Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
DOI 10.1007/s00531-014-1103-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
Pan‑African adakitic rocks of the north Arabian–Nubian Shield:
petrological and geochemical constraints on the evolution of the
Dokhan volcanics in the north Eastern Desert of Egypt
Mohamed A. Obeid · Mokhles K. Azer
Received: 28 February 2014 / Accepted: 1 November 2014 / Published online: 22 November 2014
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract The Precambrian basement of Egypt is part of
the Red Sea Mountains and represents the north-western
part of the Arabian–Nubian Shield (ANS). Five volcanic
sections are exposed in the Egyptian basement complex,
namely El Kharaza, Monqul, Abu Had, Mellaha and Abu
Marwa. They are located in the north Eastern Desert (ED)
of Egypt and were selected for petrological and geochemi-
cal studies as they represent the Dokhan volcanics. The vol-
canics divide into two main pulses, and each pulse was fre-
quently accompanied by deposition of immature molasse
type sediments, which represent a thick sequence of the
Hammamat group in the north ED. Compositionally, the
rocks form a continuum from basaltic andesite, andesite,
dacite (lower succession) to rhyodacite and rhyolite (upper
succession), with no apparent compositional gaps. These
high-K calc-alkaline rocks have strong affinities to sub-
duction-related rocks with enriched LILEs (Rb, Ba, K, Th,
Ce) relative to high field strength elements (Nb, Zr, P, Ti)
and negative Nb anomalies relative to NMORB. The lower
succession displays geochemical characteristics of adakitic
rocks with SiO2 >53 wt%, Al2O3 >15 wt%, MgO >2.5
wt%, Mg# >49, Sr >650 ppm, Y <17 ppm, Yb <2 ppm, Ni
>25 ppm, Cr >50 ppm and Sr/Y >42.4. They also have low
Nb, Rb and Zr compared to the coexisting calc-alkaline
rhyodacites and rhyolites. The highly fractionated rhy-
olitic rocks have strong negative Eu anomalies and pos-
sess the geochemical characteristics of A-type suites. Trace
M. A. Obeid (*)
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Fayoum University,
P.O. Box 63514, Fayoum, Egypt
e-mail: mobeid_2000@hotmail.com
M. K. Azer
Geology Department, National Research Centre,
12662 Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
element geochemical signatures indicate a magma source
consistent with post-collisional suites that retain destruc-
tive plate signatures associated with subduction zones. The
adakitic rocks in the northern ANS are generated through
partial melting of delaminated mafic lower crust interact-
ing with overlying mantle-derived magma. The Dokhan
volcanics were likely generated by a combination of pro-
cesses, including partial melting, crystal fractionation and
assimilation.
Keywords Neoproterozoic · Arabian-Nubian Shield ·
Dokhan volcanics · Calc-alkaline · Adakite · Egypt
Introduction
The Precambrian complex in the Eastern Desert (ED) con-
stitutes, together with the basement rocks of Sinai, the
north-western corner of the Arabian–Nubian Shield (ANS).
The Neoproterozoic rocks of the ANS evolved as a result
of the East African Orogen (900–530 Ma; Stern 1994). It
is a collage of Neoproterozoic juvenile arcs, younger sedi-
mentary and volcanic basins, voluminous granitoid intru-
sions, and enclaves of pre-Neoproterozoic crust (Stern
1994; Stoeser and Frost 2006). The ANS represents the
largest tract of Neoproterozoic juvenile continental crust
on Earth (Patchett and Chase 2002). One of the most strik-
ing features of the northernmost segment of the ANS is
the abundance of post-collisional plutons and associated
volcano-sedimentary sequences, whereas older rocks, now
comprising parts of metamorphic complexes are scarce,
and ophiolites are completely absent (e.g. Bentor 1985;
Stein 2003; Azer and El-Gharbawy 2011). In the ED espe-
cially in its northern part (Fig. 1), the Dokhan volcanics
are abundant and comprise mostly high-K calc-alkaline
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542 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563

Fig. 1  Regional geological map

of Egypt showing distribution
of the Dokhan volcanics in the
Eastern Desert and Sinai, Egypt
(modified after Abdel-Rahman
1996; Wilde and Youssef 2002).
The approximate boundaries
between the north Eastern
Desert (NED), central Eastern
Desert (CED) and south Eastern
Desert (SED) according to
Greiling et al. (1994) are shown
as dashed lines

intermediate to felsic rocks (Basta et al. 1980; Stern and
Gottfried 1986; Abdel-Rahman 1996; Eliwa et al. 2006;
Breitkreuz et al. 2010). They are divided into two main
pulses of volcanic activity: 630–623 and 618–592 Ma
(Breitkreuz et al. 2010). The extrusion of volcanics in
each pulse was accompanied by deposition of the imma-
ture Hammamat sediments (e.g. Akaad and Noweir 1980;
Samuel et al. 2011; Bezenjani et al. 2014). The two pulses
of volcanic activity in the Dokhan volcanics are well cor-
related with the two magmatic phases of various post-colli-
sional calc-alkaline plutons: an early magmatic phase at ca.
635–620 Ma and a later one at 610–590 Ma.
The Dokhan volcanics in the north ED have been inves-
tigated by numerous authors (e.g. Ressetar and Monrad
1983; Ragab 1987; El Sheshtawi et al. 1997; Abdel-Rah-
man 1996; Breitkreuz et al. 2010; Abdel Wahed et al. 2012;
Alaabed and El-Tokhi 2014). There are many debates about
the tectonic setting, sources and various processes involved
in the evolution of the Dokhan volcanics, and consensus
regarding their tectonic setting and petrogenesis has not
been achieved. We provide new geological and geochemi-
cal data on the Dokhan volcanics of the north ED to bet-
ter understand their magma source(s) and tectonic setting.
Moreover, the adakitic character of some of the Dokhan
volcanics in the north ED can help to improve our under-
standing about the crustal evolutionary processes of the
ANS at the end of Pan-African orogeny. The occurrence of
many adakitic rocks throughout the ANS during late Neo-
proterozoic time shows that the formation and recognition
of melts with adakitic affinity are of regional significance.
It is also notable that volcanic and plutonic hosted gold,
silver, base-metal, molybdenum and tungsten are associ-
ated with the ANS adakites (Pease and Johnson 2013). This
places the ANS at the centre of debate about the origin and
petrogenetic implication of adakites.
Geological background
Arabian–Nubian Shield
The ANS is one of the best exposures of juvenile crust in
the world, formed through the accretion of Neoproterozoic
island arc terranes welded together by ophiolitic sutures
(Stoeser and Camp 1985; Kröner et al. 1992; Johnson and
Woldehaimanot 2003; Stern et al. 2004). Accretion took
place as East and West Gondwana collided and the Mozam-
bique Ocean closed (Stern 1994). The formation of these
island arc rocks and their accretion have been dated from
ca. 870 Ma (breakup of Rodinia) to ca. 620 Ma (closure of
the Mozambique Ocean) (Jacobs and Thomas 2004; Stern
et al. 2004; Li et al. 2008; Abd El-Rahman et al. 2009).

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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Rifting of the Red Sea resulted in uplift and denudation
along the rift shoulders, generating excellent basement
exposures on its western flank in Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and
Ethiopia and on its eastern flank in Israel, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia and Yemen. The ANS was tectonically stabilized at
ca. 540 Ma (Johnson and Woldehaimanot 2003).
The Dokhan volcanics and the Hammamat clastics rep-
resent an important stratigraphic unit in the ED of Egypt
especially in its northern segment. Volcano-sedimentary
rock associations are wide spread in the northernmost ANS,
but the mode of occurrence, relationship with surrounding
rocks and clast components and associated provenance pat-
terns are variable. The Dokhan volcanics include mainly
intermediate to silicic compositions (Basta et al. 1980; Res-
setar and Monrad 1983; Stern and Gottfried 1986; Abdel-
Rahman 1996; Mohamed et al. 2000; Wilde and Youssef
2000; Moghazi 2003; Breitkreuz et al. 2010). Hamma-
mat sediments comprise the most significant occurrence
of terrestrial molasse in the ED and have been a focus of
investigation for some time. The stratigraphic relationships
and tectonic setting of Hammamat sediments are highly
debated, and diverse tectonic settings have been proposed
for them (Akaad and Noweir 1980; Grothaus 1979; Willis
et al. 1988; Holail and Moghazi 1998; Wilde 2001; Wilde
and Youssef 2002; Shalaby et al. 2006; Eliwa et al. 2010;
Bezenjani et al. 2014). They include terrigenous clastics
with abundant conglomerates and are often intercalated
within the Dokhan volcanics (e.g. Ries et al. 1983; Willis
et al. 1988; El-Kalioubi 1996; Eliwa et al. 2010).
Several volcano-sedimentary successions of southern
Sinai have been equated with the Dokhan–Hammamat
successions of the ED (e.g. El-Gaby et al. 1991; Samuel
et al. 2001a, b; Azer 2007; El-Bialy 2010; Azer and Fara-
hat 2011; Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). Other volcano-sedi-
mentary successions in the northernmost ANS include the
volcaniclastic Hiayala Formation and the Saramuj con-
glomerates (595–600 Ma; Jarrar et al. 1993) of south-west
Jordan, the Elat conglomerate and associated volcanics of
southern Israel (ca. 600 Ma; Garfunkel 1999) and the post
600 Ma Minawa Formation in the Midyan terrane, in north-
ern Saudi Arabia (Clark 1985).
Geologic setting of the study area
The study area is in the north ED of Egypt, north-west of
Hurghada along the Red Sea coast (Fig. 1) between north
latitudes 27°22′ and 28°00′ and east longitudes 32°40′ and
33°15′. The Dokhan volcanic rocks of El Kharaza, Mon-
qul, Abu Had, Mellaha and Abu Marwa areas are well
exposed (Fig. 2) being traversed by wadis draining east-
ward towards the Red Sea; these include Wadi Mellaha,
Wadi Abu Had and Wadi Umm Balad. Many faults bisect
the study area and complicated the stratigraphic section.
543
The different rock units of the area have been studied by
many workers (e.g. Ragab 1987; Abu El-Leil et al. 1990; El
Sheshtawi et al. 1997; El Bayoumi et al. 1997; El-Mahal-
lawi 1999; Osman et al. 2001; Abdel Wahed et al. 2012 and
others), and different models have been proposed regard-
ing the formation of the Dokhan–Hammamat successions.
Differences focus around: (a) the stratigraphic relationship
between the Dokhan volcanics and the Hammamat sedi-
ments, (b) the tectonic model for their emplacement, (c) the
age range of the volcanics and (d) the presence or absence
of metamorphism within these volcanics and associated
Hammamat sediments.
The Neoproterozoic rocks in the study area include
metavolcanics, metasediments, metagabbro-diorites,
granodiorites, Dokhan volcanics, Hammamat sediments
and alkali granites (Fig. 2). These rocks are dissected by
numerous dykes of felsite, andesite and basalt, in addition
to quartz and barite veins (Abdel Wahed et al. 2012). The
Neoproterozoic rocks are unconformably overlain from the
east and west by the Phanerozoic rocks. Metasediments and
metavolcanics represent the oldest rock units in the area,
and they are intruded by metagabbro-diorites, granodiorites
and alkali granites. Metasediments are minor occurrences
in the north-eastern corner of the study area (Fig. 2). They
form elliptical exposures and dip at angles ranging from
25° to 50° towards the NW and NNW. The basic and inter-
mediate metavolcanics are more abundant than the meta-
sediments and are exposed at Wadi Mellaha, Wadi Abu Had
and G. El Kharaza.
The metagabbro-diorite rocks are exposed at Wadi Mel-
laha and G. Abu Had as well as south of G. El Kharaza.
They intruded the metavolcanics and are in turn intruded
by the granodiorites and alkali granites. In some exposures,
the Dokhan volcanics are extruded onto the metagabbro-
diorite rocks. Xenoliths of metavolcanics are observed
within the metagabbro-diorite complex. The granodiorites
represent syn-orogenic magmas, while the alkali granites
represent post-orogenic magmas. The Phanerozoic rocks in
the study area include the Wadi Dib ring complex, Miocene
and Cretaceous sediments and alluvial deposits. The Wadi
Dib igneous ring complex is circular, ~2 km in diameter,
and intrudes the Neoproterozoic granitoids. It shows dis-
tinct concentric compositional zoning through several sye-
nitic outer ring sheets and a quartz syenite inner ring sheet
with a granitic core (Serencsits et al. 1979; El-Ramly et al.
1982; Frisch 1982; Frisch and Abdel-Rahman 1999).
In the study area, the Dokhan volcanics vary in colour
from black to grey and weather to purple and brown. They
are intercalated with the Hammamat sediments constitut-
ing a thick volcano-sedimentary succession. In the north-
western part of the area (Fig. 2), the volcano-sedimentary
succession rests in erosional unconformity on the metamor-
phic rocks. The Dokhan volcanics predominantly comprise
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544
Fig. 2  Geologic map of G. Abu
Had area, NED, Egypt (after
Geological Survey of Egypt
1978)
pyroclastic rocks and lesser lava flows, alternating with
the Hammamat sediments. The lavas range in composition
from andesite, dacite to rhyolite with minor mafic varieties.
Based on our field observations and the geochronologi-
cal data of Breitkreuz et al. (2010), the volcano-sedimen-
tary succession is divided into lower (630–623 Ma) and
upper (618–592 Ma) parts. The lower succession is well
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
exposed in Wadi Mellaha and G. Abu Had. It lies uncon-
formably on the metasediments and metavolcanics and is
intruded by the alkali granites. The volcanic rocks of the
lower succession are steeply tilted and represented by
andesite and dacite with minor basic volcanics. The basic
volcanics are best exposed west of G. Zubeir and at G.
Monqul. Xenoliths of the pre-existing granodiorites and
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
metavolcanics are enclosed within the volcanic rocks of the
lower succession. The volcanic rocks of upper succession
are abundant at G. El Kharaza and G. Monqul where they
are intercalated with Hammamat sediments. They comprise
rhyodacite, rhyolite, ignimbrite and tuffs. The volcanic
rocks of the upper succession are unconformably overlain
by Phanerozoic rocks.
The associated pyroclastic rocks are more abundant in
G. Mellaha where they range in granulometry from vol-
canic breccia to ash tuffs. The tuffs show well-developed
banding and lamination. The pyroclastics started with vol-
canic agglomerates in which the angular rock fragments
attain 15 cm in diameter and are set in a tuffaceous matrix.
The lithic and crystal tuffs are well bedded, and the strata
are commonly 0.3–2 m thick. Ignimbrites occur as sheets
interlayered with andesite or as isolated ridges and conical
hills near G. El Kharaza and G. El Uref. They are pink in
colour exhibit fiamme structure and both welded and non-
welded ignimbrites occur. The study area is affected by
many faults that lead to inversion of the Hammamat sedi-
ments. Sometimes, the Hammamat sediments start the base
of the volcano-sedimentary succession (e.g. G. El Urf) or
are intercalated with the Dokhan volcanics at the other
localities. The lower parts of the Hammamat sediments are
slightly metamorphosed possibly due to intrusion of later
alkali granites. The Hammamat sediments comprise steeply
dipping conglomerate beds in the lower part as well as
greywackes, sandstones and siltstones in the upper part.
Existing constraints on the ages of basement rocks in
the study area include TIMS zircon U–Pb ages (Stern and
Hedge 1985), whole-rock Rb–Sr ages (Abdel-Rahman and
Doig 1987) and SIMS zircon U–Pb ages (Wilde and Youssef
2000, 2002; Wilde 2001). These data indicate that the
Dokhan volcanics erupted between 630 and 592 Ma. From
recent SIMS U–Pb zircon dating, Breitkreuz et al. (2010)
distinguished two main pulses of Dokhan volcanic activity
at 630–623 and 618–592 Ma, suggesting that the Dokhan
volcanics do not necessarily represent a single volcanic
event. Hammamat sediments and Dokhan volcanics were
both affected by rapid uplift at about 595–588 Ma (Fritz
et al. 1996; Loizenbauer et al. 2001) and later intruded by
alkali granites at 596–580 Ma (Stern and Hedge 1985; Fritz
and Messner 1999; Andresen et al. 2009). They are also
intruded by the Wadi Dib Ring complex; Rb–Sr isotope data
for the ring complex suggest an age of 578 ± 16 Ma (Frisch
and Abdel-Rahman 1999). Willis et al. (1988) defined the
time of Hammamat sedimentation using Rb–Sr method
as 585 ± 15 Ma. Wilde and Youssef (2002) obtained the
same age (585 ± 13 Ma) from U–Pb detrital zircon studies
of Hammamat sediments as a maximum depositional age.
Detrital zircon studies from Hammamat sediments of Wadi
Igla in the central ED define a maximum depositional age of
628 ± 6 Ma (Bezenjani et al. 2014).
545
Petrography
The lower magmatic cycle of the Dokhan volcanics rep-
resents basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite and pyroclastics,
while the upper cycle is represented by rhyodacite, rhyolite,
ignimbrite and pyroclastics. Their petrographic descrip-
tions are summarized in Table 1. From these samples, it is
clear that the volcanics are exclusively subaerial and the
lower cycle is deformed and slightly metamorphosed. The
pyroclastics cover the entire spectrum from coarse volcanic
breccia to fine (ash) tuffs.
Geochemistry
Analytical techniques
Fifteen representative samples covering the range of com-
positions of the volcanic rocks were petrographically
selected for chemical analyses. Major oxide compositions
and Sc, Ba and Ni elements were analysed using induc-
tively coupled plasma-emission spectrometry (ICP-ES).
The other trace elements and the rare earth elements (REE)
were determined using inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS) following a lithium metaborate/
tetraborate fusion and nitric acid digestion of a 0.2-g sam-
ple. The analyses were carried out at the ACME Analytical
Laboratories Ltd., Canada. Analytical precision, calculated
from replicate analyses, is 0.5 % for major elements and
varies from 2 to 10 % for trace elements. Loss on ignition
(LOI) is determined by weight difference after ignition at
1,000 °C.
Geochemical characteristics
Major and trace element concentrations of the Dokhan
volcanic samples from the lower and upper successions
are presented in Table 2. The volcanic samples define a
wide range of composition from basaltic andesite to high-
silica rhyolite (53.91–74.11 wt% SiO2). The lower suc-
cession displays variation from basaltic andesite, andesite
to dacite, whereas the upper succession comprises only
evolved compositions (rhyodacite to rhyolite). The two
successions are medium-K to dominantly high-K in com-
position (Fig. 3a). The investigated samples have agpaitic
indices (Liégeois et al. 1998) less than 0.87, consistent
with their calc-alkaline affinity (except one rhyolite sam-
ple; Table 2). The basaltic andesite, andesite and dacite
samples are calcic-alkaline and represent I-type granites
(Fig. 3b; Frost et al. 2001). The rhyolite samples, on the
other hand, possess noticeably high Ga/Al ratios (>2.5)
and are similar to A-type magmas (Fig. 3c; Whalen et al.
1987).
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546 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563

Table 1  Petrographic description of the lower and upper cycles of the studied Dokhan volcanics at the north ED
Rock type Description

Lower cycle
Pyroclastics The pyroclastics of lower succession differ from the upper pyroclastics in the presence of plagioclase and mafic minerals in
subordinate amounts. The pyroclastics of lower succession are represented by lithic tuffs alternates with crystal tuffs. The
lithic tuffs are banded, dark grey in colour and composed mainly of lithic fragments, up to 15 mm across, and less crystal
fragments set in a finer-grained tuffaceous matrix. The lithic fragments are represented mainly by andesite and dacite with
minor rock fragments of gneisses and metasediments, while the crystal fragments comprise mainly plagioclase, hornblende
and quartz with minor K-feldspars and opaque. The crystal tuffs are banded and greyish buff in colour. The crystal frag-
ments are represented by plagioclase, hornblende, quartz, K-feldspars and opaques
Dacite Dacite consists of tabular phenocrysts of plagioclase and highly altered mafic minerals embedded in fine-grained felsic
groundmass. Most plagioclase phenocrysts are sericitized and show features indicative of deformation such as wavy extinc-
tion, slightly bent lamellae and kinked deformation. Decussate texture in which hornblende crystals are recrystallized into
aggregates of actinolite, biotite and chlorite disposed in a criss-cross fashion as well as the mineral assemblage are inter-
preted to indicate low-pressure metamorphism in the greenschist facies
Andesite Andesite is massive, fine-grained and greenish grey in colour. It consists essentially of plagioclase and hornblende phe-
nocrysts with clinopyeoxene microphenocrysts embedded in a fine-grained groundmass. Accessories comprise opaque min-
erals and apatite, while sericite, calcite and chlorite are the secondary minerals. The groundmass is composed of subhedral
to anhedral plagioclase laths, up to 0.5 mm long, with few hornblende, quartz grains and opaques usually alligned in certain
direction
Basaltic andesite It carries abundant plagioclase phenocrysts together with amphibole, clinopyroxene and biotite porphyritic crystals set in
a fine-grained groundmass of the same composition. The plagioclase phenocrysts are generally twinned according to the
albite or albite plus Carlsbad laws, and most crystals are saussuritized. Both amphibole and biotite occur as subhedral crys-
tals; biotite is marginally altered to chlorite
Upper cycle
Pyroclastics The pyroclastics of the upper succession represent mainly by volcanic breccia and crystal tuffs with minor amounts of ash
tuffs and lithic tuffs. Volcanic breccia is poorly sorted, predominantly angular to subangular felsic volcanic rock fragments,
4–10 cm across, embedded in a tuffaceous matrix. The groundmass is formed of fine tuffs and secondary quartz. The crystal
tuffs consist essentially of quartz, plagioclase and potash feldspar crystal fragments embedded in reddish brown aphanitic
matrix. The ash tuff is fine to very fine grained and laminated. Lithic tuffs are mainly composed of rock fragments with
minor crystal and glass fragments embedded in a fine tuffaceous groundmass. The rock fragments are represented by gran-
ites and volcanics. The crystal fragments are usually angular in shape and mainly represented by plagioclase, quartz and
rare mafics
Rhyolite Rhyolite is fine-grained with variable amounts of phenocrysts (10–25 %) set in microcrystalline groundmass. The phe-
nocrysts occur either as discrete crystals or as glomerophyric or cumulophyric aggregates. The phenocrysts are represented
by plagioclase, K-feldspar and quartz with rare microphenocrysts of biotite. The groundmass is microcrystalline and show
microgranular and/or spherulitic textures
Ignimbrite Ignimbrites are rhyolitic in compostion and consist of crystals and crystal fragments of plagioclase, K-feldspar and quartz
associated with pumice fragments, fiamme, glass shards and lithic fragments. All the components are embedded in fine
microcrystalline ash-rich matrix. Fiamme reach up to 5 cm length and show regular orientation. The lithic fragments com-
prise mainly andesite and granites. In the welded ignimbrites, the matrix shows well-developed welding around crystals and
lithic fragments
Rhyodacite Rhyodacite of the upper succesion is similar to the dacite of the lower succesion, but it contains less phenocrysts and mafic
mineral. Rhyodacite is massive, fine-grained and grey in colour. It is composed mainly of plagioclase and quartz phe-
nocrysts with less biotite and hornblende microphenocrysts set in a microcrystalline groundmass. Apatite, zircon and Fe–Ti
oxides are the common accessories, while epidote, sericite and chlorite are the secondary minerals

Based on the geochemical characteristics of adak-
ites proposed by Defant and Drummond (1990, 1993),
all the basaltic andesite and andesite samples as well as
most of the dacite samples of the lower succession have
low Y and high Sr contents, giving them adakitic charac-
ter (Fig. 3d). Adakites are always divided into two types:
high-silica adakites (SiO2 >60 wt%) and low-silica adak-
ites (SiO2 <60 wt%) (Martin and Moyen 2003; Martin et al.
2005). Adakitic rocks are commonly high in Al2O3 (>15
wt%), MgO (>2.5 wt%), Cr (>50 ppm), Ni (>25 ppm) and
Sr (>650 ppm) contents and low in Y (<17 ppm) and Zr
(<250 ppm), and this is consistent with our volcanic sam-
ples from the north ED (Table 2).
Volcanics of the lower and upper successions show
quasi-continuous trends with no compositional gap (Figs. 4,
5). Major elements generally decrease with increasing
silica, except for K2O and Na2O (Fig. 4). Na2O and TiO2
in the rhyolite samples have negative trends with increas-
ing SiO2. The distribution of some trace elements versus
SiO2 (Fig. 5) shows a general increase, e.g. Rb, Nb, Y and
Ta, but show a range of concentration at a given SiO2, e.g.
c. 68 wt% Rb, Ba, Nb. Sr and Sc generally decrease with

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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563 547

Table 2  Major oxides and trace element contents of the studied Dokhan volcanics at the north Eastern Desert of Egypt
Lower succession Upper succession
Andesite Dacite Rhyodacite Rhyolite
a a a a a a
11A 16 19A 2A 7 9 17 13 2 8 18 14 38 35 40

Major oxides (wt%)

SiO2 53.91 56.37 57.14 59.7 63.01 63.75 64.98 65.66 66.63 67.74 68 68.42 72.59 73.52 74.11
TiO2 1.48 1.21 1.19 1.12 0.87 0.88 0.76 0.93 0.81 0.58 0.55 0.55 0.33 0.26 0.14
Al2O3 17.1 16.24 16.82 15.87 16.1 15.8 15.16 16.13 16.16 15.56 16.12 15.47 14.42 13.43 13.58
FeOt 8.26 7.73 7.06 6.81 5.41 4.69 4.81 3.23 3.58 3.03 2.92 2.48 1.57 1.88 1.76
MnO 0.19 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02
MgO 4.7 4.26 3.89 3.72 2.67 2.51 2.24 1.53 1.19 0.82 0.78 0.64 0.48 0.39 0.35
CaO 6.6 6.05 5.65 5.37 4.49 4.21 3.75 2.6 2.79 2.11 1.93 2.19 0.96 0.45 0.29
Na2O 3.13 3.45 3.74 3.61 3.76 3.89 4.18 4.54 4.63 4.5 4.7 4.76 4.96 4.44 3.83
K 2O 1.86 2.01 1.91 2.35 2.95 2.85 2.98 3.58 3.59 3.51 3.77 3.55 4.61 3.82 4.54
P2O5 0.62 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.27 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.1 0.06 0.02
LOI 1.84 0.91 1.61 0.71 0.55 1.58 0.64 1.16 0.51 1.09 1 0.74 0.48 0.74 0.66
Total 99.69 98.72 99.45 99.65 100.1 100.5 99.83 99.64 100.1 99.2 99.99 99.02 100.6 99.03 99.3
Trace elements (ppm)
Ba 536 622 497 752 989 835 928 950 960 984 923 1,132 744 879 341
Co 23.1 21.3 18.6 18.6 14.9 20.2 18.2 17.3 14.8 10.5 12.4 9.4 9.1 6.3 5
Cr 133 156 124 106 57 52 72 58 35 31 44 17 23 6 18
Cu 42 33 33 30 23 21 25 27 20 27 19 21 5 8 17
Ga 22 20.0 22 19 20 19 18.0 20 21 19 20 19 21 18 23
Nb 9 8 7 11 9 9 9 11 10 10 17 9 24 12 15
Ni 68 94 45 52 28 34 32 15 17 16 34 21 14 5 9
Pb 33 9 14 17 20 20 8 19 21 32 21 27 20 33 59
Rb 36 33 52 48 67 44 50.0 78 68 92 108 84 102 118 123
Sr 839 871.0 846 769 665 686 509.0 440 384 349 383 363 221 104 51
V 184 167 141 119 54 52 63 39 37 33 14 30 11 6 3
Y 11 12 14 16 16 16 17 25 26 29 27 28 37 39 49
Zn 156 119 120 120 85 89 76 86 88 101 106 76 64 58 55
Zr 173 161 151 207 224 227 256 303 298 306 295 356 408 331 257
Sc 22 13 13 10 11 10 9 8 9 8 10 7 8 6 4
Th 4 3 5 5 8 6 7 8 7 7 7 7 9 10 13
Hf 5 4 5 5 6 6 5 7 8 7 6 8 9 10 10
Ta 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 1
U 2 1 1 1 3 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 3 4
Cs 9 6 6 2 4 3 4 4 2 4 2 3 1 1 1
Mg# 52.99 52.20 52.19 51.98 49.44 51.46 47.99 48.41 39.71 34.90 34.61 33.83 37.72 29.13 28.26
AI 0.42 0.48 0.46 0.53 0.58 0.60 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.76 0.91 0.85 0.83
ASI 0.89 0.86 0.93 0.87 0.92 0.92 0.89 1.00 0.97 1.03 1.05 0.99 0.97 1.09 1.16
MALI −1.61 −0.59 −0.40 0.59 2.22 2.53 3.41 5.52 5.43 5.90 6.54 6.12 8.61 7.81 8.08
Rb/Sr 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.26 0.28 0.23 0.46 1.13 2.41
K/Rb 429 506 305 406 366 538 495 381 438 317 290 351 375 269 306
Rb/Zr 0.21 0.20 0.35 0.23 0.30 0.19 0.20 0.26 0.23 0.30 0.37 0.24 0.37 0.36 0.48
Sr/Y 73.61 72.00 60.03 46.91 42.36 42.58 29.60 17.75 14.75 11.95 14.25 12.92 6.01 2.68 1.06
a
Adakitic samples

13
548
Fig. 3  a The subdivision of subalkalic rocks using the K2O ver-
sus silica diagram. The diagram shows the subdivisions of Le Mai-
tre et al. (1989) (dashed lines) and Rickwood (1989) (in paren-
theses). The shaded bands are the fields in which fall the boundary
lines of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976), Ewart (1982), Innocenti et al.
increasing SiO2 but compositional groups (e.g. dacites) can
define distinct trends (best seen in Y) at c. 73 wt% SiO2;
the volcanic rocks become depleted in Na2O, Ba and Zr.
This geochemical characteristic has been observed in many
occurrences of the Dokhan volcanics in the ED and Sinai
(Abdel-Rahman 1996; Samuel et al. 2001a; Moghazi 2003;
Eliwa et al. 2006; Azer and Farahat 2011).
There is within-group variation at a specific SiO2, espe-
cially in trace elements, which is considered an important
hint of other processes involved during the evolution of the
Dokhan volcanics. Trends of trace elements for andesites
are different from dacites; they are parallel but not the same
trend for Sr, Nb, Y and Sc. The dacites are not on the same
trend as the andesites to rhyodacites for Al2O3, P2O5, Na2O
and K2O. The rhyodacites cluster (e.g. Al2O3, CaO, Na2O,
13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
(1982), Carr (1985) and Middlemost (1985) as summarized by Rick-
wood (1989); b Chemical classification diagram using SiO2 versus
Na2O + K2O − CaO (Frost et al. 2001); c Ga/Al versus Nb classifi-
cation diagrams (Whalen et al. 1987); and d Y versus Sr/Y classifica-
tion diagram for adakitic rocks (Defant and Drummond 1990)
K2O, Sr, Nb, Ba, Ta and Sc) or define trends that are not
coincident with the andesites and dacites (e.g. TiO2, MgO).
The rhyolites are distinct and lie off most trends (e.g.
Al2O3, MgO, Na2O, P2O5, K2O, Nb, Sc, Zr, Ba).
Relative to N-MORB, the samples show enrichment in
the LIL elements such as K, Rb and Ba, with noticeable
depletion in Nb and Ta relative to Th (Fig. 6a, b). Addi-
tionally, the rhyolite and rhyodacite of the upper succes-
sion have pronounced negative anomalies for Sr, P and Ti.
All the samples show Ta–Nb troughs that have never been
recorded in within-plate-related volcanics. The enrich-
ment in the LILE relative to HFSE and the negative Nb–Ta
anomalies are characteristic features of all the samples.
Such geochemical features typically characterize calc-
alkaline subduction-related rocks (e.g. Hawkesworth et al.
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Fig. 4  a Silica versus
oxide (wt%) variation dia-
grams. Symbols are as in Fig. 3
1993; Woodhead et al. 1993). However, in a post-colli-
sional environment, these features may represent derivation
of magmas from a lithospheric mantle which has been pre-
viously metasomatized by earlier subduction-related pro-
cesses. This has been recognized in many studies focused
on late Neoproterozoic magmatism in the northern ANS
549
and elsewhere (Stern and Gottfried 1986; Moghazi 2003;
Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011; Azer and Farahat 2011; Azer
et al. 2012).
REE concentrations of the volcanic samples are given in
Table 3. The REE-normalized patterns (using the chondrite
values of Pearce 1983) of the volcanic samples are shown
13
550 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563

Fig. 5  Silica variation diagrams

of some trace elements (ppm)
for the studied volcanic rocks.
Symbols are as in Fig. 3

in Fig. 7a, b. All samples show light REE enrichment over
heavy REE [(La/Lu)n = 6.11–13.13] and display a wide
range of Eu anomalies [(Eu/Eu*)n = 0.16–1.1]; the more
evolved volcanic samples (Fig. 7b) exhibit larger anomalies
relative to the less evolved samples (Fig. 7a). The samples
appear to exhibit a general increase in REE contents with
higher SiO2. The mafic members (basaltic andesite and
andesite) of the lower succession are moderately frac-
tionated [(La/Lu)n = 8.74–13.13] with slight negative
to positive Eu anomalies [(Eu/Eu*)n = 0.92–1.1], while

13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Fig. 6  MORB-normalized trace element diagrams. a Lower volcanic
succession, and b upper volcanic succession. MORB normalization
values are from Sun and McDonough (1989). Symbols are as in Fig. 3
the dacite rocks have small negative Eu anomalies [(Eu/
Eu*)n = 0.94–0.96].
REE-normalized patterns of the upper succession are
somewhat subparallel (Fig. 7b). However, rhyolite REE
patterns are coincident with the rhyodacite patterns.
Generally, rhyolites exhibit strong negative Eu anoma-
lies [(Eu/Eu*)n = 0.16–0.5], while rhyodacites have
slight negative Eu anomalies [(Eu/Eu*)n = 0.84–0.88]
(Fig. 7c).
Discussion
There are numerous theories regarding the tectonic set-
ting of the Dokhan volcanics. The results from this study,
combined with previous work, allow us to assess the
possible tectonic setting, sources and processes that are
responsible for the genesis and compositional variations
of these rocks.
551
Tectonic setting
A principal debate regarding the Dokhan volcanics has to
do with whether or not they formed in a subduction zone
setting (Basta et al. 1980; Gass 1982; Bentor 1985; Ragab
1987; El-Gaby et al. 1988; Abdel-Rahman 1996; Samuel
et al. 2001a, b), from extension following crustal thicken-
ing (Stern et al. 1984; Willis et al. 1988) or emplaced dur-
ing a post-orogenic transitional phase between subduc-
tion and extension (Ressetar and Monrad 1983; Mohamed
et al. 2000; Moghazi 2003; El-Sayed et al. 2004; Eliwa
et al. 2006; Azer and Farahat 2011). The continental rift-
ing model requires the synchronous emplacement of the
Dokhan volcanics and the high-level A-type granite intru-
sions (Stern et al. 1984; Stern and Gottfried 1986). From
field relationships in the study area, the Dokhan volcanics
are not synchronous with the A-type granites, although
in a few locations in the northern ANS, the second pulse
of the Dokhan magmatism seems to be synchronous with
A-type granites (Eyal et al. 2010). Some geochemical stud-
ies of the Dokhan volcanics across Egypt define continuous
compositional variation (e.g. Basta et al. 1980; Abdel-Rah-
man 1996; Eliwa et al. 2006; Samuel et al. 2001a; Mog-
hazi 2003), while others report a compositional gap in the
Dokhan volcanics (e.g. Ressetar and Monrad 1983; Stern
and Gottfried 1986; El-Gaby et al. 1989, 1991; Asran et al.
2005). There is now general consensus among Egyptian
geologists that the Dokhan volcanics form a composition-
ally continuous suite. This is confirmed by the compiled
data of SiO2 for the Dokhan volcanics presented by Eliwa
et al. (2006).
Our field investigations revealed that the volcanics post-
date the subduction-related calc-alkaline granitoids and are
in turn intruded by the alkali granites as well as the syenitic
rocks of Wadi Dib ring complex (Fig. 2). All of the vol-
canic samples represent calc-alkaline subduction-related
arc rocks (Fig. 8; Wood 1980). Negative MORB-normal-
ized Nb and Ta anomalies also support volcanic arc setting
for these samples (Fig. 6). The compositional continuity
of the sample suite also argues against a rift-related anoro-
genic setting for their evolution (Wilson 1994; Menuge
et al. 2002).
The late Neoproterozoic post-collisional stage of
tectono-magmatic evolution of the ANS commenced at
~620 Ma, and the transition from convergence to extension
occurred at ~600 Ma (e.g. Stern 1994; Genna et al. 2002).
Many authors have emphasized that there is no evidence
for subduction or collisional-related processes post ~635–
620 Ma (e.g. Avigad and Gvirtzman 2009; Eyal et al. 2010),
which suggests our volcanic samples (>630–592 Ma, Bre-
itkreuz et al. 2010) are transitional to the late-orogenic and
post-collisional setting. In many cases, post-collisional
magmatism is linked to rapid post-closure uplift and the
13
 552

13
Table 3  Rare earth element contents of the studied Dokhan volcanic samples
Sample no. Lower succession Upper succession
Andesite Dacite Rhyodacite Rhyolite
a a a a a a
11A 16 19A 2A 7 9 17 13 2 8 18 14 38 35 40

Rare earth elements (ppm)

La 14.7 17.7 21.4 25.5 21.2 26.3 29.6 30.2 32.5 31.9 32.6 35.9 31.6 34.8 48.6
Ce 29.4 39.4 45.9 51.9 42.5 52.5 59.5 61.3 66.6 65.7 67.8 74.7 65.1 71.6 99.4
Pr 3.71 5.09 5.81 6.66 5.41 6.73 7.64 7.89 8.02 8.13 8.31 9.16 8.09 8.88 12.41
Nd 14.5 20.3 22.4 27.8 21.7 26.6 30.3 30.4 30.8 31.8 32.6 32.9 31.1 34.4 45.2
Sm 3.01 4.79 5.55 6.08 4.49 5.12 5.82 6.19 6.26 6.59 6.71 7.4 6.84 7.25 9.16
Eu 1.04 1.42 1.48 1.57 1.19 1.35 1.49 1.56 1.66 1.74 1.7 1.88 0.97 0.76 0.45
Gd 2.79 3.61 4.11 4.49 3.22 3.63 4.03 5.21 5.29 5.61 5.69 6.34 5.23 6.32 7.84
Tb 0.37 0.47 0.52 0.6 0.51 0.62 0.69 0.85 0.87 0.9 0.89 1.01 0.9 1.1 1.38
Dy 1.98 2.52 2.74 3.27 3.08 3.64 4.01 5.06 5.15 5.35 5.18 6.23 5.61 6.85 8.55
Ho 0.36 0.47 0.53 0.61 0.64 0.75 0.84 1.02 1.05 1.09 1.04 1.26 1.21 1.43 1.79
Er 0.89 1.25 1.42 1.7 1.76 2.03 2.28 2.82 2.89 2.95 2.83 3.42 3.34 3.99 5.08
Tm 0.12 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.32 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.42 0.49 0.51 0.59 0.78
Yb 0.76 1.21 1.39 1.65 1.68 1.87 2.14 2.76 2.83 2.83 2.67 3.22 3.28 3.83 5.04
Lu 0.12 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.33 0.43 0.45 0.45 0.42 0.51 0.51 0.61 0.8
ΣREE 73.75 98.6 113.67 132.31 107.9 131.71 148.99 156.11 164.81 165.48 168.86 184.42 164.29 182.41 246.48
(Eu/Eu*)n 1.10 1.04 0.95 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.84 0.88 0.87 0.84 0.84 0.50 0.34 0.16
(La/Lu)n 13.13 10.54 10.92 11.39 8.74 9.72 9.61 7.53 7.74 7.60 8.32 7.54 6.64 6.11 6.51
(La/Sm)n 3.15 2.39 2.49 2.71 3.05 3.32 3.28 3.15 3.35 3.12 3.14 3.13 2.98 3.10 3.43
(Gd/Lu)n 2.87 2.48 2.42 2.31 1.53 1.55 1.51 1.50 1.45 1.54 1.67 1.54 1.27 1.28 1.21
a
Adakitic samples
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Fig. 7  a Chondrite-normalized REE plots for the lower volcanic suc-
cession; b chondrite-normalized REE plots for the upper volcanic
succession; and c Eu/Eu* versus Sr variation diagram for all samples.
Chondrite normalization values are from Pearce (1983). Symbols are
as in Fig. 3
subsequent collapse of the orogenic belt (Pearce 1996).
The Hammamat sediments associated with the Dokhan
volcanics in the north ED show evidence for deposition in
isolated inter-mountain basins (Eliwa et al. 2010) or within
553
Fig. 8  Hf–Th–Nb tectonic discrimination diagram (after Wood
1980). Fields: A N-MORB; B enriched MORB and within-plate
tholeiites; C within-plate basalts; and D destructive plate basalts.
Symbols are as in Fig. 3
fault-bounded basins (Stern et al. 1984) with local volcanic
provenance; they reflect crustal uplift and rapid erosional
unroofing.
During the last decade, many authors have tried to
characterize the specific features and complex character
of post-collisional magmatism (e.g. Liégeois et al. 1998;
Bonin et al. 1998; Bonin 2004). According to Liégeois
et al. (1998), the main characteristic of post-collisional
magmatism is the abundance of high-K calc-alkaline grani-
toids. Liégeois et al. (1998) and Bonin et al. (1998) equated
the post-collisional episode with the late-orogenic stage.
The post-collisional tectonic setting is a complex period
that can include geological events such as large movements
along shear zones, docking (oblique collision), lithospheric
delamination, subduction of small oceanic plate and rift
generation. Moreover, the source(s) of post-collisional
magmatism reflects the preceding subduction and colli-
sion period. In the light of the definitions given by Liégeois
et al. (1998) and Bonin et al. (1998) and the transitional
geochemical characteristics of our samples, we suggest
that the Dokhan volcanics developed in the late-orogenic to
post-collisional evolutionary stage of the ANS.
Magma genesis
The mineralogical and geochemical data of these volcanics
can provide some constrains on the nature of their magma
sources during the late Neoproterozoic post-collisional
stage of the north ED of Egypt. The volcanic samples are
medium to high-K and enriched in LILE relative to HFSE
with have clear negative Nb and Ta anomalies. These geo-
chemical features are actually characteristic of calc-alkaline
13
554
Fig. 9  Highly incompatible
trace element variation dia-
grams. a Th versus Rb, b K2O
versus Rb, c Rb versus Rb/Nd,
and d Th versus Th/Nd. Insert
illustrates a schematic CH1
versus CH2 diagram with curves
showing calculated melt com-
positions produced by fractional
crystallization, partial melting
and mixing processes (after
Schiano et al. 2010). Symbols
are as in Fig. 3
subduction-related rocks from orogenic belts (e.g. Hawkes-
worth et al. 1993; Woodhead et al. 1993). However, in late
to post-collisional environments, these features may simply
represent derivation of magmas from a lithospheric mantle
which has been previously metasomized by earlier subduc-
tion-related processes. The absence or scarce occurrence of
mafic lithologies in the present volcanics suggests that the
magma is not primitive mafic lithospheric magma. The pre-
vious suggestion by some authors (e.g. Moghazi 2002; Eyal
et al. 2010; Farahat et al. 2011) that the voluminous late- to
post-collisional calc-alkaline granitoids (~630–590 Ma)
from northern ANS were derived from a mafic source by
partial melting is also applicable to the contemporaneous
Dokhan volcanics (~630–580 Ma). This is further indi-
cated by their common high-K calc-alkaline affinities, i.e.
Dokhan volcanics most likely represent volcanic equiva-
lents of the late- to post-collisional calc-alkaline granitoids.
Positive average zircon εHf(t) values (between +6 to
+9) of late- to post-collisional rocks from northern ANS
recently identified by Morag et al. (2011) points to their
derivation from a mantle source and reworking of the young
juvenile crust. These authors related such isotopic compo-
sition of the late/post-collisional rocks to their formation by
partial melting of the older island arc crust which was rela-
tively young (~200 m.y. old) at the time of late/post-col-
lisional magmatism, and its Hf isotopic composition was
still similar to that of the mantle. Eyal et al. (2010) con-
cluded that the slightly positive ε Nd(T) values for mafic
13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
rocks (+2.4 to +4.5) indicated that the source was prob-
ably depleted lithospheric mantle with a crustal component.
Therefore, partial melting of the mafic lower crust and/or
upper mantle can generate andesitic magma which is light
enough to rise into higher crustal levels producing late- to
post-collisional calc-alkaline volcanic rocks. Some of this
magma might separate, be emplaced at shallow crustal lev-
els and differentiate to form the Dokhan volcanics.
Although the present volcanics could not have origi-
nated by extensive fractionation of primitive mafic magma,
the systematic variation of their major and trace element
contents can be reasonably interpreted in terms of evolu-
tion via such processes. The overall trends of major and
trace elements (Figs. 4, 5) and the fractionated nature of the
REE [(Ce/Yb)n = 5.19–10.75] suggest that fractional crys-
tallization was involved in the genesis of the Dokhan vol-
canics. The decrease in FeOT, MgO, CaO, TiO2 and P2O5
with increasing SiO2 coupled with increasing Zr, Rb, Y, Nb
is consistent with fractional crystallization. The gradual
decrease in MgO from basaltic andesite to rhyolite could
reflect amphibole fractionation. The variation in ASI from
0.86 to 1.16 (Table 2) is indicative of removal and frac-
tionation of metaluminous phases, like hornblende (Chap-
pell 1999). Increasing Ba up to ca. 68.42 wt% SiO2 and
then decreasing with increasing SiO2 may be attributed to
fractionation of K-feldspar or biotite in the evolved rocks.
Significant P, Ti and Sr depletions in rhyodacite and rhyo-
lite on MORB-normalized element plots (Fig. 6) support an
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563 555

interpretation favouring fractional crystallization process.

Strong negative Eu anomalies in rhyolite samples are asso-
ciated with depletion in Ba and Sr (Fig. 7c), and consistent
with extreme K-feldspar and plagioclase fractionation.
The distinction between fractional crystallization and
batch partial melting can be made graphically using incom-
patible trace elements with different bulk solid/melt par-
tition coefficients (e.g. Schiano et al. 2010). Fractional
crystallization is supported by the variations in highly
incompatible trace elements (Fig. 9a); the data define linear
correlations which are expected during fractional crystal-
lization processes. However, the range of concentration in
Rb at a specific K2O wt% for both the dacites and rhyo-
dacites (Fig. 9b) argues against fractional crystallization as
the main process for the evolution of the present volcanics.
On the Rb versus Rb/Nd and Th versus Th/Nd diagrams
(Fig. 9c, d), the volcanic samples define a straight line
with a slope similar to partial melting, whereas fractional
crystallization would produce an almost horizontal line.
The scatter in these diagrams can be attributing to frac-
tional crystallization (Schiano et al. 2010). Also, it is evi-
dent that the fractional crystallization process alone cannot
explain the coincidence in REE patterns of rhyodacite and
rhyolite in the upper volcanic succession (Fig. 7b), where
both assimilation and fractional crystallization may have
occurred.
The within-group variation at a specific SiO2, espe-
cially in trace elements, is considered as an important
hint of other processes involved during the evolution of
the Dokhan volcanics. Major elements are more sensitive
Fig. 10  Adakite samples versus late Neoproterozoic adakites of simi-
to fractional crystallization process, while trace elements lar silica content from the northernmost ANS. a MORB-normalized
are better for identifying processes such as contamination, trace element plots and b chondrite-normalized REE plots. MORB
assimilation and mixing. The volcanic samples show a wide and Chondrite normalization values are from Sun and McDonough
range of K/Rb (240–517) and Rb/Zr (0.19–0.48) ratios (1989) and Pearce (1983), respectively. Symbols are as in Fig. 3
(Table 2) consistent with contamination by upper crustal
rocks during their evolution, particularly in the upper vol-
canic succession (Rb/Zr = 0.23–0.48). These ratios do not Genesis of adakitic rocks in the north ED
significantly change during fractional crystallization but
change via crustal contamination (Davidson et al. 1987, The term “adakite” was first introduced by Defant and
1988). Furthermore, crustal contamination of the Dokhan Drummond (1990) to refer to intermediate to high-silica
volcanics is consistent with the presence of inherited zir- (≥56 wt% SiO2) Cenozoic arc igneous rocks. Currently,
cons (Wilde and Youssef 2002; Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). the term “adakite” is applied to a wide range of rocks with
Crustal contamination is also supported by the coincident variable compositions and origins (Castillo 2006, 2012).
chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the rhyolites and Most adakitic rocks reported crop out in convergent mar-
rhyodacites of the upper succession, since this excludes gin settings (Petford and Atherton 1996; Richards and Ker-
crystal fractionation as the sole/dominant process involved rich 2007; Macpherson et al. 2006; Chung et al. 2003). Few
in its genesis. The presence of amphibolite xenoliths in adakitic rocks are known from intercontinental extensional
some Dokhan volcanics from the northern ANS (Samuel settings (Wang et al. 2006a, b, 2007; Fu et al. 2012). Our
et al. 2001b; Azer and Farahat 2011) was used to suggest samples of the lower volcanic succession (samples: 2A, 7,
that their genesis involved partial melting of amphibolitic 9, 11A, 16 and 19A) display adakitic characteristics and
lower crust. Thus, the Dokhan volcanics were likely gener- are comparable to those with the same SiO2 content in the
ated by a combination of processes, including partial melt- ED and Sinai (Fig. 10) (Eliwa et al. 2006; Be’eri-Shlevin
ing, crystal fractionation and assimilation. et al. 2011). U–Pb geochronology provides accurate time

13
556 Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563

constraints on the Dokhan volcanism from many loca-

tions in the north ED and Sinai (Breitkreuz et al. 2010;
Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). There are no U–Pb ages for the
adakitic rocks associated with the Dokhan volcanics in this
study, but they probably range between 630 and 610 Ma if
correlated with the lower magmatic pulse dated elsewhere
(e.g. Wilde and Youssef 2002; Breitkreuz et al. 2010).
The source of adakitic rocks has been debated exten-
sively over the last decades (for review, see Castillo 2006).
Many petrogenetic models have been invoked to explain
the formation of adakitic magmas: (1) partial melting of
subducted oceanic slabs (Defant and Drummond 1990;
Defant et al. 1991; Sajona et al. 1993; Stern and Kilian
1996; Yogodzinski et al. 2001; Kamei 2004; Martin et al.
2005; Tsuchiya et al. 2007); (2) partial melting of thickened
mafic lower crust (e.g. Atherton and Petford 1993; Petford
and Atherton 1996; Chung et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2007;
Wen et al. 2008; Huang et al. 2009; Karsli et al. 2010); (3)
crustal assimilation and fractional crystallization processes
of basaltic magmas (e.g. Castillo et al. 1999; Macpherson
et al. 2006; Guo et al. 2007; Li et al. 2009); and (4) par-
tial melting of delaminated mafic lower continental crust
(e.g. Kay and Kay 1993; Xu et al. 2002; Wang et al. 2004,
2006a, b; Gao et al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2007).
Based on the geochemical and tectonic context of the
north ED during the late Neoproterozoic, the possibility
that melting of the subducting oceanic crust was a source of
the north ED adakitic rocks can be ruled out. The adakitic
rocks of the north ED have lower Mg# (49.44–59.99) and
higher K2O (1.51–2.59 wt%) for a given level of SiO2 than
those of typical adakites derived from oceanic-slab melt-
ing (e.g. Defant and Drummond 1990; Martin et al. 2005;
Smithies 2000; Tatsumi 2006). The lack of evidence for
oceanic crust younger than ca. 690 Ma in the north ANS
(Stacey et al. 1984) does not support the melting of a hot
oceanic ridge. However, Eliwa et al. (2006) suggested
that a hot oceanic ridge was subducted at an earlier point
and was melted some 20 m.y. later in the post-collisional
regime to produce adakitic rocks.
Partial melting of thickened mafic lower continental crust
would yield adakitic melts with lower MgO, Cr and Ni con-
tents, because they do not pass through the mantle wedge
(e.g. Karsli et al. 2011). The melts produced by partial
melting of thickened lower continental crust are character-
ized by low MgO contents (<3 wt%,) with low Mg# values Fig. 11  a La/Yb versus Nb/La, b La/Yb versus Mg#, and c Nb/La
(<50), high SiO2 (>60 wt) and K2O (>3 wt%, up to 8.6 wt%) versus Mg# plots. Symbols are as in Fig. 3
(Rapp et al. 2002; Xu et al. 2007; Chung et al. 2003; Hou
et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2007). The relatively
high MgO (2.51–4.70 wt%) of our adakitic samples argues melts generated by a moderate degree of partial melting of
against their generation by partial melting of thickened lower the basaltic lower crust (Borg and Clynne 1998; Annen et al.
continental crust. Our adakitic samples have a relatively low 2006). Moreover, our adakitic samples have high Mg# (50–
SiO2 content (53.91–63.75 wt%, Table 2), which argues 53) higher than those derived entirely from melting of the
against large degree partial melting of basaltic protolith since lower crust (Mg# = 46–29, Atherton and Petford 1993).

13
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563 557

Fig. 12  Na2O/K2O versus SiO2 (wt%) (after Xu et al. 2012) for

adakitic samples of the NED. The dashed line separates high-SiO2
and low-SiO2 adakites (after Martin et al. 2005). Symbols are as in
Fig. 3

The petrogenesis of our adakitic samples may be pro-

duced by (1) the mixing between the mantle and the melt
derived from the delaminated mafic lower crust (e.g. Xu,
et al. 2002; Gao et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2007), or (2) the
mixing between magmas derived from both mantle and
crust (e.g. Chen et al. 2003; Zhang and Shao 2008; Yang
et al. 2008). Both processes involve two end members,
mantle and lower crust. Relative to felsic magmas derived
from the crust, mafic magmas derived from the mantle
are usually higher in Nb/La, but lower in La/Yb (Lang-
muir et al. 1978; Wang et al. 2003). Therefore, the addi-
tion of mantle components or magma mixing would lead
to an increase in Nb/La, but decrease in La/Yb in the pro-
duced adakitic magmas relative to their crustal protoliths.
The distribution of Nb/La versus La/Yb (Fig. 11a) shows a
gradual decrease during evolution of the adakitic samples.
Both Nb/La and La/Yb in the adakitic samples increase
with increasing Mg# (Fig. 11b, c). This is consistent with
crust–mantle interaction and indicates that the crustal end
member relative to the mantle end member in the north ED
has a lower Nb/La, but a higher La/Yb. The Nb/La ratio of
the early evolved adakitic basaltic andesite sample (0.61,
Table 2) is generally similar to the average of lower crustal
rocks (=0.6, Hawkesworth and Kemp 2006).
Melts produced by partial melting of delaminated mafic
lower continental crust or subducted continental crust are
characterized by high MgO (2–6 wt%), Ni (10–183 ppm)
and Cr (15–383 ppm) contents with higher Mg# values
(45–69) (Xu et al. 2006; Gao et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2007).
Our adakitic samples have high MgO (2.51–4.70 wt%), Ni
(28–94 ppm), Cr (52–156 ppm) and Mg# (49.44–52.99)
similar to those adakitic rocks formed by partial melting
Fig. 13  a Cr versus SiO2 plot and b Ni versus SiO2. Partial melting
and fractional crystallization (FC) trends are from Guo et al. (2006).
Symbols are as in Fig. 3
of delaminated lower crust or subducted continental crust.
The present crustal thickness of Egypt is relatively thin and
estimated to be ~35 km (Mechie and Prodehl 1988) which
favours the melting of delaminated mafic lower crust for
generation of late Neoproterozoic adakitic rocks of the
northernmost ANS.
Further evidence that our adakitic samples are derived
by partial melting of a lower continental crust source,
rather than partial melting of an oceanic slab or ridge,
is provided by the major elements (Fig. 12). Based on
the binary relationships between Cr and Ni versus SiO2
(Fig. 13), partial melting is the main process responsible
for the compositional evolution of our adakitic samples.
They show little change in Cr and Ni despite a significant
change in SiO2 (53–64 wt%, Table 2), as might be expected
if partial melting was the main process controlling their
magmatic evolution. The adakitic andesite samples have
smaller or negligible Eu anomalies [(Eu/Eu*)n = 0.92–1.1]

13
558
and very low Rb/Sr ratios (0.04–0.06), suggesting that little
fractional crystallization has occurred (Tables 2, 3). On the
other hand, fractional crystallization seems to account for
producing the more evolved dacite, rhyodacite and rhyolite
of the non-adakitic varieties (Fig. 13). Based on the experi-
mental studies of Rapp and Watson (1995), our volcanic
samples could have originated by partial melting of mafic
lower continental crust. Melt derived from partial melting
of delaminated mafic lower continental crust in the man-
tle will obtain a mantle signature (e.g. high Mg, Cr and Ni
contents) due to interaction with mantle peridotite (Rapp
et al. 1999; Liu et al. 2005). Thus, the high Mg# as well
as Cr and Ni of the adakitic andesites (>106 and >45 ppm,
respectively) most likely results from significant interaction
of the original melt with the mantle wedge (e.g. Stern and
Kilian 1996; Dong et al. 2008).
Significance of adakitic magmas in the ANS
Late Neoproterozoic magmatic activity in the ANS
occurred in a post-collisional regime and has some char-
acteristics of adakitic rocks (Bogoch et al. 2003; Hargrove
et al. 2004; Katz et al. 2004; Eliwa et al. 2006; Doebrich
et al. 2007; Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). The occurrence of
many adakitic rocks (volcanic and intrusive) throughout the
ANS during late Neoproterozoic time shows that melt with
adakitic signatures is not just a localized event but are of
regional significance and reflect large-scale processes in the
ANS. It is also notable that some ore occurrences (gold, sil-
ver, base-metal, molybdenum and tungsten) in the ANS are
associated with adakitic rocks (Pease and Johnson 2013);
thus, the study of the origin and petrogenetic implication of
adakites may have economic importance.
According to Stern and Hedge (1985), the subduc-
tion stage in the northern ANS began before ~690 Ma and
subduction continued as late as ~620 Ma (Stern 1994).
Subduction-related magmatism ceased when terminal col-
lision occurred between East and West Gondwanaland
and after 630 Ma (e.g. Katz et al. 2004; Miller et al. 2003;
Meert 2003). Therefore, the extrusion of adakitic rocks in
the northern ANS likely took place at the terminal stage
of subduction. Adakitic rocks of the ANS were attributed
to the melting of oceanic ridge or subducted oceanic crust
(Bogoch et al. 2003; Katz et al. 2004; Eliwa et al. 2006) or
due to melting of mafic lower crust (Hargrove et al. 2004;
Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). However, in a post-collisional
setting, melting of oceanic ridge and subducted oceanic
models for the formation of adakitic rocks are equivocal.
The lack oceanic crust younger than ca. 690 Ma in the ANS
(Stacey et al. 1984) does not support this model, even if
the various adakitic rocks of the ANS are all assumed to be
as old as ca. 630 Ma (Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011), which is
probably not the case.
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Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
Lithospheric delamination has been suggested to be a
part of the evolution of Neoproterozoic magmatism in the
northern ANS (Moghazi 2003; Farahat et al. 2011; Avigad
and Gvirtzman 2009; Eyal et al. 2010; Farahat and Azer
2011; Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011). There are, however, fun-
damental differences between these authors especially with
respect to the timing of lithospheric delamination and the
components that were delaminated (Moghazi 2003; Avi-
gad and Gvirtzman 2009; Eyal et al. 2010; Be’eri-Shlevin
et al. 2011). In the northern ANS, lithospheric delamina-
tion resulted in upwelling of hot asthenosphere and crustal
uplift which caused melting of delaminated lower continen-
tal crust (Avigad and Gvirtzman 2009; Farahat and Azer
2011). The resultant melt significantly interacted with man-
tle peridotite elevating MgO values. Therefore, we suggest
that the ANS adakitic rocks were generated by the inter-
action of melt from the delaminated mafic crust with the
mantle and were subsequently hybridized during upward
transport and later with crust-derived magma during ascent
and emplacement in the crust.
Nd isotope data for the adakitic andesite (εNd(t) of +2.7
and +3.0) in southern Sinai, the north-western corner of
the ANS, are more consistent with a lower crustal source
(Be’eri-Shlevin et al. 2011) than young oceanic crust with
expected depleted mantle values of +6.5 (e.g. DePaolo
1981) to +8.5 (e.g. Goldstein et al. 1984). Adakitic rocks
from southern Israel have εNd(t) of +2.7 and +4.9 (Stein
and Goldstein 1996; Katz et al. 2004) which is also con-
sistent with a lower crustal source. Adakitic affinities,
such as the relative enrichment of Sr and the negligible or
lack of Eu anomalies, indicate that the source residue was
plagioclase-free after melt extraction. As demonstrated in
the previous “Genesis of adakitic rocks in the north ED”
section, a delaminated mafic lower continental crust seems
likely for the potential magma source. Heating of delami-
nated mafic lower crust in the mantle would explain the
high degrees of melting to produce andesite and interac-
tion of the melts with mantle peridotite as they ascend
would explain the high MgO, Cr and Ni contents (e.g. Kay
and Kay 1993).
Conclusions
The Dokhan volcanics in the north ED extruded onto older
metamorphosed rocks and granodiorites and are in turn
intruded by alkali granites. The volcanics consist of non-
metamorphosed varicoloured lava flows interlayered with
compositionally equivalent pyroclastic deposits. The lavas
represent basaltic andesite to rhyolite, while the pyroclas-
tics cover the entire spectrum from coarse volcanic breccia
to fine tuffs. The studied volcanics can be divided into two
main pluses of volcanic activity. The extrusion of volcanics
Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2015) 104:541–563
in each pulse was accompanied by deposition of immature
Hammamat sediment.
The volcanic samples display well-defined major and
trace element trends and a continuum in composition from
53.91 to 74.11 wt% SiO2. They show the chemical char-
acteristics of post-orogenic magmas. They have a high-K
calc-alkaline in nature with enriched LILE and depleted
HFSE and negative Nb anomalies relative to MORB val-
ues. The evolution of the volcanic rocks was mainly gov-
erned by fractional crystallization of amphibole, plagio-
clase, biotite, Fe–Ti oxides and apatite. The overlap in REE
patterns of rhyolite and rhyodacite samples precludes frac-
tional crystallization as dominant process in their evolution,
but assimilation and fractional crystallization could play
important roles in the evolution of the studied volcanics.
The lower part of the succession displays characteristics
of adakitic rocks. They contain low Y (<16.4 ppm) and Yb
(<1.8 ppm), with high Sr (>665 ppm) and Sr/Y (>42.4). Data
from the adakitic samples are consistent with the partial melt-
ing of delaminated mafic lower crustal source, followed by
interaction of the generated melt with the overlying mantle.
Finally, melt of a lower crustal source was assimilated with
upper crustal materials to produce the more felsic varieties of
the studied volcanics. On the basis on the local and regional
tectonic setting as well as the geochemical characteristics
and available isotope data, partial melting of delaminated
mafic lower crust is more plausible to explain the generation
of adakite in the northern ANS. Lithospheric delamination
of mafic lower crust was melted to form parent magma with
adakitic composition and then interacted with the mantle.
Acknowledgments Constructive reviews of Prof. Stern R. J.,
Geosciences Department, University of Texas, Dallas, USA, have
improved the draft version of the manuscript. The authors highly
appreciate thoughtful reviews by Prof. Be’eri-Shlevin Y., and an anon-
ymous reviewer. We are also indebted to Prof. Wolf-Christian Dullo
(Editor in Chief) and Prof. Victoria Pease (Editor) for numerous help-
ful comments during preparation of the article.
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