Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Kinematic analysis of the Migif area in the Eastern Desert of Egypt

Osama M.K. Kassem ⇑
SGSRC, Department of Geology, Science Faculty, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
Department of Geology, National Research Center, Al-Behoos str., 12622 Dokki, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of porphyroclasts rotating in a flowing matrix to estimate mean kinematic vorticity number
Available online 23 February 2014 (Wm) is important for quantifying the relative contributions of pure and simple shear in penetratively
deformed rocks. The kinematic vorticity number determined for high temperature mylonitic gneisses
Keywords: in the Migif area in the Eastern Desert of Egypt range from 0.6 to 0.9. The results from vorticity and
Kinematic analysis strain analyses indicate that deformation in the area deviated from simple shear. It is concluded that nap-
Finite strain pe stacking occurred early during the thrusting event, probably by brittle imbrications, and that ductile
Pure shear
strain was superimposed on the nappe structure at high-pressure as shown by a penetrative subhorizon-
Simple shear
Eastern Desert
tal foliation is developed subparallel to the tectonic contacts with the under- and overlying nappes. The
Egypt accumulation of ductile strain during underplating was not by simple shear but involved a component of
vertical shortening, which caused the subhorizontal foliation in the Migif area. In most cases, this folia-
tion was formed during thrusting of the nappes onto each other, suggesting that nappe stacking was asso-
ciated with vertical shortening.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction metamorphic core complexes about 682 Ma (Stern and Hedge,

The evolution of the Arabian-Nubian Shield has been inter-
preted as a result of accretion of intra-oceanic island arcs, conti-
nental micro-plates and oceanic plateaus (Gass, 1982; Stern,
1994; Kröner et al., 1994; Abdelsalam and Stern, 1996). El Gaby
et al. (1990) divided the Neoproterozoic rocks of the Eastern Desert
into lower infrastructural unit and upper suprastructural unit. The
infrastructural sequence in the Eastern Desert consists of gneisses,
amphibolites and remobilized equivalents (Neumayr et al., 1996
and Neumayr et al., 1998) which are found in core complexes
(e.g., Meatiq, Sibai, El-Shalul, Hafafit). Models for core complex
formation within the Eastern Desert of Egypt have advocated for
the involvement of a significant extension within NW-trending
zones bounded by sinistral strike-slip shears of the Najd Fault
System (Stern, 1985; Fig. 1) that was accompanied by NW and SE
dipping normal faults that created intramontane molasse basins
(Wallbrecher et al., 1993, 1996; Fritz et al., 1996, 2002; Neumayr
et al., 1998; Fritz and Messner, 1999; Unzog and Kurz, 2000;
Loizenbauer et al., 2001; Bregar et al., 2002; Abd El-Wahed,
2007, 2008; Abd El-Wahed and Abu Anbar, 2009). A number of
⇑ Address: SGSRC, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Science Faculty, King
Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. Tel.: +966 01 4676351;
fax: +966 01 4670729.
E-mail address: kassemo1@yahoo.com
1985) that developed within an extensional regime have been rec-
ognized (Sturchio et al., 1983; Fritz et al., 1996; Blasband et al.,
2000). The metamorphic core complexes and the suprastructural
sequence are intruded by granitoids of variable compositions.
The structural basement and the deformed nappes were intruded
by syn-tectonic calc-alkaline granites and metagabbros. This was
followed by eruption of the Dokhan volcanics (El-Bialy, 2010),
accumulation of molasse sediments, and intrusion of late to post-
tectonic granites. The syn-tectonic granite in the Central Eastern
Desert has a magmatic emplacement age of 606–614 Ma (Loi-
zenbauer et al., 2001; Andresen et al., 2010), whereas the late to
post-tectonic granites were emplaced at ca. 590–550 Ma (Hassan
and Hashad, 1990; Rice et al., 1993; Pelz, 1996).
The Hafafit area exposes one of three major domal structures in
the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Fig. 1). Understanding the evolution of
the Hafafit area is important for the interpretation of the Eastern
Desert within the tectonic framework of the Neoproterozoic
Pan-African orogeny in Egypt. El Ramly et al. (1984) studied the
tectonic evolution of Wadi Hafafit area and environs and defined
it Wadi Hafafit Culmination (WHC). This culmination consists of
five granitoid-cored domes composed of medium grade gneisses,
separated from the overlying low grade metamorphic rocks by
low angle thrust zones (Fig. 2).
The rotation of rigid objects within a flowing viscous medium is
a function of several factors including the degree of non-coaxiality.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.02.002
1464-343X/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149
Fig. 1. Geological sketch map (modified from El Ramly et al., 1993) showing Meatiq core complex MCC, Sibai core complex (SCC), Hafafit core complex (HCC), El Shalul core
complex (SHCC).
The relationship between the orientation of such objects and their
aspect ratio can be used in vorticity analyses in a variety of geolog-
ical settings. Method for estimation of vorticity analysis to quanti-
tative of kinematic vorticity number (Wm) has been made using
rotated rigid objects such as quartz and feldspar objects. Attempts
to use the aspect ratio and orientation of rigid objects rotating in a
flowing matrix to characterize the relative contributions of pure
and simple shear (vorticity) began with the pioneering works of
Jeffery (1922) and Gosh and Ramberg (1976). Subsequent investi-
gations contributed to these founding principles by applying the
early theory to geologic samples (Passchier, 1987; Simpson and
De Paor, 1993, 1997; Wallis, 1992, 1995; Wallis et al., 1993). Rigid
porphyroclast analyses are now commonly employed to character-
ize flow within shear zones in a variety of tectonic settings (e.g.,
Klepeis et al., 1999; Xypolias and Doutsos, 2000; Holcombe and
Little, 2001; Xypolias and Koukouvelas, 2001; Bailey and Eyster,
2003; Law et al., 2004; Jessup et al., 2006; Xypolias and Kokkalas,
2006).
In the study of deformation in ductile shear zones, it is com-
monly assumed that strain has accumulated by progressive simple
shear (Passchier, 1987; Simpson and De Paor, 1993). However,
other types of steady-state progressive deformation are also possi-
ble. For deformation with no volume change, three types of plane-
strain steady deformation can be defined: pure shear, simple shear
and general non-coaxial shear that is intermediate that covers the
range between the other two (Gosh and Ramberg, 1976; Passchier,
1987; Passchier and Urai, 1988; Kassem and Ring, 2004; Ring and
Kassem 2007; Kassem and Abdel Raheim, 2010; Kassem, 2011,
2012; Kassem et al., 2012 and Al-Saleh and Kassem, 2012). For
these types of deformation, the differences in the type of associ-
ated flow can be described in terms of the degree of non-coaxiality
(Malvern, 1969; Elliott, 1972; Means et al., 1980; Lister and Wil-
liams, 1983; Passchier, 1986). The degree of non-coaxiality of
deformation gives a measure of the relative contribution of rota-
tion to stretching during deformation. In the analysis of finite
deformation, the degree of non-coaxiality is commonly expressed
137
by the mean kinematic vorticity number, Wm (Passchier, 1987).
Additionally, it used the Rigid Grain Net (RGN) to unify the most
commonly used Wm plots by comparing the distribution of theo-
retical and natural tailless porphyroclasts within a flowing matrix.
Major- and trace-element analyses were performed by standard
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) to investigate deformation-
related volume change. The present study is a contribution to the
understanding of the structure and kinematic evolution of the Mi-
gif area. Interpretation of kinematic vorticity and strain data were
employed to quantitatively understand the kinematics in the Mi-
gif–Hafafit area and to evaluate the effect of different combinations
of pure and simple shears, matrix rheology, and object aspect ratio.
2. Geological setting
The Central Eastern Desert of Egypt is characterized by a series
of high-grade core complexes surrounded by low-grade volcano-
sedimentary nappes of Neoproterozoic age (Fritz et al., 1996,
2002). Based on the tectonic juxtaposition of the low-grade meta-
morphosed nappes against high-grade metamorphosed basement
rocks, the gneiss domes have been described as metamorphic core
complexes (Sturchio et al., 1983). The geochemical composition of
the igneous suites within the gneiss domes is comparable to those
of the surrounding low grade successions (Sturchio et al., 1983).
The ultramafic-mafic rocks in the Migif–Hafafit gneiss domain
and the mélange zone to the east and north represent an arc-
ophiolitic assemblage that evolved in a predominantly oceanic
environment prior to cratonization (Rashwan, 1991).
The Wadi Hafafit area lies on the boundary between the central
Eastern Desert and the southern Eastern Desert of Egypt (El Ramly
et al., 1984, 1993). El Ramly et al. (1984) studied the tectonic of
WHC and identified five granite-cored domes within it (Fig. 2).
The shape, size and orientation of the domes A to E (labeled in
Fig. 2) are variable. The Hafafit culmination is composed of med-
ium grade gneisses which are separated from the overlying low
138 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149
Fig. 2. Location and geological map of the Wadi Hafafit Culmination, SSW of Marsa Alam, Egypt (modified from El Ramly et al., 1993). Fold interference dome structures are
labeled A to E.
grade metamorphic rocks, namely, the meta-andesites and ophio-
lites by low angle thrust zones. Hafafit area subdivided into two
main tiers of the rock assemblages which are separated by Nugrus
Thrust (El Ramly et al., 1984, 1993). The eastern tier (Nugrus unit)
is composed mainly of low grade mica-schists, ophiolites and
metavolcanics (Fig. 2). This unit is associated with remnants of
ophiolitic ultramafics and metagabbros. The western tier (Hafafit
unit) is composed of medium to high grade gneisses and five
granite cored domes of varied dimensions. El Ramly et al. (1984)
interpreted the Hafafit gneisses, the associated granitoid cores
and the Wadi Ghadir mélange (Fig. 2) as a result of Pan-African
convergence.
This study focuses in dome A. It is elliptical in shape with NW
trending long axis and consists of a granitic gneiss core of tonalitic
and trondhjemitic composition surrounded by amphibolites, bio-
tite gneiss, hornblende gneiss, and psammitic gneiss (Fig. 3). Dome
A is surrounded by banded amphibolite, alternating with bands of
biotite- and hornblende-gneiss and psammitic gneiss that form the
outer rim of the domal structure (Fig. 3b). The ultramafic rocks oc-
cur as small masses in the amphibolites (dome A, Fig. 3) and the
contact between them seems to be tectonic. The amphibolites form
irregular lens-shaped bodies inclosing by altered ultramafic rocks.
The amphibolites are overlain by the psammitic gneiss of Gabel
Hafafit in the southwestern part of the dome A (Fig. 2). Biotite
and hornblende gneiss named the rock assemblage above the inner
tonalitic and trondhjemitic gneiss core. It located below the psam-
mitic gneisses as a metamorphosed and deformed ophiolitic
mélange assemblage, whereas the psammitic gneiss is considered
a metamorphosed quartzo-feldspathic sedimentary unit. Contact
of the biotite and hornblende gneisses vs the overlying psammitic
gneisses are gradational. The clastic sediments in this domain,
whose metamorphism gave rise to the biotite schists and psammit-
ic gneisses, were deposited in a basin associated with an active
continental margin floored by an old oceanic crust represented
by the aforementioned ultramafic–mafic rocks (El Ramly et al.,
1993).
3. Methodology
To quantify the finite strain for gneisses in the Migif area,
twenty gneiss samples were collected from the Migif dome
(Fig. 3a and Table 1). They comprise 3 granite-gneiss samples, 4
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149 139

Fig. 3. (a) Geological map of the Migif area (modified from El Ramly et al., 1993). Sample location and attitudes of structural are shown strike and plunging direction, arrow
heads indicate orientation of lineation for long axes. The shape of the strain ellipsoids (Z = 1) are shown as white color, plunge values inside the ellipses. (b) Cross-Section A–A0
of the Migif dome.

biotite gneiss samples, 8 hornblende gneiss samples and 5 psam-
mitic gneiss samples. The Rf// method (Ramsay, 1967; Ramsay
and Huber, 1983) was applied on the quartz and feldspar porphyr-
oclasts and mafic grains to determine the strain recorded in the
gneisses. The deformation behavior of plagioclase and K-feldspar
is rather similar and therefore feldspar grains are treated together.
In other case, the deformation behavior of mica minerals deformed
only by slip and amphiboles deformed by twinning and slip
(Passchier and Trouw, 1995). Felsic minerals are more rigid than
some mafic minerals. Therefore, felsic minerals were measured
separately from mafic minerals to show the difference between fel-
sic and mafic minerals to the Rf// analysis.
Sample preparation for the Rf// analyses involved cutting thin
sections along three mutually perpendicular planes subparallel to
the XY, YZ and XZ principal planes. In order to estimate the three
dimensional strain geometry, measurements were made on XY,
140 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149

Table 1
Finite strain data and mean kinematic vorticity number for sample from Hafafit core complex.

Sample Rock type Rc Wm Rxy Ryz RXZ Sx Sy Sz K

Ha1 Hornblende gneiss 3.15 0.82 1.06 2.02 2.14 1.31 1.24 0.61 0.06
Ha2 Hornblende gneiss 3.5 0.85 1.41 1.79 2.52 1.53 1.08 0.61 0.52
Ha3 Hornblende gneiss 5 0.92 1.59 1.69 2.68 1.62 1.02 0.60 0.85
Ha4 Biotite gneiss 2.7 0.76 1.33 1.59 2.12 1.41 1.06 0.67 0.56
Ha5 Hornblende gneiss 3.3 0.83 1.45 1.61 2.34 1.50 1.03 0.64 0.74
Ha6 Hornblende gneiss 3.2 0.82 1.58 1.58 2.50 1.58 1.00 0.63 1.00
Ha7 Biotite gneiss – – 1.40 1.71 2.39 1.49 1.07 0.63 0.56
Ha8 Biotite gneiss – – 1.52 1.77 2.69 1.60 1.05 0.59 0.68
Ha9 Biotite gneiss 3.9 0.88 1.79 4.50 8.05 2.43 1.36 0.30 0.23
Ha10 Psammitic gneiss – – 1.43 1.57 2.25 1.48 1.03 0.66 0.76
Ha11 Psammitic gneiss 2.6 0.74 1.24 1.69 2.10 1.38 1.11 0.66 0.35
Ha12 Granitic gneiss – – 1.23 1.83 2.26 1.41 1.14 0.62 0.28
Ha13 Psammitic gneiss – – 1.34 1.69 2.26 1.45 1.08 0.64 0.49
Ha14 Psammitic gneiss 4.9 0.92 1.50 1.64 2.46 1.55 1.03 0.63 0.78
Ha15 Granitic gneiss – – 1.23 1.58 1.94 1.34 1.09 0.69 0.39
Ha16 Hornblende gneiss 4.3 0.89 1.38 2.06 2.84 1.58 1.14 0.55 0.36
Ha17 Hornblende gneiss 3.1 0.81 1.39 1.89 2.62 1.54 1.11 0.59 0.43
Ha18 Psammitic gneiss – – 1.82 3.96 7.22 2.36 1.29 0.33 0.28
Ha19 Granitic gneiss 5.4 0.93 2.37 4.38 10.38 2.91 1.23 0.28 0.41
Ha20 Hornblende gneiss – – 2.01 3.52 7.07 2.42 1.21 0.34 0.40

XZ and YZ sections (X P Y P Z, finite strain axes). Feldspars and

Fig. 4. Field photographs of (a) Mylonitic texture in granite gneiss indicating
heterogeneous deformation and lithological banding parallel to the gneissosity
(Sample Ha 19). (b) Banding often dominates the outcrop, and parallels the
gneissosity with the occasional rootless intrafolial folds.
quartz were treated by Rf// method, while biotite, hornblende
and feldspars by fry method. The Fry strains are thought to repre-
sent the matrix strain, whereas the strain derived from Rf// tech-
nique describe the fabric ellipsoid or clast strain (Ramsay and
Huber, 1983; Ring, 1998).
Peach and Lisle (1979) described THETA and FRY programs for
Rf// and fry methods, respectively which using strain data mea-
surements. Furthermore, RJH Strain Calculator 3.1 program is used
to calculate and plot strain data using a variety of input parame-
ters, simulated simple shear, pure shear, and general shear. For
Rf// analysis on feldspar grains, the long and short axes of up to
40 grains per section were measured and the mean aspect ratio
for each section were calculated. Passchier and Trouw (1995),
show that deformation and shape of the feldspars depend on meta-
morphic conditions. At very low metamorphic grade feldspars de-
form mainly by brittle fracturing and cataclastic flow. Tectonic
strains were determined from the chi-squared minimum of the
Rf// analyses (Peach and Lisle, 1979). For Fry analysis, the central
points of more than 100 feldspar grains per section were used to
calculate strain. The strain estimates were used to calculate the fi-
nite-strain ellipsoid according to the modified least-square tech-
nique of Owens (1984).
Methods for estimation of kinematic vorticity number (Wm)
have been made using rotated rigid objects (Passchier, 1987; Cow-
an, 1990; Ring, 1998), deformed vein sets (Passchier, 1990; Wallis,
1992), the stretch and rotation of material lines (Passchier and
Urai, 1988) and curved fibers around quartz and feldspar objects
(Ring and Brandon, 1999; Ring et al., 2001). For quantifying the de-
gree of non-coaxiality from rotated rigid objects, the equations
governing the rotation of rigid objects in a flowing viscous medium
were used (Jeffery, 1922; Gosh and Ramberg, 1976; Passchier,
1987). As shown by Gosh and Ramberg (1976), the sense and rate
of rotation of a particle depend on its orientation, axial ratio (R)
and the ratio between the elongation in the shear plane and shear
strain. For Wm = 1, i.e. simple shear, all particles which behave as
active markers with R P 1 will rotate freely as the shear strain in-
creases and the rate of rotation equals the rate of stretching. If Wm
is lower than 1, i.e. a component of pure shear accompanies shear-
ing (general or sub-simple shear of Simpson and De Paor 1993) and
the rotation of particles with progressively smaller aspect ratios is
subdued (Cowan, 1990). For any flow regime with Wm < 1, not all
rigid particles are free to rotate continuously. Particles with an as-
pect ratio above a certain critical value, Rc, will rotate until they
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149 141

Fig. 5. Microphotographs of (a) Weakly deformed granitic gneiss composed of plagioclase, quartz, and biotite (Sample Ha 12xz). (b) Well foliated psammitic gneiss composed
essentially of quartz, potash feldspar, plagioclase and minor amphibole and biotite (Sample Ha 14xz). (c) Linear aggregates of hornblende with preferred orientation of
individual mafic grain long axes parallel to the lineation (Sample Ha 3xz). (d) Biotite, hornblende, quartz, K-feldspars and zircon in foliated biotite gneiss (Sample Ha 9xz). (e)
Rotated K-feldspars in the psammitic gneiss and deformed by dextral sense of shearing (Sample Ha 11xz). (f) Fracturing and separation of K-feldspar along the foliation
(Sample Ha 14xz). (g) Rotated k-feldspars in the psammitic gneiss and deformed by sinistral sense of shear (Sample Ha 18xz). (h) Synthetic shear fractures have displaced
fragments and show sinistral sense of shear (Sample Ha 11xz).

Fig. 6. Lower-hemisphere equal-area projections: (a) maximum extension direction (X); (b) intermediate direction (Y); (c) maximum shortening direction (Z). Contours start
at 1% and increment every 3%; Black circles represent Gneisses samples. Gray squares in the stereographic projections represent mean values of tensor averages.
142 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149

reach a stable orientation. For aspect ratios less than the critical va- with the alternating bands of biotite- and hornblende gneisses un-
lue, rotation is unrestricted. The value of Rc that divides freely der amphibolite facies condition. At the late stage of this deforma-
rotating objects from those that have reached a stable orientation tional event, the banding and foliation were deformed by folding as
is a function of the degree of non-coaxiality (Passchier 1987): shown in Fig. 4. This event is previously described by El Ramly
et al. (1993). They concluded that the structural framework of
W m ¼ ðR2c  1Þ=ðR2c þ 1Þ:
The sample must meet the five main requirements defined by
Passchier (1987): (1) reasonably homogeneous deformation on
the scale of the sample, (2) significant difference in grain size be-
tween the rigid porphyroclasts and the matrix, (3) high finite strain
to rotate objects towards stable-sink positions, (4) porphyroclast
shape that is close to orthorhombic, and (5) significant number
of porphyroclasts with a range in aspect ratios and orientations.
Jessup et al. (2007) suggest that the RGN provides additional
information necessary to tackle more complex problems such as
triclinic shear and the distribution of tailed vs tailless porphyro-
clasts. A major benefit to using the RGN is that data can be entered
into an Excel_worksheet, as they are obtained on the microscope,
and plotted directly on a RGN that is imported as a background
to an Excel_chart. This enables the user to immediately monitor
how the distribution of porphyroclasts is developing during data
acquisition. Each measured porphyroclasts can be compared to
the theoretically predicted curves on the RGN. As the plot evolves,
the porphyroclasts that define Rc should become obvious. With in-
creased use, the RGN may provide a means to calibrate the results
of investigations.

4. Microstructure and deformation

Meso- and microstructural investigations were carried out

polished slabs and were made on thin sections cut parallel to the
foliation (XY), normal to the foliation and parallel to the lineation
(XZ) and normal to the both foliation and lineation (YZ). It is no-
ticed that all gneiss varieties may also show distinct centimeter-
to decimeter-thick lithological banding parallel to the gneissosity
(Fig. 4a). This banding dominates the outcrop in many places and
is interpreted to be related to stretching of mixed igneous litholo-
gies (e.g. xenoliths, enclaves, mafic and felsic dykes, sills, etc.) by
intense strain. Rootless intrafolial folds and low-angle discor-
dances between the planes of gneissosity are shown in Fig. 4b. This
strongly foliation could be related to the first deformational event,
which led to a metamorphic banding and may be synchronous

Fig. 8. Flinn diagram showing relative strain or strain symmetry as obtained by the
Fig. 7. Flinn diagram (Flinn 1962) showing relative strain or strain symmetry as Rf/u method (Black Square) and Fry method (gray circle). (a) SX vs K showing
obtained from twenty samples by the Rf/u method (black triangle) and Fry method positive correlation. (b) SY vs K showing pronounced negative correlation. (c) SZ vs K
(gray circle). depicting no obvious correlation.
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149
the Hafafit area could be a result of four main deformational
events: early foliation and folding (D1), thrusting and folding
(D2), regional thrusting and folding (D3) and a late phase of grav-
itational deformation (D4). Details of these events have been dis-
cussed by El Bayoumi and Greiling (1984), Kröner et al. (1987),
Greiling et al. (1988) and Rashwan (1991).
The gneiss samples are characterized by ENE–WSW and north-
ern trending with moderate plunging. The vertical foliation defined
by weakly deformed to highly deformed granitic gneisses and
psammitic gneiss (Fig. 5a and b) and well oriented mafic clasts
such as biotite, hornblende gneiss (Fig. 5c and d) and psammitic
gneiss (Fig. 5e–h). Mineral lineations defined by discrete elongate
crystal or linear aggregates of hornblende or biotite grains are var-
iably developed on most gneissosity planes. The stretching linea-
tion plunges gently to the WSW and ENE along the low angle
thrust contact between the gneisses and the ultramafic rocks.
Quartz and feldspar porphyroclasts, biotite and hornblende were
used for this strain measurement in the gneisses samples.
Quartz grains are typically flatted parallel to the gneissic
foliation in the granite-gneiss (Fig. 5a). The granite-gneisses in
the inner core of the dome are moderately foliated, with a well-
developed granoblastic-polygonal texture (Fig. 5a). They are
differentiated into predominant tonalitic gneiss, consisting of pla-
gioclase, quartz, and biotite, and less abundant trondhjemitic
gneiss. Locally, mylonitic texture is observed in strongly deformed
varieties. They show a well-developed millimeter-spaced gneissic
banding. The psammitic gneiss forms the summits of the main
mountain masses in the area (e.g. Gabal Hafafit and Gabal Migif).
The psammitic gneiss is strongly foliated and lineated. It is com-
posed essentially of quartz, potash feldspar and plagioclase with
minor amphibole, biotite, epidote and zircon (Fig. 4b and Fig. 5b,
e, f, g, and h). The hornblende gneiss consists mainly of hornblende,
plagioclase and quartz with some opaques. The biotite–hornblende
gneiss is grayish to brownish in color, easily weathered, fine to
medium grained and exhibits well developed schistosity. It notes
that the highly deformed samples have elongated mafic minerals
(such as hornblende, chlorite and biotite). These rocks can be
Fig. 9. Tectonic map of the Migif area (modified from El Ramly et al., 1993). Map showing sample location and show the values of kinematic number (Wm) in white triangle,
and the values of aspect ratio in white circle.
143
classified as hornblende–chlorite–biotite–quartz gneiss (Fig. 5c
and d). The preferred orientation of the long axes of hornblende
grains is best developed in the foliated hornblende gneiss. The foli-
ation strikes mainly N–S and the mineral lineation plunges to the
West (Fig. 6). In Fig. 5e, it is represented by – quartz–K-feldspars
gneiss. In some places, this rock shows rotated feldspars minerals
enclosed in the foliated matrix which is composed of the elongated
quartz and potassium feldspars. The rotated K-feldspars in the
gneiss rocks and the development of shear bands indicate that
the sheared rocks were deformed by in a dextral sense of shearing
(see Fig. 5e). However, the rotated quartz grains show sinistral
sense of shear (see Fig. 5g and h). Feldspars show grain-size reduc-
tion through continued fracturing and separation of broken frag-
ments along the shear foliation (Fig. 5f). Fractured fragments still
in contact with one another are angular. Isolated feldspar frag-
ments are rounded.
5. Strain measurements
The field orientations and sample locations for finite strain anal-
ysis for gneiss samples in the Migif area are shown in Fig. 3a. The
obtained strain data indicate that the long axes of the finite strain
ellipsoid (Maximum Extension Direction X axes) in gneisses rocks
in the Migif area trend W/WNW to W/WSW and gently plunges to-
wards WNW (Fig. 6a). The intermediate Y axes trend W/WSW and
E/ENE and gently plunges towards NE (Fig. 6b). In these rocks, the
maximum shortening direction (Z) axes steeply plunges towards
SE (Fig. 6c). Thus, the mean finite shortening axes are subvertical
and associated with a subhorizontal foliation (Kassem, 2008).
The gneisses are composed of four mechanically different
phases: feldspar, quartz, hornblende and mica. The deformation
behavior of plagioclase and K-feldspar is rather similar. In other
case, the deformation behavior of mica minerals is different from
felsic grains. Otherwise quartz is strongest phase. The studied sam-
ples show that there was no significant difference in deformation
behavior between the quartz–mica matrix and the feldspar por-
phyroclasts and amphibole grains during the accumulation of finite
144 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149

strain at peak metamorphic conditions. Furthermore, finite strain
in the all types of rocks is of the same order of magnitude. The
main-phase foliation is similar in granitic, biotite–hornblende
and psammitic gneisses, suggesting similar deformation behavior
in all gneiss types.
The strain data are summarized in Table 1 and shown in a Flinn
diagram (Flinn, 1962) in Fig. 7 which shows the relative shapes of
the strain ellipsoids, i.e. prolate vs oblate. Information on volume
strain is needed, to infer strain type, i.e. constrictional vs flattening.
The strain ellipsoids have oblate strain symmetry (Fig. 7). The axial
ratios in XZ sections range from 1.94 to 10.38 (Table 1) with SX
ranging from 1.31 to 2.91 (Table 1) for Rf// method. Kassem
(2008) shows that the axial ratios in XZ sections range from 1.75
to 10.85 and SX ranges from 1.34 to 2.89 for the Fry method
(Fig. 7). The stretches in the Z direction, SZ, range from 0.28 to
0.69, indicating vertical shortening of 31–72%. SY ranges from
1.00 to 1.36, revealing extension in this direction. The strain data
show the same order of deformation in all rock type, as consistent
with qualitative observations in the field and in thin section. Fig. 8a
and b show that with increasing stretch in the X direction and
decreasing SY, the strain symmetry (Hossack, 1968) becomes more
prolate. SZ shows no obvious correlation between vertical shorten-
ing and K (Fig. 8c). Because deviatoric strain depends on all three
principal stretches, the positive and negative correlations of SX
and SY with the K value are not detected in a correlation between
strain magnitude (Et) and K on the maps (Kassem, 2008).
6. Flow path analysis
Kassem and Ring (2004) showed that finite-strain data from the
same type of rocks in conjunction with the chemical data (XRF
analysis) indicate flattening strain type, which suggests that
deformation deviated from simple shear. To quantify the degree
of non-coaxiality, a flow-path analysis was carried out by using
rotated rigid objects (Passchier, 1987). In samples with large
equal-sized quartz, plagioclase and hornblende porphyroclasts,
grains were measured for the rotation analysis. The vorticity data
is shown in Fig. 9.
In the diagrams shown in Fig. 10, a distinction can be made be-
tween measurements of relatively low aspect ratio that scatter
across a wide range of orientations and those with higher aspect
ratio, which have a more restricted range of orientations. The

Fig. 10. Passchier plot method; Porphyroclast analyses of feldspar grains in XZ sections of gneiss; dashed line separates measurements showing wide scatter from those
showing stable orientation parallel to foliation; average value of RC for each sample is given in upper left.
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149
critical values for Rc in investigated samples range from 2.6 to
5.4 (Table 1). These values are interpreted as the critical values
for Rc separating porphyroclasts that rotated freely from those
which have attained a stable position during deformation. Accord-
ingly, Wm ranges from 0.70 to 0.90 (Table 1). The Hafafit gneisses
rocks typically have feldspar porphyroclasts with aspect ratios of
2–11 in XZ sections. Low aspect ratio for some samples is inclined
at angles close to 45° to the mylonitic foliation and others are den-
sely packed. With increasing aspect ratio, the angle of inclination
decreases (Fig. 10). These values of aspect ratio are in harmony
with flattening strains and also indicate vertical shortening normal
to the main-phase foliation in the gneisses rocks.
In this work, using the RGN is compared with existing methods.
The ease of its use, ability for comparing natural data sets to theo-
retical curves, potential to standardize investigations and ability to
limit ambiguity in estimating Wm, the RGN makes an important
new contribution that advances the current methods for quantify-
ing flow in shear zones. Six samples were used for the RGN method
however 3 samples were different from the ones used in Passchier
Fig. 11. The Rigid Grain Net method (RGN); Porphyroclast analyses of Quartz and feldspar grains.
145
method. Fig. 11 shows that the values of the Wm for RGN range
from 0.7 to 0.9. The Wm values obtained are same using the two
methods (Figs. 10 and 11) and confirm the correctness of the flow
path analysis.
7. Volume deformation
To investigate the possibility of deformation-related volume
change, major oxide and trace element concentration were plotted
on isocon diagrams (Grant, 1986). These diagrams compare ele-
ment concentrations in the altered rock (mylonite) to concentra-
tions in the original rock (protolith). The basic argument is that
some components are likely to have been immobile during the
deformation process and, for example, should be relatively en-
riched in mylonite that underwent volume loss (ÓHara and Block-
burn, 1989). If these elements can be identified, volume change can
be calculated assuming that the volume change is a factor common
to the behavior of all components. Al2O3 (Hem, 1978), TiO2 and Zr
146 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149

(Correns, 1978) are usually immobile during regional deformation.
The experimental results of Ayers and Watson (1991, 1993) indi-
cate that rutile and zircon solubilities and solubility gradients in
high-grade PT fields will be extremely low for typical water-rich
fluid compositions. If significant mobility of Ti and Zr took place
during metamorphism, then it is likely that rutile and zircon would
have grown in veins, which are not observed in and close to the
sample localities. However, rutile commonly occurs in quartz veins
in high-pressure settings suggesting that Ti might be a mobile
phase during high-pressure metamorphism.
Major- and trace- element analyses were performed by stan-
dard X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), using glass fusion
disks and pressed powder pellets. All analyses were made with a
sequential Philips PW 1404 wavelength-depressive fluorescence
spectroscopy with excitation by an Rh X-ray tube. Operating con-
ditions were between 40 and 80 kV and 30 to 60 mA, depending
on which element was analyzed.
In the isocon diagrams (Fig. 12), the chemical compositions (Ta-
ble 2) of variously deformed samples are plotted against those of
the highly deformed samples. The gneisses are differentiated into
granite-gneiss, biotite gneiss, hornblende gneiss and psammitic
gneiss. In Fig. 12a (Ha 18), sample represents the highly deformed
psammitic gneiss sample (H18) is plotted against the least
deformed samples (Ha 10, Ha 14 and Ha11). It is inteded to inves-
tigate in a semi-quantitative manner whether pronounced defor-
mation in the highly deformed samples was accompanied by
significant volume change. For biotite gneisses, the highly de-
formed sample (Ha 9) is plotted against the least deformed sam-
ples (Ha 4 and Ha 7) (Fig. 12b). Similarly, the hornblende gneiss
sample (Ha 20) was plotted vs the least deformed samples Ha 3
and Ha 1 (the Fig. 12c) and the granite-gneiss sample (Ha 19) is
plotted vs Ha 15 and Ha 12 (Fig. 12d).
It is argued that the isocon diagrams in Fig. 12 illustrate the
depletion or augmentation of the analyzed elements during pro-
gressive deformation. It is evident that no single isocon can be fit-
ted to the data points in most diagrams, which suggests differential
element behavior. Nonetheless, Al2O3, Zr and also Ti plot on rea-
sonably defined isocons in most diagrams. In some diagrams,
Al2O3 and Zr (and Ti) show slight enrichment. There is no system-
atic increase in the amount of volume loss or gain with increasing
deformation intensity. In general, the data suggest constant-vol-
ume or isochoric deformation.

Fig. 12. Isocon diagrams after (Grant, 1986) comparing trace element and major oxide concentrations of deformed samples to that of least deformed sample (RXZ ratios of
samples are shown); element concentration is scaled to 0–100 wt% or parts per million. Solid line represents 1:1 correspondence between concentrations of deformed and
almost undeformed samples; dashed line represents averaged estimate of volume loss based on enrichment of Zr, Al2O3 and TiO2.
 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149 147

Table 2
Average major (in wt%) and trace element (in ppm) of Hafafit–Migif samples.

Sample Psammitic gneiss Biotite gneiss Hornblende gniess Grantic gneiss

Ha18 Ha10 Ha14 Ha11 Ha9 Ha4 Ha7 Ha20 Ha3 Ha1 Ha19 Ha15 Ha12
SiO2 73.94 75.59 76.75 77.25 76.25 69.22 77.66 60.33 53.22 54.44 67.85 68.52 70.01
TiO2 0.22 0.29 0.12 0.09 1.44 1.04 0.55 1.32 1.54 1.45 0.35 0.28 0.4
Al2O3 11.09 11.01 11.12 11.04 10.99 11.06 10.88 14.66 17.08 17.02 18.02 17.51 15.2
Fe2O3 3.33 3.54 1.86 1.42 2.348 7.28 2.541 8.22 8.55 8.34 2.44 1.62 2.12
MnO 0.096 0.063 0.05 0.06 0.046 0.16 0.086 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.04 0.03 0.04
MgO 0.804 0.66 0.21 0.73 1.05 1.95 1.3 3.99 4.75 4.34 1.45 0.7 1.07
CaO 1.238 0.19 0.04 0.02 3.2 3.02 2.1 9.21 10.01 10.02 4.08 4.36 3.411
Na2O 4.51 4.2 5.1 5.2 3.35 2.85 3.02 1.85 3.45 3.22 4.01 5.4 5.59
K2O 4.662 4.35 3.85 3.66 0.98 2.58 1.22 0.62 0.39 0.31 0.8 1.06 1.34
P2O5 0.131 0.02 0.04 0.025 0.14 0.25 0.03 0.08 0.17 0.16 0.1 0.08 0.11
CO2 0.26 0.2 0.86 0.52 0.25 0.85 0.65 0.52 0.75 0.65 0.9 0.68 0.39
Total 100.28 100.11 100 100.02 100.04 100.26 100.04 100.96 100.07 100.07 100.04 100.24 99.681
Trace elements
Ba 698 774 175 52 452 595 620 100 120 128 236 255 240
Co 8 3 14 15 4 14 5 25 40 35 8 2 6
Cr 18 10 40 35 35 90 15 75 88 99 23 12 13
Rb 49 50 550 875 20 55 33 10 6 7 24 20 43
Sr 90 20 14 12 158 250 122 145 385 380 499 350 343
V 36 12 10 12 11 45 9 250 210 200 45 18 26
Y 159 210 140 102 24 105 42 22 25 27 14 15 13
Zn 186 190 225 95 24 145 52 80 77 76 32 23 32
Zr 1049 1210 2890 2582 177 215 185 45 65 68 165 158 160
Nb 40 52 10 140 10 22 11 2 1 1 1 1 1
Pb 35 40 450 320 5 18 15 8 4 5 9 6 8
Th 25 15 125 140 4 12 2 3 3 2 5 10 4
U 3.8 4 65 30 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 4

8. Discussion In general shear deformation conditions, pure and simple shear

The chemical data indicate no volume change with progressive
deformation of the all types of gneiss rocks in Migif–Hafafit area.
Minor or no volume changes are expected in high to medium grade
rocks in which porosities during deformation are probably very
small (Kassem and Ring, 2004). Because of isochoric deformation
the strain data reflect flattening strain type. Kassem (2008) ex-
plained that the finite strain data show oblate strain symmetry
in the studied Migif rocks. This indicates that the accumulation
of ductile deformation during thrusting was not by simple shear
but it involved vertical shortening produced by a component of
pure shear. Pure shear-related vertical shortening caused the sub-
horizontal foliation in the concerned area.
Kassem and Ring (2004) suggested that subhorizontal foliation
by simple shear nappe stacking alone appears to be an unreason-
able alternative, since it demands very high shear strains of the
order of >10. Also, the rotation of elongate crystals into a subhori-
zontal position would lead to strain ellipses with aspect ratios of
100 throughout the entire thickness of the nappes. Such high
strains are not reported in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Kassem
and Ring (2004) envisage that nappe imbrication associated with
a component of pure shear flattening is a general process causing
flat-lying foliations. The rotation of objects by pure shear is faster
than in simple shear and thus makes a pure shear component of
deformation more likely for producing subhorizontal foliations
across nappes. Greiling et al. (1988) reported stretching lineations
with variable trends (NE–SW and NW–SE), which they interpret to
be due to different tectonic transport directions. However, inter-
pretation of the stretching lineations as the tectonic transport
direction is only valid for simple-shear deformation, which is not
supported by obtained strain data in the present. The observation
that deformation in Migif area is, in general, distinctly non-coaxial
with a dominant WNW sense of shear suggests that ductile defor-
mation in the nappe was related to shear coupling on the thrust
faults which bound WHC. Therefore, it seems plausible to reason-
able that this shear coupling produced the regionally consistent
orientation of stretching lineation.
components have a non-linear relationship and make equal contri-
butions to the overall deformation at Wm = 0.71 (Law et al., 2004).
Using the fabric skeleton of quartz c-axis fabrics and the maximum
strain ratio the authors suggested that the average kinematic vor-
ticity numbers was in the range of 0.5–0.6. These values indicate a
pure shear-dominated bulk deformation during nappe emplace-
ment (for relationships see Law et al., 2004), which thus dominates
the ductile nappe-emplacement-related deformation.
The obtained data indicate that the gneisses were thrust from
WNW towards the ESE in the Migif area. In addition, the gneisses
were folded about NW–ES axis. In this case, stretching lineations
during thrusting trend W to WNW and associated kinematic indi-
cators record WNW tectonic transport. The structure of the area is
dominated by a pervasive, subhorizontal main-phase foliation. The
main-phase foliation is subparallel to the contact in the Migif-
Hafafit area. Greiling et al. (1994) showed that the area was formed
during Pan-African time where clastic sediments of continental
and/or mature island arc derivation were deposited along an active
continental margin in a basin floored by an oceanic crust. Further-
more, they suggested that northwestward subduction resulted in
the generation of a calc-alkaline magma and the formation of the
Hafafit island arcs. Ring and Reischmann (2002) proposed that fast
underthrusting and exhumation at great rates occurs when the
bounding faults are very weak and that this is the reason why some
high-pressure rocks are almost undeformed. However, the consis-
tently oriented stretching lineations and top-to-the-W shear sug-
gest at least some shear coupling at the thrusts that bound the
Migif area. Furthermore, ductile strain reaching axial ratios in XZ
sections of 10 was superimposed heterogeneously on the existing
nappe structure indicating that high strain accumulated, at least in
part, after considerable movement at the bounding faults. In this
case, the preservation of pre-high-pressure structures close to nap-
pe contacts was aided because the nappes formed early during
thrusting by brittle imbrication and were modified by extremely
heterogeneous strain which allowed pre-existing structures to sur-
vive in low-strain areas between shear zones. It is suggested that
the nappe contacts were formed during progressive overthrusting
148 O.M.K. Kassem / Journal of African Earth Sciences 99 (2014) 136–149
under brittle to semi-brittle conditions before deformation and
metamorphism. Also, the strain type as expressed by the K value
does not show a distinct pattern in the Migif area. It is shown that
thrusting was accompanied by vertical shortening and this ex-
plains flattening strain type in large parts of the area.
9. Conclusion
The kinematic vorticity number for the gneisses rocks from ex-
posed in the Migif area ranges from 0.6 to 0.9, and together with
the strain data suggest deviations from simple shear. It is con-
cluded that nappe stacking occurred early during the thrusting
event, probably by brittle imbrication and that ductile strain was
superimposed on the nappe structure at high-pressure. The accu-
mulation of ductile strain during overthruting was not purely by
simple shear. It involved a component of vertical shortening, which
caused the subhorizontal foliation in the Migif area and environs,
which is subparallel to the tectonic contacts with the under- and
overlying nappes. In most cases, this foliation formed during
thrusting of the nappes onto each other suggesting that nappe
stacking was associated with vertical shortening. This observation
contrasts with the widely held opinion that nappe formation in
orogens is by simple-shear deformation.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to
the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for its
funding of this research through the Research Group project no
RGP-VPP-230. I thank Prof. Dr. S. El-Gaby (God bless his soul)
and Dr. Yahie El Kazzaz for a pre-submission review and long dis-
cussions during 2007, journal reviewers for critical and helpful
comments.
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