and
organic substances.
 Animals eat plants and have carbon which was taken in by plants. Carbon
14 that is absorbed begins to decay at a fixed rate from the time of death.
 The carbon 14 left in dead sample can be related to amount in living
plants and animals.
 Hence, this determines how long the sample might have been buried.
 This method is best for dating organic substances buried for long time.
2. Relative Dating Method (Layer)
 The age of discovered fossils is determined in relation to the stratum
(layers) buried in the soil or rocks.
 The deepest is classified as oldest and the top as the most recent.
The Concept of Measuring Time
 Time can be defined as the passing of one or any of the units mentioned
above.
 Time can also refer to the past (time that is gone)
 The concept of time is measured using seconds, minutes, hours, days,
weeks, months, years, decades, generations, centuries and millennium
Explanation of timings
Decade………………………..a period of 10 years
Generation…………………….a period of 30 years

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Jubilee…………………………a period of 50 years
Century………………………...a period of 100 years
Millennium……………………a period of 1000 years
Date
 This is the statement or period of time when something happened or when
something used to happen.
Time charts
 Charts are one way in which we can write history. They show different things
and these include:
i. events which happened in the past
ii. The order in which they happened
iii. Centauries in which events happened
 A.D (Anno Domini) It’s a Latin word that means ‘Our Lord’ or ‘after the birth
of Jesus
Christ’.
 The dates of all events that happened after the birth of Jesus Christ are written
with A.D in front of them; they are measured forward after the birth of Christ
.E.g. AD 1835 the Ngonis crossed the river.
 B.C ( Before Christ) Which means before the birth of Christ
 All the events that happened before the birth of Christ are written with the
letters B.C in front of them e.g. BC 560
Note: However most scholars prefer the order of writing starting with the year
ending with the letter AD or BC. This is not wrong.
How to calculate years ago for A.D
 Years ago for A.D are calculated by subtracting the year given from the year
now.
 How to calculate years ago for A.D For example: How many years ago is 1835?
2013 - 1835 = 175 years ago
NOTE: Subtract the year given (2013) from the year now (1835).
How to calculate years ago for B.C.
 B.C means ‘Before the birth of Jesus Christ
 All the events that happened before the birth of Christ are written with the
letters B.C in front of them. B.C 752
How to calculate years ago for B.C
 Time before the birth of Christ is counted backwards.
 The years ago for B.C are calculated by adding the year when the event
happened to the year now.
 For example: How many years ago is B.C 752?
2013 + 752 = 2770 years ago.
How to convert years into centuries.
 Divide a year given by 100
 Add 1 to the answer found, ignoring the decimal point.
Example: In what century were the following years?
a) 560
b) 910
c) 1620
d) 1423

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Solutions
a) 560/100 =5.6
5 +1=6th century
b) 910/100=9.1
9+1=10th century
c) 1620/100=16.2
16 +1=17th century
d) 1423/100=14.23
14 + 1=15th century
Revision questions
1. Define history.
2. Give the importance of learning history
3. Explain the methods one can use to learn about the past.
4. Change the following years into centuries:
a) 2002
b) 2016
c) 1920
d) 1850

ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF MAN

Theories (version) of origin and development of man
 Man is a biped primate in the family of Hominidae.
 Man is a natural being with a highly developed brain, abstract
reasoning, introspection and emotion. Man has an erect body carriage
with free arms.
 Modern humans originated from Africa about 250,000 years ago.
 Several theories explain the origin of man and they are religious and
scientific theories of evolution as shown below.
Religious theory of man
 They are divided into three major ones
a) The creation story in the bible
 It explains the human origin from the act of creation by God.
 This theory suggests that God created human beings in his own image
(Genesis 1:26-28).
 It also states that man was created from dust and a woman from the
man’s rib.
 Once created, both man and woman were to reproduce, fill the earth and
to have control over the rest of creation.
b)The Islamic view of creation
 The Islamic view of creation of man is according to the Koran.
 The Koran states that God (Allah) created man in the best image.
 God created man (Adam) from the surrounding clay and the woman
from his rib.
 It is written in the Koran, Surat Rahman 55:14.
c) The African Traditional theories
 The African traditional theories also explain the origin of man.

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  Most African communities have myths of origin whose common part is that
the first people were created by God.
The scientific theory of evolution
 Scientists suggest that many millions of years ago, there was no single
planet but specks of dusts floating in space.
 They were attracted together and an explosion took place known as, the
big bang theory.
 The fragments formed 9 planets moving around the sun.
 The earth was surrounded by a steam which cooled and condensed to form
rainfall.
 The heavy rainfall for a long period led to the formation of seas, lakes and
rivers.
 The living creatures were formed from the gradual drying of a watery
earth.
 Therefore, man evolved from fish species to an upright moving creature
according to the British scholar Charles Darwin (1809 -1882).
 Evolution is defined as the process of change in the living organisms over
a number of years, frequently involving the beginning of new species from
earlier species.
 It is a natural process of gradual change from a simpler state to a better
adopted and superior state or species.
 Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution states that all living things evolved
over million years from a simple living cells to complex plants and
animals we see today.
Theory of Evolution
 All creatures are different and this difference or uniqueness is based on
hereditary factors which originate from birth.
 Many young organisms are produced, a few manage to develop to
maturity and reproduce.
 The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those
that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment.
 The fittest organisms survive and the weak ones become extinct. This theory
is popularly known as, survival for the fittest.
 According to Darwin, after the species going through mutation and
natural selection, the emergency species differ from their ancestors. They
take on a significantly different physical form.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution has been supported by almost all the
scientists, particularly the palaeontologists who study fossil remains.
 Therefore, this theory states that man is a primate and evolved over years
through many stages.
Stages in the development of man
 Through the excavation of remains of ancient sites, Paleoanthropologists
have discovered evidence of our ancestors from millions of years ago.
 Palaeoanthropology is the study of humanity from prehistoric times.
 Palaeoanthropology have been able to trace the important development
in human evolution, such as: Walking on two legs, Complex brain activity,
Making and using tools and ability to communicate by using language

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Stages in the evolution of man
 The information gained from the fossils compelled the historians to
conclude that man evolved from a four legged animal to an upright
posture.
 This occurred by man adapting his feet and legs to enable him stand
and walk in an upright posture.
 The two-legged position enabled him to see further, to look beyond tall
grass and vegetation.
 He could then easily locate food and his advancing enemies.
Proconsul Africanus
 The remains of Proconsul Africanus were discovered in Kenya
around Lake
Victoria in1930s.
 This hominoid species lived more than 20 million years ago.
 It was similar to an ape, with a jaw similar to that of human.
 This suggested a common ancestry between human and apes.
Kenyapithecus
 Kenyapithecus was discovered at Fort Terman in Kenya.
 This primate lived 13 to 20 million years ago.
 Even though it did not walk upright, it is mostly belied to be the first
true primate similar to modern humans.

Australopithecus
 The name Australopithecus means ‘southern ape’.
 Remains of this species were discovered at site in Southern Africa in
1896, north of the Vaal River, by Pro.Raymond Dart. Australopithecus
lived 3 million years ago.
 It was the earliest human-like primate.
 It had a combination of ape-like and human like features.
 These primates walked upright on two legs most of the time.
 They also had smaller canine teeth than the apes, more like those of
humans.
 They did not use tools, but made simple shelters from grass and
branches.

Zinjanthropus
 Zinjanthropus lived about 1.75 million years ago.
 Fossil remains of this creature were discovered by Mary Leaky at
Olduval Gorge
in Tanzania in East Africa.
 Her husband Dr.Luis Leaky, identified where in the process of human
evolution it
fitted in.
 Zinjanthropus is also called “Nutcracker Man” because of its large teeth
that were
suitable for breaking things.
 Its brain was like that of an ape, but it walked upright like a human.

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  That is why it is also sometimes called “Ape Man”.

Homo Habilis
 This was one of the earliest known members of the genus homo to which
modern humans also belong. It lived in Africa about 1.8 million years
ago.
 Homo habilis means “able man” or “handy man”.
 Stone tools discovered near the skeletons of homo habilis indicated
that it used tools, for example for hunting.
 Scientists believe that its brain was larger than that of earlier primate
such as Australopithecus because it had a much larger space for the
area where the brain would be.
 It is also believed that this creature developed skills of hunting and
fishing because of the remains of the bones of fish, mammals and birds
which were found close to Homo habilis.

Stages in the evolution of man.

Periods through which man has lived

 The time periods during which early humans lived are dived into two
different stages and these are:
Stone Age:
 This is the name we use for the early prehistoric period when humans used
stone to make tools with sharp edges.
 This period lasted for about 3.4 million years.
The Iron Age:
 This period began between 4500 BC and 2000 BC, when people started
working with iron.
 This enabled them to make iron tools and weapons.
 The Iron Age in Africa stretched into early into the early centuries after
the birth of Christ.

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  This included the period when the Bantu- speaking people started moving
into Zambia.
Stone Age period
 Stone Age is the name we use for the early prehistoric period when humans
used stone to make tools with sharp edges.
 This period lasted for about 3.4 million years.
 Archaeologists divide the Stone Age period into three stages called eras.
 These periods are: Early, Middle and Late Stone Age.
Early Stone Age
 This period happened between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago, at the
same time as the evolution of genus Homo.
 Archaeologists have found evidence of the East African Rift valley, where
the genenus originated.
 The rift served as route that people followed to move into southern Africa,
into northern Africa through the Nile valley, and further on into Europe
and Asia.
 This was a period of Homo habilis.
 Tools used include stone axe for digging and cutting, stone cleavers for
chopping and skinning animals. Fire was used for cooking, heating and
scaring away animals.
Middle Stone Age
 The Middle Stone Age was a period of African prehistory between the Early
stone and Late Stone Age.
 It began around 300,000 years ago and ended around 15000 years ago.
 The remains of Broken Hill Man who lived during this period were
discovered in Kabwe by a Swiss miner called Zwingilan.
 People of this era lived near water.
 They survived by hunting and gathering wild fruits, tubers and honey
from their surroundings.
 During this period, humans started living in caves. Stronger and lighter
tools for specific purposes such as knives, scrapers and chopping tools were
developed.
 New method of hunting, such as traps, missiles and pitfalls were used.
 Development of bow and arrows.
Late stone age
 The Late Stone Age began around 15 000 years ago. People were living in
caves and rock shelters to shield themselves from the effects of the weather.
 They decorated the rock walls with paintings, for example showing
hunting scenes.
 In Zambia, people have found San rock painting at Nachikufu cave in
Mpika and Katotola in Eastern Province.
 Sometimes these paintings had ritual and religious meanings.
 Examples of people in this era were the San or the Bushmen.
 They used to live together in communities, but still lived a nomadic
lifestyle (moving from one place to another.
Important stone age sites in Zambia

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  At Kalambo Falls in Northern Province, found the remains of primitive
humans who began to use fire about 60,000 years ago.
 At Victoria Falls in Southern Province, people used more complex stone
working skills.
 In Kabwe, Mineworkers found the skull of Broken Hill Man who is believed
to have lived 79,000 years ago.
Iron Age period
 The Iron Age, which began from between 4500 BC and 2000 BC, marked a
new step in human culture because of two developments and these are:
a) Iron became the main material fir cutting tools and weapons.
b) People started using written or painted symbols for their language. This
meant the beginning of literature and historical records.
 Archaeologists divide the Iron Age period into two eras and these are:
a) Early Iron Age: During this era, people started using iron tools, but still
lived in smaller groups and followed a simpler lifestyle.
b) Late Iron Age: During this era, more organised societies began to develop,
with more advanced developments, such as farming and trade.
 The later stages of Iron Age also brought other changes, such as the
development of farming and trading of goods between different groups.
Revision questions
1. Explain the theory of evolution.
2. Differentiate between biblical and scientific theories of evolution.
3. Write shot notes on the following:
a) Kenyapithecus
b) Jinjanithropus
c) Proconso Africanus
d) Homo Habilis

PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES IN ZAMBIA

ORIGINS AND MOVEMENTS OF THE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLE
Mean of Bantu
 The term Bantu refers to ethic groups in Africa south of Sahara who share
similar languages, customs and traditions.
 There over 500 ethic Bantu groups, which occupy much of central and
southern Africa. They are called Bantu because of similarities in their
languages.
 For example the prefix ‘ba’ and suffix ‘ntu’refer to people, and are
common in languages that they speak.

Where the bantu-speaking people originally come from
Middle East regions:
 Historians believe that the Bantu speaking people came from the Middle
East, during the Iron Age.
 They believe that these people settled along the banks of the Nile River,
and later moved to what were then the grasslands of the Sahara.

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  From there, they moved into West Africa and settled around Lake Chad
and the Cameroon Highlands. Others moved further and settled in East
Africa.
Spreading southwards and eastwards:
 From the Cameroon highlands, it is believed that the Bantu-speaking
people moved down to the Katanga region in the south-east of what is now
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
 From Katanga, they gradually spread eastwards and southwards along
the lower Congo and Kasai River.
Movements of the bantu-speaking people in Africa
Early movements of the Bantu-speaking people:
Historians believe that the first Bantu-speaking groups moved as follows:
 By 500 BC, the pioneering groups reached the savannah grasslands south
of the Sahara, moving south into what is now the DRC, Angola and
Zambia.
 Another group moved eastwards by 1000 BC and settled around the great
lakes of East Africa.
 By 300 AD, these Eastern groups had moved southwards along the coast of
Africa, establishing themselves in the eastern and northern parts of what
is now South Africa around 500 AD.
Those who were there before the Bantu
 Archaeologists have found evidence that even before the Bantu speakers
arrived, early people lived in Africa south of the equator.
 They believe these were ancestors of the pygmies (who lived in the tropical
forests near the equator) and the Khoisan (who lived further south and
in what is now Zambia).
 Khoisan is the name used to refer to two groups of early people: the khoi
(early cattle herders) and the san (early hunter and gatherers).
 Archaeologists have found evidence in form of rock paintings showing
that the san also lived in different parts of Zambia.
 Some of the sites with rock paintings are Nachikufu caves in Mpika and
Gwisho hot spring on the Kafue flats.
 The san lived in small, scattered groups and mostly survived as hunters
and gatherers of food from their environment.
 Over many centuries, most of the hunters and gatherers were displaced
when the Bantu speakers arrived and absorbed them into their groups.
The Bantu expansion happened over a long period.
Causes of the Bantu migration
Many different factors caused the Bantu migrations and these include:
Adventure: Some groups moved to new areas to explore.
Drying up the Sahara desert: Since the Bantu-speaking people were farmers, the
environment forced them to migrate to look for new fertile lands for farming
and water as the Sahara turned into a desert
Expansion of chiefdoms and kingdoms: Some rulers wanted to expand their
kingdoms or chiefdoms over larger areas.

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Fear: Some convicted people migrated to other distant areas to escape
punishment or death. They often took close relatives or clan members with them
to settle in new areas.
Population increase: This created pressure on land and other resources, leading
some groups to migrate in search of new land.
Slave trade: Some groups scared to be attacked by armed slave traders and being
sold as slaves.
Succession disputes: When a chief or king died, the members of the royal family
often fought among themselves who should succeed the ruler.
Wars: Wars between tribes, and within tribes, forced the defeated groups to run
away from the more powerful tribes to areas where they could be safe.

Evidence of Bantu migrations

Genetics: by comparing the genes of the people from different areas,
anthropologists have been able to trace some groups back to communities in
different areas.
Iron-working: Before the coming of Iron Age Bantu-speakers, there is no
evidence of iron-working technology to the region.
Language: the languages spoken in eastern, central and southern Africa are
very similar to the languages originally spoken in Western Africa. There are
about 450 known Bantu languages that reflect similarities, including kikuyu
in the east and Setswana in the south.
Pottery: The technology for clay pottery in eastern and southern Africa is very
similar to that of West Africa. Decorations with grooves and patterns are very
similar. Only related groups of people use similar styles and decorations.
Results effects of Bantu migrations
Effects of the Bantu Migration
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results
 Also, the Bantu migrants also introduced farming. They introduced
cultivation of crops such as millet and sorghum and keeping of animals
such as cattle, sheep and goats.
 Iron smelting was also introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking
people and iron tools replaced stone tools.
 The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and
Kingdoms were formed where people respected their rulers and paid
tribute to them.
 Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved
local trade amongst themselves and long distance trade with the east and
west coasts.
 Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba – Lunda migrations. People
identified themselves with those that they migrated with and formed tribes
whose languages were
Slightly different from the original Bantu language.
 Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land
to settlement in families, clans and villages.

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  They led to a rise of large states and bigger tribes in East Africa.e.g, the
Buganda, Kikuyu, and Nyamwezi. e.t.c
Negative effects
The Bantu migration led to depopulation:
 This was caused by the frequent attacks made by the Bantu against the
people East Africa for land, through wars.
 Many people died through these wars, e.g. the Zimba would attack people
at the coast, kill them, and eat their fresh (i.e. cannibalism).
 There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought
about due to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom
they came across.
 There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the
dying down of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained.
 The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of
the areas they occupied, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people
by the Bantu. The Bushmen fled to the dry parts of the region
Questions
Individually, answer the following questions in short-answer format
1. (a) who are the Bantu?
(b) Why did they move from their cradle land?
2 (a) Describe the movement and settlement of Bantu people in E. Africa.
(b) What were the effects of their movement and settlement on the people of East
Africa.

MOVEMENTS OF THE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLE INTO ZAMBIA:THE LUBA-

LUNDA MIGRATION

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 A map showing the movement of the Bantu from Katanga Region.
 Bantu speaking people started moving into Zambia during 300 AD, with
more groups arriving around the 12th to 13th centuries. Some groups also
came to Zambia during the 19th century.
 From the 16th to 19th century(1500 to 1800 AD), groups of people from the
powerful Luba and Lunda empires in what is now the Democratic Republic
of Congo(DRC) started moving south-east towards Zambia and other
areas in southern Africa in search of fertile farmland
 They included groups such as the Bemba, Lunda and Lozi.
 Later in the 19th century, any groups migrated from Southern Africa to
escape the Mfecane wars between the Zulu and other ethnic groups in
southern Africa.
 The Bantu speaking people moved into what is now Zambia from Katanga.
They moved into Zambia in three stages:
1. Movements from the great lakes region
 Based on the archaeological evidence found at the sites such as ing’ombe
illede historians believe the first Bantu-speaker into Zambia from the
Great lakes regions in East Africa from about 300 AD.
 The Tonga settled in what is now southern province.
 The Tonga were pastoralists, farmers and iron smelters. Smaller groups
such as the Tabwa and Lungu settled near Tanganyika in the northeast
2. Movements from the Luba and Luda empires
 Most Zambian groups can trace their roots ethic groups that arrived
during the second migration.
 Similarities in cultures of ethnic groups in Zambia and the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC) led historians to work out that certain Zambia
groups came from the Luba and Lunda in what is now DRC during the
16th to early 19th centuries (1500-1800 AD).

15
  This stage includes the arrival of larger groups such as the Bemba and the
Lunda, as well as smaller groups such as the Lamba that settled in central
province.
 Other groups such as the Tumbuka and the Chewa settled in eastern
province.
 The Lozi also migrated from the Barotseland in western Zambia. Later
their culture was influenced the kololo.
3. The Ngoni and Sotho from southern Africa
 Later, in the 18th to 19th century, the Ngoni and Sotho people came into
Zambia from the south to escape the Mfecane.
 The Mfecane was the wide spread of chaos and wars in the southern that
developed from the expansion for the Zulu kingdom under Shaka and the
Matabele kingdom under mzilikazi.
 The Ngoni Bantu-Nguni speaking people in northern Zulu and southeast
Africa.
 They were originally ndwandwe people under the leadership of zwide, one
part of his group, the Ngoni, fled northwards and settled in eastern
Zambia.
 The Sotho lived in what is now Lesotho, were king mosheshe gathered them
gathered in mountain kingdom.
 The Sotho defended itself against Zulu expansion, but some Sotho groups
moved northwards during the mfecane.
 The Kololo moved into Barotseland, were their culture influenced the
culture of the lozi who had already settled there.

Historical locations of the Bantu ethnic groups in Zambia
 Nearly all the different ethnic groups in Zambia migrated from other
areas long ago.
 There are about 73 different ethnic groups in Zambia.
 However, nearly 90% of Zambians belong to one of the nine main
ethnic and language groups.
Western Province: Is home to Lozi and other smaller ethnic groups such as the
Ikoya and Mbunda
Northern-Western Province: Has many different ethnic groups, such as the
southern Lunda and Luvale, Chokwe, Luchazi, Mbunda, Ndembu and Kaonde
Southern Province: Is home to as many as 12 separate but related Ila-Tonga
groups.
Northern Province: Is home to Bemba and other groups such as Mambwe and
Namwanga.
Muchinga Province: Home to Bemba and the Bisa.
Luapula Province: Most people speak Bemba, the province include other groups
such as the Lunda, Kabende, Aushi and Chishima.
Eastern Province: Is the home of the Nsenga, Chewa, Tumbuka, Kunda and
Ngoni. The main language is Nyanja which is also spoken in Malawi.
Central Province: Is where the ethnic boundary between the Ila-Tonga and the
Lala-Lamba groups are. The Lenje-Solio people live in the area roughly between
these other groups.

16
Copperbelt Province: The location of the mining industry and Lusaka Province
has people from all parts of Zambia, as well as neighboring countries.
Map of Zambia’s ethnic groups, originally developed during colonial times

Causes of the Bantu migration

Many different factors caused the Bantu migrations and these include:
Adventure: Some groups moved to new areas to explore.
Expansion of chiefdoms and kingdoms: Some rulers wanted to expand their
kingdoms or chiefdoms over larger areas.
Fear: Some convicted people migrated to other distant areas to escape
punishment or death. They often took close relatives or clan members with them
to settle in new areas.
Population increase: This created pressure on land and other resources, leading
some groups to migrate in search of new land.
Slave trade: Some groups scared to be attacked by armed slave traders and being
sold as slaves.
Succession disputes: When a chief or king died, the members of the royal family
often fought among themselves who should succeed the ruler.
Wars: Wars between tribes, and within tribes, forced the defeated groups to run
away from the more powerful tribes to areas where they could be safe.

17
Evidence of Bantu migrations
Genetics: by comparing the genes of the people from different areas,
anthropologists have been able to trace some groups back to communities in
different areas.
Iron-working: Before the coming of Iron Age Bantu-speakers, there is no
evidence of iron-working technology to the region.
Language: the languages spoken in eastern, central and southern Africa are
very similar to the languages originally spoken in Western Africa. There are
about 450 known Bantu languages that reflect similarities, including kikuyu
in the east and Setswana in the south.
Pottery: The technology for clay pottery in eastern and southern Africa is very
similar to that of West Africa. Decorations with grooves and patterns are very
similar. Only related groups of people use similar styles and decorations.
Results or effects of Bantu migrations
The following were the main results of Bantu migration:
 Also, the Bantu migrants also introduced farming. They introduced
cultivation of crops such as millet and sorghum and keeping of animals
such as cattle, sheep and goats.
 Iron smelting was also introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking
people and iron tools replaced stone tools.
 The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of
the areas they occupied, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people
by the Bantu. The Bushmen fled to the dry parts of the region.
 The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and
Kingdoms were formed where people respected their rulers and paid
tribute to them.
 Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved
local trade amongst themselves and long distance trade with the east and
west coasts.
 Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba–Lunda migrations. People
identified themselves with those that they migrated with and formed tribes
whose languages were slightly different from the original Bantu
language.
Other influences on the bantu-speaking people
As the Bantu speaking people migrated to different areas in Africa, they were
influenced by the culture and language of other ethnic groups that they came
into contact with. For example:
 In east Africa the Bantu speakers met the Cushitic people who lived in what
is now Ethiopia and Somalia. The Cushitic taught the Bantu to keep cattle
for milk and meat.
 On the east coast, the Bantu came into contact with Arab and the Persian
traders from the Arab world.
 This interaction resulted in the Swahili culture in what is now Kenya and
Tanzania. Swahili still contains many Arabic loan words.
Spread of farming and iron-working into Zambia
 The movement of Bantu-speaking people into Zambia during the Iron Age
led to farming and iron-working spreading to Zambia as well.

18
  Origin of farming and iron-working from the Fertile Crescent in the
Middle East to the Nile Valley.
 Agriculture started in the Middle East around the Mediterranean Sea, in
an area called Fertile Crescent; it is so because this place is shaped like a
crescent or half-moon, was so good for growing crops.
 Around 3000 BC, people in Tigris and Euphrates valleys developed the
knowledge of domesticating animals and growing cereal crops such as
millet, oats, wheat and rice.
 This was possible due to the development of Iron Age.
 People could make tools for farming and protecting themselves. Examples
of tools include hoes.
 Farming skills spread to Egypt under Pharaohs through bartering,
around 600 BC.
 People from Tigris and Euphrates valley exchanged their cereals and iron
tools for salt and gold from Egypt.
 This taught the Egyptians the skill of growing crops. They started growing
grapes and other fruits along the valley.
How farming spread beyond the Fertile Crescent
 Other Africans came into contact with the Egyptians and also learned
about farming.
 They began crop farming; that is, growing cereal crops and pastoral
farming; that is keeping goats, camel and sheep for milk and meets.
 Trade between Egypt and inland Africa helped farming to spread to West
Africa into Africa and in the same way Farming spread from crescent to
other parts of the world.
Reasons why farming took time to reach central and southern Africa
 Central Africa had plenty of wild food and game, which supported the
hunter gatherers who originally lived there in small groups
 Central Africa is very far away from Egypt
 The forest and swamps also led to tropical diseases, so people from other
climates did not always survive journey inland.
 The tropical rainforests and swamps of central Africa made it difficult for
people to move between there and north Africa.
Importance of iron technology for the Bantu speakers
 It led to the development of farming.
 Increase in the production of food due to development of iron tools.
 Development of long distance trade. The development of farming helped
to increase trade.
 The development of farming and trade due to iron technology led to the
development of other technological improvements.
 For example, Arad traders built wooden boats called dhows to sail from
the Middle East to the east Africa coast.
Questions.

1. Give (a) the causes and (b) the effects of the Luba-Lunda dispersion in
Central Africa

19
 2. Give an account of the causes and routes of the Bantu Migrations into
Central Africa before

3. What were the causes of the Luba-Lunda Dispersal? Describe the general
nature and the important effects of this dispersal in Central Africa. [

4. Give reasons for and a description of Bantu Migrations into Central Africa
before 1800.

5. (a) List down the main Bantu-speaking peoples of Zambia by the Mid-
Nineteenth Century.
(b) Where did they come from?
(c) Any why did they migrate?

DECENTRALISED SOCIETIES
Major decentralized society in Zambia: main features
 Many Bantu-speaking groups had royal families who led and ruled them.
 However, some societies, such as the Tonga, ila, lenje and soli, did not have
chiefs or kings, we call them decentralised societies.
 The main typical example of decentralised societies in Zambia is that of
the Tonga, Ila and the Lenje also known as the Bantu Botatwe.
Origins of the Tonga
 Most Bantu-speaking people in Zambia trace their origins from the central
African Luba-Lunda kingdoms.
 The Tonga where the first iron age people to reach present-day southern
Zambia.
 The Tonga where iron age farmers, iron-workers and pastoralists. At first,
they settled around the isamu pati and kalundu areas in the present –day
kalomo district.
 This is supported by archaeological evidence of remains of human bones,
sheep, cattle and goats, seeds of millet and sorghum, hand axes, knives
and copperwares found in this area.
 They belonged to the Iron Age Culture and are believed to have migrated
from the Cameroon Highlands.
 They moved southwards and settled at two important sites such as
Kalundu and Isamu Pati. They lived in the area between Barotseland in
the western side, Gwembe Valley in the eastern side and Choma in the
northern side.
 They either assimilated the Bushmen they found there or drove them away
to the Kalahari Desert.
 The reasons for their migration and settlement into this area could have
been due to the drying up of the Sahara which displaced people.
 The introduction of new crops, and population increase in the Cameroon
Highlands also could have led to their migration.
Social Organisation
 They lived in small villages.

20
  The huts usually were conical in nature and were usually built in a
central place.
 The family was the main social unit.
 They were a matrilineal society and emphasised rights of parents over
their children and supported them in paying lobola (bride price).
 They were a polygamous society.
 The clan and lineage were important aspects of their life.
 Each clan was named after an animal.
 Marriage within one’s clan was strictly prohibited. Succession and
inheritance was matrilineal based.
 They were very religious and practised rituals, e.g. Malende when there
was no rain or during droughts.
 They also believed in witchcraft.
Economic Organisation
 They practiced mixed farming.
 They grew crops such as sorghum, millet, maize and kept animals such as
goats, cattle and sheep.
 They hunted wild animals and gathered wild fruits.
 They traded locally and not externally.
 They practiced pottery in which they made pots of channel decorated and
globular type vessels which they used for cooking and storing food.
 They were also wood and metal workers. Their wealth was measured by the
size of their herd.
 From cattle they got milk, meat and hides. They also used cattle for bride
price (lobola), ritual sacrifices, paying fines, during death and
initiation ceremonies.
Political Organisation
 Politically, they were a decentralised society.
 They had no central chief.
 The largest political unit was the neighbourhood made up of the
neighbouring villages.
 The headman who commanded more political influence was called
Ulanyika.
 The Sikatongo exercised religious leadership and acted as a custodian of
the community’s shrine, the Malende.
 Chiefdoms were created by the colonial government in order to maintain
law and order and collect tax on behalf of the colonial government.
The Ila and the Lenje
 The Ila people are the traditional inhabitants of Namwala district in
Southern Province of Zambia and engage mostly in cattle keeping, fishing
and subsistence farming.
 The Ila are emphatic that there ancestral home was beside Lake
Tanganyika. In terms of existence of chieftainships, there were a few
exceptions.
 The Lenje who live east of the Lukanga Swamp, have a chief Mukuni, who
claims Luba origin.

21
  It is also said that the first Mukuni went south-west to found a
chieftainship among the Leya near Victoria Falls.
 Existence of centralised chieftainships of any kind seems to have been
uncommon among the Ila and the Lenje until well into the nineteenth
century.
 This is one reason why little is known of their pre-colonial history.
 Lacking dynasties or other deep lineages, their perspectives of the past have
probably always been extremely foreshortened

CENTRALISED SOCIETIES
Major centralized societies in Zambia: main features
 Societies led by a king or a chief are called centralized societies.
 Examples of centralized include : the Bemba, luyi and lunda, the chewa
and the Ngoni.
Characteristics of the centralized societies
 They had one supreme hereditary ruler at a time and under him were
several sub-chiefs and headmen
 They had well-established social institutions such as clans and lineages.
 They had a well established cultural institutions
 The supreme ruler acted as the father to the people and made decisions on
behalf of all the people.
 Each society had special royal objects used in coronations and other
cultural ceremonies.
 The supreme leader also served as the chief priest during major tribal
religious ceremonies
 The sub chiefs had to be installed only after the approval of the supreme
ruler.
The Bemba kingdom
Origins
 Oral traditions of the Bemba royalty suggest that they migrated from the
Luba kingdom known as kola in what is now the DRC.
 However, some historians argue that this story is of a mostly mythical
nature to explain the continued rule of lubemba by the crocodile clan.
 Where the Bemba came from
 Mukulumpe, the, the king of kola, had married a woman of the crocodile
clan (Abena ng`andu).
 They had three sons and one daughter; the sons were chiti, nkole and
katongo. Chilufya was their sister.
 The three sons had differences with their father and fought him.
 After the fight they decided to flee the kingdom.
 They were later joined by their half brothers, chimba, kapasa and
kazembe.
 They fled eastwards and settled in present-day northern Zambia.
 They were led by chiti, to whom they gave a praise name “mukulu”,
meaning the great. So chiti came to be called Chiti Mukulu or chiti the
Great. They built their capital east of present-day kasama and called the
newly occupied area lubemba.

22
Political organization
 The Bemba expanded in all directions through conquering other
chiefdoms and founding new chiefdoms.
 They achieved a centralized government under the supreme chief, the
Chiti Mukulu of the royal clan.
 The power of the clan was thought to lie in their prayers to the spirits of
their ancestors at special sites, which they believed influenced the fertility
of land and the general welfare of the people.
 The burial of the close members of the royal clan and ceremonies around
the succession of the new chief are among the most complex among the
Bantu speaking.

REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE BEMBA KINGDOM

Bemba power and expansion resulted from the following:
 Good administrative reforms by the chitimukulu ,particularly under
chileshe chepela
 Limiting the chieftaincy and succession to the Abena Ng’andu clan. Chiefs
were chosen from the sons and nephews of chiefs, united under the
chitimukulu
 Obtaining guns and gunpowder, Which allowed them to conquer other
groups who had to pay tribute
 Well-organised armies commanded by trusted members of the loyal clan
 Well-organised administrative structures of the kingdom.
Social organisation and culture
 The Bemba clans were divided into about 40 matrilineal clans ,such as
Abena Bowa ,Abena Nsofu or Abena Mfula, Which were spread all over the
Lubemba area.
 Administratively the smallest group was the village. This was mostly made
up of matrilineal relatives of the village headman.
 The headman reported to the chiefs who reported to the senior chiefs, and
in turn the senior chiefs reported to the chitimukulu through appointed
royal councilors called bachilolo.
 The Bemba also practiced polygamy, through the first wife enjoyed special
status.
Economic activities
 The Bemba practiced shifting cultivation, called the chitemene system,
because of the acidity of the soil.
 The ash from the burnt vegetation neutralized the soil.
 They grew millet, sorghum and Cassava.
 They did not keep cattle due to tsetse flies, so they raided neighboring
groups (such as Mambwe) for cattle.
 They sold slaves, copper and ivory to the Portuguese and Swahili on the
east coast.
 In return, they got guns, gun powder, beads, cloth and other
manufactured goods from Swahili and Arabs.
 Guns strengthened their military position to the extent that they could
defeat invading Ngoni who wanted to overrun the Lubemba country.

23
Decline
 By 1883, the Bemba kingdom had expanded greatly, and included
Bisaland, Lunguland, Tabwa and Mambwe areas.
 During European colonization, treaties were signed with the most
powerful chiefs. Internal disputes between mwamba and chitimukulu lead
to lack of joint, organized resistance to European colonization.
 As a result, the powers of the Bemba chiefs were reduced by the colonial
administration.
 However, almost all the Bemba chiefs, including the chitimukulu,
retained authority over their chiefdoms.
The Luyi kingdoms (Lozi)
Origins
 Luyi mythology tells that the Luyi are descended from mwambwa, the
daughter and wife of the god Nyambe.
 However, anthropologists know that the Luyi share many traditions with
groups such as the lunda of kazembe and the Bemba of chitimukulu, as
well as the Bisa and Nkoya.
 This evidence suggests that the Luyi are descendants of the Luba-Lunda
empire, in what is now the democratic republic of Congo.
Political organization and history
 The fist Luyi ruler was known as Mboo the wise one.
 His traditional title was Litunga.
 However, his youngest brothers broke away from the Litunga’s kingdom,
and started new groups of their own.
 There are many conflicts between the different groups, until ngalama, the
fourth Litunga (king), unified his kingdom.
 It became known as the Lozi kingdom.
 Because the Lozi believed that the king was descended from the gods, the
Litunga was highly feared and respected.
 During the 1600s, the Lozi actively invaded new areas and took over from
the decentralized societies that were living there.
 Their oral tradition is mostly concerned with the lineage of the Lozi rulers
and kings, so we do not know much about the people they conquered and
who became part of the Lozi.
Social organization and culture
 The Lozi people lived on the Zambezi floodplains.
 This area flooded each year during the rainy season.
 They built their villages on termite mounds or they made mounds of earth
and stones to make their homes higher.
 Each year, when the floods came, the people had to move to escape the
floods.
 The Lozi people traced their descent from either the father’s side of the
family or the mother’s side of the family.
 They believe that the child belonged to both sides of the family. Instead of
the clan names, they used mishuku.
Economic activities
The Lozi had three main economic activities:

24
Farming annual:
 Floods ensured that the earths of the plains were rich and fertile.
 Crops on the plains included sorghum, maize and root crops.
Fishing:
 The Lozi caught fish from the Zambezi and its tributaries, and in large
dams on the plains.
 In the dry season, they used nets and spears.
 When the water level was higher that trapped fish using reed fences and
earth dams.

Keeping cattle:
 The flood plains also offered good grazing.
 However during the floods the Lozi had to move their cattle to higher
lands.
 The Lozi had to move to the highlands each year during the flood season.
 This became an annual event known as the kuomboka (meaning “getting
out of the water”).
 The Litunga would travel in a barge boat called nalikwanda.On the
highlands, the Lozi could farm different crops, including cassava, millet
and groundnuts.
Decline
 For nearly a century, the Lozi was one of the strongest kingdoms in the
area.
 However after 1830, the Lozi kingdom declined.
 The death of the tenth Litunga mulambwa led to the power struggle
between his successors, Silumelume and another junior Litunga,
Mubukwanu.
 This caused a big divide between the north and the south.
 The lozi of the north considered themselves to be true Lozi people under
the leadership of Silumelume.
 They saw the Lozi of the south as conquered people.
 Also the language of the southern Lozi was closer to Tonga. Soon after
this, the kololo arrived in 1833.
 It was easy for the kololo to conquer the Lozi kingdom because of the
divisions between the north and the south.
 The kololo deafened the Lozi and took over the kingdom under the
leadership of Sebitwane.

The Lunda Kingdom of Kazembe

Origins and History
 The lunda people of mwata kazembe are believed to have migrated from
mwataynvwo in the present-days Katanga province of the democratic
republic of Congo.
 They came to settle in luapula valley. Under the leadership of mwata
kazembe the II kanyembo Mpemba.
 They conqured the indigenous people in the valley and set up lunda loyal
family members of the chiefs.

25
  They also adopted the language of the Bemba, a group that had also
migrated from Congo and to which they were allied.
 Kazembe had many warriors.portuguese records state he was able to raise
Mwamsabombwe.
 Conqured groups became part of the kingdom.
 These groups included the Bwile, Tabwa and the Lungu.
 The lungu kingdom expanded rapidly and stretched from lualaba in the
west to the Bemba kingdom in the east.
 This was due to the desire to control salt and copper deposits.
 Kazembe controlled the distance trade to the east and west coasts.
 This trade was possible because of the availability of resources such as
fertile soils to grow crops like cassava, salt from the Tabwa, copper from
Katanga, Fish from the Bwile, Ivory from the Bisa and Iron from the
Chishinga.
 Portuguese and Arab traders brought guns, gunpowder and other
manufactured goods.
 They exchanged these with slaves, ivory and copper.
 By 1850, Kazembe was the most powerful chief in central Guns were used
to conquer other states, bringing them under his control.
Political and social structure
 Following the Luba-Lunda chieftaincy model, Mwata Kazembe was the
paramount chief. He was followed by senior chiefs, chiefs and lower-level
chiefs and headmen.
 All senior chiefs were appointed by the Mwata from his family. When the d
him paramount chief died, one of the senior chiefs succeed.
 Decline
 The kazembe kingdom declined because of the following reasons:
 Bemba and Ngoni raids on Kazembe’s middlemen in the long-distance
trade
 Loss of trade routes as a consequence of Msiri and Yeke raids
 Loss of control over tribute as the Swahili and Arab traders opened new
trade routes from the east coast into the interior.
 Junior chiefs also stopped paying tribute to Kazembe.
 There was internal disorder in the kingdom after the death of Kazembe
VI.
 In 1888, the Luapula valley was divided between the British and Belgium.
 Once Belgium colonial rule was established west of the Luapula River,
Mwata kazembe territory and rule became confined to the eastern side of
what is now Zambia.
Undi’s Chewa kingdom.
Origin
 The Chewa Kingdom of Undi originated as a result of a succession dispute.
 Undi broke away from the Kalonga Kingdom in present day Malawi
around 1700.
 Undi established his Capital at Mano, south of Tete district in
Mozambique.
 His Kingdom went as far as south of Katete in Zambia’s Eastern Province.

26
  He spread his control throughout the Katete and Chadiza areas.
 In these areas, the conquered local groups such as Mkanda are Chewa, the
Nsenga of Petauke and the Chewa of Tete.
 He was given the praise name of Gawa Undi. “Gawa” meant “share”.
 This was because Undi shared the Land among his subordinate chiefs.
 Gawa Undi became the official title of the Chewa Paramount Chiefs.
Development of undi’s kingdom
The factors that led to the Development of Undi’s Kingdom were:

A well-organized political structure:

 Undi organized a centralised political structure as compared to the
Kalonga, s Kingdom.
 He organized the Kingdom according to levels of Hierarchy of rulers i.e.

Undi-was the overall boss

Subordinate chief-from the Phiri and Banda Clans

Tributary chiefs-from the conquered people

Headmen- from the villages.

Ordinary people
 This ensured that Undi had firm control of political affairs in the
Kingdom.
Religious Powers:
 Undi was also perceived to be a semi-divine ruler.
 He controlled the important rainmaking Shrine.
 He also established a female rainmaker called Makewane, who was in
charge of the Shrine.
 This contributed to the political power of Undi and it was also a very
important factor in uniting the Chewa people.
Raids:
 This was an important factor in the development of the Kingdom.
 Undi conquered and assimilated weaker groups such as the, Nsenga,
Chewa and the Tumbuka.
 These were incorporated into the Kingdom. At its height, Undi,s Kingdom
was vast.
 It included the Eastern Province of Zambia, parts of Mozambique’s Tete
districts and parts of Malawi.
The concentration of Power in the Phiri Clan:

27
  Undi gave posts of Sub-chiefs to members of the Phiri Clan.
 He also encouraged the members of the clan to intermarry with women
from other clans and the defeated tribes.
 The sub-chiefs were loyal to Undi because of Family relationship ties.
 In this way, Undi was able to maintain Unity in the Kingdom.
Natural Resources:
 Undi’s Kingdom was also very rich in Natural Resources.
 To begin with, Undi’s area was well watered and had fertile soils.
 Besides there were other natural resources such as salt, iron ore, ivory
and gold.
 In addition, by mid 1700, the mining of Gold in the Kingdom by the
Portuguese became very important.
 The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents mined the gold got their
share and gave a percentage to Undi.
 All these natural resources enabled Undi to participate in the Long
Distance Trade.

Tribute System:
 Tribute was collected from the defeated chiefs and the subordinate chiefs
as a sign of loyalty to Undi.
 This tribute was in form of ivory, slaves and gold.
 This also enabled the Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.
Monopoly of the Long Distance Trade:
 The rich natural resources and the Tribute System enabled Undi to
participate in and later monopolize the Long distance Trade.
 In exchange for local products such as ivory, gold and slaves, Undi was
given items such as guns, gunpowder and beads.
 This economic factor greatly contributed to the development of Undi’s
Kingdom.
Slave Trading:
 It also contributed to the development of the Kingdom.
 At about the same time that Gold mining was at its peak, trade in slaves
had also started and was highly profitable.
 Many people were sold as slaves.
 This led to an increase in Undi,s Economic power.
 This human labour was needed for the huge plantations called the
Prazoes in the Zambezi valley.
Decline
After 1750, Undi’s Kingdom began to decline because:
 It had no strong centralized government system.
 Sub –chiefs tried as much to decentralize power with the help of external
traders.
 Hence, conflicts arose between Undi and his sub – Chiefs and this
weakened his position.
 Undi did not have a permanent army and this made foreigners and sub
– chiefs undermine his authority because they had nothing serious to fear.
 Sub – chiefs stopped paying tribute to Undi.

28
  The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents began undermining Undi’s
authority by trading directly with Undi’s sub – chiefs.
 Consequently, Undi’s lost his monopoly of trade.
 The slave trading activites of the Portuguese and the Chikundi created
insecurity and weakened the kingdom.
 Undi lost control of the Makewana rain making shrines. This weakened
his position and negatively affected the unity in the Kingdom.
 The final destruction of the Kingdom was done by the Ngoni
Zwangendaba’s Ngoni settled in Nsenga country for four years on their
way to the north.
 They raided Undi’s people and put the Kingdom in more trouble.
 From the north, Mpezeni’s ngoni terrorized the Kingdom again. They
permanently settled in Nsenga land and this led to the final destruction
of the Kingdom.

The Kalonga kingdom

Origin
 The founders of the Malawi Kingdom of Kalonga were led from the Luba
Empire by Mazizi Kalonga in the 13 th century.
 Mazizi Kalonga died on the way and his successors took on the title of
Kalonga.
 These migrants entered the area around Lake Malawi and settled
alongside the Chewa hunter – gatherers and subsistence cultivators who
had occupied the area earlier.
 They later formed the many different groups of the Malawi people namely
the Chikunda, Chipeta, Mang’anja. Mbo, Ntumbu, Nyanja, Nyasa, Nsenga
and Zimba.
 Apart from the Nsenga, the Malawi people all spoke Nyanja, the language
of the lake.
 Kalonga’s people established themselves as rules over the Chewa people and
introduced a good political system.
 In 1580, Lundu broke away and established the Kingdom of Bororo to the
South of Kalonga.

Expansion
 During the late 16th century, the power of the Kalonga family began to
increase and they began to create a unified chiefdom.
 The most powerful of their rulers was Kalonga Masura, who ruled from
1600 – 1650 and made an alliance with the Portuguese.
 In 1608, he sent 4000 Malawi soldiers to help the Portuguese defeat
Mwenemutapa Gatsi Rusere.
 In return, the Portuguese helped Masura to conquer his rival Lundu.
 Kalonga Masura then tried to take control of the gold and ivory trade in
Mwenemutapa’s Kingdom but in vain.

29
  The Kingdom expanded through conquests. Masura built a powerful army
of about 10 000 Malawi soldiers which he used to conquer the Chipeta,
Mbo, Zimba and Chewa.
 The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to Kalonga, which he used
in the long distance trade.
 Masura sold ivory and slaves and obtained guns, gunpowder, beads, cloth
and other luxurious goods. Control of trade to the north of the Kingdom
helped him to expand his Kingdom.
 He used his wealth to reward his warriors and sub-chiefs while guns
strengthened the military position of the Kingdom.
 Kalonga used his wealth to win the loyalty of his sub – chiefs and subjects.
He distributed his wealth among his sub-chiefs who in turn redistributed
them to their people.
 The religious factor was also important in the development of Kalonga
kingdom. The Kalonga family was considered to be semi-divine and was
believed to possess rain making powers.
Decline
A number of factors have been attributed to the collapse of the Kalonga
Kingdom. These includes:
 Kalonga failed to build a highly centralized political state, unlike most
of the Luba- Lunda counterpart. The subordinate chiefs were given so
much autonomy that they were able to command a following of their own.
 After the death of Masura, Undi broke away following a succession dispute
and took with him close members of the Kalonga which left the ruling
Kalonga with no apparent hair to the throne.
 Another contributing factor was the failure of the royal Mbona rain-cult
to create unity among various Chewa people which led to further break
away groups.
 Externally the kingdom suffered from Yao attacks.
 The Yao traders also traded directly with the lesser chiefs. Thus they
stopped fearing Kalonga as they no longer depended on him.
 The kingdom continued to decline until the killing of the last Kalonga by
the Yao in the 1860s.
Culture
 Culture means the people’s way of life. It is about the way they do things,
how and what they worship, how they dress, the way they prepare and cook
food and the style of their music.
 Therefore, culture is identified through people’s music, clothes, food,
religion and writings.
 Culture can be also be defined as the collective human behavior in a given
society.
 This pattern of living includes; beliefs, knowledge, morals, customs and
regulations that govern a society.
Importance of culture
 It enables group life. Through culture people are linked and related. It
teaches members to think of themselves as part of a large group.

30
  Culture is a too through which people pass over the knowledge and norms
established by ancestors from one generation to another.
 Culture gives a vision to its people. It provides focus to the members of the
society.
 Culture provides rules and norms by which people must live. The rules help
to maintain stability and orderliness.
 Culture encourages unity among its members.
 Culture helps the members to gain positive concepts about family, the
nation and government.
 Culture gives opportunity to members to understand each other as they
interpret their interaction and communications according to their
culture.
Revision questions one

1. Who the typical good example is of decentralised of decentralized

societies in Zambia?

2. Discuss the social, political and economic organization of the Plateau

Tonga.

3. What were the origins of the Lunda? In what way was their political
system different from that of the Luba?

4. Examine the growth of the Malawi chieftainship. What were the political
and economic achievements of Kalonga Masula?

5. Discuss the main causes of the rise and decline of Undi’s kingdom.

6. Write briefly on the following:

7. What was the nature of the Luba-Lunda expansion into Zambia?

8. How and why were the Lozi able to establish themselves on the Bulozi flood
plain?

FOREIGN INFLUENCE ON ZAMBIA

Development of slavery and the slave trade
 A slave is a person who is legally owned by another person and is for forced
to work for that person without being paid.
 Slavery refers to the act of keeping slaves
 Slave trade refers to the trade in buying and selling human being
 European explorers started crossing the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean in
the 15th century.
 They set up colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia. When they needed
more workers in these colonies they turned to Africa as a source of labor.
Motives behind slavery and slave trade

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1. Social Motives
 Lack of labor force in the Americas because many local people were killed
in the wars between the European settlers.
 Role played by Bartlome de les Casas who spoke against the cruel
treatment of Native Americans. This Spanish priest suggested that Africans
could make better workers.
 Getting rid of undesirable members of society. Some people who became
misfits in families were sold into slavery by families of chiefs
 Indentured servants from did not cope well with the tropical conditions.
Europeans therefore looked to Africa a source of labor
2. Economic Motives
 Profitability- slave trade a highly profitable business. Chiefs, middlemen
and slave traders all benefited economically from slave trade.
 Cheap labor needed for plantations. European nations needed cheap
labor for their plantations in the Americas
 Role of the industrial Revolution. The invention of machines led to higher
demand for raw material from colonies. They needed labor to grow these
crops
3. Political motives
 Desire to expand political influence. The more the slaves a kingdom had
the more powerful it became. Leaders used slaves to construct fortified
cities etc
 Desire to expand European political influence- European nations which
had more slaves to work in plantations in their colonies strengthened
their political influence
 Need for manufactured goods – selling slaves of war captives was the
easiest way for kings and chiefs to obtain manufactured goods such as
textiles, guns and rums.
The effects of slave trade on the African societies
Social effects
 Depopulation and destruction: the population of Africans, especially in
West Africa was reduced because many people were taken as slaves, while
others were killed in raids to capture slaves.
 Introduction of new diseases in Africa such as Syphilis through sex with
African women. African were also exposed to other diseases such as
smallpox, measles etc
 Destruction of culture/westernization of Africans: Africans and former
slaves were exposed to the European way of life.
Political effects
 Rise and decline of states
 Increased slavery within African. Slave trade led to the growth of slavery
within Africa
 Racist attitude. Europeans saw Africans only as slaves who were inferior.
Even after slavery was abolished, these ideas lived on in some societies
 Increased warfare and violence. Slave trade resulted in slave raid,
violence.
Economic effects

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  Economically productive people were lost the slave. The trade strained
Africa of her most productive manpower.
 Introduction of European wealth/ goods such as clothes, beads, wine, guns
and gunpowder and also new crops
 Decline of African crafts such as iron smelting weaving, salt making
because the labor force needed for this work was taken away as slaves
Main slave trade routes in Africa
1. North Africa
 Arabs traders from North Africa travelled across the Sahara Desert to west.
They exchanged salt, horse, weapons and clothes for slaves.
 Slaves were taken to slave markets in North Africa

2. West Africa
 With the arrival of Europeans West Africa became the most important area
from where slaves
3. East Africa
 Arabs shipped slaves across the Indian Ocean to the Arabian Peninsula
and Far East.
 Later, Europeans also shipped slaves from east Africa to their colonies.
These were: the French and Portuguese.
 The Main slave markets were: Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Beira, Sofala,
Quelimane
THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
 The triangular slave trade, as known as the Trans-Atlantic slave trade,
took place across the Atlantic Ocean between the 16 th and 19th centuries.
 The triangular slave trade was organized in tree major.
 Each stage involved a different continent: Europe, Africa and the
Americas.
Stages in the triangular slave trade
1. Stage1: Europe to Africa
 European traders sailed to Africa with ships full of goods, such as guns
and gun powder, cloths, beads and glass ware
2. Stage 2: Africa to Americas
 European traders exchanged their goods for African slaves at places such
as the Gold coast (Ghana): Slave Coast (Senegal) and Grain Coast
(Nigeria).
 Slaved were shipped to the Americas (new world) to work in plantations
3. Stage 3: Americas to Europe
 The profit made from selling the slaves were taken back to Europe where it
could pay for more goods to trade in Africa again.

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 Map showing triangular slave trade

Abolition of Slavery and slave trade

 Abolition of slavery and slave trade is the official end of slavery
Factors that helped in the abolition of slavery
1. The rise of humanitarians such as Christians and scholars who
condemned slave trade on moral grounds
2. Influential abolitionists such e.g. William Wilberforce and Abraham
Lincoln
3. High death rate of sailors in the English Navy
4. Success of slave revolts
5. The industrial revolution
6. Slaves had become less profitable
People who were instrumental in the abolition of slavery and slave trade
1. William Wilberforce
 Was a British politician who campaigned against slavery and the slave
trade in the British Empire.
 He was a humanitarian who was strongly opposed to slavery and the slave
trade.
 William Wilberforce and other humanitarians believed that all people
regardless of colour were equal and that they were all created in the
image of God. They condemned the slave trade as evil and unchristian
and began to campaign against it.
 These campaigns led to the abolition of slavery and the slave trade
Stages of the abolition of slavery in Britain
 Somerset Case of 1772: this court case was the first step in the abolition of
slavery in the British Empire. Granville Sharpe a leading British
humanitarian defended a slave who had escape from his owner. This led
to the chief judge in Britain stating that slavery was so odious that it
could only be stopped by law and there was no such law in England.
 Society for Effecting the Abolition of slave trade (1787): this society was
formed to apply pressure on the British government through a mass
campaign to ban the slave trade.

34
  Anti-slavery Trade act of 1807: the British parliament passed a law that
banned the slave trade. This meant that British ships were banned from
carrying slaves. The British navy enforced this ban on the slave trade.
 .Emancipation act of 1833: with this law slavery it was finally abolished
in the British Empire. This meant that slaves had to be freed in Britain
and all its colonies
2 .Abraham Lincoln
 Abolishing slavery even proved to be harder to achieve in the USA than in
Britain and other countries such as France. It took a civil war before
abolishing could be achieved in the USA. The person who played a leading
role in the abolition of slavery in the USA was President Abraham Lincoln.
 Slave states and Free states: In the early 1800s views in the USA were
divided between those of the slave states in the south and Free states in the
North where slavery had already been abolished.
 Abolition campaign in the USA: By the 1830s white people and freed slaves
in the North started abolition campaign. They believed that slavery was
against their Christian faith and the founding principles of the United
States.
 Civil war between North and south: Abraham Lincoln was elected as
president of the United States in 1860. His strong anti-slavery views were
not acceptable to the southern states. Eleven southern states broke away
from the United States following his election. The breakaway by the
southern states led to the civil war between the south and north.
 Emancipation proclamation (1863) and Thirteenth Amendment (1865):
In January 1863 during the civil war president Abraham Lincoln issued
the emancipation proclamation. This was an official statement that
declared all enslaved people in the south free. The proclamation made
slavery in the United States of America illegal. This ensured that when the
Northern states won the civil war it would end slavery in the south. In
December 1865 (eight months after the end of the civil war), the
Thirteenth Amendment was formerly adopted by the parliament of the
USA. This amendment changed the Constitution of the USA to state that
slavery would no longer exist within the United States.
Other factors that helped in the abolition of slavery
Slavery was finally abolished because of :
 High deaths rate of sailors in the English Navy who were enforcing the ban
on the slave trade made the British government to finally abolish slavery
because they needed men to fight in the war against France.
 Success of slave revolts: places such as Barbados and saint Dominguez,
this posed a threat to European and American governments
 Industrial revolution: slaves were replaced by machines which did work
faster. This made slave become a social nuisance as they turned to petty
crimes.
I. Britain established Freetown in Sierra Leone to resettle freed slaves
II. The Americans resettled free slaves in Liberia.

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ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS
AIMS OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM AND THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
Imperialism: refers to the belief in empire-building or the policy of extending the
rule or influence of a country over other countries.
The scramble for Africa means the rush by European powers to acquire territories
in Africa. It began in the second half of the 19th century; that is, after 1850.
 By 1880 the scramble resembled a race which was likely to result into
armed conflicts among European powers themselves.
 To avoid the conflict a conference was convened at Berlin in Germany in
1884-85 under the initiative of Germany Chancellor Bismarck. This came
to be known as the Berlin Conference.
 This started the process of colonization of Africa, during which most of
Africa became colonies of different European countries.
Aims of European imperialism and the scramble for Africa.
1. Political aims
 Many European countries wanted to protect their growing trade with
Africa. This led to competition between different nations to increase their
control of larger parts of Africa.
 Some European nations acquired colonies for prestige or as a sign of power
and status. Each nation fought for the position of the imperial power.
 Some major nations such as Britain, France and Germany acquired lands
in Africa for military purposes. They wanted to establish military bases to
protect their overseas possessions.

2. Economic aims
 The raw materials from the New World were no longer enough so the
European nation started looking at Africa as a new source for raw
material.
 Europeans needed a market for their products
3. Social aims
 European countries wanted places in Africa to resettle their freed slaves
after the abolition of slavery and slave trade. For example they established
Sierra Leone and Liberia.
 European nations wanted to change the traditional African way of living
to Western ways. This would lead to Africans buying more Western goods
from European traders.
4. Religious and humanitarian aims
 Missionaries and explorers opened up the interior of Africa. Their reports
about the riches of Africa encouraged the scramble.

36
  Missionaries also wanted protection of their countries’ governments
against the slave traders such as Swahili Arabs who did not approve of the
presence of Christian missionaries.

Exploration of Africa by Europeans

 European explorers from various countries travelled into parts of Africa
that were still unknown to Europeans.
 The Europeans did not know much about the interior of Africa and hence
called Africa the Dark Continent.
Factors that influenced European exploration of Africa
A number of factors encouraged Europeans to explore the interior of Africa:
1. Geographical motives: They wanted to know where the sources and
estuaries of major rivers such as the Nile, Niger and Congo were. This
would enable them to use them as waterways to reach the African interior.
2. Industrial revolution: the industrial revolution led to the invention of
better weapons, so that explorers could defend themselves better against
any dangers from people or animals along the way. The discovery of
medicines such as quinine helped to protect them against diseases such as
malaria.
3. Missionary influence: They encouraged other people, such as doctors,
traders and teachers, to come to Africa. Missionary societies provided
funding to explorers so that they could open up the interior for the
spreading of Christianity
4. Roles of the African association: the African association started in London
in 1788, it was a British club whose members supported the exploration of
Africa especially west Africa.
Early European exploration of Africa
European explorers started crossing the Atlantic and Indian Ocean in the 15 th
to 17th centuries. The Portuguese were the first European explorers of Africa. This
was so because of:
I. Work of Prince Henry the Navigator who established a school for sailors
and shipbuilding.
II. Portugal’s geographical position near the Atlantic Ocean enabled her
people to learn the science of sailing fast.
III. Portugal needed supplement her poor economy in Europe. Portugal started
sending men to find the sea route to India and search for raw material
Some of the early Portuguese explorers included:
 In 1483, Dio Cao reached the mouth of the Congo (Zaire) river opening
the door Portuguese to enter the Congo kingdom later
 In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz circumnavigated the Cape and named it cape
of storms. It was later renamed to Cape of Good Hope by the King of
Portugal.
 In 1497-1498, Vasco da Game circumnavigated the cape all the way to
India. At malindi in East Africa Da Gama found a Hindu Pirate Majid
who escorted him to India.
European exploration of Africa in the 18 th and 19th centuries

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  During the 18th and 19th centuries, various explorers started exploring the
interior of Africa.
Main European explorers of Africa
West Africa
Mungo Park
 West Africa was opened to Europeans by a Scottish explorer called Mungo
Park.
 In 1795, the African association employed him to find the source and the
course of the Niger River, and to find out if it was Navigable.

First journey (1795-1797)

 In June 1795, Park started his journey from Gambia
 He travelled through the semi- desert area of Karta. He was captured and
held prisoner for four months by the chief of the Muslim people called
Moors. He escaped with only his hat and his compass.
 On 20th July 1796, near Segon, he reached the river Niger that he was
looking for. He realized that the river flowed eastwards.
 He travelled downstream to Silla before returning to the coast, and from
there back to England. There he published a book called Travels in the
interior of Africa.

Second Journey (1805)

 Park returned to West Africa in January 1805. But this expedition ended
in a disaster. Along the way, most of Park’s travelling companions died
due to tropical diseases. Park and the last survivors drowned at Bussa
around November while trying to escape from a hostile tribe.

Richard Lander
 He was also an Englishman. He came to Africa with His brother John
Lander in 1830.
 He discovered the mouth of the Niger around 1831. This flowed into the
Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic.
 He returned to England in 1831. But in 1834 Richard Lander returned to
Nigeria and was attacked by Africans and died from wounds.

René Calili`e
 In 1828, the French explorer René Calili’e became the first European to
return alive from the city of Timbuktu. Previously, Europeans only knew
about this city from the Arab traders.

East Africa
Richards Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke
 Richards Burton explored the Arabian Peninsula before setting off with
John Hanning Speke from 1857 – 1858 to search for the source of the Nile
River in East Africa.
 They were the first Europeans to reach Lake Tanganyika in 1858. However,
they realised from its position that it could not be the source of the Nile.

38
  Burton became ill, but Speke continued with a new European travelling
partner, James Grant, to a lake in the North that he called Lake Victoria.
 He claimed that Lake Victoria was the source of the Nile. He was proved
right by Henry Morton Stanley in 1874.
Central Africa
Henry Morton Stanley
Expedition to find Livingstone
 Henry Morton Stanley was a journalist for an American newspaper called
the New York Herold.
 He first travelled to Africa in 1871 to try and solve the mystery of what
happened to David Livingstone. Nothing had been heard of Livingstone
for three years, so many people thought he had died.
 He met Livingstone at Ujiji in 1871.
 Stanley’s journey was a major expedition, with a team of more than 200
porters and local guides. One of these guides was Sidi Mubarak Bombay
who first started his life as a slave and later became a guide for many
explorers.
Exploring the Congo area
 In November 1874, Stanley set off from Zanzibar on a major expedition to
carry on confirming the source of the Nile. He circumnavigated Lake
Victoria and Lake Tanganyika.
 Stanley moved west of the Lualaba River, which proved to be the start of
the Congo River, all the way to the West coast of Africa. They reached the
coast on 12th August 1877.
 From 1879 to 1884, Stanley worked for the king Leopold II of Belgium in
the Congo area after the British government refused to help him. This
started the process of creating a Belgian colony.
Mary Kingsley
 Mary Kingsley made two trips to the north of the Congo River between 1893
and 1895.
 She was unusual for an explorer of that time. Firstly, she was a woman
when most explorers were men. Secondly, she travelled on her own with just
a few guides.
 Other explorers used teams of African porters to carry to carry all the goods
they took with them.
 Her aim was not just to explore. She also wanted to find out more about
the life and religions of the people in the areas that she visited.
North Africa
Gerard Way, Georg Schweinfurt and Gustav Nachtigal
These three explored Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan.
Nachtigal confirmed stories of the tiny people called Pygmies in Central
Africa.
Southern and central Africa
David Livingstone is generally regarded as the greatest European Explorer of
Africa.
David Livingstone

39
Dr David Livingstone came to Africa as a missionary in the southern Africa in
1841. However, from 1853 he spent the rest of his life until his death in1873
exploring large parts of central Africa.
Background
 Dr David Livingstone was born in Blantyre, Scotland in 1813.
 He had difficulties in education such that he started work in a cotton
factory at the age of ten.
 He continued learning through night school which earned him a place
at Glasgow University where graduated as a medical doctor, after which
he joined the London Missionary Society (LMS) in the Northern Cape.
 He undertook shorter trips through the Northern Cape and what is now
Botswana, and reached the land of the Kololo where he met king
Sebitwane.
First journey (1852-1856)
 Livingstone began the first major journey of exploration in 1852. He
travelled north, passing through Kuruman, Koboleng and Mobosta until
he reached Linyanti. From there he travelled up the Zambezi River in
search of malaria – free site for a mission station.
 In 1854, he returned to Linyanti. After resting for some months, he
travelled downstream along the Zambezi River in 1855. On the Batoka
Plateau, he met Chief Monze.
 On this journey, he became the first European to see the waterfall locally
as “Mosi-o-tunya” (the smoke that thunders). He named it after the British
Queen.
 In 1856, he reached Quelimane in what is now Mozambique, and sailed
back to England.
 In England, he published a book called missionary travels and researches
in the southern Africa. He also made speeches to influence people to take
up missionary work in Africa.

Second journey (1858- 1864)

 In 1858, Livingstone returned to Africa as a British consul in Mozambique
to oppose the slave trade. From there he went on his second journey
through Eastern and Central Africa.
 Livingstone started his second journey from Quelimane and sailed
upstream in the Zambezi River. His aim was to see if the Zambezi River was
Navigable.
 After he was stopped by the Cabora Bassa rapids, he explored the Shire
River and Highlands. He encouraged the setting up of a mission station
at Magomero in what is now Malawi.
 Livingstone then continued trying to navigate inland along the Ruvuma
River. However, increasing costs and the failure to find a navigable River
led to the British Government cancelling the expedition. Livingstone
returned to England.
Third journey (1866-1873)
 Livingstone started his third journey from Zanzibar in March 1866, in
search of the source of the Nile River.

40
  He travelled up the Ruvuma River, passed through Kota-Kota on the
southern top of Lake Nyasa (now called Malawi) and entered the present
day Eastern province of Zambia.
 He crossed the Luangwa River and the Muchinga escarpment. He then
entered Lubemba.
 In 1871, he met Henry Morton Stanley at Ujiji, a journalist from the New
York Herald to go back to England, but Livingstone refused.
 After this, Livingstone crossed the Bemba Plateau and entered the
Bangweulu Swamps. Here he caught a terrible fever and finally died on
1st May 1873 at Chitambo Village.
 His African servants Chuma and Susi buried his heart and organs under
a tree. They embalmed his body and carried it to the east coast of Africa.
From there his body was shipped back to England.
 He was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, England.
Achievements of David Livingstone
a) He set up a route for traders and missionaries
b) He made known the evils of slave trade to the outside world
c) As a result of his work successful missions were later set up
d) His exploration work led to other explorers following his examples.

European occupation of Central Africa

Agents instrumental in European occupation of Central Africa
 Missionaries
 hunters
 concession seekers
 Cecil John Rhodes and British South Africa (BSA) Company
1. Missionaries
 Missionaries faced resistance from slave traders who did not approve their
opposition of slave trade and some Africans resisted being converted to
Christianity. These resistances led the missionaries to seek protection from
the British government by encouraging the government to set colonies in
the area.
Main mission societies in central Africa
Roman Catholic Church
 In the 19th century Catholic groups such as the White Fathers set up mission
stations in what is now Zambia.
 In 1895, Kayambi Mission was set up in the of Chief Makasa
 In 1896, Chilubula Mission was up in the area of Mwamba
Universal Mission to Central Africa (UMCA)
 In 1860, Bishop Mackenzie set up a mission station at Magamero in what
is now Malawi. However, it was abandoned after he and other members
died of Malaria
 The UMCA returned to Malawi in 1882. Chauncy Maples set up a mission
station at Likoma Island.
 Likoma Mission became the headquarters of the Anglican Church in the
area.
Free Church of Scotland (FCS)

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  This mission society was set up in memory of David Livingstone
 In 1875, Robert laws set up a mission station at cape Maclear on the
southern tip of Lake Malawi.
 In 1881, the station was moved to Kondore, it became known as the
Livingstone
London Missionary Society (LMS)
 The LMS mainly set up mission stations in what is now Zambia and
Zimbabwe.
 In Zambia, James Helmore and Roger Price set up a mission station at
Bulozi in 1859.
 They also set up mission stations at Kambole in Mporokoso, Mbereshi in
Kazembe and Mwenzo and Chitambo in Serenje

Map showing: some mission stations

2. Hunters
 Reports from ivory hunter who wrote about vast deposits of gold deposits
attracted European interest in Southern Africa.
3. Concession seekers
 A concession is an official licence granted by land owners or government
that allows work such as mining or drilling for oil to be carried out in a
specific area of land
 Concession seekers wanted to get mineral rights. This meant that they
wanted to get concessions that gave them control of areas of land where
they could then search for minerals such as copper or gold.

Cecil John Rhodes and the British South Africa Company

Cecil John Rhodes
 Cecil Rhodes was one of the main promoters of British rule in Southern
Africa. Rhodes was a British imperialist who made his fortune with his
mining company, De Beers, after the discovery of diamonds in South
Africa mining politics.
 Rhodes strongly believed in British imperialism, and therefore used his
fortune to expand British`s empire in Africa.

42
  However, his immediate aim was to occupy Mashonaland and
Matabeleland in what is now Zimbabwe. He believed gold could be mined
there.
The British South Africa (BSA) Company
 Cecil John Rhodes used his influence to establish colonial control over the
area that is now known as Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi.
 He achieved this through a series of events that led to his new company,
the British South Africa (BSA) Company, gaining over the area.

Occupation of Southern Rhodesia

1. Moffat Treaty (1888)
 Rhodes was concerned that the Portuguese in Mozambique, the Germans
in German West Africa (now Namibia) and the Boers in the Transvaal
would threaten his plans to start mining for gold in Mashonaland and
Matabeleland in what is now Zimbabwe.
 He therefore used the missionary John Scott Moffat Treaty with the British
on 11 February 1888.
 A treaty is a formal agreement between one or more countries. Lobengula
also agreed not to sign any treaty with other parties without informing
the British.
 Lobengula believed that the Moffat Treaty was a treaty of friendship
between him and the British Queen Vitoria.
 The Matabele King faced threats from rivals who did not accept his rule.
 He therefore, thought the treaty would help him against his enemies. Only
later did Lobengula and John Scott Moffat realise that the real aim was
to bring the area under British control.
Rudd Concession (1888)
 To strengthen his position in Matabeleland, Rhodes sent a group of
businessmen, led by Charles Rudd, to the area to obtain a gold concession.
 Lobengula believed that it gave Rhodes and his associates a limited
mining concession. However, the concession was actually a gold
concession for the entire Matabele Kingdom.
Charter for the British South Africa Company (1889)
 In 1889, the British government granted a royal charter to the British
South Africa (BSA) Company, which had been set up by Rhodes to exploit
the mineral rights in Matabeleland.
 This meant that the British government recognised the Rudd Concession
as a real agreement between Lobengula and the businessmen.
Occupation of Matabeleland and Mashonaland
 The BSA Company could now move into Matabeleland with the official
approval of the government.
 However, Lobengula refused them entry into the areas under his control.
 In 1890, Lander Starr Jameson, who managed the BSA Company at the
time, led an invading force against Lobengula`s kingdom.
 This led to the occupation of Matabeleland by the British under the BSA
Company.

43
Northern Rhodesia under the BSA Company
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) was occupied in two main ways:
I. North Western Rhodesia was occupied through signing of treaties with
some chiefs, especially the Litunga of the Bulozi.
II. North Western Rhodesia was occupied through battles, defeating chiefs
who resisted colonial rule. For example Chitimukulu of the Bemba,
Mpezeni of the Ngoni and Mwata Kazembe of the Lunda.
Colonisation of North Western Rhodesia
 British rule over the Barotseland, the area controlled by the Litunga of
the Lozi, was established through a series of treaties. This area became
North Western Rhodesia.
1. Ware Concession (1889)
 In 1885, Lubosi was restored as Litunga of the Lozi after tatila Akufana
had overthrown him.
 He also faced threats from Ndebele raids and European hunters and
concession seekers.
 In 1889, Lubosi therefore asked for British protectorate from Sidney
shippard, the British administrator Bechuanaland (now Botswana).
 Before the British could respond, the Litunga signed the ware concession
of 1889with Henry ware.
 Henry ware sold the concession of Cecil John Rhodes in 1890.
2. Lochner Treaty (1890)
 Cecil John Rhodes sent Frank Lochner to the Litungaas his personal
representative. Lochner had the support of Khama, the king of
Bechuanaland, as well as the missionary Francis Coillard.
 This led to the Lochner Treaty between the Litunga and the BSA Company.
 This treaty granted the BSA company mineral rights in areas that were
not settled by the Lozi.
 This treaty granted the BSA Company mineral rights in areas that were
not settled by the Lozi, but which the Litunga claimed as belonging to
him. After seven years the British sent a representative, Robert Corydon, to
the area.
 Corydon found it difficult to administer Bulozi since the treaty did not
give them administrative powers.
 He then request Arthur Lawley to influence Litunga to grant him
administrative powers
3. Lawley Treaty
 The Lawley treaty of 1898 granted the BSA Company administrative powers
in the area that Litunga claimed to be his.
4. Orders in Council
 The responsibilities and involvement of BSA in the Orders in Council of
1899 were:
1. The area of the Lozi became known as North Western Rhodesia
2. Barotseland would fall under a representative of the BSA
3. The Litunga remained in control; over Bulozi between Sefula and
Lealui
5. Corydom treaty (1900)

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  Confirmed the Lawley treat and set out the responsibilities of the British
government in Barotseland:
1. The BSA Company would administer the area.
2. They had to provide schools, industries and transport services
3. They were allowed to make land grants to settler in Kalomo and Choma.
 As a result of this treaty settlers began to come to the area.

Colonisation of North Eastern Rhodesia

 The occupation of North Eastern Rhodesia did not happen peacefully, as
local tribes resisted the British
 However, the spears of the local tribes were no match for British weapons
such as Gatling Machine gun.
 The Ngoni of Mpezeni were defeated in 1897 after a series of battles against
the British.
 The Bemba
 In 1899, the British marched into the area of the Lunda chief Mwata
Kazembe. His rule had been weakened by disagreement over who succeed
him.
NOTE:
 The administrative centre in North-Eastern Rhodesia was Fort Jameson,
while in North-Western Rhodesia the capital at first, but was moved to
Livingstone.
 North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia were joined in 1911.
Livingstone became the first capital city

Results/effects of European imperialism in Africa

1. Social and humanitarian results
 Africans adopted European Ways of life. For example, they learned
European languages such as English, French and Portuguese. This eroded
African culture
 Due to missionary activities, they learned new skills, such as carpentry,
bricklaying and tailoring.
 Africans received better medical care and were exposed to European
Knowledge about the link between hygiene and good health. For example,
they learned how to dig pit latrines.
 Wars that came with imperialism led to deaths.
2. Political results
 African chiefs lost their power to rule to European colonial
administrators.
In addition, Africa was divided into colonies ruled by different European
countries.
 The partitioning of Africa/creation of boundaries between colonies
according to the wishes of the European colonisers led to the separation of
some tribes. For example, the Chewa were now found in Northern
Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Mozambique.

3. Economic results

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  Introduction of money which replaced the barter system.
 Colonialists brought their industry technology to Africa
 Africans were introduced to paying substantial hut taxes.
Africa Reaction to foreign rule in central Africa
African resistance to colonialism varied from area to area, depending on local
conditions.
 Primary resistance refers to the early staged when Africans were not yet
trying to get rid of the colonial authorities. They mostly protested
peacefully against unfair colonial polices.
 Secondary resistance refers to later stages when Africans tried to
overthrow colonial rule and become independent. They worked for their
rights and towards independence through organisations such as welfare
societies, trade unions and political partied. In some cases, they
undertook armed struggles for independence.

Primary resistance
 In Central Africa, primary resistance was mainly led by independent
churches that broke away from the missionary churches.
 Their African religious leaders believed that the missionaries and
colonial governments were guilty of social, political and economic
injustices.

In Central Africa, independent churches were set up by religious leaders

such as the following:
Willy Makolapa
 Makolapa set up the first Ethiopian Church in Barotseland in 1900 after
breaking away from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society.
 His preaching was about equality for all races.
 The colonial government did not approve of the Church because of his
teachings.

Elliot Kamwana
 Kamwana broke away from the Free Church of Scotland in Nyasaland. He
became involved in spreading the Watch Tower movement (an American
religious movement which later became known as the Jehovah’s Witnesses.
 Later he created his own independent church, the “Mlondo” or Watchman
mission. He criticized the colonial administration, taxation, oppressive
laws and the loss of land.
 The colonial government and the missionaries did not approve of his
approach.
They sent him into exile, first in South Africa and later in Mauritius.
Charles Domingo
 Domingo a former student of Robert laws of the Livingstonia Mission
started the Seventh Day Adventists in Malawi.
 He then set up the African Seventh Day Baptist Church in Mozambique.
 Laterhe joined the British African Congress founded by Joseph Booth,
which supported the interests of Africans against their colonial masters.

46
  He openly spoke out against the white missionaries and the colonial
government. This led to him also being sent into exile.
Mathew Zwimba
 He formed a church in Southern Rhodesia in 1915 that was called church
of the White Bird.
 This church combined traditional beliefs with the Christian faith.

John Chilembwe
 He is generally seen as the most important leader of the independent
churches in Central Africa. He also led a rebellion,
 Chilembwe, a Yao from Nyasaland, in 1893 became into contact with
Joseph Booth, the leader of the Zambezi Industrial Mission in Blantyre.
Booth paid for Chilembwe to Study theology in America from 1899 to 1900.
 On his return, Chilembwe founded the providence Industrial Mission in
Chirad Zulu on the shire Highlands. By 1911, he had opened a number of
schools.
 In 1915, he led a rebellion against the colonial government with the aim:
“Strike a blow and die, for our blood will surely mean something at last.”

The main reasons for this Rebellion were the following:

 Racial discrimination: The colonial government discriminated against
Africans and did not allow them to take on responsible positions in
government.
 Hut tax: Africans had to pay a hut tax, which whites farmers did not have
to do. The hut tax forced Africans to become laborers on white farms.
 Mistreatment of farm laborers: African laborers on white farms were
treated very badly by white supervisors. For example, on the large Bruce
Estate, the supervisor, W.J. Livingstone, was known for his cruel treatment
of workers.
Workers had to work for very long hours for little pay. They also had to pay
rent for settling on white farms, while also having to pay hut taxes to the
government.
 Insufficient Schools: Chilembwe complained bitterly about the small
number of schools available to Africans. He blamed the missionaries who
preached about equality but who did not practice it.
 Involved of Africans in the First World War (1914-1918); immediate cause
of the 1915 rebellion was the recruitment of Africans by the British to serve
as soldiers and porters when the first world war against the death of so
many “white man’s war.” He was the especially bitter that the families of
Africans who were killed in the war still had to pay taxes.
 Chilembwe and his men took advantage of the absence of British soldiers
and police who were on the border with the Germany colony of
Tanganyika (now Tanzania) to prevent a possible German attack.
 The uprising started on the Bruce Estates where Livingstone and other two
other whites were killed.

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  However, the rebellion was quickly suppressed by the colonial government.
Chilembwe was killed on the Mozambique border while trying to escape.

Secondary resistance
 Secondary resistance in Central Africa started through welfare societies
(also called Native Associations) and trade Unions.
 The Welfare Societies were formed by mission-educated young Africans.
 They believed that the education they received made them able to take
part in the government of their countries.
 At first, their aim was just to inform the government about the complaints
of Africans so that the living and working conditions of Africans could be
improve.
 However, later these societies were changed into political parties that
fought for independence.

1. Nyasaland (Malawi)
 In 1912, the colonial government in Nyasaland (now Malawi) passed a
District Administrative Ordinance to prevent educated Africans from
having a say in the colonial government.
 This allowed for districts councils in which only chiefs were allowed as
representatives. Chiefs were usually older and did not have a missionary
education.
 This system of indirect rule allowed the chief to keep their traditional
powers, while at the same time the colonial powers used these rulers to
impose colonial rule on the Africans

Creation of first native associations to resist colonial rule

 1912: North Nyasaland Native Association under the leadership of Levi
Mumba with support from Dr Laws
 1915: Southern Province Native Association, with Gresham Njilima as its
Secretary (the son of one of the people killed during the Chilembwe
rebellion)
 1920 Mombera Native Association.
Note:
The Associations succeeded in bring African people together and letting
them rise above ethnic divisions. This helped to prepare the way for
national unity in the fight for independence.

2. Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)

 Welfare societies: welfare societies in Northern Rhodesia were linked to the
native associations in Nyasaland through missionaries who came to work
in Northern Rhodesia.
Main stages in the growing influence of these societies
 1923: first welfare Association at Mwenzo in Northern Province, led by
David Kaunda, Donald Siwale, Hezekiya Kawosa and Peter Sinkala.

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  1930 the Livingstone Native Association was formed under Isaac Nyirenda
and Ernest Matako. Other Associations were formed in Lusaka, Choma,
Chipata, Mbala Mazabuka and Kasama
 1964: Federation of Welfare Societies, led by DautiYamba, united all
societies so that they could work together more effectively
 1948 Northern Rhodesia African National Congress (NRANC), led by
Godwin Mbikusita Lewanika from the Feration of welfare societies into the
first political party.
 1951: African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula
became the new name of the NRANC.
NOTE:
Another form of secondary resistance in Northern Rhodesia was through
trade unions e.g. in 1948, the Nothern Rhodesia Mine Workers Union
(NRAMWU) was formed led by Lawrence Katilungu.
NRAMWU worked together with the political parties that developed from
welfare societies to resist colonial rule
Struggle for Independence in Central Africa
1. Nyasaland (Malawi)
 Nyasaland was the first of three areas in the CAF to become independent
Factors that led the people of Nyasaland to fight for independence:
 Little Economic Benefit: Nyasaland gained the least from the federation.
For example, it received only 6% of development loans. It was mostly seen
as a source of labour
 Unequal representation: The people of Nyasaland were unhappy that there
was no African representative on the executive council
 Taxation: Africans in Nyasaland resented the loss of land to white settler
farmers as well as the direct and indirect taxes that Africans had to pay.
Stages in the struggle for independence
 1994: Formation of Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) by leaders such as
wellington Chirwa and Charles Matinga.
 1955: The Young Turks, a group of younger, more radical leaders such as
H. Chipembe, ChiumeYaleta, Dunduza Chisiza T.D Banda replaced the
more moderate older leaders. Their aim was to achieve self-government
and a system of one man, one vote.
 1957: Expansion of congress, to a mass political party through an active
program of recruiting new members.
 March 1959: states of emergency declared by the governor, Sir. Robert
Armitage, after a series of violent clashes between congress members and
colonial officials. There were also strikes, riots and demonstrations, of
which the worst was at Nkanda Bay.
 July 1959: Malawi Congress Party (MCP), a new political party, formed
under the leadership of Orton Chirwa. When Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda
was released from prison in 1960, he became the new leader of MCP. Banda
declared that the MCP would become continue fighting for the total
independence in Malawi.
 1959: Devlin commission set up by the colonial office in London to
investigate the causes of the troubles in Nyasaland in 1955. In its report

49
 the commission stated the violence resulted from wide spread opposition
to the federation and the people’s desire to rule themselves.
 1960: Monckton commission did further investigations and determinate
that there was strong opposition to the federation in Nyasaland as well as
Northern Rhodesia.
 April 1960: More self-government and the rights to vote granted to
Nyasaland by colonial Secretary Macleod.
 August 1961: Elections under a new constitution were won by a large
majority by the Malawi Congress Party.
 January 1963: Responsible government status was granted to Malawi.
 July 1964: independent state of Malawi established with Dr Hastings
Kamuzu Banda as first president.
2. Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)
 1950: Federation Committee started in Ndola by a group of young men,
such as Justin Chimba, Simon Kapwepwe, Rueben Kamanga and Nephas
Tembo to campaign against federation.
 1951: Northern Rhodesia African National Congress changed to the
African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Nkumbula. The ANC’s aim
was to prevent the formation of the federation. In March 1953, Nkumbula
burned the British White Paper on the proposed Federation Constitution
and called for two days of national prayer.
 October 1953: Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland created despite
African protests.
 1958: Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) formed by younger
members who felt that the ANC was working too closely with the colonial
powers. The aim of ZANC was to unite Africans and to fight for
independence. However, the ZANC was banned by the colonial
government. Its leaders, such as Kenneth Kaunda, Simon Mwansa
Kapwepwe and Munukayumba Sipalo, were arrested.
 1959: United National Independence Party (UNIP) was created from
other political parties formed when the ZANC was banned. Mainza Chona
led the party until Kenneth Kaunda was released from prison in 1960.
 1960: Self-government granted to Nyasaland led to increased demands
from Kaunda for a similar Constitution for Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda
wanted a non-violent campaign to continue working towards
independence, but the campaign became violent in some cases.
 1961: Civil disobedience campaign called the Chachacha, this campaign
led to the government revising the Constitution, on condition, on
condition that the violence stopped.
 1962: Election held, which were based on the new Constitution. UNIP got
14 seats, ANC 7 seats and the United Federal Party 10 seats. Kaunda and
Nkumbula formed a coalition government.
 1963: Central African Federation ended
 1964: Self-government granted, followed by another election on the basis
of universal adults franchise. UNIP won 55 SEATS, the ANC got 10 seats and
the colonial government got 10 seats. UNIP under Kenneth Kaunda got

50
 the majority of the seats. Kenneth Kaunda became the first African Prime
Minister.
 24 October 1964: Independent Republic of Zambia created. Kaunda took
over the administration from Sir Evelyn Hone, the last British Governor or
Northern Rhodesia.
3. Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
 Zimbabwe only became independent after a long period of armed
struggle. This was because the white settlers in Southern Rhodesia
wanted self-government that did not include Africans.
 However, in the 1960’s, two important African political parties were
formed: Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua
Nkomo and Zimbabwe African Nation Union (ZANU), led by
Ndabaningi Sitholi and Robert Mugabe.
Main stages in the struggle for independence led by these two parties:
 1962: Rhodesia Front, led by Winston Field, formed by racist white groups.
 1963: ZAPU banned by the government led by Field, after passing an
emergency law following disturbances in Bulawayo. Nkomo was forced
into exile.
 1963: ZANU formed when leaders such as Sithole and Mugabe broke away
from ZAPU because they wanted to start an armed struggle against the
government. They decided to again the support of rural African
population who could give the guerrilla fighters opposed to the
government food and shelter.
 1964: Ian Smith became the Prime Minister of the Rhodesia Front
government. He immediately began fighting for the right of the white
government to become independent from Britain.
 1965: Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which meant that
Ian Smith declared Rhodesia an independent republic, even though the
British government did not agree. The British Foreign Secretary, Douglas
Home, even tried to solve the Rhodesian problem by offering to recognize
Smith’s government, provided that Africans were given opportunities to
advance towards majority rule
 1972; Pearce Commission appointed by the British government to find out
what Africans thought about Home’s proposed agreement. The
commission’s findings were that Africans in Rhodesia were totally opposed
to the agreement.
 Meanwhile, the armed struggle by Africans against the Smith government
continued. By 1978, the Liberation Struggle Movement had won the war.
After negotiations, an independent Constitution was drawn up in
preparation for elections.
 April 1980: ZANU won the elections. Robert Mugabe became the first Prime
Minister of an independent
The Central African Federation of 1953 to 1963
 The Central African Federation, also called the Federation of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland
 It was formed on October 1953. Under this system, Nyasaland, Northern
Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia fell under one central government.

51
  The Headquarter of the federation was in Salisbury (now Harare) in
southern Rhodesia.
 However, each of these areas still had its own regional government.
 Many whites in both Southern and Northern Rhodesia were in favour of
the amalgamation or joining of the three areas.
 The Passfield memorandum of 1930 stated the principle of the
paramountcy of African interests. This meant that the British government
was in favour of policies that protected the interests of Africans rather
than those of white settlers.
 Africans in Northern Rhodesia had serious concerns about federation, as
they believed that it would lead to the dominance of Southern Rhodesia.
They were concerned that the racial segregation that was widespread in
Southern Rhodesia would spread to Northern Rhodesia.

Reasons for the Central African Federation

1. Social reasons
 Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the
paramountcy of African interests. They hoped that federation with
Southern Rhodesia would end this policy.
 Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed
that union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the policy of the
paramountcy of African interests to their area.
2. Political reasons
 Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the
paramountcy of African Interests. They hoped that federation would mean
an end to this policy.
 Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed
that union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the pramountcy of
African interests to their area.
3. Economic reasons
 The white in Southern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the income from
the copper mines in Northern Rhodesia, while those in Northern Rhodesia,
while those in Northern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the southern
gold field.
 The conservative government in Britain believed that federation would
result in economic stability, with three main products (copper, gold and
tea) for export.
 The British government also believed that federation would attract
international funding for large-scale projects, such as the building of a
hydro-electric scheme and the extension of railways.
Reasons against the Federation:
Social reasons:
 Whites in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have closer ties with apartheid in
South Africa. The policy of the paramountcy of African interests therefore
met with their opposition.
Political reason:

52
  African in Northern Rhodesia did not trust the idea of partnership.
Robinson Nabulayato said, “Partnership is a leader for Europeans to climb
on us.”
 In Britain, the Labour and Liberal Parties objected to federation if it was
going to be imposed on Africans.
Economic reasons:
 Both whites and Africans in Northern Rhodesia felt that those in Southern
Rhodesia were just interested in their copper mines.
 Whites and Africans in Nyasaland felt that federation would bring little
benefit to them, and would simply use them as a source of labour.
Successes and failures of the Federation
Successes
 Federation attracted foreign funding. This resulted in the construction of
the Kariba Dam and hydroelectric power station, as well as the extension
of the railway line to the Copper.
Failures
 In the Federation, the ideas of partnership were soon forgotten. As Africans
had feared, the whites in Southern Rhodesia benefited the most.
 Racialism spread to Northern Rhodesia, where the hatch system and pass
laws were introduced
 Politically, Africans made little progress as they were not given
representation in the Executive Council.
 Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland lost fertile farmlands to
white settlers and were forced to work as labourers on white farms

53