A-LEVEL BIOLOGY 01 ENERGY IN RESPIRATION SAQLAIN YORIS 03009615050Metabolism Sum of various chemical reactions tabing place in a living body Two types of reactions 1. Anabolic Reactions They ate called constructive processes. These reactions involve the sypthesis of complex substances yom Jom simpler ones, These reactions use energy 2_Calabolic They ate called destructive processes. These reactions involve the breakdoun of complex substances to simpler ones. These reactions release energy Need for energy in living organisms Living organisms need energy jor various purposes. 1 Plants need light energy for photosyathesis 2. Energy is used to run the dark phase of photosynthesis. It is used fo convert GP to TP 3 Energy is used in the process of loading of assimulates inthe phloem, 4 Energy is needed jor all type of anabolic reactions. Polypeptide synthesis Starch and glycogen jormation Triglyceride formation. Polpucleatide formation during replication and transcription processes 5. Energy is needed jor all type of active transport. For example Uptake. of mineral ions from the soil by rosls Absorption of glucose and amino acids in small intestine Selective teabsorplion of glucose and amino acids in Kidney tubules Working of N&/K* pump in the membrane of neurones 6. Energy is needed jor all type of bulk transport. For example Exocyfosis of hormones and antibodies Endocytosis of pahagens and soles 7. Energy is needed jor all ype of movements and locometion. For example Muscle contaction, beating of cila, movement of chromasomes and vesicles8 Energy is needed jor all tre of catalytic reactions 9. Energy is needed Jor homeostatic mechanisms such as temperature regulation Ia Energy is needed Jor the process of ell division a Adenine ATP. adenosine fri phosphate ATP is @ ruclechide a. le) “N S It composed of a pentose sugar Ribose eee l a nitrogen base — Adenine OH if OH C Thee phosphate groups HPO, phosphate groups |\L__A/| bose When ATP is hydrajzed, energy is released Hy [4 Removal of terminal phosphite group releases 30.5 Ky of energy ATP + HO games ADP +H,PO, + 305kKImol* Removal of second phosphate qroup releases same amount of energy ApP + H20 gam» AMP +H,PO, + 305kImol* Removal of third phosphate group rarely occurs ahd it releases gui ess energy AMP. H,0 Each triose phosphafe molecule is oxidized by trigge v4 = triose WP Ge) emoval of hydrogen. In this reaction an enzyme dehydrogenase works with a coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). It accepts hydrogen released during the process and ex becomes reduced NAD 4.AIP synthesis -In the jinal steps of glycolysis two molecules of 2 Bisphosphoglycerafe (3¢) ATP ate syrthesized jor each molecule of triose phosphate: 2 ApP+R when il is converted to pyruvate, These jour molecules of ATP are synthesized by Substrate 2ATP level phosphorylation: Products of ghcolysis. 2 Phosphoglycerate (3c) 2 molecules of pyruvic acid 2 molecules. of reduced NAD 4 molecules. of ATP Gross production) As2 molecules of ATP are used in 2 Phosphoenal Pyruvate (3c) ZADP+P, 50 there is net producion of 2 molecules of ATP. ATP 2 Pyruvale (3c)Link Reaction. - Boh pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis | 2 Pyruvale (3¢) enter info mitochondria fe become a part of link reaction, A, Link reaction involves decarboxylation emoval of €O,) and dehydrogenation (emoval of hydrogen) of pyruvate to produce a two carbon compound acetyl GA. 2 reduced NAD 2CO, Hydrogen released during the process is picked by hydrogen Cartier NAD To produce reduced NAD. 2 NAD 2 acetyl GoA Wes called lnk reaction ast links. gheolyis with Krebs cycle ech 1. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) NAD consis of two maclesides joiad by two phosphate Nicotinamide gyevps. In one 4 the nuclesbides organic base is replaced bya ring strudure Nicotinamide Nicotinamide accepts hydrogen ions and electons, NAD adls as @ coenzyme jor dehydrogenase. Ik catries, protons. and electrons adenine am glycolysis, link reaction and rebs eyelets ETC It is reoxidized by releasing protons and electrons which are used }r ATP synthesis. 2.6 ATPs are produced when one Red. NAD is oxidized during ETC. 2. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) Flavin FAD is a. coenayme dened jrom vitamin B2. It ako acts as a hydrogen carrier 16 ATPs are produced when one Red. FAD is oxidized during ETC. .Goenayme. A - Ik 1s ovoed inthe remoral of tuo carbon jragments yrom carbohydrates and fals during respiration adenine Coenzyme A 1s at work during link reactionKreb's Cycle Kreb's Cycle , citric acid cycle or TCA cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by oll living organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation o} acetyl coA derived jrom Carbohydrates, }als or proteins Krebs Cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria Ht is a moltstep reaction andeach step is controlled by a specific enzyme. Keely CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4c) t> produce citrate (6c) Gtrale undergoes two successive decarboryaton and dehydrogen sleps te produce succinyl CoA (4c), Hydrogen released during these sleps is piched by NAD to produce Reduced NAD Succing! coh fs converled fe suecinate(4c) and a molecule of ATP 1s produced by subshae lvl phosphorylation Succinate is then dehydrogenated fe Jumarate (4C). Hydrogen released is picKed up by FAD to produce Reduced FAD Fumarate is converted To malate 4c) which is dehydrogenated fo regenerale. oxaloacetate Hydrogen released during this step is picked by NAD To produce Reduced NAD For one molecule of glucose there are two turns of Kreb's cycle. Hence for one molecule of glucose during Hreb's cycle ate produced 2 molecules of ATP 4+ molecules of CO 6 molecules of reduced NAD acetyl CoA 2 molecules af reduced FAD NAD) Dana oxaloacetate qo) Mi reduced NAD nee citrate (6) 0, /[ cl FAD Furnarale(te) co NAD Dent Ketoglitarateso) reduced FAD: CO, Succinate 4<) Suceinyl CoAGC) cl po, A reduced NADElectron transport chain Reduced NAD and reduced FAD }rom various stages o} aerobic respiration move fe inner mfuchondril membrane They become atlached fo electron carrier proteins and are oxidized by releasing electyons and protons Frotons remain in the matrix while electrons pass through a series of electron carriers and lose energy This energy is used to pump protons j1om the matrix infs intermembrane space. Protons accumulate inthe intermembrane space and a proton gradient is established. Protons move down the gradient through ATP synthase complex Movemert of protons causes ATP synthase fo rotate and ATP is formed by combining ADP and Pi Electrons afler loosing energy all back inf matrix Onygen acts as a jinal acceptor of protons and electrons to form water. One molecule of reduced NAD when oxidizes released electrons provide enough energy te pump 10 protons, One molecule of reduced FAD when oxidizes released electrons provide enough energy te pump 6 protons When 4H" pass through ATP synthase complex one molecule of ATP. is. synthesized So one reduced NAD when oxidizes 2.5 ATP: are produced fone reduced FAD when oxidizes 1:5 ATP, are produced.Energy. yield of aerobic. respiration Glucose eS GLYCOLYSIS. Direct Production v Pyle Una REACTION Ge) ee CoR ee ae s EP iere oxidotive pho: jetion Egat) > GeX) SATP from oxdal shophorybtion ATP produced directty Anaerobic respiration is a process of transfer of energy from slucose fo cells inthe absence of oxygen. Ar rati tt also called Jermentation Its of two types Slocose is Necholic Jermenftion ii, Lactic acid Yermentation ae a Reduced It occurs in yeast and plait cells in the absence of oxygen Glycolysis results in the production of, 2 molecules « ATP Pruvale Ethanal _\, Ethanol and two molecules of reduced NAD. As there is no oxygen so x pyrvvate can't enter mitochondria, Hence in the citoplasm pyruvate is decarboxylated fo ethanal co, Meanwhile it becomes necessary fo regenerate NAD te pick more hydrogens released during glycolysis yor confined production of ATP So an enayme ethanal dehydrogenase reduces anal fe ethanal Formation of ethanol is @ mechanism te dump hydrogens which otherwise ray cause the pl ofthe cell to pall and may stop ghcoltic pathway.Lactic. acid jermentation Glucose It occurs inbaceria and animal cells in the absence of oxygen Glycolsis, results in the production of 2 molecules @ ATP and two he ae rmolecules of reduced NAD. As there is no oxygen so pyruvate cant eter mitochondria. Hence inthe cjtoplasm it becomes necessary fo regenerate NAD te pick more hydrogens released during Pye Wy Lixtate glycolysis jor continued production of ATP So an enayme lactate dehydrogenase reduces pyruvate ts lactate Formation of lactate is a mechanism to dump hydrogens which otherwise rmay cause the pit of the cell fo yall and may stop glycolytic pathway Respiratory. substrates Those substances which are used in the process of tespration jor the production of energy. They include i. Carbohydrates i, Fats ti Proteins Carbohydrates are immediate source of energy as they are readily oxidized inthe cells, Lipids ate used Jor. oxidation carbohydrates exhaust from the ood Froteins are last to be used if both carbohydtates and Lipids are absert in diet Lipids have highest energy contents, almost twice as compared to carbohydrates The energy contents of Lipids are 33.435! The energy contents, of carbohydrates are 15.8 ky! The energy contents of Proteins are I7 Ks"! Energy contents of a respiratory substrate depend on number of cH bonds present inthe molecule or number of hydrogens present ing molecule Lipids have highest energy contents because they have more hydrogens present in their molecules. So they provide more reduced NAD and FAD te ETC zor ATP systhesis by oxidative phosphorylation ‘ESPIRAI JOTIENT (Ri Respiratory quotient 18 rato between the amount of carbon dioxide released fo the amount of oxygen used eee ee = _amount of carbon dioxide released ng TESPIRTONy Pveess RQ — amount of oxygen used — As RQ is a ratio so it does nat have any units 10RQ of carbohydrates is 1 CHiPs + 60, ———» 6c0, + GHP RQ =o = a =1 RQ of Lipids is 07 GeH30, + 260, ———p 18C0, + 18HO cl = = #& = 07 6 RQ of Froteins is 0.9 RQ of Alcoholic Jermentation is oo (infinity) HPs =§ ———b 2GHWOH + 20, RQ =e = j- = © Importance of RQ RQ vale helps to determine the nature of respiratory substrate used by an organism RQ value helps to determine how much aerobic is. a respiratory process. ADAPTATIONS IN RICE FOR GROWING SUCCESSFULLY WHILE SUBMERGED IN WATER Rice plants are gown in soils Pooded with water It creates @ mod like situation in which levels of oxygen yall significantly Rice plants have certain adaptations that enable them to-gow successfully in these conditions 1. Rice stem contains large number 4 air spaces (hollow aerenchyma) ning the length 4 stem and itle the edb. This allows oxygen rom the ait fo penetrate quickly uple the Yesk which ave sibmeged in waler. Halls soot cells t vespive atrabically ji, Many 4 the vice vook are very shallow allowing access fe oxygen that diffuses ints the surface layer 4 te waterlogged sei ili Rice voot cells have tolerance 4s high levels 4, chanel which is produced because 9 eontinvous anaerobic respiration. Ethanal is normally oxic te cells but root cells have igh degree 4 tderance ts ethanol Ww Rice root celk contain cohol dehydrogenase which quickly breaks cbisn ethanol and let anaerobic respivation continue Jor ATP synthesis v. Rice plant has taller stem to Keep eliage ell above the wsiter gor taking air rom the almosphere Vi. Thee are ridges tn undertaler leaves which trap air. 11procuowpas ; Outer mitachandrial membrane Mitochondria are ovoid shaped organelles inner mitochondrial membrane They range in Site from 0.5 To 0m. Cristae They are double membrane bound organelles mabix Our membrane is smocth and imer is. jobed Foldings ate called cristi. They have electron transport chain and ATP syrhase crcte Ierior of mitochondria is called matrix. It contains a ramber of encymes 4or Krebs cycle and link reaction Mitochondria are called power houses of cell as they are involved in the syrthesis of bulk of ATP. A cell which is metabolically active hos large number of mitochondria. Mitochondria also contain 70s ribosomes and circular DNA. Mitochondrial DNA contain genes that code 3or Mifochondrial emeymes. and proteins Structure of mitochondria is well related to its unction i.External double membrane is permeable te pyruvate, CO, , ATP, NAD and reduced NAD. i Matrix is the sife of eraymes jor Krebs cycle and link reaction Wi Cristoe greately increase the surface area of the immer membrane Jor ATP synthesis. ‘ulnner membrane is impereable or Ht so a potential difference is maintained or influx of H* through ATP synthase v Intermembrane space accumulates H Zor influx through ATP synthase ATP synthase complex IRs the erayme involved in ATP syste H has three binding sites and a part of the molecule that rotates as H” pass through i This rotation causes: structural changes in The emayme allowing it fo synthesize ATP in a sequence of three phases + Binding of ADP and Pi. «Forming tighly boond ATP + Releasing ATP Sopa tetseetontsmaonel Grange at catalshe Substrate binds to siteg Telesting ATE Aiterent open site ‘pen ste becomes ] \ andte loose Becomes Beobunt \ tight BeubunitRespiromeler- Respiromeler is used fo measure oxygen uptake of small inverteberafes and germinating seeds The organism fo be investigated is placed in one tube and non living material of the same mass in ancther tube Soda lime is placed ineach fest tube to absorb all the COs. Soda lime Cotton wool prevents contact of organism with soda lime colton wool Connect each tube with a monometer and an air supply Make the apparatus air tight live maggots Allow air fo enter info test tube to adjust the position of coloured liquid in the manometer Close the spring clip. AAs the organisms respire, they fake up oxygen inthe tespirometer and release COa which is absorbed by soda lime. soda lime So the distance moved by fluid in the capillary tube is due fo cotton wool decrease in Oxygen in respiromefer. beads Calculate the distance moved by liquid per minuteto znd the ral of oxygen ulate by he organism. Value of diameter of capillary tobe can be used to convert the distance moved fo a volume. (Volume of liquid in afube = Length x Tr? It gives a volume of oxygen absorbed by an organism per minule Respiromeler is used fo measure the rate of respiration at diferent temperalres For this purpose waler baths mairlained al different temperatues are. prepared. Respirometers confaning fixed mass of organisms and soda lime are placed in these water baths to find the eqject og change in temperaure onthe distance moved by liquid in the capilary tube Tis is proporanal to tale of respiration of organisms placed in respirometer. vise) aiwonn As enous anHvasia Time (509Respirometer can be used fo measure RQ Set up two respiromelers each containing same mass of living organisms In and respirometer Keep all condition same except that it lacks CO, absorbant First tobe is called experimental tube Second tube is called control tube Now The dsfance moved by the quid n experimental ube = Xrmm The distance moved by the liquid in the control tube = Ymm so the RQ can be calculated by using the formula = X=¥ where X represents amourt of Oxygen used and x-¥ represents amourt of carbon dioxide produced